




































_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 
 
*Corresponding author: E-mail: makwethomas2@gmail.com; 
 
 
 

Asian Journal of Immunology 
 
3(1): 139-144, 2020; Article no.AJI.56215 
 

 
 

 

 

Preliminary Report on the Prevalence of Intestinal 
Parasites and Malaria among People Living with 

HIV/AIDS within Makurdi Metropolis, Benue State, 
Nigeria 

 
O. T. Makwe1*, V. U. Obisike2, O. Amali3 and G. N. Imandeh3 

 
1
Bioresources Development Center (National Biotechnology Development Agency), Abagana, 

Anambra State, Nigeria. 
2
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, Abia State University, Uturu, Nigeria. 

3
Department of Zoology, Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria. 

 
Authors’ contributions  

 
This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. Authors OTM, OA and GNI designed the 
study. Authors OTM and VUO performed the statistical analysis, wrote the protocol and wrote the first 

draft of the manuscript. Authors OTM, VUO and OA managed the analyses of the study. Authors OTM 
and VUO managed the literature searches. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. 

 
Article Information 

 
Editor(s): 

(1) Dr. Darko Nozic, University of Belgrade, Serbia. 
Reviewers: 

(1) Florencia del Puerto, Universidad Nacional de Asunción, Paraguay. 
(2) Ana Júlia Pinto Fonseca Sieuve Afonso, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal. 

(3) Ifeyinwa Chijioke-Nwauche, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. 
Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/56215 

 
 
 
 

Received 18 February 2020  
Accepted 24 April 2020 
Published 02 May 2020 

 
 

ABSTRACT 
 

This research was conducted to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasites and malaria 
among people living with HIV/AIDS within Makurdi metropolis, Benue State, Nigeria. Four hundred 
(400) blood and stool samples of people living with HIV/AIDS were collected from 45 NAF Base 
Hospital and Bishop Murray Hospital, Makurdi and examined for intestinal parasites and malaria 
infections between the months of September and December 2014. Formal-ether concentration 
technique was used for the stool examination; the thick film was prepared for blood examinations. 
The most prevalent parasitic infections found was malaria (Plasmodium falciparum) (46.0%).This 
was followed by Taenasis (Taenia solium) (13.0%), Amoebasis (Entamoeba histolytica) (8.0%) and 

Original Research Article 



 
 
 
 

Makwe et al.; AJI, 3(1): 139-144, 2020; Article no.AJI.56215 
 

 

 
140 

 

hookworm disease (4.0%). The result shows that the age groups1– 10 and 11– 20 years had the 
highest prevalence of malaria and intestinal parasites (93.0%) each. While 51– 60 years had the 
least prevalence of malaria and intestinal parasites (50.0%). Chi-square analysis showed that there 
was significant differences in the distribution of intestinal parasite and malaria by age (χ

2
 Cal= 

120.835 df 6, p˂0.05).Chi-square test also revealed that there was significant differences between 
the infections in male and female individuals (χ

2
 Cal= 36.288df 60, P˂0.05 and χ

2
 Cal= 67.924df 

60, P˂0.05) respectively. The prevalence rate of intestinal parasite and malaria is high among 
people living with HIV/AIDS within Makurdi Metropolis. 

 

 
Keywords: Malaria; intestinal parasite; HIV/AIDs; Makurdi. 

 

1. INTRODUCTION  
 
Helminthinfection is recognized as one of the 
important public health problems in tropical 
Africa. Intestinal helminths are among the 
commonest and most widespread of human 
infection. Man acquires intestinal helminths when 
in contact with the infective stage of the 
parasites. Infection can also be acquired through 
contaminated, unwashed fingers (Fecal-oral), 
eggs can be spread by flies and other animals, 
circulation of bank notes and by wind during dry 
condition [1]. 
 
Intestinal parasites are parasites that populate 
the gastro-intestinal tract in humans and other 
animals, they can live throughout the body, but 
most preferred the intestinal wall [2]. The major 
groups of parasites include protozoans 
(organisms having only one cell) and parasitic 
worms (helminth), of these, protozoans, including 
cryptosporidium, microsporidia, and isospora, are 
most common in HIV-infected persons. Each of 
these parasites can infect the digestive tract, and 
sometimes two or more can cause infection at 
the same time [3]. 
 
Children are particularly susceptible if they are 
not thoroughly cleaned after coming into contact 
with infected soil that is present in environments 
that they may frequently visit such as sandboxes 
and school playgrounds also People in 
developing countries are also at risk of intestinal 
and malaria parasites due to drinking water from 
sources that may be contaminated with parasites 
that colonize the gastrointestinal tract and the 
sleeping site. 
 

