







































_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 
 
*Corresponding author: E-mail: chidisteve.cn@gmail.com; 
 
Cite as: Ndukwu, Chidi L.C., and Jane Ugochi Chinedu-madu. 2024. “Seroprevalence of Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C Viral 
Infections in Port Harcourt, Nigeria”. Asian Journal of Immunology 7 (1):209-16. 
https://journalaji.com/index.php/AJI/article/view/145. 
 

 
 

Asian Journal of Immunology 
 
Volume 7, Issue 1, Page 209-216, 2024; Article no.AJI.125624 
 

 
 

 

 

Seroprevalence of Hepatitis B and 
Hepatitis C Viral Infections in  

Port Harcourt, Nigeria 
 

Chidi L.C. Ndukwu a* and Jane Ugochi Chinedu-madu a 
 

a Faculty of Medical Laboratory Science, Federal University, Otuoke, Nigeria. 
 

Authors’ contributions  
 

This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Both authors read and approved the 
final manuscript. 

 

Article Information 
 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/aji/2024/v7i1145  
 

Open Peer Review History: 
This journal follows the Advanced Open Peer Review policy. Identity of the Reviewers, Editor(s) and additional Reviewers, peer 

review comments, different versions of the manuscript, comments of the editors, etc are available here: 
https://www.sdiarticle5.com/review-history/125624 

 
 
 

Received: 20/08/2024 
Accepted: 24/10/2024 
Published: 30/10/2024 

 
 

ABSTRACT 
 

Introduction: Viral hepatitis which includes five the main strains of hepatotropic viruses, hepatitis A 
(HAV), hepatitis B (HBV), (HBA), hepatitis C (HCV), hepatitis D(HDV), and hepatitis E (HEV), are 
leading causes of morbidity and mortality globally. Much public health attention is however focused 
on the two blood-borne hepatitis viruses HBV and HCV, due largely to their high prevalence and 
pervasive rates of morbidity and mortality. This study was thus aimed at determining the prevalence 
of HBV and HCV. 
Materials and Methods: This retrospective study was conducted in Diobu, a high-density group of 
urban communities situated in the heart of Port Harcourt metropolis in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. 
The medical laboratory records 206 patients, including 123 males and 83 females of various ages, 
residing in Diobu and closely adjoining urban communities of Port Harcourt metropolis were 
reviewed; to extract data on the HBV and HCV tests. 
Results: The mean age in years was 37.04± 12.06 the median age: 36, mode: 33, while the 
minimum and maximum ages were 12 and 69 years, respectively. The seroprevalence of hepatitis 

Original Research Article 

https://doi.org/10.9734/aji/2024/v7i1145
https://www.sdiarticle5.com/review-history/125624


 
 
 
 

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210 

 

B in the study area was found to be 5.8%, while that for hepatitis C was 0.5%. The males had a 
seroprevalence of 7.3% and females 3.6% for hepatitis B. Among the age groups, the highest 
prevalence was found in the 31-40 years age bracket at 10.6%, followed by 11-20 years (59%), 21-
30 years, (5.0%) and 41-50% (3.6%) 
Conclusion: The prevalence of 5.8% for HBV in this study, represents an intermediate level of 
transmission on the WHO criteria of endemicity, while the 0.5% is low level of transmission. There is 
need for concerted public health policy makers and all stakeholders to put more efforts curtail the 
menace of viral hepatitis. 
 

 
Keywords: Blood-borne infections; Hepatitis B; Hepatitis C. 
 

1. INTRODUCTION 
 
Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver which 
may be caused by a number of viruses and 
noninfectious factors including excessive use 
alcohol, drugs, toxins and autoimmune disorders; 
the commonest type of hepatitis however, are the 
viral hepatitis. The viral hepatitis infections are 
caused by five main strains of hepatitis viruses 
namely, hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E viruses [1,2]. 
Though all the hepatitis viruses cause liver 
diseases, they vary in modes of transmission, 
nature and severity of the illness, geographical 
distribution and prevention methods. While types 
A, B and C are the most prevalent, types B and 
C attracts more public health attention because 
they cause chronic disease in hundreds of 
millions of people and together are the most 
common cause of liver cirrhosis, liver cancer and 
viral hepatitis-related deaths worldwide [1,2]. 

 
About 354 million people across the globe are 
living with hepatitis B or C, and most of them are 
ignorant of the condition and could not access 
treatment [2]. The global prevalence hepatitis B 
virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections 
are put at 296 million and 58 million persons, 
respectively [3,4,5]. While hepatitis B is 
estimated to cause 780,000 deaths annually, the 
estimate for hepatitis C is about 400,000 deaths 
every year [1]. In Nigeria, it is estimated that 
about 20 million people are chronically infected 
with hepatitis B and C; with prevalence of 8.1% 
and !.1% respectively [6]. 

