asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 2, 136-139, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 136 strategic onboarding of online doctoral students: creating a pathway to academic persistence barbara holmes1  kent willis2 ericka woods3 1,2,3 hampton university, usa ( corresponding author) abstract an onboarding strategy can help online universities improve new doctoral student productivity, engagement, and retention. a prescribed plan is vital to ensure the onboarding process is aligned, and clear designed support is provided for students. recent literature justifies strategic onboarding includes acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills and behaviors to become successful members of an organization (beaver and erdogan, 2011). similarly, doctoral students may benefit from clearly designed rules, protocols, and practices exclusive to the online doctoral experience. this study presents the process of strategic onboarding strategies for that will provide a smart start for online doctoral students. keywords: strategic onboarding, collaboration, doctoral persistence, doctoral retention, doctoral advising, doctoral mentoring. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 137 2. academic socialization ...................................................................................................................................................... 137 3. virtual collaboration ........................................................................................................................................................ 137 4. four c’s of strategic onboarding ..................................................................................................................................... 138 5. strategic onboarding and the smart start ....................................................................................................................... 138 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 138 bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................................... 139 citation | barbara holmes; kent willis; ericka woods (2016). strategic onboarding of online doctoral students: creating a pathway to academic persistence. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(2): 136-139. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.136.139 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 28 november 2015/ revised: 6 january 2016/ accepted: 12 january 2016/ published: 15 january 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.136.139 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 136-139 137 1. introduction an onboarding program for the doctoral student is a critical part of positioning for successful entry and matriculation into graduate studies. new doctoral scholars need a strategic introduction to the academic regimen of doctoral studies and to the organizational culture designed to support them. strategic onboarding is a term used in business that encompasses a series of intentional actions aimed at preparing employees to be successful members of the team. also known as organizational socialization, strategic onboarding includes acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills and behaviors to become successful members of the organization (beaver and erdogan, 2011). similarly, doctoral students can benefit from clearly defined and intentional academic socialization to rules, protocols and practices that are unique to doctoral level study. mullendore and banahan (2005) summarized that an effective orientation program can be the defining moment in the transition to college for the student – a time in which fundamental academic habits may form that enhance the academic success and personal growth of students and marks the beginning of a new educational experience. the allen and seaman (2011) reports that over 6.7 million students enrolled in at least one online course during the fall 2011 term, representing an increase of 570,000 students over the previous year. with the explosion of online learning, institutions are working to develop onboarding processes that get students quickly connected and engaged with the organization despite no physical contact.[ source: 2012 changing course: ten years of tracking online education in the united states]. consequently, building the virtual community of learning becomes more challenging. academic impressions further asserts that approximately 25% of students begin college at a time other than fall term, yet, many institutions don’t plan onboarding processes in any other semester. recent research suggests that students starting in non-fall terms encounter substantially different challenges in campus orientation, socialization, and academic performance. these challenges pose a direct threat to both student retention and success (https://www.academicimpressions.com/webcast/onboarding-spring-admits-future-success]. 2. academic socialization doctoral students who undertake professional education in a virtual environment may be particularly challenged to form educational relationships that are supportive and nurturing and may have difficulty navigating the institutional structures that support registration, financial aid, and academic supports. virtual doctoral students need orientation that that facilitates their academic socialization and helps them understand the essential elements necessary for success and provides strategies for communicating across institutional barriers while in a virtual environment. walker (2008) advocates orientating new doctoral students to the series of academic socialization milestones on the way to accomplishing the ph.d.: course taking, comprehensive exams, forming the dissertation advisory committee, approval of the dissertation prospectus, the research and writing of the dissertation, and the final oral defense. doctoral students in a virtual program may need additional help in developing the nuances of effective communication, teamwork and collaboration in an online setting to accomplish these significant benchmarks. the virtual doctoral program in educational leadership usually attracts adult learners who are full-time professionals with demanding professional responsibilities and are not able to attend traditional academic programs. virtual programs appeal to adult students because they are not time and place dependent. many of these students have great anxiety about how the program works how it supports their doctoral-level learning. one new doctoral student wrote: “prior to the start of the ph.d. philosophy in educational management cohort vii began to communicate regularly. team building and cohort cohesiveness developed organically as we helped each other navigate the admissions process as program participants, the communication, and cohort cohesiveness was vital to the decision making process in continuing after onboarding to the hybrid experience. the open lines of communication provided a support network both in the virtual world and in conversation. when faced with academic insecurities; the need for clarification regarding a particular assignment, cohort vi members provided a safety net.” a core value of the onboarding process is to get students immediately familiar with the organizational culture of the doctoral program. in this regard, members of the previous doctoral cohort serve as the welcoming team for the newly admitted students. existing doctoral students are invaluable in helping newly admitted students to preview the road ahead and the expectations of the faculty. the importance of team building is critical to doctoral student persistence in a hybrid doctoral program (holmes et al., 2014). enrolled doctoral students are in the best position to share the student perspective of the program and develop the community of learning needed for academic success. it is critical for newly admitted doctoral students to know that the program’s academic experiences are designed to provide a culture and community of support for doctoral study. because online learning can be an isolating experience, the academic socialization process is necessary to enable doctoral students to interact with their academic peers and develop nurturing peer relationships. the core doctoral faculty supporting the development and delivery of the online doctoral program in educational leadership give careful deliberation to designing a doctoral level experience that students find beneficial in keeping them connected to their work. this program is moving into its fifth year of operation and has graduated sixteen students. during each summer residency, focus group sessions are conducted with students to obtain their reflections on the doctoral learning experience. the purpose is to uncover the perceptions and lived experiences of enrolled students while it was still fresh in their minds. 3. virtual collaboration collaboration is essential for success in doctoral studies; especially for students whose coursework is delivered in an online format. one of the most recognizable tools or applications that come to mind when a person thinks of collaboration in on-line learning is the discussion board. most every online application offers some version of a forum for posting information and exchanging comments, questions, and ideas. but, collaboration through the online interface must quickly equate scholarship integration. the view of scholarship and academic integrity and worth in https://www.academicimpressions.com/webcast/onboarding-spring-admits-future-success asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 136-139 138 online learning must be bolstered by illuminating the strength of flexibility and integration of perspective offers in the virtual environments as opposed to the traditional format. furthermore, the online learning environment will be able to exhibit strengths that should encourage traditional face to face instruction to consider some level of hybrid interaction in the instructional process. learning how to communicate in the online classroom may require new skills for doctoral students. a publication by teacherstream (2009) in its resource guide, mastering online discussion board facilitation, asserts that the ability to communicate asynchronously is one of the primary skills required in online learning. therefore, strategic onboarding programs can incorporate and introduce virtual communication skills to doctoral students. virtual discussion boards represent a new paradigm of communication and students need to be oriented to the types of reflective responses and in-depth conversations needed to build community in the virtual classroom. in strategic onboarding orientation, doctoral students need to be made aware of responsible and substantive forum posting information and exchanging comments, questions, and ideas. students need to be prepared for what is considered a substantive post and how to extend the online conversations with classroom peers. in strategic onboarding practices, there must be intentional actions on the part of the university to prepare students to acquire the collaborative communication skills needed to be responsible members of the virtual classroom and build rapport with their peers. 4. four c’s of strategic onboarding bauer (2010) describes the four c’s of onboarding which can be appropriately incorporated into the onboarding process for doctoral students: compliance – basic legal and policy-related rules and regulations; clarification – ensure employees understand organizational expectations; culture – provide a sense of organizational norms, both formal and informal; connection – establish the vital interpersonal relationships and information networks needed for success. from the moment of acceptance into the doctoral program, onboarding activities should begin to help the new scholar understand the nature and scope of the anticipated academic experience. some of the four c’s requirements for new doctoral students include: compliance: admission acceptance, academic deadlines, academic advising, grading practices, enrollment information and registration pins, course schedules, technology requirements, and attendance clarification: academic progress regulations, discussion board participation, research and scholarship requirements; training in navigating the e-college platform culture: departmental procedures and practices, faculty research interests, academic socialization opportunities, connections: collaborative mentoring, social media uses, community of learners, academic mentoring, building relationships with peers and faculty; doctoral student networking. following the broad trend of increased participation in online learning, students in online doctoral programs can facilitate communications by becoming competent in social networking and social media sites as tools for collaboration. current social media platforms are continually growing and provide useful tools that help students navigate the need for social interaction in the virtual environment for collaboration and scholarship. additionally, social media applications contribute to the ability of instructors and students to stay connected and share information and resources. 