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*Corresponding author: E-mail: joy_chikwendu@yahoo.com; 
 
 
 

Asian Journal of Immunology 
 
2(1): 56-63, 2019; Article no.AJI.52961 
 

 
 

 

 

Epidemiological Study of Intestinal Parasites in 
School Children in Vandeikya LGA, Benue State, 

Nigeria 
 

T. S. Atsuwe1, V. U. Obisike2, J. I. Chikwendu1*, C. K. Kondo1, C. T. Tyoakoso1 
and E. U. Amuta1  

 
1
Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria. 

2
Abia State University, Uturu, Abia, Nigeria. 

 
Authors’ contributions  

 
This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. Authors TSA, CKK and CTT designed 

the study and carried out the field research. Author EUA wrote the protocol and supervised the 
research. Author VUO performed the statistical analysis. Author JIC wrote the first draft of the 

manuscript and managed the literature searches. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. 
 

Article Information 
 

Editor(s): 
(1) Dr. Jaffu Othniel Chilongola, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University 

College, Tumaini University, Tanzania. 
Reviewers: 

(1) Cristina Hegedüs, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, România. 
(2) Shamala Moodley, Mangosuthu University of Technology, South Africa. 

Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/52961 

 
 
 
 

Received 01 October 2019  
Accepted 04 December 2019 
Published 12 December 2019 

 
 

ABSTRACT 
 

A study was conducted to determine the epidemiology of intestinal parasites in school children in 
Vandeikya LGA, Benue State, Nigeria. Two hundred and ninety three (293) stool samples from 
school children were examined in selected schools across the Local Government Area. 22 of 293 
children were infected with parasites which include: Ascaris lumbricoides, Entamoeba histolytica, 
Hookworm, Strongyloides stercularis and Taenia spp. Hookworm had the highest prevalence rate 
of 9(3.1%), Entamoeba histolytica 7(2.3%), Taenia spp had 3(1.0%), Strongyloide stercolaris had 
2(0.7%) while Ascaris lumbricoides recorded the least prevalence rate of 1(0.3%). For mixed 
infections, Entamoeba histolytica and Ascaris lumbricoides recorded the highest prevalence of 
5(1.7%); Entamoeba histolytica, Hookworm and Strongyloides stercolaris recorded prevalence of 
2(0.7%); and Entamoeba histolytica, Ascaris lumbricoides and Hookworm recorded prevalence of 
2(0.7%); there was however, no significant difference (P>0.05) in prevalence of mixed infections. 

Original Research Article 



 
 
 
 

Atsuwe et al.; AJI, 2(1): 56-63, 2019; Article no.AJI.52961 
 

 

 
57 

 

For prevalence based on age, there was significant difference (P<0.05) between the age groups,  
2 

calculated (10.117),  
2 
tabulated (4.891), df = 2. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in the 

infection rate based on sex,  
2
 calculated (3.245),  

2
 tabulated (5.991), df = 2. Intestinal parasites 

are prevalent in Vandeikya LGA, Benue State. Risk factors like open defecation, use of stream and 
well water should be minimized in order to prevent infection. 
 

 
Keywords: Prevalence; intestinal parasites; mixed infection. 
 