 
Hepatitis B is spread through contact with 
infected body fluids including infected blood and 
blood products, saliva, vaginal fluids and semen. 
It can also be transmitted from a mother to her to 
child during pregnancy, childbirth or 
breastfeeding [7]. Over 95% of 
immunocompetent adults infected with the virus 
are able to have it cleared from the system even 
without knowing about the infection [8]. The 
infection is preventable by a safe and effective 

vaccine. The vaccine gives almost full protection 
against the virus, and is usually given soon after 
birth with boosters within few weeks [7].  
 
Hepatitis C is a bloodborne infection, transmitted 
through contact with infected blood, which may 
be through the sharing needles or syringes, or 
from unsafe medical procedures such as unsafe 
blood transfusions and blood products [9]. The 
symptoms of HCV infection may include fever, 
fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, 
abdominal pain, dark urine and jaundice. Though 
there is no vaccine for hepatitis C, but it can be 
treated with antiviral medications; early detection 
and treatment are important to prevent serious 
liver damage and wellbeing [9]. Though the 
prevalence of HCV infection in Nigeria is 
considerably low, some scholars opined that the 
prevalence is on the increase [10]. This is an 
indication for concerted efforts in the monitoring 
and control of the spread of the virus. 
 
There is currently inadequate data on the 
prevalence of Hepatitis B and Hepatis C in Port 
Harcourt, Nigeria. This study was thus aimed at 
filling the gap by determining the prevalence of 
HBV and HCV in urban communities in Port 
Harcourt. 
 

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS  
 

2.1 Study Area 
 
This retrospective study was conducted in Diobu, 
a high-density group of urban communities 
situated in the heart of Port Harcourt metropolis 
in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. The notable urban 
communities are Mile I, Mile II and Mile III urban 
communities of Diobu. The coordinates of the 
area are: 4°47'24"N, 6°59'36"E 
(Latitude:4.772152; Longitude:6.994514). The 
communities are bordered on the north by the 
Port Harcourt New GRA, on the northeast by D-
line, on the northwest Rivers State University, 
Nkpolu-Oroworukwu, Port Harcourt, on the east 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_GRA,_Port_Harcourt
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-line,_Port_Harcourt
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-line,_Port_Harcourt
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivers_State_University


 
 
 
 

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211 

 

by the Poth Harcourt Old GRA, on the southeast 
by Kidney Island, and on the southwest by Eagle 
Island. The are a number of public and privately-
owned hospitals and other healthcare facilities in 
the area, including primary health centres, 
maternity homes, medical laboratory facilities 
and community pharmacy outlets patronized by 
many residents. On the other end, harsh 
economic climates and pervasive ignorance and 
economic have made many residents, 
particularly those in overcrowded area, who lack 
amenities like clean water and decent housing; 
such as water fronts to resort to self-medication 
and patronizing different kinds of purveyors of 
unregulated healthcare products.  
 

2.2 Design of the Study 
 

This study was conducted between January 
2022 to December 2023 among 206 males and 
female of all ages, residents of Diobu and closely 
adjoining urban communities of Port Harcourt 
metropolis; attending public and private 
healthcare facilities within the area. The inclusion 
criteria include persons who live within mile I, 
mile II and mile III and closely adjoining 
neighborhoods such as Agip, Eagle Island, D-line 
etc.; and who within the study period, conducted 
serological laboratory investigations for HBV and 
HCV antibodies (SD Bioline, Korea) at Diagnostix 
and Scientifique Laboratories, Port Harcourt. 
Persons living far from Diobu or did not perform 
the two tests and those with incomplete records 
were excluded. 
 

2.3 Data Collection 
 

Patients’ data were obtained by going through 
their medical laboratory records. The outcomes 
of the laboratory tests of HBV and HCV 
infections and relevant socio-demographic data 
about the ages, genders and areas of residence 
were extracted, coded and anonymously 
analyzed. 
 

Specimen collection and assay: About 3 ml of 
venous blood was collected from each study 
participant, transferred to a test tube and allowed 
to stand until clotted the serum was separated 
from the clotted by centrifugation at 5000 
revolutions per minute for 10 min and tested for 
HBsAg and anti-HCV using a one-step HBsAg 
test strip (SD Bioline) and a one-step HCV test 
strip (SD Bioline), respectively, following the 
manufacturer instructions. The sensitivity and 
specificity of rapid test kits of HBsAg and one-
step HCV test strips were 99.1% and 99.6%, 
respectively. 