5. strategic onboarding and the smart start mullendore and banahan (2005) stresses the critical role that strategic onboarding plays in providing a smart start for students: "the literature for the past thirty years has been clear that it is equally important to understand that it is the combination of academic and social integration that is critical to student success and retention, and a student's comfort level with a college is often established during orientation. orientation provides multiple opportunities for your new students to meet and interact with others, thus beginning the social and academic integration processes." intentional retention starts with early conversations about realistic expectations about the rigors of doctoral study. doctoral students in online programs are expected to meet the rigorous challenges of doctoral coursework with a can-do attitude and the ability to make an impact in the world through the education that they acquire. strategic onboarding programs assist doctoral students in understanding that much will be required of them and that they are expected to gain the scholar’s depth and breadth of academic inquiry. doctoral degree holders are expected to become engaged and productive members of the academic learning community. the rights and responsibilities of doctoral degree holders promote the advancement of scholarship and research regardless of the particular field of study that a person embarks on. it is important to tell doctoral scholars at the beginning of the journey that they are expected to do great things and become organizational change agents. references allen, i.e. and j. seaman, 2011. going the distance: online education in the united states babson survey research group and quahong research group, llc. available from http://www.onlinelearningsurvey.com/reports/growingthecurriculum.pdf [accessed 15 march 2013]. bauer, t.n., 2010. onboarding new employees: maximizing success. shrm foundation’s effective practice guideline series. alexandria, va: shrm foundation. beaver, t.n. and b. erdogan, 2011. organizational socialization: the effective onboarding of new employees. in s. zedeck (eds.). apa handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. washington, dc: american psychological association. holmes, b., m. trimble and d. morrison-danner, 2014. advancing scholarship, team building, and collaboration in a hybrid doctoral program in educational leadership. journal of college teaching & learning (tlc), 11(4): 175-180. mullendore, r.h. and l.a. banahan, 2005. designing orientation programs as found in challenging and supporting the first-year student by upcraft, m. l., gardner, j. n., and barefoot, b. o. national resource center for the first-year experience and student in transition. http://www.onlinelearningsurvey.com/reports/growingthecurriculum.pdf asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 136-139 139 teacherstream, l., 2009. mastering online discussion board facilitation: resource guide. available from http://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/stw/edutopia-onlinelearning-mastering-online-discussion-board-facilitation.pdf. walker, g.e., 2008. the formation of scholars: rethinking doctoral education for the twenty-first century. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. bibliography adams, j., 2008. understanding the factors limiting the acceptability of online courses and degrees. unpublished manuscript. florida state university. adams, j. and m. defleur, 2005. the acceptability of a doctoral degree earned online as a credential for obtaining a faculty position. american journal of distance education, 19(2): 71-85. adams, j. and m. defleur, 2006. the acceptability of online degrees earned as a credential for obtaining employment. communication education, 55(1): 32-45. baker, c. (2010). the impact of instructor immediacy and presence for online student affective learning, cognition, and motivation. journal of educators online, 7(1): 1-30. edutopia, n.d. mastering online learning. available from http://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/stw/edutopia-onlinelearning-mastering-onlinediscussion-board-facilitation.pdf. friedman, h. h., & friedman, l. w. (2011). crises in education: online learning as a solution. creative education, 2(03): 156-163. onboarding spring admits for future success | academic impressions. (n.d.). retrieved january 5, 2016, from https://www.academicimpressions.com/webcast/onboarding-spring-admits-future-success weiser friedman, l., & friedman, h. (2010). using social media technologies to enhance online learning. journal of educators online, 10(1): 1-22. hartman, k., 2007. major employers embrace online degrees. distance learning today, 1(2): 12-13. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/stw/edutopia-onlinelearning-mastering-online-discussion-board-facilitation.pdf http://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/stw/edutopia-onlinelearning-mastering-online-discussion-board-facilitation.pdf http://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/stw/edutopia-onlinelearning-mastering-online-discussion-board-facilitation.pdf asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 2, 40-44, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 40 the language question, development and the education of the disadvantaged through open and distance learning (odl): a case of the zimbabwe open university (zou) isaac mhute 1 --maxwell constantine chando musingafi 2 1 faculty of arts and education, zimbabwe open university, zimbabwe 2 faculty of applied social sciences, department of development studies, zimbabwe open university, zimbabwe abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group 1. introduction open universities are not only seen as the most appropriate vehicle to capacitate the disadvantaged and poor communities of africa, but also the surest way to mobilise the african masses for the elusive socio-economic development. since the advent of independence, a plethora of universities offering research degrees in public administration, governance and socio-economic development, have opened their doors but the destination is still very far. africa boasts of a fair share of professors, but still africa is moving backward in terms of socio-economic development. where is the missing link? will open universities succeed where conventional universities have failed just because they claim to have opened their doors to the remote grassroots communities? this paper locates the problem in the media of communication. we are not ‘going community’ when we ‘shout’ at the community, rather than engaging them in a communication process that gives them open space for meaningful contribution. using the zimbabwe open university as a case study, the paper argues that the solution is in mobilising and developing indigenous languages so that we start communicating with the communities rather than ‘shouting’ at them. 2. definition of key terms here are the working definitions for some of the key terms:  language question – a question about which language or language variety is to be used at whatever level in a community or institution.  second language learning – the process in which people who have already acquired their first language are taught another language usually at school.  open and distance learning – a process through which people of varying ages enroll and learn at an institution whilst they are at a distance. in other words, most of the times the students would be learning whilst they are at their homes. this paper focuses on the language question and the education of the disadvantaged through open and distance learning at tertiary level. it seeks to explore some of the difficulties associated with the teaching and learning of the disadvantaged through open and distance learning as a result of the zimbabwean educational language policy. the paper is a qualitative analysis of data gathered on teaching and learning of some of the disadvantaged students through open and distance learning in the zimbabwe open university. observation and unstructured interviews were used to establish the conditions experienced by these students in their endeavor to comprehend their modules as well as express themselves in tutorials, assignments and examinations. the paper expresses the situation and moves on to demonstrate the unavailability of anything sacred in the use of english as the sole medium of instruction in open and distance learning. it is suggesting the implementation of a more favourable language policy in open and distance learning since the mission of the zimbabwe open university as an open and distance learning institution is to ensure education for all. the paper is suggesting the need to use local languages as the languages of instruction, for instance, the two national languages (shona and ndebele). keywords: language question, second language acquisition, open and distance learning, english language, shona, ndebele, disadvantaged groups. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2):40-44 41  disadvantaged groups – groups of people whose academic backgrounds have been negatively impacted on by factors beyond their control. in the end they may have difficulties with some of the skills such as fluency in a second language. 3. background open and distance learning in zimbabwe at tertiary level is the core business of the zimbabwe open university. it is the only institution offering degrees through the open and distance learning system in the country. the zimbabwe open university started in 1993, that is, way after the attainment of independence in 1980. the programmes and courses were designed and developed by the zimbabweans themselves for consumption mainly by fellow zimbabweans. of course here and there foreigners enroll but in most cases the student population comprises of only zimbabweans. the institution has adopted a language policy calling for the sole use of english as the language of instruction. crawford, as cited on (crawford), defines a language policy as what a government or institution does to determine how languages are used within the country or institution. according to shohamy (2006), although nations and institutions historically have used language policies most often to promote one official language at the expense of others, many countries now have policies designed to protect and promote regional and ethnic languages whose viability is threatened. this has the major advantage of promoting languages that carry the cultures and traditions of those people. by so doing their traditional wisdoms are maintained and their continuous manipulation for the betterment of the nation is ensured. in the zimbabwean context, the english language was introduced into the country by the former colonial power, britain, in 1890 for the service of the white man’s goals in the country. these goals ranged from political, economic up to religious. with the withdrawal of the white man’s rule in the country 90 years down the line, unfortunately his language policy remained very intact. even programmes like open and distance learning devised by zimbabweans for themselves during their own era found english playing the centre stage. this flavour unfortunately made the programmes and courses unfriendly to the local learner. the zimbabwe open university offers tertiary education to students from different backgrounds. these include the poor and the rich. there is usually enrolment of many students whose educational backgrounds are not so smooth. these have been disadvantaged in different ways. they include students who attained their ordinary level qualifications as adult learners through correspondence, which is another form of open and distance learning. in the zimbabwean situation, this happened as a result of varying factors. some of the people had left the country to participate in the zimbabwean war of liberation. they left their studies at varying levels, some of whom did so at very low levels. others had their primary and secondary studies greatly interrupted due to the unavailability of funds for the payment of fees. as a consequence, they failed their ordinary level leading to corresponding years down the line. researchers have demonstrated that one area that does not require such interruptions is the second language learning process. both the input hypothesis (emphasising importance of knowledge injected into the language learner) and output hypothesis (emphasising vitality of practising to speak the language being learned) of language acquisition support this position (ellis, 2005; cook, 2008; gass and selinker, 2008). monitoring is another important concept in some theoretical models of learner use of second language knowledge. according to krashen (1982), the monitor is an important component of a second language learner’s language processing device that uses knowledge gained from language learning to observe and regulate the learner’s own second language production, checking for accuracy and adjusting language production when necessary. chomskyan linguists (chomsky, 2001) have since demonstrated that the process of second language learning can best take place in years before puberty. this is when the blue print or language acquisition device in the human mind that is geared towards language acquisition would best be prepared to adopt a new language. failure to learn during this period would have considerable negative impact on the overall fluency of the person in the second language. in zimbabwe, english is learned as a second language. the majority start learning it at school as they will be acquiring their primary level education. unfortunately, due to varying factors such as the unavailability of fees as well as the abandonment of learning at some early stages to participate in the war of liberation, the second language acquisition process did not take place so smoothly in some people. as a result their fluency in english was greatly affected. those people now want to further their education through open and distance learning. it is upon this kind of background that the research was carried out to find out some of the difficulties they are facing as well as suggest ways for combating such problems. 