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*Corresponding author: E-mail: augustineairaodion@yahoo.com; 
 
 
 

Asian Journal of Immunology 
 
3(1): 84-90, 2020; Article no.AJI.55862 
 

 
 

 

 

Common Household Insecticides Used in Nigeria 
Induced Oxidative Stress in Wistar Rats 

 
Augustine I. Airaodion1*, Kenneth O. Ngwogu2, Ada C. Ngwogu3,  

Anthony U. Megwas4, John A. Ekenjoku5 and Olaide O. Awosanya6 
 

1
Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. 

2
Department of Pathology, Abia State University, Uturu, Nigeria. 

3
Department of Microbiology, Abia State University, Uturu, Nigeria. 

4
Department of Optometry, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. 

5
Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Abia State University, Uturu, Nigeria. 

6
Department of Biochemistry, University of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. 

 
Authors’ contributions 

 
This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. Author AIA conceptualized, designed 

the study and also wrote the manuscript. Authors ACN and OOA managed the analyses of the study. 
Author KON managed the literature searches. Author JAE wrote the protocol while Author AUM 

performed the statistical analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript 
 

Article Information 
 

Editor(s): 
(1) Dr. Jaffu Othniel Chilongola, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical University College, Tanzania. 

Reviewers: 
(1) EZE Ejike Daniel, Kabale University, Uganda. 

(2) Julia Pérez Ramos, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico. 
Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/55862 

 
 
 
 

Received 24 January 2020  
Accepted 28 March 2020 
Published 08 April 2020 

 
 

ABSTRACT 
 

Background: The use of household insecticides for the eradication of insects especially 
mosquitoes in Nigeria is increasing. These insecticides are used without consideration of their 
adverse effect on human health.  
Aim: This study is therefore sought to investigate the effect of common household insecticides 
used in Nigeria on oxidative stress biomarkers.  
Methodology: Thirty (30) male Wistar rats were divided into five groups of six (6) each. Rats in 
group 1 were exposed to Rambo, those in group 2 were exposed to Mortein, those in group 3 were 
exposed to Raid, those in group 4 were exposed to Baygon while those in group 5 were not 
exposed to any insecticide and served as the control group. The exposure was done twice daily via 
inhalation route. Throughout the experiment, animals were fed ad libitum with standard feed and 

Original Research Article 



 
 
 
 

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85 

 

drinking water. After twenty-one (21) days of exposure, they were sacrificed after an overnight fast 
under diethyl ether as anesthesia. Blood samples were collected via cardiac puncture. Oxidative 
stress biomarkers (lipid peroxidation, glutathione, catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione 
peroxidase) were determined using standard methods.  
Results: The results obtained showed that exposure of the animals to all types of insecticides 
(Rambo, Mortein, Raid and Baygon) significantly (p <0.05) increased lipid peroxidation an index of 
oxidative biomarkers in rats when compared to the control group. Conversely, the concentration of 
glutathione was significantly (p <0.05) reduced compared to the corresponding control group.While 
the activities of antioxidant enzymes (catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase) 
were observed to significantly (p < 0.05) increase as a result of insecticides exposure to animals 
when compared with the control group animals. 
Conclusion: From the findings of the present study, it can be concluded that common household 
insecticides used in Nigeria induced oxidative stress in Wistar rats and might compromise the 
immune system. Suggesting that such oxidative stress inducing effects of these insecticides as 
observed in animals used in this study may be extrapolated in humans who use these insecticides 
to protect against various insects. Therefore, staying in a room fumigated with these insecticides 
when the effect has not completely subsided may be hazardous to humans and hence, this should 
be discouraged. 
 

 

Keywords: Antioxidants; free radicals; household insecticides; oxidative stress. 
 

1. INTRODUCTION 
 

Oxidative stress (OS) is the results of production 
of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Sometimes 
they are also referred to as reactive oxygen 
intermediates (ROI). They occur as a result of 
metabolism of tissues [1]. ROS act as signaling 
mediators as most of the time may be beneficial. 
Most of the exogenous substances may activate 
the production of these ROS. Cigarette smoke, 
UV radiation in the atmosphere, alcohol, drugs 
and cancer chemotherapeutic agents and 
radiotherapy treatments induce oxidative stress. 
Petroleum combustion products, heavy metals as 
well as pesticide particles and their metabolic 
end products also initiate the oxidative stress. 
Infections, tissue injury, and ischaemia also 
contribute in the elevated levels of ROS [2]. 
Cigarette smoke is one of the exogenous agents 
that induce oxidative damage in cell line. 
Cigarette smoke induces oxidation of structural 
and functional components and also able to 
decrease the endothelial growth. In a recent 
study, Airaodion et al. [3] reported that 
hydrocarbon induced OS when animals were fed 
with crude oil treated-diet. Several studies have 
also reported that alcohol has the propensity to 
induce oxidative stress [4,5,6]. 
 
