




































_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 
 
*Corresponding author: E-mail: Adedayoogunware21@gmail.com; 
 
 
 

Asian Journal of Immunology 
 
3(1): 99-105, 2020; Article no.AJI.56071 
 

 
 

 

 

Seroprevalence of Hepatitis C Virus Infection 
amongst Febrile Patients Attending Selected Public 

and Private Hospitals in Lagos State, Nigeria 
 

Adedayo Emmanuel Ogunware1*, Adedayo Olawale Onakomaiya2  
and Adesewa Adeyinka Adekoya1 

 
1
Department of Biochemistry, Lagos State University, Ojo, P.M.B. 0001, Lagos, Nigeria. 

2
Department of Microbiology, Lagos State University, Ojo, P.M.B. 0001, Lagos, Nigeria. 

 
Authors’ contributions  

 
This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. All authors read and approved the final 

manuscript. 
 

Article Information 
 

Editor(s): 
(1) Dr. Jaffu Othniel Chilongola, Tumaini University, Tanzania. 

Reviewers: 
(1) Victor B. Oti, Nasarawa State University, Nigeria.  

(2) Naresh Kumar, Mewar University, India. 
Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/56071 

 
 
 
 

Received 03 February 2020  
Accepted 08 April 2020 
Published 12 April 2020 

 
 

ABSTRACT 
 

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is the leading reason for liver transplantation in the world; patients infected 
with HCV are at increased risk of cirrhosis and hepatocellular cancer. The study was aimed at 
evaluating the seroprevalence of Hepatitis C virus infection amongst febrile patients attending 
selected public and private hospitals in Lagos state, Nigeria. The hospital based cross-sectional 
study took place between October and December 2019. A total of 89 blood samples were collected 
from febrile patients after informed consent and self-administered questionnaires were completed. 
The samples were centrifuged, and screened for anti-HCV antibodies using the Enzyme-linked 
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique. The results of this study were analysed statistically and 
out of the 89participants screened, only 5(5.61%) were positive for anti-HCV Ab. There was no 
significant difference (P>0.05) between the number of male and female patients positive and also 
other demographic characterization (age and temperature).  

 

 
Keywords: Hepatitis C virus; febrile; ELISA; blood donors; Lagos. 

Original Research Article 



 
 
 
 

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100 

 

1. INTRODUCTION 
 
Hepatitis C is a major public health problem that 
must be controlled and possibly eradicated. 
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) was first documented as 
a cause of transfusion associated with acute and 
chronic hepatitis in 1989 [1] and plays a key role 
as a cause of chronic liver injury with potential for 
neoplastic deterioration. It is mostly transmitted 
by parenteral route; although with lower 
effectiveness, it may also be transmitted by 
sexual intercourse as well as from mother to 
child. HCV infection is often asymptomatic, 
making it very hard to detect at an early stage. 
This is the major reason why early treatment is 
difficult, therefore, hepatitis C is often referred to 
as a “silent disease”. In many infected people, 
the virus infection does not resolve naturally. The 
Neutralizing antibodies appear to be 
manufactured during a natural infection; yet, the 
virus transforms to escape surveillance. As 
Hepatitis C virus infection is transmitted with high 
efficacy via blood to blood contact, the 
prevalence of HCV within different countries, 
regions and populations is closely related to the 
incidence of blood borne (mainly intravenous 
drug use) disease. HCV infection is an important 
public health problem today because it is an 
emerging epidemic disease which infects nearly 
3% of the population worldwide and has 
emerged as a major causative agent of liver 
disease, resulting in acute and chronic infections 
that can lead to fibrosis, cirrhosis and 
hepatocellular carcinoma. It is estimated that 
more than 170 million individuals are infected 
with HCV worldwide, most of them chronically 
[2].  
 