2. METHODOLOGY  
 
2.1 Study Population  
 
Sample size: Sample size was determined using 
this formula: 

S= X
2 
NP (1-P) ÷ d

2
 (N-1) + X

2
P (1-P) 

 

Where: 
 

S = Sample size being sought 
X

2
 = table value for chi-square at 1 degree of 

freedom at the  
desired alpha level (0.05 = 3.84: 01 =6.64)  
N = Population size 
P = the population proportion (usually 0.05 as 
this provides the maximum sample size). 
d = degree of accuracy desired, expressed as a 
proportion (usually 0.05). (Rosie, 2006). 
 
A total number of 400 samples were collected 
and analyzed.  The Samples were collected from 
Bishop Murray Hospital Makurdi and 45 NAF 
Base Hospital Makurdi, these two Hospital run 
HIV clinical services weekly and also tend to 
have the highest number of HIV patients 
attending clinical service. A total number of 200 
samples were collected from Bishop Murray 
Hospital Makurdi while 200 from 45 NAF Base 
Hospital Makurdi. Approval was gotten from the 
Hospital Management Board and informed 
consent was obtained from each of the 
participants and or their parents/ guardians in 
case of children prior to specimen collection. 
 

2.2 Method of Sample Selection 
 

Table of random numbers was used to randomly 
select participant for this investigation at the 
selected Hospitals in Makurdi metropolis. 
 

2.3 Collection of Fecal Samples 
 

Each enrolled HIV/AIDS patient was asked to 
provide a fresh fecal sample in cleaned and dried 
sterile specimen bottles that were provided. The 
selected individuals were adequately instructed 
on how to get a little portion of their stool into the 
bottles using cardboard paper and applicator 
stick. Each participant was interviewed for 
sociodemographic variables. 

http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasite
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastro-intestinal_tract
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozoan
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic_worm
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic_worm
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptosporidium
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsporidia
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isospora
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV


 
 
 
 

Makwe et al.; AJI, 3(1): 139-144, 2020; Article no.AJI.56215 
 

 

 
141 

 

2.4 Laboratory Procedure for Intestinal 
Parasite (Chesbrough (2006) 

 
Each stool specimen was assessed for 
consistency. Then, it was examined by direct wet 
mount method using normal saline (0.85% NaCl 
solution) in order to prevent the loss of motile 
stage of parasites. Lugol's iodine was used to 
detect the cyst of intestinal parasites, also formal 
ether concentration techniques was used for the 
diagnosis. Faeces were emulsified by stirring 1g 
of stool suspension in 10ml of normal saline 
solution. The suspension was filtered into a 
centrifuge tube to remove large faecal particle 
before adding ether. The filtrate was centrifuged 
at 1,500 revolutions per minute for 3 minutes and 
the supernatant was discarded before keeping 
the tube in an upright position to allow water from 
the side to drain to the bottom. One to two (1-2) 
drops of sediment was transferred to a clean 
grease-free slide and then covered with a cover-
slip and the preparation was examined 
microscopically using ×10 objective lens. The 
laboratory investigation was carried out at City 
Hospital Old G.R.A Makurdi. Diagnosis was 
based on the identification of helminth ova and 
protozoan cyst in the sample during microscopic 
examination. A person was considered to have a 
multiple infection if they were found to be positive 
for more than one species. 
 

2.5 Data Analysis 
 
Ch-square test was use to test the association 
between intestinal helminthes and malaria 
infection amongst HIV patients at P=0.05. 
 

  
       

 
 

 

3. RESULTS  
 
Table 1 Shows the Age distribution of intestinal 
and malaria parasites. The age group of 11-20 
years has the highest infection of (93%), while 
51-60 years has the least infection of (50%). Chi-
square test reveal that there is significant 
difference in distribution of intestinal and Malaria 
Parasites by age (χ

2
 Cal= 120.835df 6, P˂0.05). 

 
Table 2 Distribution of intestinal and malaria 
parasites in male living with HIV/AID within 
Makurdi Metropolis. The age group 11-20 years 
recorded the highest infection of (95%), while 60 
years and above has the least infection of (40%). 
Chi-square test reveal there is significant 

difference in distribution of intestinal and Malaria 
parasites by sex and age (χ

2
 Cal= 36.288df 6, 

P˂0.05). 
 
