31 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Asian Journal of Education and Training Vol. 11, No. 1, 31-42, 2025 ISSN(E) 2519-5387 DOI: 10.20448/edu.v11i1.6637 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Social studies teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs: Do demographic characteristics make a difference Joseph Bentil1 Isaac Eshun2 Alfred Kuranchie3 Anthony Bordoh4 ( Corresponding Author) 1Department of Basic Education, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana. 1Email: jbentil@uew.edu.gh 2,3,4Department of Social Studies Education, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana. 2Email: isaaceshun@uew.edu.gh 3Email: akuranchie@uew.edu.gh 4Email: abordoh@uew.edu.gh Abstract While research exists on teacher self-efficacy beliefs, limited research is documented on the level of self-efficacy beliefs among Social Studies teachers, and much less in the senior high schools in the Central Region of Ghana. In view of this lacuna in the literature, this study investigated the level of self-efficacy beliefs among Social Studies teachers in senior high schools in Ghana using Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory as a theoretical foundation. The cross-sectional descriptive survey design within the positivist paradigm was used to collect data from 342 Social Studies teachers through a census sampling technique with a questionnaire as an instrument. With the aid of SPSS, descriptive (mean, standard deviation) and inferential statistics, such as independent samples t-test and one-way between-groups ANOVA, were used to analyse the data. The study revealed that Social Studies teachers had very high levels of self-efficacy beliefs. The findings also pointed out that demographic characteristics such as gender, age, and years of teaching experience statistically significantly influenced Social Studies teachers' levels of self-efficacy beliefs. Therefore, it was recommended that in rolling out refresher training and continuous professional development programs to sustain, improve, and strengthen the dimensions of self-efficacy beliefs identified in the study, Social Studies teachers' demographic characteristics such as gender, age, and years of teaching experience should be considered since they influenced their levels of self-efficacy beliefs. Keywords: Classroom management, Demographic characteristics, Instructional strategy, Self-efficacy, Self-efficacy beliefs, Senior high school, Social studies teachers, Student engagement. Citation | Bentil, J., Eshun, I., Kuranchie, A., & Bordoh, A. (2025). Social studies teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs: Do demographic characteristics make a difference. Asian Journal of Education and Training, 11(1), 31–42. 10.20448/edu.v11i1.6637 History: Received: 13 November 2024 Revised: 8 April 2025 Accepted: 21 April 2025 Published: 2 May 2025 Licensed: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License Publisher: Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Funding: This study received no specific financial support. Institutional Review Board Statement: The Ethical Committee of the University of Education, Winneba, Ghana, has granted approval for this study on 9 January 2024 (Ref. No. UEWEC/24/97). Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. This study followed all ethical practices during writing. Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ Contributions: All authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Contents 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32 2. Relevance and Application of the Theoretical Perspective ............................................................................................................ 34 3. Methodology .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 35 4. Findings ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 35 5. Discussion of the Findings ........................................................................................................................................................................ 39 6. Conclusions and Recommendations ....................................................................................................................................................... 40 7. Implications for Effective Teaching and Learning of Social Studies .......................................................................................... 40 References ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 mailto:jbentil@uew.edu.gh mailto:isaaceshun@uew.edu.gh mailto:akuranchie@uew.edu.gh mailto:abordoh@uew.edu.gh https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/edu.v11i1.6637 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2755-0171 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2851-0435 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8773-7766 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0239-3314 Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2025, 11(1): 31-42 32 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Contribution of this paper to the literature This study highlights the significance of self-efficacy beliefs in enhancing Social Studies teachers' effectiveness in classroom management, instructional strategies, and student engagement. Strong self-efficacy beliefs among Social Studies teachers enhance effectiveness, support curriculum goals, and strengthen civic education. The crux is that self-efficacy beliefs are influenced by sex, age, and experience. 1. Introduction Literature supports the view that education anchors a nation’s progress. Getachew and Tekle (2020) and Yahiyan (2020) emphasize that education is a key component and catalyst of national development. When education systems fall short of the requirements, nations risk experiencing political and socioeconomic stagnation. To prepare students for global challenges, schools actively cultivate and enhance their competencies (Winter et al., 2021). Quality education promotes human capital growth for the nation's economy and actively prepares its recipients to adjust to its changing needs. From this perspective, education develops an individual's capabilities, attitudes, values, and behaviours that align with societal norms, address manpower needs, and promote an egalitarian society. In this direction, the Ministry of Education in Ghana and the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) have designed a curriculum that includes Social Studies as a subject. Ghanaian practitioners have highlighted the significance of Social Studies in cultivating desirable attitudes, values, and skills that foster effective citizenship. Moreover, the subject offers students opportunities to apply concepts, theories, and generalizations from diverse disciplines to analyze, investigate, and propose solutions to personal and societal challenges (Eshun, 2020; Eshun et al., 2019). Practitioners in Ghana emphasize that Social Studies plays a pivotal role in equipping students with desirable skills, values, and attitudes to become effective citizens. It also provides opportunities for students to apply concepts, theories, and generalizations from various disciplines to analyze, investigate, and develop appropriate solutions to personal and societal problems (Eshun, 2020; Eshun et al., 2019). Bariham, Ondigi, and Kiio (2020) emphasized that Social Studies serves as a vital tool for addressing challenges and threats to the survival of most societies by instilling an appreciation of human dignity, critical thinking skills, empathy, ethics, hard work, honesty, integrity, self-reliance, and tolerance. These scholars contended that the discipline cultivates students' abilities in accountability, constructive criticism, critical judgment, imagination, loyalty, national consciousness, obedience, open-mindedness, patriotism, resourcefulness, respect for others' rights, and respect for the law. It could be gleaned from the views highlighted by the above scholars that Social Studies plays a crucial role in producing reflective, concerned, and participatory citizens capable of leading national development, asserting that efforts toward modern civilization and innovation