4. statement of the problem zimbabwe open university’s mission as an open and distance learning institution is, among other things, to take education and empower everybody. however, amongst the target population, there are some who were disadvantaged to the extent that their learning of english as a second language did not take place so smoothly. this appears to be making their learning process difficult and in some cases unbearable since the institution has made english the sole language of instruction. the paper ventures into investigating the nature of the challenges being faced and suggesting possible alternative language policies that may enhance the institution’s race towards its mission of empowering all through open and distance learning. 5. research objectives some of the leading objectives for this paper are to:  find out the nature of the difficulties encountered by disadvantaged learners due to the zimbabwean language policy.  investigate the difficulties experienced in tutoring the students.  find out the short-term and long-term effects of the situation. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2):40-44 42  find out possible alternative language policies for the institution. 6. research methodology this is a qualitative study where data was gathered through observations and unstructured interviews on the teaching and learning of disadvantaged students in the zimbabwe open university. these are students who have had their second language learning process disturbed in one way or the other. whilst the population included all the zimbabwe open university students and lecturers, the sample saw lecturers and students in masvingo as well as harare chitungwiza regions being observed and interviewed by the researcher himself. the students were assured before interviews that their identities would remain anonymous as there would not be any names tagged on to it. the information was recorded in a notebook and analysed qualitatively. 7. findings there are disadvantaged students with varying backgrounds in the zimbabwe open university. the first group have left conventional education at a very tender age (such as grade 3) to take part in the zimbabwean war of liberation. some got married to fellow fighters and stayed there with their husbands who got employment there immediately after independence. some of them even had some of their children during their stay there. they returned recently and attained ordinary level passes through correspondence, another form of open and distance learning. they then decided to start their tertiary education with zimbabwe open university. there are some whose primary education was interrupted by the unavailability of fees. learning proved to be not viable and they ended up dropping out of school. these corresponded way after and attained their required subjects for the zimbabwe open university education. there are other students who completed their ordinary level long back without passes in english and other subjects only to attain them recently through correspondence. they have decided again to proceed to tertiary education with the zimbabwe open university. these groups of people have been enrolled into various zimbabwe open university programmes. it has come out that these students have difficulties with english as the institution’s medium of instruction. some of them are not even doing english language as a course but they are facing difficulties in their learning process due to lack of fluency in the english language as explained below: 7.1. problems encountered by the tutors and students in the education process most of the affected students attend but would not participate in the tutorials. they usually hold on to their questions and problems up until the tutorials are over. they are shy to air out their concerns during tutorial times because of the difficulties they have when it comes to expressing themselves in the language of instruction, english. after almost every normal tutorial session, they would ask their colleagues and tutors for assistance. they are more comfortable expressing the depth of their misunderstandings during such times as they would be making use of their first languages. it is after such exercises that they would demonstrate some understanding of the concepts. if they are asked questions by tutors or colleagues during tutorial time they would also resort to their first language. some of the students indicated that they feel so uncomfortable when they attend the tutorial sessions as the tutors and colleagues are free to ask them questions to assess their degree of understanding the subjects of the discussions. others went further and indicated that now that the zimbabwe open university products are scattered all over, it is better to avoid frustration associated with a normal tutorial session through avoiding attending tutorials and sorting private tutorials where they stay. it has also come out that these students have difficulties with the comprehension of the concepts in their modules. the majority of them are generally mature people who are quite focused and spending most of their time with their books. however, they have the sole obstacle, that is, the medium through which concepts are being expressed in their modules. they often visit coordinators for clarification of most of the critical concepts, in each case making sure that they are explained in the national language, shona. following their request, one of the tutors in harare ended up even conducting some english extra lessons. this meant an extra load of work on the part of the tutor. the students suffer a lot in carrying out their studies as they have to commit most of their time to their books, as indicated earlier. they need clarification for almost every critical aspect in their module and they need it in the national language. unfortunately some of the lecturers cannot be easily accessed for the extra lessons. another lecturer in masvingo indicated that he often find them seeking clarifications from her even for courses that she does not teach. the students could also hardly express themselves in the assignments. a number of the tutors have indicated that there are students whose essays could hardly be understood. they have added that some of the students would knit together a good argument to a certain level but only to have it interrupted by the insertion of one or two contradictory statements at some point. this affects the students’ performances in assignments as well as examinations. as a result, some of the students often find themselves in situations whereby they fail all of the four courses they would be doing, especially in the first semester of their first year. some of them indicated that, after their first semester, they even threatened to pull out of open and distance learning and only proceeded after some encouragements they got from tutors and well-wishers. there are some second year students who have also demonstrated that a lack of confidence is still rampant in them arguing that if first and second year concepts could be this difficult to understand then there is no hope of passing third and fourth year courses. however, one lecturer has indicated that, though there is evidence of challenges being experienced by such students, the majority of them are so bright if they are judged from the rate at which they adapt to learning in english at this level. he has also indicated some likelihood of some of the many dropouts the institution talks of at the moment being a result of this problem. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2):40-44 43 8. discussion these findings may raise a number of questions such as: ‘but why in the first place has the nation chosen such a kind of language policy for institutions including those into open and distance learning?’ the zimbabwe open university as an institution has a mission to observe no boundary and take tertiary education to empower everybody but the language policy that has been adopted is not conducive for such a mission. considering the nature of such clients, it becomes so clear that this language policy is too rigid for such a kind of learning process. as a result, it has made the learning process so unfriendly to the student. if more research is carried out, the number of students experiencing this kind of problem and its impact on them may be alarming. as indicated earlier, one of the lecturers’ assessments has proved that most of these students are very bright. they could have emerged to be the best in the institution but all this was ruined by their poor mastery of the medium of instruction. this demonstrates that talent in such students is being greatly affected by the institution’s language policy. again this leads to the questions: ‘what is sacred about the use of english as the sole medium of instruction in the zimbabwean educational system? why are former colonies being continuously derailed by the policies of the former colonizer when they are saying independence came for them to recover from the damage colonialism did to them? one can reasonably suspect that some of the failures that are being experienced in different courses, including in conventional institutions, are a result of this language policy in the system. it is beyond debate that education is best when done in one’s mother tongue. learning in a foreign language such as english has made most of the courses unnecessarily difficult for most people. the concepts are usually quite easy but they are being explained in terms that are unfriendly to the learners which make them very difficult to understand. in the zimbabwean situation, during the colonial era, english was meant to screen people and in so doing it acted as an obstacle that blocked a number of dreams. failure to pass the language meant unemployability as well as the unavailability of opportunities to progress even to higher educational levels. evidence from the current research has demonstrated that today it is still performing the same function. this means whilst the people cried for and fought tirelessly for independence believing that it was going to emancipate and empower them, it is evident in the situation prevalent in the current educational system that they are afraid of completely emancipating and empowering their selves through putting in place policies that enable full manipulation of all the potential talents in the country. to date, the most developed countries have their indigenous languages at the heart of their language policies in every one of their systems. the japanese, chinese etc. offer their education in their indigenous languages. unlike the zimbabweans, these countries have managed to put their own people first through making their own educational systems so friendly to them. if foreigners are to go there to enroll for different educational programmes, they would find themselves bound to undertake foreign language lessons since the lectures are offered using those countries’ indigenous languages as the media of instruction. they have made their educational systems friendly to their own people though in a way unfriendly to the foreigners. they, therefore, make their people primary and foreigners secondary in everything they do. with the zimbabweans, the opposite is true. they still have the colonial mentality that anything that is typical of the former mother power symbolizes development and marks progress. it appears they are still colonized though the nature of control being imposed on them is now by way of some kind of a remote control. there is need for a revision of their approach towards everything including their education if they are to totally emancipate and empower their selves. this is the only way through which they may be able to tap all talents in the people and make everything they do typical of them. they must stop perceiving the former mother power as their model and approach education, progress and development in their own direction. zimbabweans should place their selves at the centre of everything that they do. the paper does not suggest a total shift from the teaching of the international language or the so-called modern languages. that is impossible in this globalised world. however, there has to be teaching of languages as courses that are separate from other courses. they can do other courses in the national languages (shona and ndebele) in order to make the system friendlier to the local consumers who own it. the majority of the students usually does all the thinking in their mother tongues and then translates to the medium of instruction. therefore, for one to succeed in such a system he/she has to be good in the course concepts as well as in the field of translation. this is often rare as translation is a very difficult course on its own right (ellis, 2005). that way it is beyond doubt that a lot of talents are being lost during the educational process and this can be the reason behind the reduced speed in as far as the process of development is concerned. some may think that it is impossible to teach some of the very technical courses in the national languages. however, linguistics has it that no language is superior to the other and no language has vocabulary for every aspect in the world. what all languages rely upon are the different lexical expansion and semantic processes. these include word formation processes such as innovation or coinage (creation of new terms from the scratch), borrowing (adopting terms from other languages and adapting them to suit the processes in the language), clipping (taking of a part of the word and using it to mean the same as the full version), backformation (shortening of