Table 3 Distribution of intestinal and malaria 
parasites in Female living with AIDS within 
Makurdi Metropolis. The age group <1-10 years 
has the highest infection of (91%) while 60 years 
and above has the least infection of (50%).         
Chi-square test reveal there is significant 
difference in distribution of intestinal and Malaria 
parasites by sex and age (χ

2
 Cal= 63.308df 6, 

P˂0.05 
 

4. DISCUSSION  
 
The result of this research work shows that the 
age groups 1-10 and 11-20years has the highest 
prevalence rate of infection (93%) of intestinal 
parasites and Malaria Parasites; this could be 
attributed to the fact that soil children play with 
contaminated soil. This agrees with Russel and 
Howson [4], who reported that the high-risk 
groups include young children, pregnant women, 
immune suppressed AIDS individuals, refugees, 
displaced persons and labourers entering 
endemic areas. age groups 1-10 and 11-20 
years had the highest prevalence of Entaoeba 
histolytica at the rate of 19% while was the age 
group 11-20years had 18% prevalence of Taenia 
solium .Children are susceptible to intestinal 
parasites and can be attributed to dirty 
behavioral pertain among school age children. 
This study is in agreement with reports of 
Montresor et al. [5] who reported that children 
may also be particularly susceptible to the 
adverse effects of helminth infections due to their 
incomplete physical development and their 
greater immunological vulnerability. The study 
further agrees with Albonico et al. [6] who 
reported that children age 0-20 years habour  
heavy intestinal parasites and thus are a good 
study group; they are the group most responsible 
for contaminating the environment and 
transmitting these infections. This also agrees 
with Nwosu (1981), School children carry the 
heaviest burden of the associated morbidity, due 
to their dirty habits of playing or handling of 
infested soils, eating with soiled hands, 
unhygienic toilet practices, drinking and eating of 
contaminated water and food. Hookworm, the 
age group 11-20 years recorded (12%), the 
result of this study contrast with the work 
Albonico et al. [6] who reported that in sub-
Saharan Africa alone, there are 41 million 
hookworm-infected school-age children. 

 



 
 
 
 

Makwe et al.; AJI, 3(1): 139-144, 2020; Article no.AJI.56215 
 

 

 
142 

 

Table 1. Age distribution of intestinal and Malarial parasites among people living with HIV/AIDS 
within Makurdi metropolis 

 

Parasite                                                                         ˂1-  10   
n=54 
A(%)                                  

11-20 
n=75 
A(%)              

21-30 
n=74 
A(%)              

31-40 
n=77 
A(%)              

41-50 
n=54 
A(%)              

51-60 
n=50 
A(%)              

60˄  
n=16 
A(%) 

Total 
N=400 
A(%) 

χ
2
 cal       P. 

value       

Malarial  11(20)         20(26)         53(72)      41(53)         32(59)        21(42)         7(44)         185(46)      61.892        0.00                
Hookworm 4(7)             7(12)           2(3)          2(3)          1(1)            0(0)            0(0)            16(4)           7.12             0.129             
Fasciola spp                        3(6)             2(3)             0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           5(1)             0.200           0.655             
Taenia solium                      4(7)             13(18)         4(5)           17(22)         8(11)          3(6)            1(6)          50(13)         28.96           0.00               
Taenia 
seginata                   

3(6) 5(7)             4(5)           1(1)             3(4)            0(0)            1(6)          17(4)           4.529           0.476             

Entamoeba 
histolytica         

10(19)         11(15)         3(4)           3(4)           3(4)           0(0)            0(0)            30(8)           11.333         0.023             

Hymenolepsis 
nana             

3(6)              5(7)            0(0)             2(3)             0(0)             0(0)             0(0)             10(3)          1.400           0.497              

Giardia 
lamblia                   

3(6)             2(3)             0(0)          0(0)          1(1)            0(0)             0(0)             6(2)            1.000          0.607              

Ascaris 
lumbricoides           

1(2)             0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           1(0.3)         0.001          0.00                

Schistosoma  
mansoni         

4(7)             4(5)             0(0)          1(1)             0(0)            0(0)            0(0)            9(2)           2.000          0.368              

Strongyloide 
stercoralis      

4(7)             1(1)             0(0)          0(0)             0(0)            0(0)            0(0)            5(1)           1.800          0.180              

Total %                               50(93)         70(93)         67(91)      68(88)         48(89)        24(48)          9(56)          334(84)      120.835  
A is the number infected 

χ
2
 Cal= 120.835 df 6, P˂0.05.There is significant  difference in distribution of  intestinal and Malaria parasites by  

age 

 
Table 2. The distribution of intestinal and Malarial parasites among HIV/AIDS male individuals 

within Makurdi metropolis 
 

Parasite                                                                         ˂1-  10   
n=32 
A(%)                                  