will falter without prioritizing the acquisition of knowledge, values, and skills in Social Studies. Education stakeholders have incorporated Social Studies as a significant part of the curriculum because they understand how important it is to individual and national development. These stakeholders believe that Social Studies education effectively instills knowledge, values, and skills in individuals. Therefore, governments have tried to ensure quality Social Studies education in their respective countries. In Ghana, like in any other country, Social Studies is a compulsory subject at the first and second cycle levels. The most recent attempt was the inclusion of Social Studies in the new educational reforms. Hence, it could, therefore, be said that Ghana has made good decisions in the choice of Social Studies as well as its reputation in the school curriculum. Meanwhile, education research has consistently proven that an effective teacher is the most critical factor in students’ learning and a priceless asset in the realization of the various competencies enshrined in the curriculum (Li & Ruppar, 2021; Senyametor et al., 2021; Skipp & Dommett, 2021). Therefore, the realization of the knowledge, values, attitudes, and skills that pertain to the affective domain in Social Studies instruction would be contingent on the teacher’s prowess in their efficacy and emotional intelligence. Sims et al. (2021) illuminated that an effective teacher matches strategies to the students and that the teacher’s role is becoming increasingly crucial due to the rapid transformation of education systems and their adaptation to modern requirements around the world. Hence, it could be said that the caliber and experience of teachers impact students' performance levels. Wang, Hall, and Taxer (2019) highlighted that teachers, while implementing curriculum through student- centered school learning experiences, directly shape and are shaped by their interpersonal relationships with students. These relationships influence the overall class climate, teaching and learning effectiveness, student motivation, and well-being. Consequently, recent research has increasingly focused on teachers’ expertise in their content areas and their ability to employ teaching methods, techniques, and strategies that foster an environment conducive to students' acquisition of essential competencies. The literature on Social Studies emphasizes the critical role of the cognitive domain in achieving the subject's objectives. However, it often overlooks instruction in the affective learning domain (Borba, 2018; Powell, 2021), which encompasses feelings, emotions, and attitudes. These affective components are vital not only for supporting cognitive outcomes but also for ensuring student success in the subject. While teaching in the affective domain is not a new idea, researchers are looking for ways to improve affective teaching practices as a result of growing concerns about trauma-sensitive practices (Jennings, 2018; Minahan, 2019), school violence (Nickerson, 2018), and student well-being (Borba, 2018; DeJulius & McLean, 2019). Powell (2021). Powell (2021) explained that the pressures of high-stakes testing and accountability often compel teachers to prioritize cognitive instruction, leaving limited time for addressing the affective domain, especially when teaching diverse learners. Manfra and Bolick (2017) further noted that these challenges are exacerbated by the marginalization of Social Studies and the widespread use of passive instruction, revealing significant gaps in the literature regarding the potential impact of Social Studies instruction on student outcomes. These findings underscore Social Studies teachers' need to deepen their content knowledge and pedagogical skills. Teachers can deliver lessons that engage students and enhance learning outcomes by integrating instruction in both the cognitive and affective domains. The primary objective of Social Studies is to empower young people to make rational and well-informed decisions for the public good as engaged citizens in a democratic, interdependent, and culturally diverse world to support these viewpoints (National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), 2013). Achieving this goal requires Social Studies teachers to employ effective instructional practices that address cognitive and affective learning outcomes. These practices must accommodate diverse learners by engaging them in activities involving analysis, evaluation, problem- solving, and exploring beliefs, emotions, and diverse perspectives when grappling with complex social, political, and Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2025, 11(1): 31-42 33 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group economic issues. This paper aligns with the Collaborative for Academic (2021) in promoting the integration of affective, cognitive, and behavioral domain elements. These elements enhance students' capacities to regulate emotions, accomplish personal goals, demonstrate empathy, collaborate effectively, and make responsible decisions. These skills contribute to academic success, critical thinking, sound decision-making, and teamwork within and beyond the school setting in the context of Social Studies education. In this regard, researchers and academics have highlighted the critical role of teachers' self-efficacy beliefs as a key determinant of their ability to influence classroom practices and drive positive school reform. Teachers’ self- efficacy refers to their confidence in their capacity to facilitate student learning and serves as a crucial factor influencing their effectiveness, creativity, and persistence (Gale, Alemdar, Cappelli, & Morris, 2021; Schwab & Alnahdi, 2020; Shi, 2021). The literature emphasizes that self-efficacy beliefs are pivotal in transforming teachers’ attitudes, enhancing their knowledge and skills, and refining their teaching practices to implement educational goals successfully. Supporting this view, Kara et al., (2022) argued that teachers must exhibit strong self-efficacy beliefs and the ability to design and deliver engaging, interactive pedagogical strategies that promote 21st-century learning competencies. High self-efficacy beliefs motivate teachers to navigate and overcome challenges such as environmental and logistical barriers while striving to achieve meaningful learning outcomes with their students. The preceding perspectives indicate that teachers' self-efficacy beliefs and success in instructional delivery are closely interrelated and inseparable. Effective curriculum implementation requires teachers who are confident in their abilities and willing to translate new ideas and knowledge into practical application. Baydar (2021) asserted that highly efficacious teachers are motivated to engage learners actively and employ effective classroom practices, including instructional strategies, motivational approaches, pedagogical beliefs, and sustained effort. These practices significantly influence learning outcomes, including students’ expectations, motivation, and academic achievements. Waweru, Kihoro, and Gachunga (2021) echoed this sentiment, emphasizing that highly efficacious teachers exhibit greater enthusiasm and commitment to teaching, positively impacting student learning. Conversely, low teacher efficacy is often associated with less productive classroom environments and poorer academic performance among learners. To address these challenges, education stakeholders should prioritize professional development programs to enhance Social Studies teachers' self-efficacy beliefs. These initiatives should focus on deepening teachers' content knowledge, fostering reflective practices, and promoting ongoing evaluation of their instructional methods. Such efforts would enable teachers to design well-structured lessons that effectively align with learners' needs and achieve desired learning outcomes. Researchers across the world have studied teachers' self-efficacy beliefs and have indeed developed inventories to measure them. Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) acknowledge that good self-efficacy beliefs promote effective classroom management, the deployment of good instructional strategies, and effective student engagement, all of which enhance teaching and learning results. Balcı, Şanal, and Üğüten (2019) adapted Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) model to investigate pre-service English language teachers' self-efficacy beliefs in Turkey, finding high levels across all subscales, with the greatest confidence in instructional strategies, followed by classroom management and student engagement. Çankaya (2018), in "The Exploration of Self-Efficacy Beliefs of English Language Teachers," found that teachers prioritized student engagement over instructional strategies and classroom management. This finding was supported by Baykara (2011) and Çelik and Topkaya (2017), who like Çankaya (2018), observed moderately high self-efficacy perceptions, with student engagement, classroom management, and instructional strategies ranked in that order. Ertaş and Aslan-Tutak (2021) found that Turkish primary school math teachers considered their teaching strategies more effective than classroom management and student participation, a result contrasting with Klassen and Chiu's (2010) findings of moderate student involvement and high self-efficacy in classroom management and instructional strategies. These studies demonstrate the variability of teacher efficacy beliefs across educational domains, necessitating further research. In the African context, Mathenjwa and Dlamini (2020) examined new senior high school agriculture teachers' self-efficacy in Eswatini, finding moderate levels across classroom management, instructional strategies, and student engagement. In Ghana, Coffie and Doe (2019) found high self-efficacy among pre-service science teachers, particularly those in science programs. Ngman-Wara and Edem (2016), in "Pre-service Basic Science Teachers’ Self- Efficacy Beliefs and Attitudes Towards Science Teaching," reported positive attitudes and high self-efficacy. However, some teachers expressed concerns about leading hands-on lessons. Sarfo, Amankwah, Sam, and Konin (2015) found Ghanaian teachers in Kumasi to be most effective at student engagement, followed by classroom management, with instructional strategies being the least effective. Using diverse indicators, these studies often yield contradictory results, emphasizing the need for context-specific evidence, particularly in under-researched areas like Social Studies. Furthermore, the varying emphasis on self-efficacy categories across studies, with some prioritizing student engagement, necessitates further investigation. This study addresses this gap by examining Social Studies teachers' self-efficacy beliefs in Ghanaian senior high schools, considering the subject's unique context and pedagogical demands. Regarding demographic influences, Lesha (2017) found that Albanian male primary school teachers reported higher self-efficacy in classroom management and student involvement than female teachers. Moalosi and Forcheh (2015) similarly found that male teacher candidates in Botswana reported higher self-efficacy, though only in student engagement. Sarfo et al. (2015) found that Ghanaian female teachers are more effective in instructional strategies. Butucha (2014) found that male teachers reported higher classroom management self-efficacy. Conversely, Rezarta, Johanna, and Vollhardt (2013); Moturi (2014); Okenyi and Enyi (2015) and Tenaw (2013) found no significant gender differences in teacher self-efficacy. These conflicting findings warrant further research on gender's impact on teacher self-efficacy. This study will explore this influence among Social Studies teachers. Regarding age, Bandura (1994) argued against its impact on efficacy, a view supported by Hicks (2012); Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) and Voris and Bjork (2011). Arko (2021) also found no age influence on Ghanaian Social Studies teachers' self-efficacy. However, Jaggernauth and Jameson-Charles (2015) found age-related differences in instructional strategy self-efficacy among Caribbean secondary school teachers. Gündüz-Özsoy (2017) found that older Turkish teachers reported higher self-efficacy. Conversely, Edwards and Robinson suggested that younger teachers exhibit stronger self-efficacy. While age is often considered, its direct link to self-efficacy is under- researched and inconsistent, reflecting the dynamic nature of self-efficacy development (Bandura, 1994). This study will investigate age's influence on Social Studies teachers' self-efficacy. Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2025, 11(1): 31-42 34 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Regarding teaching experience, Frazier (2021) and Karanfil and Arı (2016) found no significant association between experience and self-efficacy. Edwards, Green, and Lions (1996) even noted a negative relationship. Conversely, Arko (2021) and Wang'eri and Otanga (2014) found positive relationships, with more experienced teachers reporting higher self-efficacy. These contrasting findings highlight the complex relationship between experience and self-efficacy, requiring further research in diverse settings, including the Central Region of Ghana. Regarding academic qualifications, Shaukat, Vishnumolakala, and Al Bustami (2019); Mona, Sofie, Hilde, Geert, and Sabrina (2018) and Xiong, Sun, Liu, Wang, and Zheng (2020) found that academic background significantly impacts self-efficacy. However, Akbari and Moradkhani (2010) and Crook (2016) found minimal influence of academic qualifications on self-efficacy. These inconsistencies highlight the complex relationship between academic qualifications and self-efficacy, informing the present study's hypothesis. Social Studies teachers in public Senior High Schools in Ghana, like their counterparts nationwide, are expected to demonstrate high levels of self-efficacy to enhance job performance, improve student learning outcomes, and contribute to achieving educational goals. However, recent studies in Ghana (Arko, 2021; Eshun & Mensah, 2013) have raised concerns regarding Social Studies teachers' self-efficacy beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and effectiveness in implementing the Social Studies curriculum. These studies reveal that many Social Studies teachers lack a clear understanding of what Social Studies entails or should represent. In addition to the gap in the literature regarding the influence of demographic characteristics on self-efficacy beliefs among Social Studies teachers in Senior High Schools in Central Ghana, there are further gaps in context (with studies focusing primarily on basic schools rather than Senior High Schools), methodology, and discipline. This study addresses these gaps by focusing specifically on Social Studies teachers in Senior High Schools in the Central Region of Ghana. While previous studies on teachers' self-efficacy beliefs in Ghana have centered on pre-service Science teachers (Antwi, Anderson, & Abagali, 2016; Coffie & Doe, 2019; Ngman-Wara & Edem, 2016), Economics teachers (Yidana & Acquah, 2024), Mathematics teachers (Mintah, Owusu-Darko, & Apoenchir, 2023), and Kindergarten teachers (Boateng, 2023), few have examined the self-efficacy beliefs of Social Studies teachers. Those that have, such as Arko (2021), focused exclusively on Social Studies teachers in Senior High Schools in Cape Coast, which limits generalization to the broader Central Region. Additionally, studies involving Junior High School Social Studies teachers (Nyantakyi, Bordoh, Anim, & Brew, 2020) have focused on teachers who are not explicitly trained or specialized in Social Studies. This study seeks to fill these gaps by investigating the relevant variables and contributing to the existing body of knowledge within the context, methodology, and discipline specific to Social Studies teachers in the Central Region of Ghana. 