1. BACKGROUND  
 
Intestinal parasites are helminthes (worms) and 
protozoa that reside in the intestines of their 
hosts; disease burden is higher in children and 
women [1]. At least 880 million children are in 
need of treatment for intestinal worms [1]. 
According to World Health Organization 
estimates, 500 million people in the world are 
infected with Entamoeba histolytica; this 
protozoon causes symptomatic illness in about 
50 million people and is responsible for 100,000 
mortalities [2]. Intestinal parasites may cause 
morbidities like: weakness, inflammation of the 
intestines, abdominal pains, nausea and 
dysentery in those infected [3]. In addition, 
infection in children may result in reduced ability 
to learn, reduced food absorption leading to 
malnutrition, anaemia, stunted growth, and may 
lead to death [4]. Intestinal parasites are endemic 
in the tropics where favorable climatic, 
environmental and sociocultural factors permit 
transmission [5].  The infection rate for these 
parasites has primarily been attributed to 
poverty, unhygienic environmental conditions 
and over-dispersion of parasites [4]. Significantly 
higher prevalence of intestinal parasites was 
reported in children from homes where livestock 
are reared and in children of farmers [6]. 
According to a study conducted in Ethiopia, 
hygiene factors like the inconsistent use of shoes 
is strongly associated with prevalence of 
hookworm infection, and long untidy finger nails 
and drinking of well water are important risk 
factor for E. histolytica [7]. Drinking of rainwater 
is a possible risk factor for intestinal parasites [8]. 
In contrast, however, no association was found 
between household drinking water source and 
prevalence of intestinal parasites in school aged 
children in Burkina Faso [9]. Proper 
understanding of prevalence, distribution and 
associated risk factors for intestinal parasites 
could help in development of strategy aimed at 
transmission interruption and control of the 
diseases they cause. This study was therefore 
aimed at: 1) investigating the prevalence and 
distribution of intestinal parasites in school aged 
children in Vandeikya  LGA and (2) determining 

the association between prevalence of parasite 
species in children and three (3) risk factors: 
drinking water source, occupation of parents and 
type of toilet used.  
 

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 
 
2.1 Study Area 
 
The research was carried out in select public and 
privates schools across Vandeikya Local 
Government Area of Benue State. 
 

2.2 Samples Collection 
 
School children that participated in the study 
were aged 3 – 15 years. School children were 
given 20 ml universal bottles the previous day 
and asked to return it the next morning with their 
early morning stool sample in it. Questionnaires 
were used to obtain data on age, sex, drinking 
water source, type of toilet system used at home 
and occupation of parents. After collecting the 
stool samples from the children at school, the 
specimen were then taken to the science 
laboratory at General Hospital Gboko where they 
were analyzed. 
 

2.3 Method of Identification of Intestinal 
Parasites  

 

The method that was used to identify the 
presence of intestinal parasites was direct 
microscopy of wet preparation, and stool 
concentration.  Stool sample was emulsified in 
saturated salt solution in the test tube, the 
supernatant was poured out and the concentrate 
was centrifuge for 5 minutes. A drop or two of 
saline solution was placed on the microscopic 
slide with a cover slip and viewed under a 
microscope with ×10 and ×40 objective lens. 
Positive stool samples were identified by: 
Presence of characteristic eggs for Taenia 
species, Hookworm and Ascaris species. For 
strongyloides species, the presence of larvae 
was used for identification, while presence of 
characteristic trophozoites in stool was used of 
diagnose E. histolytica.  



 
 
 
 

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58 

 

2.4 Statistical Analysis 
 
Chi-square test was used to determine the 
homogeneity of the disease in the different 
schools. 

 
3. RESULTS 
 
Table 1 shows age related prevalences of a 
range of intestinal parasites present in stool 
samples of research subjects: The total 
prevalences of the intestinal parasites were as 
follows: Ascaris lumbricoides 1 (0.34%), 
Entamoeba histolytica 7 (2.39%), Hookworms 9 
(3.07%), Strongyloides stercularis 2 (0.68%), 
Taenia spp. 3 (1.02%). Among children aged 0-4 
years, Hookworm was the most prevalent 
intestinal parasite with prevalence of 2 (2.99%), 
and no intestinal parasite was observed among 
children aged 15-19 years. There was no 
significant difference (P>0.05) in prevalence 
between the different age groups. 

 
Table 2 shows sex related prevalences of 
intestinal parasites in stool samples of research 
subjects. In males, prevalences of Ascaris 
lumbricoides was 1 (0.6%), Entamoeba 
histolytica 4 (2.55%), Hookworms 4 (2.55%), 
Strongyloides stercularis 1 (0.64%) and Taenia 
spp 0 (0.0%). Prevalences in females were as 
follows: Ascaris lumbricoides 0 (0.0%), 
Entamoeba histolytica 3(2.21%), Hookworms 5 
(3.68%), Strongyloides stercularis 1 (0.74%), 
Taenia spp. 3 (2.21%). Females had higher total 
prevalences of intestinal parasites 12(14%) than 
males 10(8.3%). 