11-20 
n=43 
A(%)              

21-30 
n=40 
A(%)              

31-40 
n=34 
A(%)              

41-50 
n=41 
A(%)              

51-60 
n=19 
A(%)              

60˄  
n=5 
A(%) 

Total 
N=400 
A(%) 

χ
2
 cal       P. 

value       

Malarial  11(34)       15(35)         18(5)               17(50)         24(59)          10(53)         2(40)         97(24)         21.278       0.002      
Hookworm 4(13)          4(9)             1(3)          1(1)             1(2)            0(0)            0(0)            11(3)          4.909         0.297         
Fasciola spp                        2(6)            1(2)            0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           3(1)            0.333          0.564        
Taenia solium                      2(6)            7(16)          3(8)              9(27)           6(15)            3(16)            0(0)            30(8)          7.600          0.180        
Taenia 
seginata                   

3(9)            4(9)            2(5)              0(0)             2(5)             0(0)            0(0)            11(3)          1.000          0.801        

Entamoeba 
histolytica         

1(3)            3(7)            2(5)              1(3)             2(5)             0(0)            0(0)            9(2)            1.556          0.817        

Hymenolepsis 
nana             

1(3)            2(5)            0(0)             1(3)                         0(0)             0(0)             0(0)             4(1)            0.500         0.779        

Giardia 
lamblia                   

1(3)            0(0)           0(0)          0(0)          0(0)           1(5)             0(0)             2(1)            0.000          1.000        

Ascaris 
lumbricoides           

1(3)            0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           1(1)             0.001          0.087        

Schistosoma  
mansoni         

2(6)           4(10)         0(0)          0(0)           0(0)            0(0)            0(0)            6(2)           0.667          0.414        

Strongyloide 
stercoralis      

1(3)            1(2)           0(0)          0(0)             0(0)            0(0)            0(0)            2(1)           0.000          1.000        

Total %                               29(91)       41(95)       26(65)           29(85)         35(85)           15(79)        2(40)            176(44)       36.288  
χ

2
 Cal= 36.288 df60, P˂0.05.There is significant difference in  distribution of intestinal and Malaria parasites by 

sex and age 

 



 
 
 
 

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143 

 

Table 3. The distribution of intestinal and malarial parasites among HIV/AIDS female 
individuals within Makurdi Metropolis 

 

Parasite                                                                         ˂1-  10   
n=32 
A(%)                                  

11-20 
n=43 
A(%)              

21-30 
n=40 
A(%)              

31-40 
n=34 
A(%)              

41-50 
n=41 
A(%)              

51-60 
n=19 
A(%)              

60˄  
n=5 
A(%) 

Total 
N=400 
A(%) 

χ
2
 cal       P. 

value       

Malarial  5(23)           10(31)        20(59)         26(61)          15(46)    5(31)           2(33)           88(22)        39.711       0.000      
Hookworm 1(5)              2(6)           1(3)          1(2)             0(0)             0(0)            0(0)            5(1)            0.600         0.896         
Fasciola spp                        1(5)              1(3)            0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           2(1)             0.000          1.000        
Taenia solium                      1(5)              3(9)            2(6)            8(19)                      2(6)            3(19)          1(17)          20(5)           12.200          0.058        
Taenia 
seginata                   

1(5)              1(3)            2(6)              1(2)               1(3)            0(0)            0(0)            6(2)              0.667          0.955        

Entamoeba 
histolytica         

6(27)           5(16)         1(3)             2(5)               1(3)            0(0)            0(0)            15(4)            7.333          0.119        

Hymenolepsis 
nana             

2(9)            3(9)            0(0)             1(2)              0(0)             0(0)             0(0)             6(2)               1.000         0.607        

Giardia lamblia                   1(5)            2(6)            0(0)          0(0)          1(3)            0(0)             0(0)             4(1)               0.500          0.779        
Ascaris 
lumbricoides           

0(0)            0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)           0(0)               0.001          0.087        

Schistosoma  
mansoni         

1(5)            1(3)            0(0)          1(2)              0(0)            0(0)            0(0)            3(1)               0.000         1.000        

Strongyloide 
stercoralis      

1(5)            1(3)            0(0)          1(2)              0(0)            0(0)            0(0)            3(1)               0.000          1.000        

Total %                               20(91)       29(90)        26(65)           41(95)          20(49)         8(50)            3(50)          147(37)        63.308     
χ