1.1. Research Question and Hypotheses A research question and four hypotheses guided the study: What is the level of self-efficacy beliefs among social studies teachers in public senior high schools in the Central Region of Ghana? HO1: Sex will not statistically significantly account for differences in self-efficacy beliefsamong Social Studies teachers. HO2: The age of senior high school Social Studies teachers will not statistically significantly account for differences in their self-efficacy beliefs. HO3: The academic qualifications of senior high school Social Studies teachers will not statistically significantly account for differences in their self-efficacy beliefs. HO4: Years of work experience of senior high school Social Studies teachers will not statistically significantly account for differences in their self-efficacy beliefs. 1.2. Significance of the Study It is anticipated that the study's findings will impact theory and practice. Theoretically, the findings would provide contextual data to better understand self-efficacy beliefs among Social Studies teachers. Social Studies teachers can enhance their teaching practices by using this knowledge to reinforce or modify their self-efficacy beliefs. The study findings will also help the Central Regional Directorate of the Ghana Education Service plan in-service training for teachers on the self-efficacy beliefs required for improved job performance. The results would also add to the body of knowledge already available on the impact of self-efficacy beliefs among Social Studies teachers in senior high schools. Finally, the study provides valuable information to curriculum developers so that they can design course materials that suit and promote the self-efficacy beliefs of Social Studies teachers. 2. Relevance and Application of the Theoretical Perspective This study is grounded in Bandura (1978) Social Cognitive Theory. According to Bandura (1991), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) is a psychologically derived theory that describes how individuals within social systems carry out different human processes, such as information and knowledge acquisition and adoption. Its p rimary focus is on learning processes and the interplay between many elements that influence them. In his theory, Bandura (1991) argued that the nomenclature of Social Cognitive Theory has three dimensions, including personal, behavior, and environmental, that are utilized to explain an individual’s behavior. In line with this, it has been argued that the theory operates on the concept of triadic reciprocal determinism, which describes the bidirectional interaction between cognitive/personal factors, environmental influences, and behavior (Chen et al., 2023; Mensah et al., 2023). These scholars further suggest that SCT provides insight into an individual's societal practices and how their environment influences differences in physical and psychological abilities. Researchers have used SCT to explain behavior change and modification, and it is also highly relevant in studying self-efficacy beliefs among teachers (Chatterjee & Chakraborty, 2021; Guo et al., 2022). The theory offers a valuable framework for exploring how personal and environmental factors influence teachers’ beliefs in their ability to impact student learning (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2019). Therefore, SCT serves as a practical framework for assessing the level of self-efficacy among social studies teachers in public senior high schools in the Central Region of Ghana. The relevance of this theory within the context of this study lies in the fact that teachers' self-efficacy, or their belief in their ability to effectively handle the responsibilities, obligations, and obstacles associated with their professional activity, has a significant impact on critical academic outcomes (e.g., students' achievement and motivation) and workplace well-being. Besides, it is vital to emphasize that self-efficacy isn't about a person’s actual skills; instead, it’s about how valuable they think their skills are (Bandura (1986). People's feelings, thoughts, motivation, perseverance, decisions, and behavior are considered to be governed by these ideas (Bandura, 1978, 1994). Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2025, 11(1): 31-42 35 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group The relevance of SCT to this study is contained in the argument that teachers with high self-efficacy beliefs stick with low-achieving students longer and employ more effective teaching tactics to help them learn faster (Ahmmed, Sharma, & Deppeler, 2012). Moreover, because efficacy beliefs are self-referent and focused on perceived abilities given a specific task, they are powerful predictors of behavior. People’s beliefs about what course of action to take, how much effort they will put into specific endeavors, and how long they will persevere in the face of challenges and failures are all influenced by their beliefs. The relevance of this theory is also captured in the argument that teachers with a high level of teacher self-efficacy have been demonstrated to be more resilient in their teaching and more likely to persist in helping all students attain their academic potential in challenging times. Hence, it is believed that teachers who strongly believe in their efficacy would be resilient, capable of solving challenges, and, most importantly, learn from their mistakes (Ross, Perkins, & Bodey, 2016). In this study, therefore, the relevance of SCT is contained in the argument that a teacher with low self-efficacy beliefs cannot be effective in contemporary classrooms, which is why studying the nexus between teachers' self-efficacy beliefs and job performance is so important. The application of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory is valid in this study because it represents a paradigm shift from theory to practice. In applying this theory to the study, it could be said that when teacher educators feel their activities will result in the desired end, they are more likely to act and persevere in the face of challenges or when influenced by other personal variables. When teacher educators do not believe that their activities will result in the desired outcomes, they are less likely to endure or act in the face of adversity. The success of the Social Studies Curriculum depends on self-efficacy beliefs. Self-efficacy beliefs are, therefore, believed to constitute personal factors affecting teachers' effectiveness in teaching. 3. Methodology This study followed the positivist paradigm, which posits that social reality exists independently of human perception and can be objectively observed. Positivists argue that reality is pre-existing and separate from one's perception of it, and it can be accessed through empirical observation. In this approach, researchers aim to study social phenomena value-free, acting as detached observers (Carr et al., 2018; Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2018). This paradigm is suited for testing hypotheses and theories through quantifiable data, making it ideal for the study's goals. Consistent with the positivist paradigm, this study adopted the cross-sectional descriptive survey design with a quantitative research approach. Scholars Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2019) maintain that the cross-sectional descriptive survey design is suitable for collecting data from a large sample population and is praised for its ability to ensure representation of the entire population while reducing costs. Using a census sampling technique, all 380 Social Studies teachers in public Senior High Schools in the Central Region of Ghana were selected for the study. Out of this number, 342 Social Studies teachers participated, resulting in an 83% response rate, which was deemed appropriate for the study, consistent with van Thiel's (2022) recommendation of a 20% return rate as adequate. Tschannen-Moran and Hoy's (2007) long-form model to assess teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs questionnaire was adapted as the main instrument for the study. The questionnaire consisted of two sections, A and B. Section A gathered demographic information about the Social Studies teachers. These included sex, age, academic qualification, and years of teaching experience. Section B collected data on Social Studies teachers' self-efficacy beliefs, which were in three areas: instructional strategy, classroom management, and student engagement. Each of the three areas contained eight statements, each measured on a 5-point Likert scale from 5 = strongly agree to 1 = strongly disagree. Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficients were calculated to ensure the reliability of the instrument. The results showed values of 0.86 for instructional strategy, 0.85 for student engagement, 0.85 for classroom management, and 0.85 for the overall questionnaire, demonstrating good reliability (Verma & Abdel-Salam, 2019). After ensuring face and content validity, the questionnaire was subjected to exploratory factor analysis. The data were found suitable for factor analysis, with a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value of at least 0.72 and a statistically significant Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p < 0.05), confirming construct validity (Harrison, Kemp, Brace, & Snelgar, 2021). This validated the use of the Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) model for assessing the self-efficacy beliefs of Social Studies teachers. To test the hypotheses, the study employed parametric statistical tools, including independent samples t-tests and one-way between-groups ANOVA, at a 0.05 alpha level, ensuring that the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance were met. Descriptive statistics, such as the mean and standard deviation, were used to analyze the research question with the help of SPSS version 28. Ethical procedures were strictly followed, including obtaining informed consent, ensuring access, maintaining anonymity and confidentiality, and avoiding deception throughout the study. 4. Findings 4.1. Research Question: What is the Level of Self-Efficacy Beliefs among Social Studies Teachers? This research question aimed to determine the level of efficacy beliefs among Social Studies teachers in public Senior High Schools in the Central Region of Ghana. The study adapted the long form of the Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) teachers' self-efficacy model to assess the level of teachers' self-efficacy beliefs. This model includes three main scales: student engagement, instructional strategy, and classroom management, with eight items on each scale, as shown in Table 1. To answer this research question, the study used descriptive statistics, such as the mean and standard deviation, to calculate each item's mean and standard deviation and their overall composite for the entire scale. The study interpreted the mean and standard deviation scores to reflect the level of teachers' self-efficacy beliefs, following the recommendations of Leedy and Ormrod (2021) and Nunnally and Bernstein (1994). These scholars stated that, on a 5-point Likert scale, a mean score can be ranked as very low (1.00 to 2.00), low (2.01 to 3.00), high (3.01 to 4.00), or very high (4.01 to 5.00). The study computed these rankings for each variable and its sub -scales; the findings are presented in Table 1. Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2025, 11(1): 31-42 36 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Table 1. Descriptive statistics on the level of social studies teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. Variables Items N Min. Max. Mean Std. dev. Interpretation Statistic Statistic Statistic Std. error Statistic Classroom management CM17 342 1 5 4.31 0.04 0.74 Very high CM18 342 1 5 4.28 0.04 0.74 Very high CM19 342 1 5 4.17 0.04 0.79 Very high CM20 342 1 5 4.37 0.04 0.75 Very high CM21 342 1 5 4.25 0.05 0.84 Very high CM22 342 1 5 4.06 0.05 0.94 Very high CM23 342 1 5 4.19 0.04 0.75 Very high CM24 342 1 5 4.25 0.04 0.80 Very high SSM 342 1 5 4.24 0.03 0.46 Very high Instructional strategy IS9 342 1 5 4.17 0.05 0.87 Very high IS10 342 1 5 4.13 0.04 0.81 Very high IS11 342 1 5 4.35 0.04 0.72 Very high IS12 342 1 5 4.07 0.05 0.85 Very high IS13 342 1 5 4.29 0.04 0.78 Very high IS14 342 1 5 4.43 0.04 0.72 Very high IS15 342 1 5 4.22 0.04 0.73 Very high IS16 342 1 5 4.00 0.05 0.84 Very high SSM 342 1 5 4.21 0.03 0.48 Very high Student engagement SE1 342 1 5 4.14 0.04 0.79 Very high SE2 342 1 5 4.28 0.04 0.75 Very high SE3 342 1 5 4.44 0.03 0.65 Very high SE4 342 1 5 4.56 0.03 0.61 Very high SE5 342 1 5 4.45 0.04 0.69 Very high SE6 342 1 5 3.86 0.05 0.96 High SE7 342 1 5 4.06 0.04 0.80 Very high SE8 342 1 5 3.40 0.06 1.11 High SSM 342 1 5 4.15 0.02 0.41 Very high Overall self-efficacy beliefs Overall 342 1 5 4.20 0.02 0.39 Very high Note: N=342. NB: The higher the mean score, the higher the level of teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs in the execution of the scales/subscales of teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. The findings in Table 1 indicate that the analysis involved 342 participants, as reflected in the response rate. The minimum and maximum values confirm the absence of outliers in the data. Additionally, the standard deviation scores fall within the ±3 threshold, commonly used to assess data normality. Overall, the da ta show that Social Studies teachers rated their self-efficacy beliefs as very high across all indicators. Specifically, teachers rated their self-efficacy beliefs in classroom management the highest (M=4.24, SD=0.46), followed by instructional strategy (M=4.21, SD=0.48), and student engagement (M=4.15, SD=0.41). The data also reveal that Social Studies teachers ranked their overall self-efficacy beliefs very high (M=4.20, SD=0.39). However, two sub-scales related to student engagement (SE6 and SE8) were rated as "high" rather than "very high." All other sub-scales across the three dimensions of self-efficacy beliefs were rated very high, as defined by Leedy and Ormrod (2021) and Nunnally and Bernstein (1994). Furthermore, Table 1 shows that the mean scores reflected data variability, with values falling within the ±3 range, confirming that the data were normally distributed. Given the 5-point Likert scale used in the questionnaire, where the mean score is 3.0 (1+2+3+4+5/5), it can be concluded that all the self-efficacy belief indicators in the study were rated above average. Therefore, this study concludes that Social Studies teachers possessed self-efficacy beliefs across all dimensions examined, albeit varying degrees. 4.2. Test of Study’s Hypotheses 4.2.1. Hypothesis 1 HO1: The sex of senior high school social studies teachers will not statistically significantly account for differences in their self-efficacy beliefs. This hypothesis aimed to determine whether statistically significant differences exist in the self-efficacy beliefs of Social Studies teachers based on their sex. The study used an independent samples t-test to examine these differences, and the results are presented in Table 2. Table 2. Independent samples t-test results for sex and social studies teachers' self-efficacy beliefs. Variables Sex Mean Std. dev. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Student engagement Male 4.17 0.39 1.568 340 0.118 Female 4.10 0.44 Instructional strategy Male 4.25 0.45 2.303 340 0.022 Female 4.12 0.53 Classroom management Male 4.25 0.45 0.868 340 0.386 Female 4.20 0.49 Overall self-efficacy beliefs Male 4.22 0.37 1.848 340 0.036 Female 4.14 0.42 The independent samples t-test results in Table 2 show that there was no statistically significant difference in the mean scores for male and female Social Studies teachers in relation to their self-efficacy beliefs in student engagement [t (340) = 1.568, p > 0.05, 2-tailed] as well as their self-efficacy beliefs in classroom management [t (340) = 1.568, p > 0.05, 2-tailed]. However, the results indicate that there was a statistically significant difference in the mean scores for male and female Social Studies teachers concerning their self-efficacy beliefs in instructional strategy [t (340) = 1.568, p < 0.05, 2- tailed], where the male Social Studies teachers performed better (M = 4.17, SD = 0.39) than the female Social Studies teachers (M = 4.10, SD = 0.44). Similarly, the results disclosed that the mean scores for male Social Studies teachers (M Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2025, 11(1): 31-42 37 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group = 4.22, SD = 0.37) and female (M = 4.14, SD = 0.42) Social Studies teachers differ significantly in their overall self-efficacy beliefs [t (340) = 1.848, p < 0.05, 2-tailed], which implied that the male Social Studies teachers did better in overall self- efficacy beliefs; this implied that the male Social Studies teachers generally performed better than their female Social Studies teacher counterparts. Based on these results, the study concludes that the sex of the Social Studies teachers is crucial in determining their efficacy beliefs in their instructional strategy as well as their overall self -efficacy beliefs. However, the results further disclose that sex did not matter in discussing their self-efficacy beliefs in classroom management and student engagement among Social Studies teachers. Hence, the null hypothesis that “There is no statistically significant difference between male and female Social Studies teachers on their sel f-efficacy beliefs” was not supported, while the alternative hypothesis was supported. 