HCV is accountable for about 350,000 deaths 
annually; among western countries, Southern 
Europe and particularly Italy is among the most 
affected areas [3]. Most people (80%) with acute 
HCV infection are asymptomatic. If symptoms 
occur, they may includeabdominal pain, loss of 
appetite, nausea, fatigue, dark urine and 
jaundice. Of those who develop chronic HCV 
infection, the most common symptom is fatigu e 
[4]. Severe liver disease develops in 
approximately 10%–20% of chronically infected 
people, but progression to end-stage liver 
disease is slow and typically does not occur                 
until ≥20 years after infection. This development 
is often clinically silent until late in the course of 
disease, and in the absence of HCV                
testing, most people are unaware of their 
infection.  
 

Africa has the highest WHO estimated regional 
prevalence (5.3%) with Egypt having the highest 
prevalence (17.5%) of HCV in the world; also, 
many HIV-positive persons in sub-Saharan Africa 
are co-infected, a systematic review and Meta-
analysis, showed anti-HCV prevalence rates of 
7% among HIV infected individuals. The 
epidemiology of HCV infection in Nigeria is not 
well understood although the prevalence among 
high risk groups was given as 12.3% [5]. Majority 
of research on prevalence of hepatitis C in 
Nigeria have focused on serological 
characterization of selected population groups, 
e.g. patients with diabetes mellitus, prison 
inmates, HIV-infected persons, blood donors, 
patients with chronic renal failure and those with 
sickle cell anemia, for whom risk for HCV 
infection in urban areas of Nigeria is variable. 
Previous studies established a broad HCV-
seroprevalence rate, ranging from 1.9% among 
pregnant women in Benin City to 14.5% among 
apparently healthy individuals with a family 
history of diabetes in Plateau State [6] or among 
HIV-positive patients in Lagos [6]. HCV                  
infections have been shown to play a              
significant role in the aetiology of chronic liver 
disease and Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in 
Nigeria. 
 
However, a study of adolescent and adult 
patients with sickle cell anemia (SCA) in Benin 
by [7] showed 20% prevalence rate. Another 
study in Ibadan conducted among doctors 
recorded a seroprevalence of 11% [8]. It was 
also noted that HCV infections were found more 
in lower socio-economic class than other social 
classes. In Nigeria, 18.7% of liver cancer patients 
carry markers of HCV and it is said that the 
results of seroprevalence studies of HCV in 
Nigeria vary depending on the study population 
and the geographical setting having higher rates 
along the eastern borders and some in Northern 
regions [9]. 
 
The challenge arises that there is dearth of 
information on burden and circulation of HCV in 
Nigeria (Lagos State). The risk factors for HCV 
transmission in Nigeria have not been properly 
characterized and the seroprevalence of HCV 
infection amongst unhealthy, immune-
compromised patients and carriers in Lagos is 
unknown. Therefore, this study was carried out to 
evaluate the Seroprevalence of Hepatitis C virus 
infection amongst febrile patients attending 
selected public and private hospitals in Lagos 
state. 
 



 
 
 
 

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101 

 

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS  
 

2.1 Study Area 
 
Alimosho Local Government Area is home to the 
General Hospital Alimosho, Igando. It is the 
largest local government in Lagos state with 
coordinates 6°36’38’N/3°17’45"E. It has a total 
population of about 1,362,077 and land area of 
185 km

2
 with average density of 713 persons per 

square kilometer approximately. is bounded in 
the North and West by River Owo and 
IfakoIjaiye, Agege respectively, and the East by 
Ikeja Local Government Area while it is bounded 
in the South by Oshodi/Isolo, Amuwo-odofin           
and Ojo local Government Areas of Lagos State 
[10]. 
 
Lagos state University Health Centre is the 
primary health care clinic available to the staffs 
and students of Lagos state University at Ojo. 
Ojo Local Government Area has a total 
population of about 598,071 comprising 310,100 
males and 287,971 females (NPC. 2006) and 
land area of 375 sq. km. It occupies the south 
western part of the Lagos metropolis. It is located 
between latitude 60°22′N and 60°32′N and on 
longitude 30°4′E and 30°20′E. The local 
Government Area is bounded by six other local 
government areas and is among the seven Local 
Government Areas occupying the coastal plain of 
Lagos metropolis. The predominant land uses in 
this area are residential and commercial land 
use. Commercial land use includes financial 
institution and market [11]. 
 