Table 3 shows the prevalence of mixed intestinal 
parasite infections in school children with  
respect to age. Entamoeba histolytica, Ascaris 
lumbricoides and Hookworm had prevalence of 2 
(0.68%); Entamoeba histolytica and Ascaris 
lumbricoides had the highest prevalence rate of 
5(1.71%); and Entamoeba histolytica, Hook 
worm and Strongyloides stercolaris had 
prevalence of 2(0.68%). 
 
Table 4 shows the prevalence of mixed intestinal 
parasites in school children with respect to sex. 
Prevalence of mixed infections was higher 
among males 4(2.55%) than among females 
5(3.68%), giving a 9(3.07%) total prevalence of 
mixed infections. 
 

Fig. 1 represents the prevalence of intestinal 
parasites in relation to the type of toilet used by 
the subjects. Those that used nearby bush were 
more infected accounting for 45% of total 
infections with intestinal parasites, while those 
that used “Pit” and water system toilets 
accounted for 40% and 15% total infection 
respectively.  
 

Fig. 2 shows the relationship between source of 
drinking water and the prevalence of intestinal 
parasites. School children who obtain drinking 
water from streams were most infected 
accounting for 60% of total infections; children 
who obtain drinking water from wells had the 
second highest infection rates accounting for  
(30%) of total infection; while children who obtain 
drinking water from borehole were the least 
infected accounting for (10%) of the total 
infection.  

  
Table 1. Age related prevalence of intestinal parasites 

 

Age  No examined A. lumbricoides E. histolytica Hookworms S. stercoralis Taenia spp 

0-4 67 0(0.00) 1(1.49) 2(2.99) 1(1.49) 0(0.00) 

5-9 146 1(0.68) 3(2.05) 4(2.74) 1(0.68) 3(2.05) 

10-14 77 0(0.00) 3(3.90) 3(3.90) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) 

15-19 3 0(0.00) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) 0(0.00) 

Total 293 1(0.34) 7(2.39) 9(3.07) 2(0.68) 3(1.02) 
 

2 
Cal = 10.117, df = 12, P>0.05 

 
Table 2. Sex related prevalence of intestinal parasites 

 
Sex   No 

examined 
A. lumbricoides 
(%)   

E. 
histolytica     

Hookworm 
(%) 

S. stercoralis 
(%)   

Taenia 
spp (%)   

Total 
(%) 

Male 157 1(0.64) 4(2.55) 4(2.55) 1(0.64) 0(0.00) 10(6.37) 
Female 136 0(0.00) 3(2.21) 5(3.68) 1(0.74) 3(2.21) 12(8.82) 
Total 293 1(0.34) 7(2.39) 9(3.07) 2(0.68) 3(1.02) 22(7.51) 

 
2 

Cal = 3.245, df = 4, P>0.05 

 



 
 
 
 

Atsuwe et al.; AJI, 2(1): 56-63, 2019; Article no.AJI.52961 
 

 

 
59 

 

Table 3. Prevalence of mixed infections with intestinal parasites in different age groups 
 

Age No examined No infected (prevalence) Total 

E. histolytica A. lumbricoides  
Hookworm (%)   

E. histolytica A. 
lumbricoides (%)     

E. histolytica Hookworm 
S. stercoralis (%) 

0-4 67 0(0.00) 1(1.49) 1(1.49)       2(2.99) 
5-9 146 1(0.68) 2(1.4) 1(0.68)       4(2.74) 
10-14 80 1(1.25) 2(2.50) 0(0.00)        3(3.75) 
Total 293 2(0.68) 5(1.71) 2(0.68)       9(3.07) 

