







































_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 
 
*Corresponding author: E-mail: nneka.ndifon@gmail.com; 
 
Cite as: N.N., Agbiji, and Ekong, M.O. 2024. “An Overview of Antigen Properties, Classifications and Mechanisms of Action”. 
Asian Journal of Immunology 7 (1):201-8. https://journalaji.com/index.php/AJI/article/view/144. 
 
 

 
 

Asian Journal of Immunology 
 
Volume 7, Issue 1, Page 201-208, 2024; Article no.AJI.123549 
 

 
 

 

 

An Overview of Antigen Properties, 
Classifications and Mechanisms of 

Action 
 

Agbiji, N.N. a* and Ekong, M.O a 

 
a Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Cross River State, 

(UNICROSS), Nigeria. 
 

Authors’ contributions  
 

This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Both authors read and approved the 
final manuscript. 

 

Article Information 
 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/aji/2024/v7i1144  
 

Open Peer Review History: 
This journal follows the Advanced Open Peer Review policy. Identity of the Reviewers, Editor(s) and additional Reviewers,  

peer review comments, different versions of the manuscript, comments of the editors, etc are available here: 
https://www.sdiarticle5.com/review-history/123549 

 
 
 

Received: 18/07/2024 
Accepted: 21/09/2024 
Published: 29/10/2024 

 
 

ABSTRACT 
 

The goal of this review is to fill in the gaps by offering a thorough analysis of antigens, including 
their characteristics, classes, types, and mode of action, as well as the variables influencing 
antigenicity and its uses. The idea of antigens originated from the body's ability to discriminate 
between foreign particles and its own constituent parts. As the level of alienation rises, so does the 
antigen's immunogenicity. When it comes to biological antigens, the degree of alienation rises as 
the evolutionary distance between the two species widens. There are, however, certain exceptions, 
such as auto antigens, which are proteins that naturally reside in the host and may also trigger an 
immune response. Protein complexes or host proteins are targeted by auto antigens, resulting in 
autoimmune diseases.  
Auto antigens can be fatal to the host because the immune system shouldn't attack the body's own 
cells. Although infections, foreign substances, proteins, and peptides can all be considered 
antigens, their role in inducing immune responses is crucial for the body's defense against 

Review Article 

https://doi.org/10.9734/aji/2024/v7i1144
https://www.sdiarticle5.com/review-history/123549


 
 
 
 

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dangerous intruders. Understanding antigens is essential for immunology, in the developing of 
vaccinations, and the diagnosis of disease since some antigens have been suggested as the best 
targets for immunotherapy in clinical settings, have significant uses in medical diagnostics, and can 
be employed in the creation of vaccines to treat cancer. To discover more about antigens and how 
they function in medicine and health, further research is also required. 

 

 
Keywords: Autoimmune diseases; Immunology; antigens; foreign particle. 
 

1. INTRODUCTION 
 
A molecule known as an antigen is what starts 
the synthesis of antibodies and also triggers an 
immunological reaction. To put it simply, an 
antigen is anything outside of the body that has 
the potential to trigger the development of 
antibodies against it in the immune system [1]. 
The ability of our body to discriminate between 
foreign particles and its own constituent parts 
gave rise to the idea of antigens [2]. The body 
produces antibodies in reaction to these 
antigens, which work to neutralize the antigens. 
Proteins, polypeptides, or polysaccharides make 
up the bulk of human antigens but, when paired 
with proteins or polysaccharides, lipids and 
nucleic acids can also function as antigens [3]. 
Antigens can trigger the body's immune system 
due to a variety of characteristics. These 
characteristics include cross reactivity, a 
particular number of antigenic determinants, 
molecular stiffness and complexity, and a 
particular chemical structure [4]. The capacity of 
an antigen to attach to an antibody's antigen-
binding location is a characteristic of its 
molecular structure. Additionally, Antigens are 
categorized into many classes according to 
various criteria. Based on the antigen's 
immunogenicity and place of origin, some 
common classifications exist [5]. Two important 
aspects of an antigen are its specificity and 
antigenicity, which indicate how well a foreign 
substance acts as an antigen by binding to or 
interacting with its target products [6]. 
 
There has been an insufficiency in detailed 
reviews that have been published on Antigens 
which could help to provide knowledge about the 
concept and properties of antigens. This review 
therefore seeks to address the gaps and provide 
an in-depth review of antigens, their properties, 
classes, types, mode of action, the factors 
affecting antigenicity as well as its applications. 
         