Insecticides are substances used to kill, repel or 
mitigate one or more species of insects. They 
also include ovicides and larvicides used against 
insect eggs and larvae, respectively [7]. 
Insecticides are used in agriculture, healthcare, 
industry and by individuals. Insecticides have 
been reported to be a major factor behind the 

increase in the 20
th
 century's agricultural 

productivity [8]. Nearly all insecticides have the 
potential to significantly alter ecosystems; many 
are toxic to humans and/or animals; some are 
accumulate in the body and bio-magnify as they 
pass along the food chain [8]. 
 

Insecticides can be classified into two major 
groups: systemic insecticides, which have 
residual or long term activity; and contact 
insecticides, which have no residual activity. 
The mode of action describes how the pesticide 
kills or inactivates a pest. It provides another way 
of classifying insecticides [7]. Mode of action can 
be important in understanding whether an 
insecticide will be toxic to unrelated species, 
such as fish, birds and mammals. Insecticides 
may be repellent or non-repellent. Social insects 
such as ants cannot detect non-repellents and 
readily crawl through them. As they return to the 
nest they take insecticide with them and transfer 
it to their nestmates. Over time, this eliminates all 
of the ants including the queen. This is slower 
than some other methods, but usually completely 
eradicates the ant colony [9]. Insecticides are 
distinct from non-insecticidal repellents, which 
repel but do not kill. The common household 
insecticides used in Nigeria are systemic 
insecticides. They include Rambo produced by 
Gongoin and Co, Mortein produced by Reckitt 
Benckiser, Raid and Baygon both produced by 
S.C. Johnson and Co.  People use these 
insecticides without consideration of their 
adverse effect on health. Airaodion et al. [10] has 
reported that these insecticides had adverse 
effect on male reproductive hormones. This 



 
 
 
 

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86 

 

present study therefore sought to evaluate the 
effect of these insecticides on oxidative stress 
biomarkers in Wistar rats. 

 
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 
 
2.1 Collection of Insecticides 
 
Baygon, Raid and Mortein insecticides were 
purchased from ‘Pinnacle’ supermarketwhile 
Rambo was purchased from ‘Medhelp’ Pharmacy 
both in Ibadan, Nigeria. They were kept at room 
temperature before and during the experiment. 
 

2.2 Experimental Design and Animal 
Treatment 

 
Thirty (30) male Wistar rats weighing between 
220 and 245 g were used for this study. They 
were acclimatized for seven (7) days to 
laboratory conditions before the commencement 
of the experiment. During this period, they were 
fed ad libitum with standard feed and drinking 
water and were housed in clean cages placed in 
well-ventilated housing conditions (under humid 
tropical conditions) throughout the experiment. 
All the animals received humane care according 
to the criteria outlined in the ‘Guide for the Care 
and Use of Laboratory Animals’ prepared by the 
National Academy of Science and published by 
the National Institute of Health. They were 
randomly divided into five groups of six rats each 
and kept in different rooms. Rats in group 1 were 
exposed to Rambo insecticide, those in group 2 
were exposed to Mortein insecticide, those in 
group 3 were exposed to Raid insecticide, those 

in group 4 were exposed to Baygon insecticide 
while those in group 5 were not exposed to any 
insecticide and served as the control group. The 
exposure was done twice daily via inhalation 
route. Throughout the experiment, they were fed 
ad libitum with standard feed and drinking 
water.After twenty-one days of exposure, the rats 
were sacrificed after an overnight fast under 
diethyl ether as anesthesia. Blood samples were 
collected via cardiac puncture. 

 
2.3 Determination of Oxidative Stress 

Biomarkers 
 
Determinationof Lipid Peroxidation (LPO), 
Reduced Glutathione (GSH), Catalase (CAT), 
Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) and Glutathione 
peroxidase (GPx) were carried out on the serum 
of animals according to the methods previously 
described by Airaodion et al. [11]. 

 
2.4 Statistical Analysis 
 
Data were subjected to analysis using Analysis 
of Variance (ANOVA) with the aid of graph pad 
prism. Data from each parameter was expressed 
as mean value ± standard error of the mean 
(SEM). Data were considered to be significantly 
different at 95% confidence level (P ≤ 0.05). 
 

3. RESULTS 
 
The results of the effect of common household 
insecticides used in Nigeria LPO, GSH, CAT, 
SOD and GPx are presented in Figs. 1-5 
respectively. 