4.2.2. Hypothesis 2 HO2: The age of senior high school social studies teachers will not statistically significantly account for differences in their self-efficacy beliefs. This hypothesis sought to test the influence of Social Studies teachers' age on their self-efficacy beliefs. To determine how age affects self-efficacy beliefs in Social Studies teachers, descriptive analysis was carried out, and the results are presented in Table 3. Table 3. Descriptive statistics for one-way between-groups ANOVA results for social studies teachers' age and self-efficacy beliefs. Variables Years in range Mean Std. dev. Student engagement 20-29 yrs. 4.07 0.35 30-39 yrs. 4.20 0.40 40-49 yrs. 4.10 0.46 50+ yrs. 4.31 0.41 Total 4.15 0.41 Instructional strategy 20-29 yrs. 4.12 0.42 30-39 yrs. 4.30 0.42 40-49 yrs. 4.14 0.61 50+ yrs. 4.26 0.46 Total 4.21 0.48 Classroom management 20-29 yrs. 4.14 0.42 30-39 yrs. 4.33 0.41 40-49 yrs. 4.16 0.54 50+ yrs. 4.27 0.57 Total 4.24 0.46 Overall self-efficacy beliefs 20-29 yrs. 4.11 0.33 30-39 yrs. 4.28 0.34 40-49 yrs. 4.13 0.48 50+ yrs. 4.28 0.44 Total 4.20 0.39 It could be observed from Table 3 that Social Studies teachers who were 50 years and above rated highest on their efficacy on student engagement (M=4.31, SD=0.41) than their counterparts who had between 30-39 years (M=4.20, SD=0.40), 40-49 years (M=4.10, SD=0.46) and 40-49 years (M=4.07, SD=0.35). For self-efficacy in instructional strategy, Social Studies teachers who were 30-39 years old recorded the greatest mean (M=4.30, SD=0.42) than those who fell between 50 years and above (M=4.26, SD=0.46), 40-49 years (M=4.14, SD=0.616), and 20-29 years (M=4.12, SD=0.42). Social Studies teachers who fell between 30-39 years by age recorded the highest mean (M=4.33, SD=0.41) than colleagues who were 50 years and above (M=4.27, SD=0.57), 40-49 (M=4.16, SD=0.54), and 20-29 years (M=4.14, SD=0.42) on their efficacy in classroom management. The information also reveals that Social Studies teachers who were between the age bracket of 30-39 years (M=4.28, SD=0.34) and 50 years and above (M=4.28, SD=0.44), recorded the highest mean than those who fell between 40-49 years (M=4.13, SD=0.48) and 20-29 years (M=4.11, SD=0.33) about the overall teachers’ efficacy beliefs. The descriptive statistics, as shown in Table 3, have disclosed that there were differences in terms of age in Social Studies teachers' self-efficacy beliefs. In testing whether the differences were statistically significant, the one-way between-groups ANOVA was employed, and the results are shown in Table 4. Table 4. One-way between-groups ANOVA results for social studies teachers' age and self-efficacy beliefs. Variables Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig. Student engagement Between groups 1.873 3 0.624 3.854 0.010 Within groups 54.752 338 0.162 Total 56.625 341 Instructional strategy Between groups 2.328 3 0.776 3.460 0.017 Within groups 75.802 338 0.224 Total 78.130 341 Classroom management Between groups 2.671 3 0.890 4.282 0.006 Within groups 70.275 338 0.208 Total 72.946 341 Overall self-efficacy beliefs Between groups 2.168 3 0.723 5.008 0.002 Within groups 48.777 338 0.144 Total 50.945 341 The one-way between-groups ANOVA results in Table 4 revealed that there were statistically significant differences in the self-efficacy beliefs of Social Studies teachers regarding student engagement [F (3, 338) = 3.854, p<0.05], instructional strategy [F (3, 338) = 3.460, p<0.05], classroom management [F (3, 338) = 4.282, p<0.05], as well as the overall self-efficacy beliefs of Social Studies teachers [F (3, 338) = 4.282, p<0.05] due to age. Thus, the results suggested that age is a critical determinant of Social Studies teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs about student engagement, instructional strategy, as well as classroom management. Therefore, the null hypothesis that “Age will not significantly affect Social Studies teachers' self-efficacy beliefs” was not supported, while the alternative hypothesis was supported. Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2025, 11(1): 31-42 38 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 4.2.3. Hypothesis 3 HO3: The academic qualifications of Senior High School Social Studies teachers will not statistically significantly account for differences in their self-efficacy beliefs. This hypothesis sought to test whether the self-efficacy beliefs of the Social Studies teachers would differ significantly due to their academic qualifications. In this study, the educational qualifications of teachers were identified as a bachelor’s degree, a master’s, and a PhD. However, it was revealed after data collection that only teachers with bachelor’s degrees and master’s degrees were involved in the study. As such, to test for the statistically significant differences in teachers’ academic qualifications and self-efficacy beliefs, an independent samples t-test was employed, and the results are presented in Table 5. Table 5. Independent samples T-test results for academic qualification of social studies teachers and self-efficacy beliefs. Levels of self-efficacy beliefs Academic qualification Mean Std. dev. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Student engagement Bachelor’s degree 4.15 0.38 0.452 340 0.651 Masters 4.13 0.46 Instructional strategy Bachelor’s degree 4.24 0.43 1.724 340 0.090 Masters 4.14 0.57 Classroom management Bachelor’s degree 4.24 0.45 0.123 340 0.900 Masters 4.23 0.48 Overall self-efficacy beliefs Bachelor’s degree 4.21 0.36 0.918 340 0.360 Masters 4.17 0.45 Data in Table 5 show that Social Studies teachers with bachelor’s degrees better engaged students (M=4.15, SD=0.38) than their counterparts who were master’s holders (M=4.13, SD=0.46). Regarding instructional strategy, Social Studies teachers with bachelor’s degrees performed higher (M=4.24, SD=0.43) than their colleagues with master’s degrees (M=4.14, SD=0.57). Similarly, Social Studies teachers with bachelor’s degrees scored higher on classroom management (M=4.24, SD=0.23) than their counterparts with master’s degrees (M=4.23, SD=0.48), whereas Social Studies teachers who were bachelor’s degree holders rated higher on the overall self-efficacy beliefs (M=4.21, SD=0.36) than their counterparts with master’s degrees (M=4.17, SD=0.45). The test of significance using independent samples t-test generated results as presented in Table 5, revealing that there is no statistically significant difference in the means for efficacy in student engagement [t (340)=0.452, p=0.651, 2-tailed], instructional strategy [t (340)= 1.724, p=0.090, 2-tailed], classroom management [t (340)= 0.123, p=0.900, 2-tailed], and the overall self- efficacy beliefs [t (340)= 0.918, p=0.360, 2-tailed] at the 0.05 alpha level due to academic qualification. It could be deduced from these results that academic qualification did not statistically significantly determine the self-efficacy of Social Studies teachers in public Senior High Schools. Consequently, the alternate hypothesis that “Academic Qualification of Senior High School Social Studies teachers will not statistically significantly account for differences in their self-efficacy beliefs” was supported. In contrast, the alternative hypothesis was not supported. 