2. OVERVIEW OF ANTIGENS 
 

According to Abbas et al. [7], a foreign 
component or molecule, particle matter, or 

allergen, like pollen, is defined as an antigen if it 
has the ability to attach to a particular T-cell 
receptor or antibody and cause an immune 
response in the body. Proteins, peptides (chains 
of amino acids), polysaccharides—simple sugar 
chains, lipids, and nucleic acids are instances of 
antigens. They might also be present on 
bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites, cancer cells, 
and healthy cells.  
 
Ullah [8] defined Antigens as foreign molecules 
or chemical structures that typically cause the 
body to mount an immunological response by 
producing antibodies against them. He stated 
that not every antigen will trigger an 
immunological reaction. However, Antigens 
known as immunogens elicit an immunological 
response. Furthermore, the existence of 
particular areas on antigens known as antigenic 
determinants affects the antigens' capacity to 
trigger an immune response. To trigger an 
immunological response, the determinants attach 
to receptor molecules on immune cells that have 
a complementary shape. The idea of antigens 
also originated from the body's ability to 
discriminate between foreign particles and its 
own constituent parts (self and non-self). The 
body mounts an immunological defense against 
these foreign objects, or antigens by means of 
antibody production that are effective against 
them. 
 
Antigen receptors, such as T-cell receptors and 
antibodies, are able to identify antigens, 
according to Janeway et al. [9]. Immune system 
cells produce a variety of antigen receptors, 
giving each cell a unique affinity for a particular 
antigen. The process of "clonal selection" occurs 
when an antigen is encountered; only cells that 
are able to identify the antigens become 
activated and proliferate. Antibodies are often 
antigen-specific, which means that they can only 
attach to and respond with a single type of 
antigen. However, antibodies have the ability to 
cross-react and bind several antigens in some 
situations. An antigen-antibody response is the 
result of an interaction between an antibody and 
an antigen. 



 
 
 
 

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Gallucci et al. [10] further stated that antigens 
can come from the outside world (non-self) or 
from inside the body (self-antigens). The immune 
system is conscious of this and targets foreign 
antigens that are "non-self." Antibodies typically 
do not respond with self-antigens; therefore, 
autoimmune disorders are defined as conditions 
in which the bodies own cells are harmed by the 
antibodies' reaction with self-antigens. Vaccines 
are another example of an immunogenic 
antigen—antigens that are purposefully given to 
a patient in order to trigger the adaptive immune 
system's memory function against the pathogen's 
antigens. 
 

2.1 Properties of Antigens 
 

2.1.1 Foreign nature 
 

Sakpota [11] reported that that any antigen that 
triggers an immunological reaction from the host 
is alien to the recipient's body. The antigen is 
acknowledged by the host body as being distinct 
from the regular parts of the body. As the degree 
of foreignness increases, so does the antigen's 
immunogenicity. When it comes to biological 
antigens, the degree of alienation rises as the 
0evolutionary separation between the two 
species widens. There are, however, certain 
exceptions, such as auto antigens, which are 
proteins that naturally reside in the host and may 
also elicit an immunological reaction. Likewise, if 
molecules such as proteins are from different 
species and do not include antigenic 
determinants or epitopes, they may also fail to 
cause an immunological reaction. 
 

2.1.2 Chemical structure 
 

Proteins are typically the first type of antigen, 
then polysaccharides. However when they 
combine with proteins and polysaccharides, 
other substances like lipids and nucleic acids can 
also function as antigens. When it comes to 
proteins, an antigen should have a high 
concentration of hydrophilic or charged groups 
coupled with immunogenic areas that include at 
least 30% of amino acids such as lysine, 
glutamine, arginine, glutamic acids, asparagine, 
and aspartic acid. As the molecules become 
more heterogeneous, so does the degree of 
immunogenicity. Generally speaking, 
homopolymers are less immunogenic than 
heteropolymers [12]. 
 

2.1.3 Molecular size 
 

An antigen's molecular size has a significant 
impact on how immunogenic it is. Before an 

antigen may be considered immunogenic, its size 
must be more than 5000 Da. However, 
compounds with low molecular weights, known 
as haptens, can exhibit immunogenicity when 
combined with large-sized carriers [13]. 
 