 
2 

Cal = 2,948, df = 4, P>0.05 

 
Table 4. Prevalence of mixed infections with intestinal parasites in different sexes 

 

Sex No examined No infected (prevalence) Total (%) 

E. histolytica A. lumbricoides 
Hookworm (%) 

E. histolytica 
A. lumbricoides (%) 

E. histolytica Hookworm 
S. stercoralis (%) 

Male 157 1(0.64) 2(1.27) 1(0.64) 4(2.55) 
Female 136 1(0.74) 3(2.21) 1(0.74) 5(3.68) 
Total 293 2(0.68) 5(1.71) 2(0.68) 9(3.07) 

 
2 

Cal = 0.052, df = 2, P>0.05 



 
 
 
 

Atsuwe et al.; AJI, 2(1): 56-63, 2019; Article no.AJI.52961 
 

 

 
60 

 

 
 

Fig. 1. Relationship between toilet facility and parasitic infection in pupils 
 

 
 

Fig. 2. Relationship between source of drinking water of the pupils and parasitic infection 
 

Fig. 3 shows the relationship between parental 
occupation of school children and infection with 
intestinal parasites. Children whose parents were 
farmers accounted for (50%) of those infected, 
children whose parents were Traders accounted 
for (30%) of those infected, while children whose 
parents were Civil-servants accounted for 20% of 
those infected. 
 

4. DISCUSSION  
 
The study revealed the presence of A. 
lumbricoides, E. histolytica, Hookworms, S. 
stercoralis, and Taenia spp infections in school 
aged children. Hookworms and E. histolytica had 
the highest prevalences. The temperature in the 
tropics is known to favour the prevalence of a 
range of intestinal parasites and could be the 

reason for their presence in the study area. 
Seasonal variations in abiotic factors like 
temperature, humidity and rainfall may affect 
intensity of intestinal parasites [10], particularly 
soil transmitted helminthes [11]. Hookworms and 
E. histolytica had significantly higher prevalences 
than the other parasites. Although the 
trophozoite stage of E. histolytica which is                
used to diagnose the parasite is fragile and 
cannot survive outside the host for longer than 
24 hours, the infective stage of the parasite 
which is the cyst stage can withstand 
desiccation. Inspite of harsh temperature,                           
cysts may linger in the environment for months, 
and could be the reason for high E. histolytica 
prevalence. In addition, the cysts of E.            
histolytica can be transmitted through water and 
food. 

0 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

Type of toilet  

In
te

st
in

al
 p

ar
as

it
e

s 
in

 p
u

p
ils

 (
%

) 

Bush  

Pit 

Water system 

60% 

30% 

10% 

Stream  

Well  

Borehole 



 
 
 
 

Atsuwe et al.; AJI, 2(1): 56-63, 2019; Article no.AJI.52961 
 

 

 
61 

 

 
 

Fig. 3. Relationship between parental occupation of the pupil and parasitic infection  
 
Hookworms are transmitted primarily by walking 
barefoot on soil containing parasite larvae, and 
by ingestion of larvae in the case of Ancylostoma 
duodenale. Multiple modes of infection could 
have contributed to high prevalence of 
hookworms in this study.  In agreement with our 
findings, Entamoeba histolytica also had the 
highest prevalence among intestinal parasites 
infecting food vendors in Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia, 
while tapeworms and hookworms had equal 
prevalences [12]. The author opined that 
untrimmed fingernails of researcher subjects 
could be contributing to high prevalence of 
intestinal parasites in the study. In contrast 
however, E. histolytica had second highest 
prevalence and A. lumbricoides had the highest 
prevalences among tuberculosis suspected 
patients in Gondar, Northwest Ethiopia, however, 
among protozoan infections, E. histolytica had 
the highest prevalence [13]. The researchers 
opined that unsafe water sources, economic 
status and environmental sanitation could be 
contributing to high prevalence of parasitic 
diseases in the study area.  
 