2
 Cal= 63.308 df 60, P˂0.05.There is significant difference in  distribution of haemoparasite and intestinal 

parasites by sex and age 

 
The result shows a progressive decrease in the 
prevalence of Malaria Parasites among the 
younger age groups with (20%) and (26%) within 
the age group <1-10 years and 11-20 years, 
while the older age group 21-30 years and 41-50 
years continuously increase progressively with 
(59%) and (72%); the result of this study contrast 
with the work of Russel and Howson, [4] who 
reported that the high-risk groups include young 
children, pregnant women, non-immune 
travelers, refugees, displaced persons and 
labourers entering endemic areas. The overall 
result shows that the prevalence rate of intestinal 
parasite infection is generally high among the 
school age children with Hookworm (7%) and 
Entamoeba histolytica (19%), This result agrees 
with World Health Organization (1996), children 
in the age groups 5-9 and 10- 14 years are more 
exposed to helminth infection since they usually 
play with soil and eat food without washing 
hands, as well as vegetables and fruits.  

 
The male within the age group<1-10 years have 
the  highest infection (13%) of Hookworm and 
the least is recorded among the age group 31-40 
years with (1%), the age group <1-10 years 
recorded (1%) infection of Ascaris lumbricoides 
while the remaining age groups has the same 
infection rate of (0%). This result contradict the 
work of Martin et al. (1984) which show incidence 

of Ascaris lumbricoides (58%), Trichuris trichura 
(whip worm) (52%) and hookworm 52%. Malaria 
Parasites, the highest infection is recorded 
among the age group 41-50 years with (59%) , 
while the least infection is recorded among the 
age group with <1-10 years (34%). This 
tremendous prevalence among the older age 
groups in Malaria Parasites distribution could be 
attributed with the fact that most male stay 
outdoor in the night, thereby exposing them to 
mosquito bite. This result contradict the works of 
Krogstad, [7] who reported that Malaria is a 
major public health problem with an estimated 
two million children worldwide dying of Malaria 
Parasites yearly, primarily because of Malaria 
Parasites and its complications.  
 
The Schistosoma mansoni, recorded (6%) for 
age group <1-10years while the remaining age 
groups has the same infection rate of (0%), this 
result contradict the work of Kaba et al. [8] who 
revealed the overall prevalence of Schistosoma 
mansoni (81.6%) and (81.3%) among males and 
females in Uganda. In summary sex is not factor 
in parasitic distribution among male HIV/AIDS 
individuals. The affirmed parasite, Hookworm, 
Fasciola spp, Taenia seginata, Hymenolepsis 
nana, Giardia lamblia, Ascaris lumbricoides, 
Schistosoma mansoni and Strongyloides 
stercoralis do not show a significant difference in 



 
 
 
 

Makwe et al.; AJI, 3(1): 139-144, 2020; Article no.AJI.56215 
 

 

 
144 

 

the distribution of parasitic infection among 
people living with HIV/AIDS. This work agrees 
with WHO [3], reported that several 
environmental and socio-economic factors have 
been identified to be responsible for the 
continued persistence of intestinal parasites in 
children and people living with HIV/AIDS; some 
of these include poor sanitary conditions, 
unhygienic practices, absence of portable water, 
poor housing and poverty. 

 
5. CONCLUSION 
 
Conclusively, the prevalence of intestinal and 
Malaria Parasites infection among the HIV/AIDS 
individual was high and there by posing danger 
or threats now and in near feature. This study 
has revealed that HIV/AIDS individuals are prone 
to higher prevalence of intestinal and malaria 
parasite. People living with HIV/AIDS are 
threatened by several diseases caused by 
different kinds of pathogens.  

 
CONSENT 
 
It is not applicable. 

 
ETHICAL APPROVAL 
 
It is not applicable. 

 
COMPETING INTERESTS 
 
Authors have declared that no competing 
interests exist. 
 

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2007;38:131-134. 

3. WHO. Action for the control of soil 
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on strategies for the control of soil 
transmitted helminthiasis in Nigeria. Ile-Ife, 
Nigeria 7

th
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th
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4. Russel PK, Howson CP. Vaccines against 
malaria: Hope in a gathering storm. 
National Academy Press, Washington DC. 
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5. Montresor A. Helminth Control in School-
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Control Programs. World Health 
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6. Albonico M, Ramsan M, Wright V, Jape K, 
Haji HJ, Taylor M, Savioli L. and Bickle Q. 
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mebendazole; 2002. 

7. Krogstad DJ. Malaria as a re-emerging 
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77-89. 

8. Kaba Tereien NB, Arithoc, Christen NO. 
Schistosoma in pach, Nebbi District 
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provided the original work is properly cited. 

 
 

 

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