2.1.4 Complexity and stiffness of molecules 
 
One of the primary determinants of 
immunogenicity are the intricacy and stiffness of 
molecules. Rigid molecules are often considered 
good antigens because, in contrast to less rigid 
ones, they can elicit antibodies to specific 
structures. A single amino acid in a peptide 
antigen acid repeating unit is less immunogenic 
than a protein with two or more repeating amino 
acid units, therefore structural complexity is also 
crucial [14]. 
 
2.1.5 Antigenic determinants and cross-

reactivity 
 
The part of an antigen molecule that interacts 
with antibodies is known as an antigenic 
determinant. An antibody response can be 
triggered by antigens that contain two or more 
factors that are antigenic. Because a small 
molecule cannot have more than one antigenic 
determinant, a smaller antigen typically does not 
cause the formation of antibodies [15]. 
 
In order for antibodies produced by one antigen 
to interact with another, antigen cross-reactivity 
is another essential element. A solitary amino 
acid peptide antigen repeating unit is less 
immunogenic than a protein with two or more 
amino acid repeats units, therefore structural 
complexity is also crucial [16]. 
 

3. STRUCTURE OF ANTIGENS 
 
The "lock and key" metaphor is a good 
illustration used to explain the making of 
antigens. The antigen might be thought of as a 
sequence of keys, or epitopes, that correspond 
to distinct locks, or antibodies. The antigen's 
unique surface characteristic is called an epitope. 
Typically "large" biological polymers, antigenic 
molecules have surface characteristics that can 
serve as areas of engagement for particular 
antibodies. An epitope is any characteristic of 
this type. The majority of antigens have the 
capacity to bind many antibodies, each of which 
is particular to an epitope on the antigen [17]. 
 
Saylor et al. [18] reported that the capacity of an 
antigen to attach to the antigen-binding site of an 



 
 
 
 

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antibody provides information on the molecular 
structure of the antigen. Due to the diverse 
molecular structures on the surface of each 
antigen, antibodies are able to differentiate 
between different antigens. The majority of 
antigens are proteins or polysaccharides found in 
things like bacterial, viral, or other microbes' 
coats, capsules, flagella, poisons, and fimbriae. 
Furthermore, secretions and similar substances 
have the potential to function as antigens. These 
microbes, nucleic acids and lipids are only 
antigenic when combined with polysaccharides 
or proteins. Depending on the antigen's 
composition, size, and immunogenicity, their 
structures may differ. A determinant that is 
antigenic in nature, or an epitope, is a unique 
structural element shared by all immunogenic 
antigens. The quantity of epitopes varies 
amongst antigens and establishes the maximum 
number of antibodies that an antigen can bind to. 
The kinds of antibodies that antigens bind to are 
determined by the differences in the structural 
components of interaction. A paratope is the area 
of an antibody that interacts with antigens. 
 

4. EXAMPLES OF ANTIGENS 
 

4.1 Blood Group Antigens 
 
The report of Dean [19] stated that antigens 
specific to blood groups are either sugars or 
proteins that are found upon the exterior of 
several membrane constituents of red blood 
cells. That sugar created by a variety of 
processes that catalyze the exchange of sugar 
units is known as the antigen within the ABO 
blood type. The kind of enzyme in question is 
influenced by an individual's DNA, determines 
the kind of sugar found in red blood cells. 
Proteins known as blood group antigens Rh are 
also influenced by the DNA of the host. The D 
antigen, a big protein found on red blood cells, is 
encoded by the RhD gene. Antigen-antibody 
responses that help identify various human blood 
types can be utilized to distinguish these 
antigens. 
 

4.2 Bacterial Capsule 
 
According to Nossal & Ada [20], a coating of 
polysaccharides called a bacterial capsule is 
what develops outside of the cell envelope and 
causes the host to become immunogenic. The 
capsule is thought to be a potential source of 
bacterial pathogenicity since it is a properly 
organized layer that is difficult to remove. Since 
phagocytosis requires the presence of a capsule-

specific antibody, the capsule may possibly 
participate in some bacteria's ability to evade 
phagocytosis. In vaccinations, capsules of 
bacteria are usually employed as antigens since 
their polysaccharide component has been 
coupled with protein carriers. Varied bacterial 
species have different precise capsule 
compositions, roles, and activities. 
 