Intestinal parasite prevalences were highest in 
children aged 5-9 years, as the children grew 
older (15-19 years), zero (0%) prevalences were 
recorded for all intestinal parasites. Children 
aged 5-9 may be more prone to playing with soil 
than other age groups and are likely to move 
around bare-foot thus exposing themselves to 
parasite infections. In addition this age group 
may have lower immunity than their older 
counterparts which may be an additional factor 
responsible for observed higher prevalences with 

intestinal parasites. Aging has an effect of 
immunity, and this could be a reason for 
variations in prevalences among different age 
groups with similar levels of exposure to infection 
[14]. In a research carried out in Ethiopia, 
prevalences of intestinal parasite as high 15.5%, 
in children under 5 years were reported; the 
author noted that poor hand washing habits of 
this age group could be responsible for the high 
prevalence [15]. Higher prevalence of intestinal 
parasites in older age groups than in younger 
age groups may be attributed to possible 
increased exposure to contaminated soil in older 
age groups [16]. 
 
Mixed infection (polyparasitism) was recorded 
among pupils examined; infection with as many 
as three different intestinal parasites was 
recorded in children. Mixed infections could be 
as a result of the fact that factors such as high 
temperature, poor sanitation and the use of 
unsafe water favour a range of intestinal 
parasites, and as such, children are exposed to 
infection with more than one parasite. There 
were three (3) groups of mixed infections, and E. 
histolytica was present in all three (3) groups of 
mixed infections. This could be as a result of the 
ability of E. histolytica cysts to survive harsh 
environmental conditions leading to a buildup of 
the cysts in the environment.  
 

4.1 Toilet System 
 

Children who defecate in the bush had highest 
prevalence with intestinal parasite. This could be 
because after defecating in the open, children 

0 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

Occupation of pupils' parents 

In
te

st
in

al
 p

ar
as

it
es

 in
 p

u
p

ils
 (

%
) 

Farmers 

Traders  

Civil servants  



 
 
 
 

Atsuwe et al.; AJI, 2(1): 56-63, 2019; Article no.AJI.52961 
 

 

 
62 

 

tend to wipe their anuses with leaves of plants or 
paper and may not wash their hand afterwards. 
Children who use pit toilet had the second 
highest prevalence of intestinal parasites, this 
could be because children tend to defecate on 
the mouth of the pit toilet which is sometimes 
unroofed and in bad conditions. Untidy pit toilets 
could attract houseflies causing spread of 
intestinal parasite eggs and cysts. Higher 
prevalence of intestinal parasite in people who 
practice open defecation was also reported in 
Benue State, Nigeria [17]. 

 
4.2 Source of Drinking Water 
 
Infection rate relating to the source of drinking 
water showed that pupils that obtain their 
drinking water from the streams recorded the 
highest number of parasitic infection; this could 
be as a result of run off of parasite infected soil 
into streams during rainfall and run off water from 
gutters, drainages and sewages.  

 
The ova of intestinal parasites are easily 
transported by water and other means thus 
contaminating the source of drinking water. High 
prevalence was reported among people using 
stream and well as primary source of water in 
Ebonyi, Abakaliki, Nigeria [18]. 

 
4.3 Parental Occupation/Socioeconomic 

Factors 
 
Children are active and playful, the children of 
farmers in particular because of the nature                   
of the occupation of their parents , stay for                
long hours on the farms with their                      
parents, thereby making them highly prone to 
contact with soil contaminated with intestinal 
parasites. 

 
5. CONCLUSION  
 
Intestinal parasites are prevalent in Vandeikya 
LGA, Benue State. Risk factors like open 
defecation, use of stream and well water               
should be minimized in order to prevent  
infection. 

 
CONSENT AND ETHICAL APPROVAL 
 
Ethical clearance was obtained from research 
ethics board. Informed consent was obtained 
from parents and school authorities, and 
informed accent was obtained from research 
subjects.   

COMPETING INTERESTS 
 
Authors have declared that no competing 
interests exist. 
 

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