2.4 Data Analysis 
 
Data were analyzed with IBM SPSS Statistics 
version 25. Descriptive statistics were employed 
in presenting the data were in counts and 
percentages. Pearson chi-square test were 
employed to ascertain associations between the 
categorical variables.  
 

3. RESULTS 
 
In this retrospective cross-sectional study, we 
reviewed the laboratory records of 206 persons; 
123 (59.7%) males and 83 (40.3%) females, 
attending public and private healthcare facilities 
in Port Harcourt who conducted serological 
investigations of hepatitis B and hepatitis C viral 
infections at Diagnostix and Scientifique 
Laboratories, Port Harcourt. The mean age in 
years was 37.04± 12.06 the median age: 36, 
mode: 33, while the minimum and maximum 
ages were 12 and 69 years, respectively (Fig. 1). 
 

3.1 Seroprevalence of Hepatitis B and 
Hepatitis C Viral Infections in Port 
Harcourt, Nigeria 

 
The seroprevalence of hepatitis B in the study 
area was found to be 5.8%, while that for 
hepatitis C was 0.5%. The males had a 
seroprevalence of 7.3% and females 3.6%. 
Among the age groups, the highest prevalence 
was found in the 31-40 years age bracket at 
10.6%, followed by 11-20 years (59%), 21-30 
years, (5.0%) and 41-50% (3.6%) (Table 1).  
 
In the residential areas, the highest prevalence of 
7.0% was observed in Mile II Diobu, followed by 
Mile III Diobu (6.4%), Mile I Diobu (5.8%) and 
Adjoining communities (4.0%) (Table 1). 
 

3.2 Seroprevalence of Hepatitis C Viral 
Infections 

 
The seroprevalence of Hepatitis C virus infection 
as determined in the study area was 0.5% as 
only one of the 206 tests recorded positive. The 
prevalence for males was 0.8%, while females. 
was 0%. The 31-40 age group had a prevalence 
had a prevalence of 1.9% while the rest had zero 
prevalence (Table 2). 
 

3.3 Statistical Analysis  
 
Pearson’s Chi-square test of independence and 
Fisher’s exact test were performed to evaluate 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_GRA,_Port_Harcourt


 
 
 
 

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the relationship between the residence, age and 
gender (independent variables) and results of 
HBV and HCV test results (dependent variable). 
The association between these variables were 
found not be significant, given that the p values 
were not less than 0.05, we therefore failed to 

reject the null hypothesis which states that the 
variables are independent. In other words, there 
was no sufficient evidence to conclude that a 
significant association exists between the 
variable and the test results obtained for the 
hepatitis B and hepatitis C screening. 

 

 
 

Fig. 1. Frequency distributions of the HBV and HCV specimens by age 
 

Table 1. Seroprevalence of Hepatitis B viral infection 
 

Characteristics Number Tested Positive Tests Prevalence % 

Age Groups    

11-20 16 1 5.9 

21-30 38 2 5.0 

31-40 59 7 10.6 

41-50 53 2 3.6 

51-60 17 0 0.0 

61-70 11 0 0.0 

Total 206 12 5.8 

Gender    

Males 123 9 7.3 

Females 83 3 3.6 

Females 206 12 5.8 

Total 206 12 5.8 

Residence    

Mile I Diobu 49 3 5.8 

Mile II Diobu 53 4 7.0 

Mile III Diobu 44 3 6.4 

Adjoining Communities 48 2 4.0 

Total 206 12 5.8 

 



 
 
 
 

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Table 2. Seroprevalence of Hepatitis C viral infections in Port Harcourt, Nigeria 
 

Characteristics Number Tested Positive Tests Prevalence 

Age Groups    

11-20 16 0 0.0 

21-30 38 0 0.0 

31-40 59 1 1.5 

41-50 53 0 0.0 

51-60 17 0 0.0 

61-70 11 0 0.0 

Total 206 1 0.5 

Gender    

Males 123 1 0.8 

Females 83 0 0.0 

Total 206 1 0.5 

Residence    

Mile I Diobu 49 1 1.9 

Mile II Diobu 53 0 0.0 

Mile III Diobu 44 0 0.0 

Adjoining Communities 48 0 0.0 

Total 206 1 0.5 

 

4. DISCUSSION 
 
The findings in this study indicate an 
intermediate prevalence for hepatitis B                       
and low prevalence for hepatitis C. Majority of 
the people screened were those who wanted 
medical tests to ascertain their health                    
status, while a few were referred based on 
presumptive diagnosis for viral hepatitis.               
Majority of the were collected from males 
(59.7%), who also recorded a higher prevalence 
of 7.3% than females (3.6%). The proportion of 
males to females was similar to that of a study in 
northern Nigeria with 60.4% males and 39.4%% 
[11]. 