Agbara is located at the west of Ologe lagoon 
and North of Badagry creek, in Lagos state 
southwest Nigeria, on longitude of 2°421 and 
3°231E and latitude of 6°231 and 6°281N. It is an 
industrial area with various kinds of industries 
including Pharma-Deko and Unileverand Ibijola 
medical center is also situated there [12] 
 

2.2 Study Centre 
 
This was a hospital based cross-sectional study 
that covered three local government areas in 
Lagos State. The hospital samples were 
collected from are General Hospital Alimosho, 
Igando (AGH), Lagos State University Health 
Center (LSUHC), Ibijola Medical Center Agbara 
(IMC). Eighty-nine (89) blood samples were 
collected from patients in the phlebotomy section 
of the hospitals mentioned above (20 samples 
from AGH, 35 samples from IMC and 34 samples 
from LSUHC). A structured questionnaire was 

designed and administered, in order to obtain 
demographic information, characteristics, 
personal (such as age and sex). 
 

2.3 Study Population 
 
The collection of samples was based on adult 
and Children febrile patients/clients attending 
Alimosho General Hospital, Lagos State 
University Health center, Ibijola Medical Center 
Lagos State.  
 

2.4 Sample Collection and Transportation 
 
Blood samples were collected from each febrile 
patientfrom the month of October 2019.All study 
subjects were between 18-50 years of age who 
must have had fever at the point of collection or 
symptoms related over the last six months i.e. 
patients whose temperature was above 37.5°C.A 
total of 89 blood samples were collected by 
venipuncture using sterile 5 ml syringe /10ml 
EDTA Vacutainer and transported in cold box to 
the Centre of Human Virology and Genomics, 
Nigerian Institute of Medical Research (NIMR), 
Yaba, Lagos State. 
 
The samples were centrifuged (Eppendorf) at 
3500 rpm for 10 minutes and the Plasma 
(supernatant) aliquot was transferred into 
cryogenic vials and stored in the refrigerator (-
4°C) until ready for analysis. All necessary 
precautions were taken to guide against 
interference that could negatively affect the 
result. 
 

2.5 Serological Technique 
 
2.5.1 Principle of the test 
 
The micro plates were coated with HCV-specific 
antigens derived from “core” and “ns’’ region 
encoding from conservative and immune 
dominant antigenic determinants (Core peptide, 
recombinant NS3, NS4 and NS5 peptides). The 
solid phase is first treated with the diluted 
sample, and the 2nd incubation bound HCV 
antibodies, IgG and IgM as well, are detected by 
the addition of polyclonal specific anti IgG&M 
antibodies, labeled with Horse Radish 
Peroxidase (HRP). The enzyme captured on the 
solid phase, acting on the substrate/ chromogen 
mixture, generates an optical signal that is 
proportional to the amount of anti-HCV 
antibodies present in the sample. A cut-off value 
let optical densities be interpreted into HCV 
antibody negative and positive results. 



 
 
 
 

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102 

 

2.5.2 HCV detection using ELISA kit 
 

The HCV antibodies were detected using 
qualitative RecombiLISA HCV ELISA kit 
manufactured by DIA.PRO Diagnostics 
Bioprobes. All reagents and controls (positive 
and negative) were brought to room temperature 
and the concentrated washing buffer was diluted 
30-fold with distilled water. The HCV-Ab test kit 
used was an Enzyme Immunoassay kit used for 
the determination of anti-Hepatitis C Virus 
antibody in human serum and plasma and it is an 
in-vitro diagnostic test. The procedure used is an 
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA).  
 