5. CLASSES OF ANTIGENS 
 
According to Ullah [8], antigens can be 
categorized into several kinds according to 
certain criteria. In light of the antigen's 
immunogenicity and place of origin, some 
common classifications exist. 
 

5.1 Types of Antigen According to Origin 
 
Antigens can be divided into two categories 
according to their origin 
 
5.1.1 Exogenous antigen 
 
Exogenous antigens are antigens which are 
foreign to their host and can enter the body by 
ingestion, inhalation, or injection; they can then 
move throughout the body through bodily fluids; 
the absorption of foreign antigen is principally 
carried out by Antigen Processing Cells (APCs) 
via phagocytosis, such as dendritic cells and 
macrophages. Many antigens, such as 
intracellular viruses, can begin as exogenous 
antigens and change into endogenous antigens 
later on [21]. 
 

5.1.2 Endogenous antigen 
 

Endogenous antigens those who are produced 
by the host's own body as a byproduct of 
metabolism or as a result of an intracellular 
bacterial or viral infection. The body's cells, as 
well as any broken down substances or antigenic 
byproducts of metabolism, are considered 
endogenous antigens. Usually, they are broken 
down by macrophages and then identified by 
immune system cytotoxic T-cells. Antigens 
classified as endogenous include those that are 
autologous, idiotype or allogenic, and 
xenogeneic or heterologous. They may also 
result in autoimmune illnesses since the host 
immune system recognizes its own cells and 
particles as immunogenic [22]. 
 

5.1.3 Auto antigens 
 

Auto antigens are proteins in the host or protein 
complexes that the immune system targets, 



 
 
 
 

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leading to autoimmune illnesses. Since the 
immune system shouldn't assault the cells 
throughout the body, auto antigens can be fatal 
to the host. Genetic and environmental factors 
lead to the loss of immunological tolerance to 
certain antigens [23]. 
 

5.1.4 Tumor antigens 
 

According to Schumacher & Schreiber's findings 
[24], Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) 1 
and 11 on the surface of tumor cells present 
tumor antigens, also referred to as neoantigens. 
When normal cells undergo the malignant 
transformation, a mutation unique to the tumor 
causes the production of antigens. Since the 
tumor cells learn how to avoid immune defense 
and antigen presentation, these antigens 
typically do not trigger an immunological 
response. 
 
5.1.5 Native Antigens 
 
Since no antigen-presenting cells (APC) process 
native antigens, immune cells like T-cells are 
unable to attach to them. However, even in the 
lack of processing, these antigens can activate 
B-cells [25]. 
 

5.2 Types of Antigens on the Basis of 
Immune Response 

 
Based on the immunological response, antigens 
can be divided into two categories [26]. 
 
5.2.1 Complete antigens/ immunogens 
 
Antigens that trigger a certain type of immune 
response are known as complete antigens or 
immunogens. Even in the absence of any carrier 
particles, these antigens are capable of evoking 
an immunological response. These are often 
high molecular weight proteins, peptides, or 
polysaccharides (more than 10,000 Da). 
 

5.2.2 Incomplete antigens/haptens 
 

Haptens, also known as incomplete antigens, are 
substances that, by themselves, are incapable of 
triggering an immune response. Usually non-
protein molecules, these need a carrier molecule 
in order to create a whole antigen. Less antigenic 
determinant sites and a reduced molecular 
weight—typically less than 10,000 Da—are 
characteristics of haptens. A protein or a 
polysaccharide molecule forms the carrier 
molecule that is bound to the hapten and is 
regarded as a non-antigenic component. 

5.3 Antigenicity and Specificity 
 
The capacity of a chemical structure (either an 
antigen or hapten) to bind selectively with a 
subset of products that have adaptive immunity, 
such as T cell receptors or antibodies also 
referred to as B cell receptors, is known as 
antigenicity, according to the report of Dowds et 
al. [27]. The term "antigenicity" was formerly 
more frequently used to refer to 
"immunogenicity," and the two terms are still 
frequently used synonymously. On the other 
hand, immunogenicity technically refers to an 
antigen's capacity to evoke a flexible reaction 
immune response. Therefore, an antigen may 
attach to a T or B cell receptor selectively without 
triggering an adaptive immune response. An 
antigen is considered immunogenic if it elicits an 
immunological reaction; this type of antigen is 
known as an immunogen. 
 