terms), blending (taking parts of two words and joining them to mean something that has characteristics of both words) and derivation (addition of affixes that generate new words by making words fit into different syntactic categories) (cook, 2008). these help all the languages to deal with any kind of lexical deficiency or lexical gaps that may develop over time. to further support the possibility of teaching some of the technical courses using a language like shona or ndebele, people should note that even the english language was originally not equipped to deal with such courses. it was aided by the very processes alluded to above. for instance, a lot of words like ‘terminus’ were borrowed from latin. to support the possibility further, there is also the teaching of one of the most technical and scientific linguistic courses, phonetics and phonology, using the shona language as the medium of instruction at great zimbabwe university. the researcher’s analysis of the attitude of the learners towards this approach to learning of such technical courses led to the conclusion that nothing is impossible and learning and teaching could be very easy and interesting if done in a language one is more comfortable with. the african languages research institute’s project of compiling a number of shona and ndebele dictionaries for areas like mathematics, science and literature terms at the university of zimbabwe also demonstrated that everything can be said in every language. if all these are possible asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2):40-44 44 in the local languages then making them the media of instruction in open and distance level becomes far from being impossible. the position of the paper is that what is lacking but still necessary is a positive attitude and a patriotic mind. if the revision of the current setup is not done by the current generation, the situation may become too natural for the future generations to deal with it. 9. suggestions for zimbabwe open university as an open and distance learning institution to achieve its mission statement, there is an urgent need for it to lobby for a revision of the nation’s language policy. they must replace english as the sole medium of instruction with local languages like shona and ndebele. this would make the learning process friendlier to the local learner who must be the system’s main target. this would also instill self love and confidence within the people which is in turn the basis for true progress and development. it would make it easier for the learners to link the learned concepts and what they have around them. this is the only ground that can ensure innovativeness amongst the learners. it is the only situation that would bring an end to the caliber of the current technicians and engineers who can only go as far as maintaining and repairing what has been produced by others. if this is not achieved then they would continue imitating other people’s brainchildren. 10. conclusion the research has demonstrated difficulties being generated by the rigid language policies in zimbabwe in general and the zimbabwe open university in particular especially when it comes to the teaching and learning of the disadvantaged. it has been demonstrated by way of reference to history that there is nothing sacred in the use of the former colonial power’s language. the language was just introduced to the country basically for the sole goal of ensuring convenience on the colonizer’s part. nowadays, way after his departure, all it is doing is make the systems such as open and distance education unfriendly to the local consumers which is the very role it played during the colonial era. this is inflicting unnecessary pain on the local learners at the same time resulting in possible losses of talent in the country. it has been suggested that the revision of the language policies will make learning easier and more suitable for the efforts in open and distance learning of taking language to all. what remain necessary but still missing are a positive attitude as well as a patriotic mind. it has been suggested that english should be replaced with the national languages as the step could make education more relevant to the zimbabwean environment. references chomsky, n., 2001. derivation by phase. in michael kenstowicz (ed). ken hale: a life in language. mit press. cook, v., 2008. second language learning and language teaching. london: arnold. crawford, j. available from www.languagepolicywebsite. ellis, r., 2005. measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language: a psychometric study. studies in second language acquisition, 27(2): 141–172. gass, s. and l. selinker, 2008. second language acquisition: an introductory course. new york: routledge. krashen, s., 1982. principles and practice in second language acquisition. new york: pergamon press. shohamy, e., 2006. language policy: hidden agendas and new approaches. london: routledge. bibliography ellis, r., 1997. second language acquisition. oxford introductions to language study. oxford: oxford university press. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.languagepolicywebsite/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 2, 77-81, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 77 stress of male homosexual students: a structure model prawichaya nutthakornkul 1 --prasart isarapreeda 2* 1 social technology faculty, rajamangala university of technology, isan, kalasin campus, thailand 2 faculty of education, chaiyaphum rajabhat university, thailand abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 78 2. research instrument and methodology .................................................................................................................................. 78 3. results ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 79 4. confirmatory factor analysis ................................................................................................................................................. 80 5. discussions ................................................................................................................................................................................. 81 6. conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................................. 81 7. acknowledgement ..................................................................................................................................................................... 81 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 81 objective: to investigate male homosexual students’ stress and validate the consistency of the male homosexual students’ stress model and empirical data. materials and methods: a snowball technique was used to recruit 416 male homosexual students studying in the academic year 2010 at the institutions of higher education in the northeastern region of the kingdom of thailand. the instrument used was a questionnaire eliciting data concerning stress with fifteen item, 3 factors namely depressive factor consisted of 5 aspects including feeling of inferiority, loneliness, lament, committing suicide, and despair. the anxiety factor consisted of 5 aspects including feeling fear, jittery, impatient, restless, and terrorized. the hostility factor consisted of 5 aspects including feeling moody, cross, agitated, hassle, and pernicious. the collected data were analyzed through computer program. results: the male homosexual students showed stress, as a whole, in a moderate level. the confirmatory factor analysis of stress model revealed 3 factors namely depressive anxiety and hostility factor. the results revealed that depressive factor was the most important for stress model, anxiety and hostility factor, followed by factor loading ranking. the validation of a goodness of fitted model yielded χ 2 = 220.55, df = 113, p = .00, χ 2 /df = 1.95, gfi =.95, agfi =.94, cfi = .99, rmr = .04 and rmsea = .04. conclusion: the stress model of male homosexual students revealed 3 factors namely depressive anxiety and hostility factors. the variables in this stress model exhibited congruence with the empirical data collected by the researcher at a statistically significant level. keywords: stress, male homosexual students. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 77-81 78 1. introduction the thai society has positive and negative attitudes towards the male homosexual or the men loving/having sex with men. seemingly, the negative one is more influential, particularly the family members’ negative reactions. according to a study in the u.s., 30% of male homosexuals report that their family members express the negative reactions after disclosing their sexual orientation (telljohan and price, 1993). this may explain why most of them (77%) unveil it to their close friends and why only 33% of family members and 43% of the general public (e.g. workplaces or educational institutions) are told about the male homosexuality. perkins (2003) under the social value, the male homosexuality should be kept in secrete because it is embarrassing, saddens the parents and causes the family’s negative reactions. the male homosexuals’ experience of being humiliated and different from others as well as social bias and hatred towards them may be an important cause of their stress leading to their feelings of loneliness, depression, anxiety and hostility. also, the bias and hatred may hurt or threaten their emotions and contribute to a low level of self-esteem. savinwilliams (1995) their behavioral self-control may be severely impacted, which has a positive relation with the unsafe anal sex a contributory factor of the infection of sexually transmitted diseases e.g. aids and with the suicidal risk.(d’augelli, 1992; martin and knox, 1997) the researchers thus desire to develop a structure model of stress of male homosexual students at the institutions of higher education in the northeastern region of the kingdom of thailand. the confirmatory factor analysis is conducted in order to reflect the factors that precisely agree with the actual conditions of stress along, while the conceptual framework and research result of crepaz and marks are applied. crepaz and marks (2001) both of them believe that the depressive, anxiety and hostility factors are the 3 problematic behaviors that cause the male homosexuals’ stress as shown in figure 1. all these factors have a very close relation with the health risks because, with a very high level of stress, the normal behavior control can be negatively and severely affected resulting in the behavioral deviance (department of mental health, 1999) aids-risk behaviors and suicide, which is eventually the loss of valuable human resources. figure-1. a structure model of stress of male homosexual students at the institutions of higher education in the northeastern region 2. research instrument and methodology the survey research technique is used in this study because the exact number of the male homosexual students at the institutions of higher education in the northeastern region, academic year 2010, is unknown. therefore, the sample size is determined based on the results of the previous study. (phanomketman; wipha and atcharaphorn, 2004) it is believed that the male homosexual students account for approximately 10% of total male populations. according to the matrix of krejcie and morgan (1970) the sample consists of 369 persons but, in this particular research, the sample size is increased by 16% to 416 persons. the snowball technique is then used in the selection of sample from the 4 categories of institutions of higher education in northeastern region as shown in table 1. table-1. amount of populations and samples of male homosexual students at the institutions of higher education in northeastern region, academic year 2010 categories of institutions of higher education in northeastern region populations (persons) sample (persons) rajamangala university of technology isan 1,194 51 rajabhat university 4,571 197 other public universities 2,999 130 private institutions of higher education 923 38 total 9,687 416 the data collection instrument is the fifteen-item questionnaire. according to the expert's opinions, the question items have an index of congruence between .80 and 1.00 and validity of .93. the t-test is used in identifying the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 77-81 79 discrimination, which is between 5.15 and 8.51. the questionnaire reliability as measured by cronbach’s alpha coefficient is .91. it consists of 3 following parts: part 1: it has 5 question items concerning the depression assessment. part 2: it has 5 question items concerning the anxiety assessment. part 3: it has 5 question items concerning the hostility assessment. 2.1. data collection the researcher chooses 5 research assistants from the students who accept their male homosexuality. they are explained about the research objectives and data collection methods to ensure that they can do it correctly. they are requested to nominate the qualified persons for the sample to create a network. those qualified persons are questioned about their acceptance. after being accepted, they are asked to answer to the questionnaire. if they encounter any difficulties in responding to the question items, the interview will be an alternative for data collection. then, the researcher and research assistants recheck the completeness of the data filled in questionnaire prior to scoring and data analysis. 2.2. data analysis in this research, the researcher has conducted the data analysis using the package software. 