2.5.3 Assay procedure 
 

The first well was left empty for the operation of 
blanking. Next 200ul of negative control was 
dispensed in triplicates, 200ul calibrator was 
placed in duplicate and 200ul of positive control 
is dispensed in a single well. Then 200ul of 
Sample Diluent (DILSPE) was added to all the 
sample wells except the calibrator and controls 
which were already pre-diluted, 10ul of sample 
was dispensed in each properly identified well 
and mixed gently. 50ul of Assay Diluent (DILAS) 
was also dispensed into all the controls/calibrator 
and sample wells. The micro plate was incubated 
for 45min at 37°C and the plate was washed with 
an automatic washer 6 times. 100ul of the 
Enzyme Conjugate was pipetted into each well, 
except the 1st blanking well and was then 
covered with a sealer. The micro plate was 
incubated for 45 min at 37°C and after incubation 
the micro wells were washed 6 times using an 
automatic washer. 100ul Chromogen/Substrate 
mixture was pipetted into each well and the blank 
included. Then incubated the micro plate at room 
temperature (18-24°C) for 15mins. 100ul of 
sulphuric Acid was pipetted into the wells using 
the same sequence as the substrate to stop the 
enzymatic reaction. Addition of acid will turn the 
positive control and positive samples from blue to 
yellow/brown. Finally, the optical Density (OD) 
was read at 450nm wavelengths within 15 
minutes of stopping the reaction using GF-
M3000 micro plate reader and results were read 
according to the manufacturer‘s manual. 
 

3. RESULTS 
 

A total of 89 plasma samples were tested for 
Hepatitis C virus antibodies in addition with the 
reagents used (controls and calibrations) on the 
micro plate and an Enzyme Linked 
Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) reader was 
implored for the reading of the optical density. 
Among the 89 blood samples collected from 

febrile patients in the three selected hospitals, 5 
(5.62%) were positive for HCV antibody (Table 
1). The demographic characteristics of the 
patients showed age range of 18 - 26, the overall 
mean age of the 89 patient’s blood samples 
collected across the 3 selected public and private 
hospital was 25years (age range 18 – 26). The 
highest proportion of HCV antibody seropositive 
result was recorded most among males whose 
age are below 30.  The gender distribution of the 
positive patients was shown in Fig. 1. 
 

4. DISCUSSION 
 

HCV is widespread in the world and in Lagos 
state. It is among the important hepatotropic 
viruses because of liver tropism which leads to 
cihorrsis or hepatocellular carcinoma. This has 
become an issue of public health concern. The 
RecombiLISA HCV Ab ELISA is able to 
qualitatively detect antibodies (both IgG AND 
IgM) to Hepatitis C virus in human serum or 
plasma and has become an important tool to 
identify individuals with early infection so as to 
administer early antiviral therapy. 
 

The prevalence of HCV Ab among the febrile 
patients in this study was 5.61%. Though no 
work has been done pertaining to febrile patients 
in Lagos or Nigeria, the prevalence is greater 
than zero (0%) recorded by Enitan et al.,in  2019 
[13] among undergraduate students of Babcock 
University Ogun State. Work done by Muhibi et 
al. [14] and Alquatani et al. [15], reported zero 
(0%) prevalence of anti-HCV antibody among 
undergraduate students of Achievers University, 
Owo in south-west Nigeria, as well as among 
Health Students in the Najran region of South-
Western Saudi Arabia, respectively. The 
outcome of this study however is also greater 
than the work of Hebo et al. [16] who reported a 
prevalence of 0.42% among Health Workers of 
University Medical Center, Southwest Ethiopia, 
as well as that of Jemilohun et al. [17] who 
reported a prevalence rate of 0.40% among 
undergraduate Student of Ladoke Akintola 
University of Technology (LAUTECH), 
Ogbomosho, Oyo State, south-west Nigeria. 
 

The results of this  study is lower than the work 
of Udeze et al. [18] who reported a prevalence 
rate of 8.0% among first year Students of 
University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. In a 
recent study by Tula et al. [19] a much higher 
prevalence rate of 11.5% was recorded among 
Students of Federal Polytechnic Mubi, Adamawa; 
majority of whom had history of blood 
transfusion, medical surgery and circumcision. 