According to Abbas & Lichtman [7], specificity is 
the host cell's capacity to identify an antigen as a 
distinct molecular entity and discriminate it from 
another with extreme precision. The main cause 
of antigen specificity is the antigen's side-chain 
conformations. It is quantifiable and doesn't have 
to follow a linear or rate-limited step formula. 
Adaptive immunity comprises B and T cells as its 
biological constituents. 
 

5.4 Factors Affecting Antigenicity 
 
The report of Kuriakose et al. [28-29] mentioned 
the variables influencing antigenicity. Among 
them are: 
 

1. Foreignness: Considering that the immune 
system typically distinguishes between self 
and non-self and is unable to mount an 
immunological defense against self-
antigens, an antigen needs to be foreign. 
Only alien molecules are hence antigenic. 

2. Size: A material is not necessarily 
allergenic over a certain size. But generally 
speaking, a molecule's likelihood of being 
antigenic increases with its size. 

3. Chemical composition: A substance's 
antigenicity increases with its chemical 
complexity. The polymer's primary 
sequence residues and/or the molecule's 
secondary, tertiary, or quaternary structure 
combine to form the antigenic 
determinants. 

4. Physical Form: Particulate antigens tend to 
elicit stronger immune responses than 
soluble ones, while denatured antigens 



 
 
 
 

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elicit stronger responses than their original 
form. 

5. Degradability: Generally, immunogenic 
antigens those who are readily 
phagocytosed. This is due to the fact that 
the majority of antigens must be broken 
down and phagocytosed, and given to 
helper T cells by an antigen-presenting cell 
in order for an immune response to 
emerge. 

 

5.5 Applications of Antigens 
 
Gayed [30] reported the applications of antigens. 
They include: 
 

• Antigens are used for the differentiation of 
bacterial species as due to the specificity 
of antigens. 

• Antigens have further uses as a diagnostic 
tool to find out whether a sample contains 
any antibodies. 

• Antigens are necessary building blocks of 
complexes of antigen and antibody, which 
are used in forensic analyses to identify 
human blood as well as additional 
materials. 

•  These are also utilized in immunoassays 
to quantify different biological and chemical 
substances. 

•  Autoimmune disorders, some of                  
which are fatal, are brought on by auto 
antigens. 

•  Vaccines employ inactivated enzymes as 
a passive immunity technique to treat and 
prevent a variety of illnesses. 

•  It has recently been suggested that 
peptides known as neoantigens, which are 
found on the surfaces of cancer cells, are 
the best targets for immunotherapy in 
clinical settings [31]. 

•  Antigens play a significant role in medical 
diagnostics through the process of antigen-
antibody responses. Antigens' existence in 
patient samples like blood, urine, or saliva 
can be determined using antibodies. 
Antigen-antibody reactions, for instance, 
are employed in the widely used diagnostic 
test known as ELISA which means 
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay 
(ELISA) [32]. 

 

6. CONCLUSION 
 

An essential part of the body's immune system is 
played by antigens. They have a crucial role in 
promoting the synthesis of antibodies. Though 

antigens could be pathogens, foreign 
substances, proteins and peptides, they help to 
trigger immune responses which is essential for 
the body’s defense against harmful invaders. The 
knowledge of antigens is fundamental in 
Immunology, vaccine development and disease 
diagnosis. Further research is also required to 
discover more about antigens and their roles in 
medicine and health. 
 

DISCLAIMER (ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE) 
 
Author(s) hereby declare that generative AI 
technologies such as Quillbot have been used 
during editing of manuscripts. This explanation 
will include the name, version, model, and source 
of the generative AI technology and as well as all 
input prompts provided to the generative AI 
technology. 
 
Details of the AI usage are given below: 
 

1. Name: Quillbot for chrome 
2. Version: v15.407.0 
3. The input prompts provided to the 

generative AI technology is the work 
written. It assisted in paraphrasing the 
work to reduce plagiarism. 

 

COMPETING INTERESTS 
 
Authors have declared that no competing 
interests exist. 
 

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© Copyright (2024): Author(s). The licensee is the journal publisher. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms 
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, 
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 

 
 

 

Peer-review history: 
The peer review history for this paper can be accessed here: 

https://www.sdiarticle5.com/review-history/123549 

https://www.sdiarticle5.com/review-history/123549