1. the package software is used in the analysis of the general data of the sample according to the examined variables with an aim to identify the sample’s characteristics including the average, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis. .2 the correlation coefficient among the observed variables in the male homosexual students’ stress model is analyzed by means of pearson's correlation coefficient in order to reflect the correlation matrix of those observed factors. the correlation matrix used in the factor analysis is then examined whether it has a significant difference from zero by taking into account bartlett’s test of sphericity and kaiser-meyer-olkin measures of sampling adequacy. .3 the qualified correlation matrix is explored through the confirmatory factor analysis with the application of package software. the maximum likelihood (ml) is implemented in the parameter estimation for verifying the construct validity with the consideration of the consistency of structural equation model under the relevant theories and empirical data. the goodness-of-fit measures are chi-square (χ 2 ), relative chi-square (χ 2 /df), goodness-of-fit index (gfi), adjusted goodness-of-fit index ( agfi), comparative fit index (cfi), root mean squared residual (rmr) and root mean square error of approximation (rmsea).the confirmatory factor analysis is divided in to the 2 following steps: step 1 :the construct validity of the observed variable in each stress factor is examined through the confirmatory factor analysis. the factor scale is developed on the basis of the total score of fifteen factors. step2:the secondary order confirmatory factor analysis aims to verify the construct validity of the 3 factors and to compare between the factor loading and empirical data. besides, it also analyzes the factor scale (step 1) in order to identify the factor loading of 15 factors. 3. results 1. according to the study of the male homosexual students’ stress, their overall stress is above the threshold at a moderate level with an average of 2.95and standard deviation of .94.after the factor categorization, one stress factor is found to be above the threshold at a high level and the other two are above the threshold at a moderate level. besides, the feelings of loneliness, lament and inferiority and the desire to commit suicide are the 4 aspects of stress, which are above the threshold at a high level with an average between 3.04 and 3.53 and a standard deviation between .87 and .93. meanwhile, the other 11 aspects of stress that are above the threshold at a moderate level are the feelings of despair, jittery, fear, impatience, restlessness, terror, moodiness, agitation, hassle, crossness and perniciousness. they have an average between 2.62 and 2.99 and a standard deviation between .90 and .98. this is shown in the table 2. table-2. mean and standard deviation of the male homosexual students’ stress variables x sd definitions 1. depression 3.18 .91 above the threshold at a high level desire to commit suicide 3.04 .93 above the threshold at a high level feeling of loneliness 3.23 .87 above the threshold at a high level feeling of lament 3.15 .89 above the threshold at a high level feeling of despair 2.95 .94 above the threshold at a moderate level feeling of inferiority 3.53 .92 above the threshold at a high level 2. anxiety 2.87 .95 above the threshold at a moderate level feeling of jittery 2.95 .90 above the threshold at a moderate level feeling of fear 2.99 .94 above the threshold at a moderate level feeling of impatience 2.86 .96 above the threshold at a moderate level feeling of restlessness 2.72 .98 above the threshold at a moderate level feeling of terror 2.87 .98 above the threshold at a moderate level 3. hostility 2.82 .96 above the threshold at a moderate level feeling of moodiness 2.99 .94 above the threshold at a moderate level feeling of agitation 2.62 .98 above the threshold at a moderate level feeling of hassle 2.87 .96 above the threshold at a moderate level feeling of crossness 2.90 .96 above the threshold at a moderate level feeling of perniciousness 2.76 .98 above the threshold at a moderate level total 2.95 .94 above the threshold at a moderate level asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 77-81 80 4. confirmatory factor analysis 2.1 the confirmatory factor analysis aims to create a factor scale and to compare the factor loadings of depression, anxiety and hostility. then, the scale factor is created to identify the new variables for the subsequent data analysis. in particular, the depressive, anxiety and hostility factors consist of 5 variables each with the factor loading of .77 to .82, .64 to .81, and .69 to .86, respectively. 2.2 according to the confirmatory factor analysis, the stress model consists of 3 factors, which are listed from highest to the lowest factor loading as shown in table 3. the feeling of inferiority, feeling of loneliness, feeling of lament, desire to commit suicide and feeling of despair are the 5 aspects of depressive factor with the factor loadings of .82 .88 . 88 .77 and .77, respectively. the anxiety factor has 5 aspects, namely, feeling of fear, feeling of jittery, feeling of impatience, feeling of restlessness and feeling of terror. their factor loadings are .81 .80.80 .64and .6 4, respectively. the hostility factor comprises 5 aspects: feeling of moody, feeling of agitation, feeling of hassle, feeling of crossness and feeling of perniciousness. they have the factor loadings of .86 .72 .69 .69 and .69, respectively. 2.3 the examination of construct validity through the confirmatory factor analysis reveals that the depressive factor has the highest factor loading followed by the anxiety and hostility factors. their factor loadings are .86 .77 and .76, respectively. this is shown in table3. table-3. factor loading, standard error, t-test of statistical significance and coefficient of determinant based on the analysis of main factors and indicative behaviors of main factors of stress factors/indicators b se t r 2 1. depression .86 .07 14.62** .91 desire to commit suicide .77 .06 13.09** .80 feeling of loneliness .80 .06 13.60** .87 feeling of lament .80 .08 13.91** .87 feeling of despair .77 .05 13.24** .80 feeling of inferiority .82 .06 13.94** .89 2. anxiety .77 .07 10.94** .78 feeling of jittery .80 .04 11.39** .76 feeling of fear .81 .05 11.78** .78 feeling of impatience .80 .24 10.34** .58 feeling of restlessness .64 .08 10.09** .63 feeling of terror .64 .05 10.35** .63 3. hostility .76 .08 13.50** .85 feeling of moodiness .86 .06 11.45** .85 feeling of agitation .69 .09 10.37** .65 feeling of hassle .69 .08 10.45** .65 feeling of crossness .72 .06 11.29** .67 feeling of perniciousness .69 .07 10.57** .65 **p<.01 2.4 according to the results of the examination of the consistencybetween the male homosexual students’ stress model and the empirical hypothesis, the goodness-of-fit index between the stress model and the empirical data is as follows: χ 2 = 220.55, df = 113, p = .00, χ 2 /df = 1.95, gfi= .95, agfi = .94, cfi = .99, rmr= .04 and rmsea = .04. consequently, it can be said that the hypothesized model has a consistency with the empirical data (figure 2). figure-2.analysis of main factors and indicative behaviors of main factors of stress chi-square = 220.55, df = 113, p-value = 0. 00, rmsea = 0.040 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 77-81 81 5. discussions 1.the overall stress of the male homosexual students at the institutions of higher education in northeastern region is above the threshold at a moderate level because they need to hide their own sexual orientation. in spite of higher understanding and acceptance of sexual diversity in the thai society, the negative perceptions towards male homosexuality still exist. this may be a contributory factor to the male homosexual students’ stress. likewise, a study on the male homosexuality in the us also reveals a similar finding that the feeling of imperfectness, embarrassment of being different from others and social bias or hatred are the cause of stress and of negative selfconcept. meyer (1995) this results in the feelings of anxiety, fear, terror, moodiness, hostility, agitation, despair and perniciousness. 2. the male homosexual students’ stress is above the threshold at a high level because of their anxiety and despair. besides, the negative social attitudes towards them can cause the depression and ignite the feelings of inferiority, loneliness and lament. all these result eventually in a high level of desire to commit suicide. this is in conformance with many reports confirming that the male homosexuals have more mental health problem than the straight males. (cochran and mays, 2006; lewis, 2009) the previous studies also indicate that the male homosexuals’ rate of depression is 1.5-3.57 folds higher than the straight males. meanwhile 40-55% of male homosexuals have attempted to commit suicide but only 18-30% (lewis, 2009) of straight males having tried to do so. importantly, the male homosexuals have higher level of depression and bad temper when compared to the straight males with a statistical significance.(cochran and mays, 2006) 3. the researcher has determined that the hypothesized model of the male homosexual students’ stress consists of 3 factors: the depression, anxiety and hostility. this hypothesized model agrees with the conceptual framework of crepaz and marks (2001) who believe that the male homosexuals’ stress consists of the depression, anxiety and hostility. it is also a problematic behavior that has a close relation with the health risks. an intense stress severely affects the normal behavior control process resulting in the behavioral deviance. (dmh, 1999) 6. conclusion the male homosexual students’ stress model consists of 3 factors. firstly, the depressive factor has 5 aspects: the feeling of inferiority, feeling of loneliness, feeling of lament, feeling of despair and desire to commit suicide. secondly, the anxiety factor also comprises 5 aspects, namely, the feeling of fear, feeling of jittery, feeling of impatience, feeling of restlessness and feeling of terror. lastly, the hostility factor consists of 5 aspects, which are the feeling of moodiness, feeling of crossness, feeling of agitation, feeling of hassle and feeling of preciousness. in this regard, the depressive factor has the highest factor loading of .86, while the anxiety and hostility factors have the close factor loading of .77 and 76, respectively. in addition, the consistency between the hypothesized model of stress factors and the empirical data is found as follows: chi-square (χ 2 ) of220.55 with the degree of freedom of 113, possibility of .00, relative chi-square (χ 2 /df) of 1.95, goodness-of-fit index(gfi) of .95, adjusted goodness of fit index(agfi) of .94, comparative fit index (cfi) of .99, root mean squared residual (rmr) of .04 and root mean square error of approximation (rmsea) of .04. 7. acknowledgement the researchers would like to express the gratitude to rakhamhaeng university for the research grant. references cochran, s.d. and v.m. mays, 2006. estimating prevalence of mental and substance-using disorders among lesbians and gay men from existing national health data. in a. m. omoto & h. s. kurtzman (eds.). sexual orientation and mental health. washington, dc: american psychological association. pp: 143-65. crepaz, n. and g. marks, 2001. are negative affective states associated with hiv sexual risk behaviors?. a meta-analytic review. health psychology, 20(4): 291-299. d’augelli, a.r., 1992. lesbian and gay male undergraduates’ experiences of harassment and fear on campus. journal of interpersonal violence, 7(3): 383-395. department of mental health, 1999. to overcome the life crisis through consultation. bangkok: ministry of public health. krejcie, r.v. and d.w. morgan, 1970. determining sample size for research activities. educational psychology measurement, 30(3): 607-610. lewis, n.m., 2009. mental health in sexual minorities: recent indicators, trends, and their relationships to place in north america and europe. health place, 15(4): 1029-1045. martin, j.i. and j. knox, 1997. loneliness and sexual risk behavior in gay men. psychological report, 81(31): 815-825. meyer, i.h., 1995. minority stress and mental health in gay men. journal of health and social behavior, 36(1): 38-56. perkins, h.w., 2003. the social norms approach to preventing school and college age substance abuse: a handbook for educators, counselors, clinicians. san francisco: jossey-bass. phanomketman, do our children have sexual deviation problems? available from http://www.clinicrak.com/messages/viewmessage.php?id=2704&maintype [accessed 25 july 2005]. savin-williams, r.c., 1995. lesbian, gay male and bisexual adolescents. in a. r. d’ augelli & c. j. patterson (eds.). lesbian, gay and bisexual identities over the lifespan. new york: oxford university press. pp: 165-189. telljohan, s.k. and j.h. price, 1993. a qualitative examination of adolescent homosexuals’ life experiences: ramifications for secondary school personnel. journal of homosexuality, 26(1): 41-56. wipha, p. and t. atcharaphorn, 2004. the review of preventive actions of aids infection in the important target group: drug addicts. aids section, bureau of aids, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted diseases. ministry of public health. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.clinicrak.com/messages/viewmessage.php?id=2704&maintype asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 1, 1-6, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 1 employees job performance and pursuit of corporate social responsibility in the banking industry a case study of zenith bank plc & first bank plc jalingo joseph albasu 1 --jerome nyameh 2* --mahmood hamid umar 3 1 ph.d research student, leedsbeckett university, leeds united kingdom 2 department of economics, taraba state university, jalingo, nigeria 3 department of agric economics, taraba state university, jalingo, nigeria abstract contents 1. introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................. 