 
 
 
 

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103 

 

Table 1. Prevalence rate of hepatitis C virus antibodies in each study area 
 

Hospital Frequency 
(n=89) 

No of positive 
result 

No of negative 
result 

Percentage of 
positive results (%) 

Ibijola medical center 35 3 32 3.37 
Alimosho general 
hospital 

34 0 34 0 

Lagos state university 
health center 

20 2 18 2.24 

Total 89 5 84 5.61 

 

 
 

Fig. 1. Gender distribution of HCV antibody positive patients from Ibijola Medical Center and 
Lagos State University Health Center 

 
Gender was not found to be associated with the 
viral prevalence although the infection was 
higher among males than females (P > 0.05), but 
this may be connected to the fact that some men 
involve in homo sexualism which is a high risk 
factor for the transmission of HCV as Risky 
sexual behaviors such as fisting and unprotected 
intercourse can be mucosally traumatic and may 
be associated with bleeding [20]. Whether 
bleeding is necessary for HCV transmission is 
still debatable though some studies have 
identified HCV in seminal and rectal fluids of HIV 
infected men and providing evidence that these 
fluids can mediate HCV transmission [21] or due 
to having numerous sexual partners due to 
promiscuous lifestyle.  
 
The age stratification in this study shows no 
statistical significance with age in HCV 
prevalence. HCV Ab was detected more among 
patients that were between the age 18 – 26 
years this might be suggestive that those in such 
age are more active and likely to engage in 
unprotected sex and are also not aware of 
immunization. 

Temperature was not found to be associated with 
the prevalence despite the fact that fever is a 
symptom of acute stage HCV but this might be 
that some patients had other serious infection 
such as typhoid or malaria at the time of blood 
collection. 
 

5. CONCLUSION 
 

After all test and serological analyses carried out 
the research indicate 5 positive HCV Ab among 
tested blood patients, which gave a 
seroprevalence rate of 5.61% in the study area 
and this indicated that HCV is endemic in our 
environment though with a low prevalence rate, it 
should be taken into account by doctors and 
nurses in hospitals when treating febrile patients 
as drug interactions could potentially increase 
morbidity in this population. The information 
provided by the study can be used to provide 
baseline data that can contribute to knowledge 
on the magnitude of the disease, stimulate 
further research on the disease and inform policy 
on risk assessment. Our study has some 
limitations. First, in the number of people we 

Males 
60% 

Females 
40% 

GENDER DISTRIBUTION 



 
 
 
 

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104 

 

involved, as more test subjects would yield more 
reliable results. Second, it would have been 
useful to confirm the presence of the hepatitis 
viruses with a nucleic acid-based technique such 
as Polymerase Chain Reaction, Nonetheless, our 
results are consistent with other studies, and are 
relevant for improving the care of HIV/AIDS 
patients. Compulsory public awareness 
campaigns against HCV infection and prevention 
programs should be intensified to eradicate 
future outbreak cases of HCV in the country. 
 

CONSENT 
 

All authors declare that ‘written informed consent 
was obtained from the patient (or other  
approved parties) for publication of this case 
report. 
 

ETHICAL APPROVAL 
 

An ethical approval with reference number 
(LSHSC/2222/VOL. VB/66) was sought from the 
Lagos State Health Service Commission 
(LSHSC). An approval was also given from the 
Nigerian Institute of Medical Research (NIMR) an 
institutional review board to carry out the 
laboratory work in their Human genomics and 
molecular laboratory. An approval was also 
sought from the respective Chief Medical 
Director (CMD) of the Hospitals. The following 
information was given to each participant to 
ensure that they make an informed choice; a 
complete description of the aims of the study, 
infectious agent that was being screened, details 
of sample collection procedures, potential 
benefits and risks of their participation in the 
study and assurance of confidentiality of any 
information given as well as of the test results, all 
these were explained to the subject in English 
language and/or, their native languages and 
consent were sought through the signing of 
informed consent form. Dignity of the study 
participants was upheld throughout the study.  
 

COMPETING INTERESTS 
 

Authors have declared that no competing 
interests exist. 
 

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