4.2.4. Hypothesis 4 HO4: Years of work experience of Senior High School Social Studies teachers will not statistically significantly account for differences in their self-efficacy beliefs. In this hypothesis, we sought to test whether the years of teaching experience could account for statistically significant differences in the self-efficacy beliefs of Social Studies teachers. Before statistical differences were checked, the study first used descriptive statistics to verify whether differences existed among the Social Studies teachers based on years of teaching experience. The results are presented in Table 6. Table 6. Descriptive statistics for one-way between-groups ANOVA results for age and self-efficacy beliefs. Sub-scales of self-efficacy Years Mean Std. dev. Student engagement 1-5 years 4.14 0.36 6-10 years 4.13 0.41 10+years 4.17 0.44 Total 4.15 0.41 Instructional strategy 1-5 years 4.23 0.41 6-10 years 4.08 0.55 10+years 4.30 0.45 Total 4.21 0.48 Classroom management 1-5 years 4.23 0.38 6-10 years 4.12 0.50 10+years 4.33 0.48 Total 4.24 0.46 Overall self-efficacy beliefs 1-5 years 4.20 0.32 6-10 years 4.11 0.43 10+years 4.27 0.39 Total 4.20 0.39 It could be seen in Table 6 that those teachers with 10 years and above scored a higher mean (M=4.17, SD=0.41) than those with between 1-5 years (M=4.14, SD=0.36) and teachers with between 6-10 years on student engagement. Regarding instructional strategy, teachers who had 10 years and above recorded a higher mean (M=4.30, SD=0.45) than their counterparts who had spent between 1-5 years (M=4.23, SD=0.41) and 6-10 years (M=4.08, SD=0.55). Furthermore, teachers who have spent 10 years and above recorded the highest mean (M=4.33, SD=0.48) compared to their counterparts who have spent between 1-5 years (M=4.23, SD=0.38) and those between 6-10 years (M=4.12, SD=0.50), while teachers who possess 10 years and above experience ranked higher (M=4.27, SD=0.39) than those with between 1-5 years experience (M=4.20, SD=0.32) and 6-10 years of experience (M=4.11, SD=0.43) on the overall self-efficacy beliefs. The one-way between-group ANOVA results on whether statistically significant differences existed have been presented in Table 7. Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2025, 11(1): 31-42 39 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group Table 7. One-way between-groups ANOVA results for the years of experience of social studies teachers and self-efficacy beliefs. Variables Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig. Student engagement Between groups 0.124 2 0.062 0.372 0.690 Within groups 56.501 339 0.167 Total 56.625 341 Instructional strategy Between groups 2.735 2 1.367 6.148 0.002 Within groups 75.396 339 0.222 Total 78.130 341 Classroom management Between groups 2.610 2 1.305 6.289 0.002 Within groups 70.336 339 0.207 Total 72.946 341 Overall self-efficacy beliefs Between groups 1.432 2 0.716 4.901 0.008 Within groups 49.513 339 0.146 Total 50.945 341 The ANOVA results in Table 7 reveal that, except for student engagement, where no statistically significant difference existed [F (2, 339) = 0.372, p > 0.05], the study discovered statistically significant differences in relation to instructional strategy [F (2, 339) = 6.148, p < 0.05], classroom management [F (2, 339) = 6.289, p < 0.05], as well as the overall self-efficacy beliefs [F (2, 339) = 4.901, p < 0.05] due to teachers’ years of teaching experience. Thus, the results suggested that Social Studies teachers’ years of teaching experience are a critical determinant of their self-efficacy beliefs. A post hoc analysis using the Tukey HSD test for further multiple comparisons revealed that significant differences occurred in efficacy in instructional strategy, classroom management, as well as overall self-efficacy beliefs, where there was a significant pair-wise group difference between teachers who had spent between 6-10 years and 10+ years, with the mean score for teachers with 10+ years being significantly higher (M = 4.30, SD = 0.45) than their counterparts who had spent 6-10 years (M = 4.08, SD = 0.55), while those within 1-5 years did not reach statistical significance. Therefore, the study fa ils to support the null hypothesis that “years of teaching experience will not significantly affect Social Studies teachers' self-efficacy beliefs,” while the alternative hypothesis was supported. 5. Discussion of the Findings The first research question aimed to determine the level of self-efficacy beliefs among Social Studies teachers. The findings revealed that Social Studies teachers rated their self-efficacy beliefs very high, with a mean score of 4.20 and a standard deviation of 0.02. This result indicates that Social Studies teachers in these schools demonstrated a strong ability to implement various activities and practices to facilitate student learning effectively. This finding aligns with prior analytical studies conducted in Turkey by Balcı et al. (2019) and Ghana by Nyantakyi et al. (2020) and Coffie and Doe (2019), all of which reported high levels of teacher self-efficacy beliefs. However, the result contradicts findings from earlier studies by Mathenjwa and Dlamini (2020) and Sokal, Trudel, and Babb (2020), which reported low to moderate levels of teacher self-efficacy beliefs. The high level of teacher self-efficacy beliefs identified in this study indicates that Social Studies teachers were confident in their abilities and believed they could affect meaningful change in their students through effective classroom practices and engagements. Hussain, Khan, and Bidar (2022) emphasized that high self-efficacy beliefs are essential for teachers to achieve their objectives, complete tasks, and address educational challenges. Teachers with low self-efficacy tend to avoid complex tasks, view creative endeavors as overly challenging, interpret situations negatively, and lose confidence in their abilities. In contrast, teachers with high self-efficacy embrace complex tasks as opportunities for growth, develop a more substantial interest in their work, maintain a firm commitment to their responsibilities, and recover quickly from setbacks. Notably, the studies conducted by Balcı et al. (2019) and Nyantakyi et al. (2020), despite being carried out at different levels of the educational system, consistently adopted and utilized Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) model of teacher self-efficacy. This consistency confirms the model's applicability across various levels of education. Consequently, this study theorizes that Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) model can effectively assess teachers' self- efficacy beliefs regardless of their position on the educational ladder. Thus, we assert that the model is applicable for evaluating the self-efficacy beliefs of the Social Studies teachers included in this study. Regarding the three dimensions of teacher self-efficacy beliefs, this study found that Social Studies teachers rated classroom management highest, followed by instructional strategy and student engagement. These findings align with prior studies conducted in countries such as Eswatini (Mathenjwa & Dlamini, 2020) and Canada (Klassen & Chiu, 2010). However, the findings of this study contrast with previous research conducted in Turkey (Barci, Maurin, & Sokol, 2019; Çelik & Topkaya, 2017) and India (Jaggernauth & Jameson-Charles, 2015). The findings of this study, consistent with previous research, revealed that classroom management emerged as the most dominant indicator of Social Studies teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. This result is unsurprising, as competency in classroom management is crucial for ensuring effective instructional practices. Teachers must enforce adherence to classroom rules, manage and control disruptive behaviors, and engage even the most deviant or challenging students (Mathenjwa & Dlamini, 2020). This perspective suggests that efficacy beliefs in classroom management establish the foundation for instructional practices, shaping students' actions, behaviors, and readiness for learning. Consequently, classroom management