2 2. review of related literatures .................................................................................................................................................... 2 3. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................ 4 4. data analysis and discussion of finding .................................................................................................................................. 4 5. conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................................... 6 references ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 6 citation | joseph albasu; jerome nyameh; mahmood hamid umar (2016). employees job performance and pursuit of corporate social responsibility in the banking industry a case study of zenith bank plc & first bank plc jalingo. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(1): 1-6. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.1.6 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/ acknowledgment: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 25 june 2015/ revised: 25 july 2015/ accepted: 6 august 2015/ published: 12 august 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group the study examine the correlation between employees job performance and corporate social responsibility, through the use of qualitative and quantitative research design paradigm, to do that effective there research objectives and two hypotheses were design; (1)to identify the contribution of employees job performance to corporate social responsibility (ii)to determine ways how corporate social responsibility can be improve in organization (iii)to analyzes the organizational excellence and the corporate social responsibility under the period under review. h1: there is a positive relationship between employee’s job performance and the corporation social responsibility h0: there is no positive relationship between employee’s job performance and the corporation social responsibility, in order to find the correlation between the two variables. to test the hypotheses, correlation was conducted between the independent and dependent variable which the degree of correlation to 0.625 showing high level of correlation hence the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. and the results from the content analysis of qualitative also accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null. cronbach alpha statistic was also conducted for test of reliability which shown 0.951 which shows that the instrument used is highly reliable. hence the study shows that there is a positive and significant relationship between the two important variable of the study employees job performance and corporate social responsibility. keywords: employee’s job performance, corporate social responsibility, banking industries, zenith bank plc, first bank plc. and jalingo. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.1.6 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 1-6 2 1. introduction 1.1. background to the study over the years the major problem of organization is who to employ, retain for a sustainable result, this worries has given room to various training on the job and out the job in order to improving employees job performance (jerome et al., 2014) despite huge amount of resource on improving employee’s job performance, there is little records of sustainable excellence in organizations and the adverse effect of such set back is mostly reflected on the business environment, where the business organization never feel the impact of the business in term of corporate social responsibility. in a situation better employees job performance is achieved, the organization will not hesitate to performing their role to society which patronize their business over the years. the link therefore is on the basis of output in term of the turnover of the organization other people may called it net profit, this implies that employee’s job performance result to a better push for accomplishment of corporate social responsibility where the turnover is good but in the case where employee job performance is bad and the turnover is equally not too good, it will be difficult for organization to engage in corporate social responsibility. ojo (2009) argues that if organizations aim to obtain their employee’s commitment, the management must help its employees to identify with the values, norms and artifacts of the organization; hence the need for organizational culture. culture of every organization is built on the basis of human resource, customers and wider environmental conveniences, including the conveniences of the organization (ojo, 2009) 1.2. research problem business organization over the year has run away from their responsibility to the society where they drive their business, this act has became an issue of concern to both government and civic organization on the reluctant attitude of business owners on the issue of corporate social responsibility, it has generated argument both in commercial and academia on why organization fail in their role for corporate social responsibility, many claimed that business owners are very greedy while others argued that is lack of employee job performance that result to low turnover hence prompted the business owner to tactically withdraw from their social corporate responsibility. it is in this regards therefore the study tend to examine the employees job performance and pursuit of corporate social responsibility to ascertain the various argument put forth. 1.3. objectives of the study the main objectives of the study are to examine the relationship between employee’s job performance and the pursuit of corporate social responsibility in organization, specific it sought; i. to identify the contribution of employees job performance to corporate social responsibility ii. to determine ways how corporate social responsibility can be improve in organization iii. to analyzes the organizational excellence and the corporate social responsibility under the period under review 1.4. study hypotheses h1: there is a positive relationship between employee’s job performance and the corporation social responsibility h0: there is no positive relationship between employee’s job performance and the corporation social responsibility 2. review of related literatures 2.1 employees job performance employees job performance is an issue that has received wide attention in literature and research due to its importance since every organization aims to achieve higher performance (ojo, 2009) employees and performance can be define differently below. (a) employees are hired staff, working on the basis of payment either for part time or full time under an arrangement of employment; it could be in written or oral expression. this will involve conformity on the remuneration and the kind of duties expected of the employee to perform in i a given time (shumen, 2009). (b) performance can an accomplishment of a described assignment or tasks that are given to be achieve within a time limit and with a kind of result expected that can measurably with the accomplishment level of the assigned task , which can is measured when a performance standard are given (shumen, 2009). performances activities must ensure that goals are always being achieved in an effective and efficient manner (mcnamara, 2005). employee’s performance refers to the observable behaviors and actions which explain how a job is done, plus the results that are expected for satisfactory job performance (cardy and selvarajan, 2004; mcnamara, 2005). to achieve performance at the higher capacity from employees, the following criterion should be considered (cardy and selvarajan, 2004; mcnamara, 2005). (i) performance values the purpose of performance standards is to communicate expectations, and it is often behaviors that determine whether performance is acceptable (cardy and selvarajan, 2004). collins (1998) and cooper (1998) view employee’s performance as a process for establishing a shared workforce understanding about what is to be achieved at organization level. employees are involved in the development of standards, and performance standards should form the basis for performance evaluation that clearly states how employees would be recognized when expectations have been met, exceeded, or not met (gruman and saks, 2010). performance standards should be position oriented and not individualistic; it should be visible, with anchored indicators for success which may be expressed in terms of quantity, quality, and within time frame (cardy and selvarajan, 2004); (armstrong, 2006). though the concept is differentiated by the views put in place by www.ispi.org 2002, performance standard is a result that positions an organization to question, confirm and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 1-6 3 reconfirm that people share the same vision and goals, that the job procedure is sufficient, and that people have the skills and knowledge they require (www.ispi.org 2002). my working definition is that of richer (2005): performance standard refers to the kind of behaviors or results that are expected of performance to be considered satisfactory. in this case, standards are the criteria against which performance is judged; these standards should be achievable, unique, monitored, purposeful, measurable, and stated in terms of quality, quantity and time. (ii) performance evaluation performance appraisal tools and systems of appraisal vary greatly from countries, organizations and managers, although all aim at achieving the purpose of best performance practice (jones, 1995). performance appraisal is the process where managers examine, evaluate and assess employee’s behavior and performance at work against set standards. the appraisal must be documented and the results used as feedback to the employees to indicate where improvement is needed and why (cardy and selvarajan, 2004). the appraisal also serves as both punishment and reward to performing and non-performing employees. it is also a major determinant of who needs what training and at which time; it can also be a reward mechanism (jones, 1995). elgin (1993) views performance appraisal as the process of cognitively processing information in order to make judgment and evaluation which is summarized as follows: (a) acquirement of information about those to be evaluated, (b) organization and storage of this information in a memory, and (c)retrieval and integration of the information in a fashion that leads to the recording of an evaluation of the person being evaluated. 2.2. overview corporate social responsibility corporate social responsibility is the way in which business takes into account the financial, environmental and social impacts of decisions and actions it is involved in. it is an increasingly important issue in business, as managers, consumers, investors and employees have begun to understand how economic growth is linked to social and environmental well-being (nyameh et al., 2014). corporate social responsibility is a determinant factor for any organization desiring for viable sustainability. at the same time as it is a mostly voluntary concept, there is increasing pressure on organizations to make a positive contribution to society, or at the least, reduce their negative impact. internationally, governments are also moving towards the enforcement of certain elements of corporate social responsibility, particularly in regards to the protection of the environment and the effect of which the business injected on it citizenry (nyameh et al., 2014). businesses organization may not tend to measure the positive impact that the behavior of the organization has on their performance, however, some business organization are likely to understood the negative impact the business decisions has on their employees. business sustainability always depends on organisational ability considering the social and environmental consequences of their decisions hitherto taken. many businesses and managers in the past were primarily concerned with increasing shareholders' value. business partners' are people who own part of a business through a share in order to obtain profits. in a large corporation, this could include thousands of people who hold shares in the company and receive dividends, habitually; managers were focused on short to medium term profits and driving the share price up. however, there has been a on the increase drift from simply increasing the shareholders dividend instead designing an increasing value for the business in terms corporate social responsibility but they to focus on stakeholders benefit. business partners' are the people who are pretentious by the measures and performance of the business, this include internal and external business partners'. the business stakeholders could include different kind of people like employees, consumers, shareholders, associates, and business owners. businesses that are socially responsible aspire to make decisions that are in the best interests of their business environment and various stakeholders (ferrell, 2009). developing your understanding of corporate social responsibility and implementing it into your business will speedily help business organization to go a step ahead of competitors. it be can use as a gain over competitors and it can provides an opportunity to get benefits at higher range for business stakeholders (perlman and hughes, 2008). 