 
The prevalence of 5.8% obtained here for 
hepatitis B infection was higher than the 1.2% 
prevalence among members of a university 
community in Port Harcourt [12], it however 
aligned closely with the prevalence of                     
6.2% reported in a study among abattoir              
workers in Port Harcourt [13]. The discrepancy 
between this and the result from the                  
university may be due to the nature of the 
population. The university community is 
populated by persons with good knowledge                
of the infections and the preventive                  
measures, above what is obtainable in the 
general population. The prevalence of 0.5% 
observed here however aligned very closely with 

the 0.6% prevalence in the university community 
[12].  
 

The prevalence for both hepatitis B and C were 
lower than the prevalences of 12.6% and 15.2% 
for HBV and HCV respectively in a study in 
northern Nigeria for persons investigated due to 
ill-health; but aligned with 6.6% for HBV among 
healthcare workers in the same study, but lower 
than 6.5% for HCV among the healthcare 
workers [11]. Another study in northern Nigeria 
reported a seroprevalence of HBV infection of 
14.0% and HCV infection (10.4%) [14]; these 
were higher than the outcomes of this study. The 
lower prevalence in this study may be attributed 
to a variety of factors such as geographical and 
cultural factors, level of awareness and 
compliance with preventive measures among 
others. It may also be as a result of reported 
decline in the prevalence of HBV infection [15]. 
The prevalence of 5.8% is the same as the 
pooled global prevalence of 5.8%, less than the 
prevalence of 7.8% for the WHO African region 
which bears the largest burden of global 
prevalence for HBV infection [16]. 

 

In the same northern Nigerian study, HBV 
seroprevalence of 9.1% for males was higher 
than that for females (4.9%), which was similar to 
the results in this study; conversely, the HCV 
seroprevalence for females (6.2%) was higher 
than that for males (4.2%) [14]. The HBV 



 
 
 
 

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prevalence for the young adults age group 
(10.2%), was the highest among age groups, 
while the highest prevalence for HCV was 6.2% 
observed with the middle-aged group [14]. These 
results for HBV had close semblance with the 
findings of this study where the males had a 
higher prevalence than females, and the highest 
prevalence was found the 30-40 age group. The 
results HCV were however different from the 
findings here, the only positive HCV result was 
from a male within the 30–40-year group. The 
incidence of HCV infection is reported by           
several studies to be driven by intravenous              
drug use, men having sex with men among  
other factors with the prevalence found in 
Eastern Mediterranean Region, South-East          
Asia Region and European Region 
[5,17,18,19,20]. These may therefore not the 
critical factors in Port Harcourt and the country 
as shown with low prevalence rates for HCV 
infection.  
 
The limitations of the study like in retrospective 
studies, is based on secondary records. The 
samples were collected and analyzed without 
consideration for the study. The 
sociodemographic data are limited to those 
required for in the laboratory records, and there 
is no personal interaction with the participants. 
Some information that may enrich the study are 
therefore not captured. Tests carried out are 
limited to HBsAg and anti-HCV; without 
additional analysis like ELISA and the molecular 
analysis. Future studies may be designed to 
overcome these limitations.  
 

5. CONCLUSION 
 
The prevalence of 5.8% for HBV in this study, 
represents an intermediate level of transmission 
(2–8%) on the WHO criteria of endemicity, while 
the 0.5 % for HCV is a low level of transmission. 
The morbidity and mortality associated the viral 
hepatitis can be avoided if efforts are made to 
curtail the viral infections. This can be done by 
creating greater awareness among the all strata 
of the populations on preventive measures. 
Vaccination against HBV is an important tool in 
the fight against the menace of the virus and 
should be made available to everyone. Young 
people forty years and below are at the greatest 
risk of being infected with viral hepatitis. It is 
therefore advocated that social media and other 
modern means of communication should be 
utilized in passing the message on prevention 
and control of the infections.  
 

CONSENT 
 
It is not applicable.  
 

ETHICAL APPROVAL  
 
The study was reviewed and approved by ethical 
review committee of the Faculty of Medical 
Laboratory Science, Federal University Otuoke, 
Nigeria. Relevant approvals were sought and 
obtained from the management of Diagnostix 
and Scientific Laboratories. 
 

DISCLAIMER (ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE) 
 
Author(s) hereby declare that NO generative AI 
technologies such as Large Language Models 
(ChatGPT, COPILOT, etc.) and text-to-image 
generators have been used during the writing or 
editing of this manuscript.  

 
COMPETING INTERESTS 
 
Authors have declared that no competing 
interests exist. 

  
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Ndukwu and Chinedu-madu; Asian J. Immunol., vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 209-216, 2024; Article no.AJI.125624 
 
 

 
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