activities are the cornerstone of effective teaching and learning. The study also examined how demographic characteristics such as sex, age, academic qualifications, and work experience influence Social Studies teachers' perceptions and account for statistical differences in their self-efficacy beliefs, as tested in hypothesis one. The findings showed no statistically significant difference between male and female Social Studies teachers regarding their self-efficacy beliefs in student engagement or classroom management. However, the results of the hypothesis revealed a statistically significant difference in self-efficacy beliefs in instructional strategy, with male Social Studies teachers outperforming their female counterparts. The results of the overall self-efficacy beliefs show that male Social Studies teachers possess significantly higher self-efficacy beliefs than their female counterparts. Based on this finding, the study concludes that sex significantly influences the self-efficacy beliefs of Social Studies teachers. These findings align with previous studies conducted in Albania (Lesha, 2017), Botswana (Moalosi & Forcheh, 2015), and Kenya (Butucha, 2014), where researchers observed statistically significant differences between sex and teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. However, these results conflict with Asian Journal of Education and Training, 2025, 11(1): 31-42 40 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group findings from other studies conducted in Albania (Bilali, 2013), Kenya (Moturi, 2014), and Nigeria ((Okenyi & Enyi, 2015), which reported no significant differences. As a result, this study did not support the null hypothesis but instead validated the alternative hypothesis. The findings imply that programs and interventions aimed at enhancing the self-efficacy beliefs of Social Studies teachers should focus more on female teachers, as they exhibit lower self-efficacy beliefs than their male counterparts. The study assessed the influence of age to determine whether it significantly affects the self-efficacy beliefs of Social Studies teachers. The results reveal a statistically significant difference in self-efficacy beliefs related to student engagement, instructional strategy, classroom management, and overall self-efficacy beliefs among Social Studies teachers based on age. Consequently, the study concludes that age significantly impacts differences in the self-efficacy beliefs of Social Studies teachers. This finding aligns with previous studies conducted in the Caribbean (Jaggernauth & Jameson-Charles, 2015) and Turkey (Gündüz-Özsoy, 2017), which reported that age influenced teachers’ self- efficacy beliefs. However, the results contradict findings from other studies (Arko (2021); Hicks (2012) and Voris and Bjork (2011) that found no statistically significant differences in self-efficacy beliefs based on age. These findings underscore the importance of considering age as a critical demographic variable influencing teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. The study rejects the null hypothesis and accepts the alternative hypothesis regarding the influence of age on teachers' self-efficacy beliefs. However, when examining the influence of academic qualifications, the study reveals no statistically significant differences in self-efficacy beliefs across student engagement, instructional strategy, classroom management, and overall efficacy. These findings contradict prior studies conducted in Pakistan (Shaukat et al., 2019), Belgium (Mona et al., 2018), and China (Xiong et al., 2020). Conversely, they align with previous research from Iran (Akbari & Moradkhani, 2010) and Thailand (Crook, 2016). These results suggest that academic qualifications do not significantly influence teachers' self-efficacy beliefs, indicating that age plays a more vital role than academic qualifications in this context. Based on these findings, the study rejects the alternative hypothesis regarding educational qualifications and accepts the null hypothesis instead. The results from examining the influence of years of teaching experience on teachers' self-efficacy beliefs revealed that, except for student engagement, where no statistically significant difference existed, the study found statistically significant differences in relation to instructional strategy, classroom management, and overall self-efficacy beliefs. This finding aligns with previous studies in Ghana (Arko, 2021) and Kenya (Wang'eri & Otanga, 2014), which showed that teachers' years of teaching experience influenced their self-efficacy beliefs. However, the findings of this study contradict those of previous studies in the United States (Frazier, 2021), Trinidad and Tobago (Gowrie & Ramdass, 2014) and Vietnam (Phan & Locke, 2015), where years of teaching experience did not account for any statistically significant differences in teachers' self-efficacy beliefs. Consequently, we accepted the alternate hypothesis and rejected the null hypothesis. 6. Conclusions and Recommendations It is established that the Social Studies teachers were highly efficacious in classroom management, instructional strategies, and student engagement. There is ample evidence that Social Studies teachers are well-equipped and very competent in dealing with the everyday challenges they encounter in discharging their duties. The implication is that Social Studies teachers can cope with and deal with the daily emotional, social, and pedagogically difficult circumstances that have the potential to reduce their feelings of efficacy and professional competence. Therefore, Social Studies teachers, who are critical agents in the teaching of 21st-century competencies, can collaborate with their students and other stakeholders to realize the acquisition of the intended learning outcomes among learners. Even though teachers are generally criticized for reneging on their instructional responsibi lities due to their numerous and multidimensional challenges, such as but not limited to burnout, stress, and students’ behavioral challenges, the Social Studies teachers who took part in this demonstrated high levels of self-efficacy beliefs in executing their roles and are therefore passionate about their job. However, there were differences in the intensity and magnitude of the implementation of the various indicators and dimensions. This calls for support to enhance and sustain their instructional practices to promote and improve the teaching and learning of the subject and their job performance in the schools. 7. Implications for Effective Teaching and Learning of Social Studies The findings from this study have implications for the teaching and learning of Social Studies. The findings imply that self-efficacy beliefs are a springboard for realizing optimum effectiveness among Social Studies teachers in public Senior High Schools in the Central Region of Ghana. Consequently, this revelation that Social Studies teachers' self- efficacy beliefs are critical to their success indicates that they are expected to demonstrate effectiveness in classroom management, instructional strategies, and student engagement. Therefore, Social Studies teachers become the wheels that drive the acquisition of the rationale, goals, and objectives of the Social Studies curriculum and are crucial agents in the delivery of civic education in Ghana. Hence, they are expected to be receptive when opportunities are given to equip them to hone their self-efficacy beliefs. Finally, the findings of the study have implications for decisions on the selection of training programs and interventions required to promote and enhance self-efficacy beliefs to realize desired job performance. Social Studies teachers' demographic variables, such as sex, age, academic qualification, and work experience, accounted for statistically significant differences in self-efficacy beliefs. Therefore, education stakeholders are expected to focus on the demographic variables of teachers that significantly influenced their perception of their self-efficacy beliefs and, thus, accounted for statistically significant differences. 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