 

 
 

Fig. 1. Effect of household Insecticides on the lipid peroxidation in Animals after 21 Days of 
exposure 

Results are presented as mean ± SEM with n = 6. bars with different letters are significantly different at P < 0.05 



 
 
 
 

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87 

 

 
 

Fig. 2. Effect of household insecticides on the concentration of reduced glutathione (GSH) in 
animals after 21 days ofexposure 

Results are presented as mean ± SEM with n = 6. bars with different letters are significantly different at P<0.05 
 

 
 

Fig. 3. Effect of household insecticides on the activity of catalase (CAT) in animals after 21 
days of exposure 

Results are presented as mean ± SEM with n = 6. bars with different letters are significantly different at P<0.05 
 



 
 
 
 

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88 

 

 
 

Fig. 4. Effect of household insecticides on the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in 
animals after 21 days of exposure 

Results are presented as mean ± SEM with n = 6. bars with different letters are significantly different at P<0.05 
 

 
 

Fig. 5. Effect of household insecticides on the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPX) in 
animals after 21 days of exposure 

Results are presented as mean ± SEM with n = 6. bars with different letters are significantly different at P<0.05 
 

4. DISCUSSION 
 

In this study, it was observed that all the 
insecticides used in this study significantly 
elevated the malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in 

animals indicating enhanced peroxidation and 
breakdown of the antioxidant defense 
mechanisms. Decomposition products of lipid 
hydroperoxide such as MDA and 4-
hydroxynonenal can cause chaotic cross-linkage 



 
 
 
 

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with proteins and nucleic acids, which plays an 
important role in the process of carcinogenesis. 
In this investigation, serum lipid peroxidation 
(LPO) activities showed significant increase due 
to insecticide exposure [12]. Furthermore, 
extensive damage to tissues in a free radical 
mediated LPO results in membrane damage and 
subsequently decreases the membrane fluid 
content [13]. 

 
Glutathione (GSH) is a tripeptide (L-α-
glutamylcysteinol glycine) which is highly 
abundant in all cell compartments and it is the 
major soluble antioxidant. Glutathione directly 
quenches ROS such as lipid peroxides, and also 
plays a major role in xenobiotic metabolism 
[11,14]. Glutathione detoxifies hydrogen peroxide 
and lipid peroxide by donating electron to 
hydrogen peroxide to reduce it to water and 
oxygen protecting macromolecules such as  
lipids from oxidation. In this study, the            
decrease in the reduced serum glutathione level 
in animals exposed to insecticides for 21 days 
might be connected to insecticide-induced 
oxidative stress and direct conjugation of GSH 
with reactive intermediates of insecticide 
oxidation. 

 
In this present study, all the insecticides were 
observed to significantly (p < 0.05) increase the 
activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT 
GPx) investigated when compared to those in 
their respective control group (Figs. 3-5). SOD 

plays an important role in reducing the effect of 
free radicals’ attack. It is the only enzymatic 
system quenching O2- to oxygen and H2O2 and 
plays a significant role against oxidative stress 
[14]. These radicals have been reported to be 
deleterious to polyunsaturated fatty acids and 
proteins [3,11]. CAT and GPx are other 
enzymatic antioxidants that act as a defense 
mechanism against oxidative stress [14]. The 
significant increase in the activities of antioxidant 
enzymes in animals exposed to insecticides 
might be an indication that these insecticides 
increased the generation of free radicals which 
these enzymes tend to combat, thereby 
increasing their activities. These insecticides 
have been reported to induce nephron- and 
hepato-toxicity in Wistar rats due to the 
generation of free radicals [15]. The mechanism 
in which insecticides increased the activities of 
these enzymes is unclear but Airaodion et al. [3] 
reported that hydrocarbon exposure significantly 
increased these enzymes. Thus, the mechanism 
of action of insecticides in this present study 
might be similar to that of hydrocarbon. 

5. CONCLUSION 
 
From the result of this present study, common 
household insecticides used in Nigeria induced 
oxidative stress and might compromise the 
immune system. Thus, staying in a room 
fumigated with these insecticides when the effect 
has not completely subsided may be hazardous, 
and thus should be discouraged. 
 

DISCLAIMER 
 
The products used for this research are 
commonly and predominantly use products in   
our area of research and country. There is 
absolutely no conflict of interest between the 
authors and producers of the products                
because we do not intend to use these products 
as an avenue for any litigation but for the 
advancement of knowledge. Also, the research 
was not funded by the producing company  
rather it was funded by personal efforts of the 
authors. 
 

CONSENT 
 
It is not applicable. 

 
ETHICAL APPROVAL 
 
As per international standard written ethical 
permission has been collected and preserved by 
the author(s). 

 
COMPETING INTERESTS 
 
Authors have declared that no competing 
interests exist. 

 
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_________________________________________________________________________________ 
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medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 

 
 

 

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