2.3. employee job performance and corporate social responsibility employees are always do their job better any time they find out that a customer shares a passion for social or environmental causes, it creates a bond that is highly motivating." likewise, when an employee believes support for corporate social responsibility comes from every level of management, the employee may sense that the company shares values like caring and unselfishness. hence they tend to dream of having a good future in their job as such they will forcefully put in their very best at all time. corporate social responsibility can help frontline employees reconcile this tension by highlighting what the employee shares in common with both customers and the company (jerome and mahmood hamid, 2014) to reap the potential rewards of corporate social responsibility, researcher recommend that managers encourage employees to talk develop shared experiences with customers around the company's corporate social responsibility activities. they also recommend that upper management take a visible role in enacting corporate social responsibility. this is will be more evidence that companies can generate substantial return on corporate social responsibility investment. employee engagement in corporate social responsibility activities such as environmental initiatives, charitable giving, and ethical business practices, can improve job performance asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 1-6 4 3. methodology 3.1. research design approach the study incorporated the use of quantitative and qualitative paradigm approach as a complimentary to ascertain the viability of the instrument, the quantitative structured the use of 15 items survey questionnaires, using five point likert scales and the qualitative is structured based on semi structured interview of the same survey questionnaires administered to two commercial bank managers in taraba state nigeria, there selection is based on convenient simple random sampling. the simple random sampling , picked 50 respondents out the population of 500 (sekaran, 2003). the analysis was conducted using spss version 16 to find the relationship between the two important variables of the study, by means of correlation and regression statistics, crombach alpha was to test the reliability of the instrument and content analysis (babbie, 2012) in the case of quantitative and qualitative respectively (richardson, 2005). 4. data analysis and discussion of finding 4.1. respondents’ data profile the respondents’ profile was analyzed using frequency analysis method to examine the demographic information of respondents from zenith and first bank plc nigeria. nominal data comprising age, gender, working experience and educational level are presented in table 4.1 table-4.1. respondent’s data profiles demographic information variables frequency percentage % age group 20-29 yrs 12 24 30-39 yrs 20 40 40-49 yrs 12 24 50 yrs and above 6 12 gender male 24 48 female 26 52 working experience 1-5 yrs 28 56 6-10 yrs 21 42 11-20 yrs 1 2 educational level phd masters 13 26 bachelor 22 44 others 15 30 source: nyameh 2012 the demographic information is categorizes into four subsection, age group, gender, working experience and educational level. the first category 12 respondents are between the age of 20-29 representing 24%, 20 respondents are with the age limit of 30-39 representing 40% while 12 respondents also are within the age 40-49 representing 24% and 6 respondents are between 50 and above representing 12%’. the second category is gender, 24 respondents are male representing 48% while 26 respondents are female representing 52%. the third category work experience 28 respondents has worked for 1-5 years representing 56% , 21 respondents has worked for 6-10 years while only 1 respondent worked for 11 years and above representing 2%. the fourth category is educational attainment 13 respondents has backed their masters degree representing 26%, 22 respondents obtained their first degree and 15 respondents obtained others form of qualifications less than first degree. 4.1.1. test of reliability reliability is consider to the degree to which measures tend to be free from error and therefore capitulate consistent results (zikmund, 2003). the internal consistency kind of method was adopted in this study to examine the reliability of the questionnaire developed. the internal consistency is determined by examining the intercorrelation of each item using the most popular test of interim consistency reliability that is the cronbach’s alpha coefficient (sekaran, 2003). table-4.2. reliability test (cronbach alpha) case processing summary n % cases valid 50 100.0 excluded a 0 .0 total 50 100.0 a. listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. reliability statistics cronbach's alpha n of items .951 15 source: from table 4.2 the cronbach’s alpha of 0.951 indicates the highly reliability of the questionnaire asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 1-6 5 4.2. test of hypothesis table-4.3. test of hypothesis correlations independent(y) dependent(x) independent(y) pearson correlation 1 .625 ** sig. (1-tailed) .000 n 50 50 dependent(x) pearson correlation .625 ** 1 sig. (1-tailed) .000 n 50 50 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed). from table 4.2 the y= independent variable while x= dependent variable , the statistical table above indicates high level of correlate with 0.625 hence the h1 there is a positive relationship between employee’s job performance and the corporation social responsibility is here by accepted and the h0 there is no positive relationship between employee’s job performance and the corporation social responsibility is hereby rejected. table-4.4. correlation between employee’s job performance and csr correlations var00001 var00006 var00011 var00001/ obj: 1 pearson correlation 1 .625 ** .957 ** sig. (1-tailed) .000 .000 n 50 50 50 var00006/obj:2 pearson correlation .625 ** 1 .653 ** sig. (1-tailed) .000 .000 n 50 50 50 var00011/obj: 3 pearson correlation .957 ** .653 ** 1 sig. (1-tailed) .000 .000 n 50 50 50 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed). from the data in table 4.4 indicates three different variables, 1, 6 and 11, one stand for objective 1 to identify the contribution of employees job performance to corporate social responsibility, by the level of correlation 0.625 it shows that employees job performance contributes to corporate social responsibility. variable 6 represents objective 2 ,to determine ways how corporate social responsibility can be improve in organization, the level of correlation is 0.625 which indicates that one of the way csr can be determine is through employees job performance. while objectives 3 to analyzes the organizational excellence and the corporate social responsibility under the period under review, the level of correlation 0.957 indicates there is highly correlation between organization excellence, which is employees job performance and csr. 4.3. data from qualitative study qualitative data was obtained from the in-depth semi-structured interviews with the two key managers of zenith bank and first bank plc. the questionnaire incorporated fifteen semi-structured open-ended questions that were qualitative in nature. the interviews were conducted through face to face deliberation. the interviews were undertaken at different times depending on the availability of the managers. the responses of the two key managers in tables 4.5. to maintain confidentiality, the managers have been named a and b respectively. table-4.5. summary of response of manager a & b questions responses 1. my organization does help the society any time they have high turnover. 2. profit turnover in my organization are shared among the stake holders of the business. 3. in my organization prizes are given to community who excel in business. 4. in my organization slots on employment(recruiting new staff) are given to the community were the business operated. 5. in my organization when job is well performed and the organization secured good profit the society benefit. 6. when there is a conducive working environment there will be high turnover and it will boost economic activities. 7. external environment (step) affect the social corporate responsibility positively when it favorer able both agreed. both respondents agreed on the assertion. respondent a agreed while respondent b disagree. both of the respondents agrees both respondents agrees both respondents agrees both respondents agrees continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 1-6 6 8. the culture of my organization support increase in corporate social responsibility 9. corporate social responsibility is determining by the performance rate of employee’s job performance. 10. in my organization we always won the best prize for being responsible to the society. 11. in my organization we have certain percentage of our profit allocation to corporate social responsibility. 12. most of our corporate social responsibility activities is from the proceed of our turnover . 13. anytime we engage in corporate social responsibility , the job appraisal performance rating also indicating high 14. our organizational excellence is best determined by the level of our corporate social responsibility. 15. corporation social responsibility work hand in hand with employee’s job performance respondent b agrees and while a disagree both respondents agrees both of the respondents disagrees both agrees both respondents agrees they both agrees both respondents agrees both respondents agrees source: researcher’s approach, 2015 from table 4.5 the qualitative summary above out of the 15 statement of questions both respondents agrees on the 12 statement to be true while in 3 statement 3, 8 and 10 there is form of disagreement on the statement, based on the content analysis we conclude that, employees job performance has a significant relationship with corporate social responsibility. 5. conclusion with all the research objectives addressed and the test of hypothesis resolved through both qualitative and quantitative analyses, the present study has been successfully fulfilled. the conclusions of the study are summarized in the following paragraphs: there is a positive and significant relationship between employee’s job performance and the corporate social responsibility. hence the two variables must be considered as complimentary when making organizational policies related to the two. references armstrong, m., 2006. a handbook of human resource management practice. london: kogan page. babbie, e.r., 2012. the practice of social research. belmont, ca: wadsworth. cardy, r.l. and t.t. selvarajan, 2004. assessing ethical behavior. development of behaviorally anchored rating scale. proceeding of southern academy management meeting. collins, d., 1998. organizational change: sociological perspectives. usa: routledge. cooper, d., 1998. improving safety culture, a practical guide. canada: routledge. elgin, d., 1993. awakening earth: exploring the evolution of human culture and consciousness. new york: morrow. ferrell, j.f., 2009. business ethics: ethical decision making and cases. 8th edn., usa: cengage learning. gruman, j.a. and a.m. saks, 2010. performance and employee engagement. human resource management review, 30: 1-14. jerome, n., i.m. jagaba and z. mohammed, 2014. an examination of business ethics and corporate social responsibility: a case study of zenith bank plc jalingo. international journal of management sciences, 3(8): 593-600. jerome, n. and u. mahmood hamid, 2014. examination of flood disaster and government attitudes taraba state experience. studies in social sciences and humanities, 1(1): 56-59. jones, t.w., 1995. performance management in changing context. human resource management fall, 13(6): 425-442. mcnamara, c., 2005. human resource management and talent management. authenticity consulting llc. nyameh, j., h.u. mahmood and j. jane, 2014. agricultural management strategy and food security in taraba state. journal of biology, agriculture and healthcare, 4(8): 29-31. ojo, o., 2009. impact assessment of corporate culture on employee job. journal of business intelligence, 2(2): 389-397. perlman, r. and j.j. hughes, 2008. the economic of unemployment: a comparative anlysis of britian and the united state. cambridge: cambridge university press. richardson, s., 2005. how to research: a guide for undergraduate and graduate students. singapore: thomson asia pvt ltd. richer, h., 2005. getting serious about performance management. journal for compensation and benefits, 37(6): 18-26. sekaran, u., 2003. research methods for business: a skill building. new york: john wiley & sons. shumen, j., 2009. is organizational culture similar with hrm. nigeria: northern press. zikmund, w.g., 2003. business research methods. usa: thomson learning. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 1, 29-34, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 29 the role played by school climate on school effectiveness in zimbabwean secondary schools: a case study of nkayi south circuit thembinkosi tshabalala 1 --alfred champion ncube 2 1 senior lecturer and national programme leader for the master of education in educational management in the faculty of arts and education at the zimbabwe open university 2 acting pro-vice chancellor-academic at the zimbabwe open university. he is also the substantive dean for the faculty of applied social sciences abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group 1. introduction each school has its own climate or setting and this setting makes one school different from the other in the way it realises its goals. jack (2010) stresses that schools develop a culture, ethos and environment which might be favourable or unfavourable for effectiveness. halphin and croft (1963) in chakanyuka (2009) found that school climates ranged on a continuum from open to closed climates. as szilagyi (1981) in bowora and mpofu (2005)state, a school with an open climate is characterised by low disengagement, low hindrance, very high esprit, high intimacy, low aloofness, low production emphasis, very high thrust and high consideration. the closed school has opposite characteristics which are very high disengagement, high hindrance, very low esprit, low intimacy, high aloofness, high production emphasis, low thrust and low consideration (bowora and mpofu, 2005). thus for a school to be effective, there is need for the leader to establish an open climate which leads to effective leadership. climate is important in that it determines the extent to which the personnel in the organisation perform their various tasks to achieve organisational goals. this study therefore, sets out to investigate the role that climate plays in on school effectiveness in zimbabwean secondary schools. school environments vary greatly. whereas some schools feel friendly, inviting and supportive, others feel exclusionary, unwelcoming and even unsafe. the feelings and attitudes are elicited by a schools environment are referred to as school climate. the effectiveness of an organisation depends to a large extent, on its climate. a leader‟s decisions with regards to the structure of an organisation, leadership style and philosophy of leading, influence the climate of an organisation, which in turn, influences the effectiveness of the organisation. it is a necessary link between organisational structure and teacher attitude behaviour. thus, a leader who is autocratic creates a climate which is coercive and powerlessness among staff members. in a school, these feelings are transferred to pupils and negatively affect effectiveness. climate determines what staff members do, how they relate to each other and the quality of pupil achievement and other gains an organisation can achieve. it also affects such outputs as satisfaction, creativity and group decision-making. this article draws on a quantitative inquiry on the role played by school climate in promoting school effectiveness in zimbabwean secondary schools using a sample of 200 teachers from a population of 650 teachers in nkayi south circuit in matebeleland north in western zimbabwe. the sample had 110 females and 90 males. the research instrument used was the questionnaire. the study revealed that there was a very high correlation between a positive school climate and a school‟s high pass rate standards. the findings also revealed that poor result were closely linked to a negative school climate. the study recommends that school heads should create a conducive school climate to enhance the effectiveness of their schools. furthermore, adequate resources should be provided in rural schools in order to create an enabling climate for high student achievement. keywords: climate, school, secondary schools, circuit, teachers, effectiveness. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 29-34 30 2. literature review the way a person performs in a school is determined in part by individual characteristics and in part by the school atmosphere. this is the internal quality of the school especially as expressed by its numbers. different schools have different settings. sergiovanni and starratt (1983) in mccaffreey (2008) define school climate as the set of internal characteristics of a school that distinguishes it from other schools and influences the behaviour of the people in it. the climate is the end product of the school groups (students, teachers, parents) as they work to balance the school and individual aspects of a social system. as mlilo (2007) posits, this end product includes shared values, social beliefs and social standards. shared values are agreements as to what is desirable, for example, kindness, social beliefs are perceptions of the nature and essence of people and objects as well as the relationships among them. social standards are agreements specifying appropriate behaviour in a school for example, norms against stealing and rules regarding dress, (mlilo, 2007). according to belin (2009), school climate may be viewed on the one hand as the enduring characteristics that describe a particular school, distinguish it from other schools and influence the behaviour of the teachers and students and on the other, as the „feel‟ that teachers and students have for that school. the climate of the school, therefore, may be thought of roughly as the “personality” of the school. the character of the school can be deduced from the behaviour of its members, more particularly, its leader, as summarised by the old saying that “the school is like its head” (richard, 2012). a modern school should qualify the old saying and be seen to be not only like its head but also like its teachers and students. as noted by liston (2012), schools differ markedly in their “feel.” school climate, therefore, reflects people‟s descriptions of what the school is like. the “feel” that exists in a given school as suggested by sergiovanni and starratt (1983) in bowora and mpofu (2005)varies as one moves from one school to another. at one school, one feels warm yet in another, one feels cold. thus, as one moves from one school to another, one gets different personalities. as squires (1983) in richard (2012) there are six types of climate in a school. these are the open climate, autonomous, controlled, familiar, paternal and the closed climates. according to mlilo (2007), the open climate depicts a situation in which the members enjoy extremely high esprit. the teachers work well together without bickering and griping. teachers are not burdened by a lot of work or by routine reports. the head‟s policies facilitate the teachers‟ accomplishment of their tasks. there is very low hindrance. on the whole, teachers as a group, enjoy friendly relations with each other, but they apparently feel no need for an extremely high degree of intimacy (chivore, 1996). the teachers obtain job satisfaction and are motivated to overcome difficulties and frustrations. they have the incentive to work things out and to keep the school going. teachers are proud to be associated with their school. the behavour of the head represents an appropriate integration between his or her own personality and the role he or she is required to play as head. the autonomous climate‟s distinguishing feature is the almost complete freedom that the head gives to teachers to provide their own structures for interaction so that they can find ways within the group for satisfying their social demands. in the controlled climate, mccaffreey (2008) states that everything else is marked by pressure for achievement at the expense of social needs satisfaction. everyone works hard and there is little time for friendly relations with others or for deviation from established controls and directives. this climate leans towards taskachievement and away from social needs satisfaction. people are too busy to waste time on other people. they are highly motivated to do their work. the main feature of the familiar climate is the conspicuously friendly manner of both the head and the teachers (robson, 2012). social needs satisfaction is extremely high, while little is done to control or direct the group‟s activities towards goal achievement. teachers do very little and accomplish little in a task-oriented situation. the head exerts little control in directing activities. there are too many people trying to tell others how things should be done. few rules and regulations are established as guides to suggest to the teachers how things should be done (robson, 2012). the head neither emphasises production nor does much personally, to insure that the teachers are performing their tasks correctly. the paternal climate is characterised by the ineffective attempts of the head to control the teachers as well as to satisfy their social needs (barry, 2009). the head‟s behaviour is not free or genuine and is perceived by the teachers as non-motivating. this climate is partly closed. teachers do not work well together. they are split into factions because of the quality of leadership. teachers allow the head to do as he or she pleases. low esprit results when the teachers obtain inadequate satisfaction in respect to both task accomplishment and social needs. the head, on the other hand, is far from being aloof. he or she is very busy trying to e everywhere at once, checking, monitoring and telling people how to do things. there is emphasis on production but somehow, nothing does get done. the closed climate refers to a situation in which the group members obtain little satisfaction from either task-achievement or social needs. the head is ineffective in directing the activities of the teachers and is not interested in looking after the teachers‟ personal welfare (mccaffreey, 2008). teachers do not work together. group achievement is minimal. people work on their own as individuals. teachers are not happy at work. the head is highly aloof and impersonal in controlling and directing the activities of the teachers. the head does not give teachers freedom to perform whatever leadership acts are necessary. the head does not provide adequate leadership for the teachers. the above information shows that the head plays a pivotal role in the construction of a school climate. in his or her role as climate builder, the head‟s responsibilities` encompass supervision and coordination of the entire instructional process including curriculum development in the school. a healthy school climate is a prerequisite for school effectiveness. the climate prevailing in a school differentiates one school from another and influences the behavour of the people in a school (barry, 2009). 2.1. statement of the problem school climate determines what staff members do, how they relate to each other and the quality of pupil achievement and other gains an organisation can achieve. it also affects such outputs as satisfaction, creativity and group decision-making. this study sought to explore the role played by climate on school effectiveness. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 29-34 31 2.2. purpose of the study the study sought to establish the role played by the school climate in determining the effectiveness of schools in zimbabwe in order to conscientise school authorities about the need to build healthy climates in schools. 3. research questions 1. what are the factors that influence school climate? 2. is there any correlation between school climate and the effectiveness of the school? 3. how can heads improve the climate in their schools? 3.1. significance of the study the importance of this study is premised on the fact that it will benefit school administrators and their teachers through the creation of a conducive school climate for effective development of the schools. the study also hopes to develop new insights about the effects of school climate in order for schools and stakeholders to reduce those aspects of their operations that promote unhealthy climates. 3.2. limitations of the study the study employed a relatively small sample to make generalisations about the whole of zimbabwe. the other limitation relates to the descriptive method that was used in this study. as ary and razaviah (2010) argues, the descriptive method lacks predictive power, the research may discover and describe “what is” but is unable to predict “what would be.” the respondents may also give false responses thereby affecting the validity of the findings. this would be mitigated by triangulation of methods. 3.3. delimitations of the study the study was delimited to the role played by climate in the creation of effectiveness of schools using a sample of 200 teachers from nkayi south circuit in matabeleland north province in western zimbabwe. the study confined itself to the impact of school climate on school effectiveness and other variables hat may also play a critical role on effectiveness of schools were outside the preview of this study. 4. research methodology the study employed the quantitative methodology and made use of a survey research design. according to leedy (2009), the descriptive survey method looks with intense accuracy at the phenomenon of the moment and then describes precisely what the researcher sees. the questionnaire was used as the instrument for collecting data because as anderson (2011) argues, it increases reliability as an instrument of gathering data because of its greater impersonality. 4.1. data collection and analysis data were gathered by means of a questionnaire which was largely made up of close-ended questions and one open-ended question. all respondents were given the questionnaires by the researchers at their schools. the researchers also collected the questionnaires personally in order to increase on rate of return of the instrument. as a result, all the questionnaires were returned and there were no non-returns. according to phillips and pugh (2011), non-returns introduce a bias in as much as they are likely to different from respondents in many ways thereby adversely affecting reliability and validity of the findings. data collected from the questionnaire produced descriptive statistics around the variables under study. these statistics were computed and inferential implications then deduced and recorded. table-1. distribution of respondents by sex (n – 200) sex frequency percentage male 90 45 female 110 55 total 200 100 table 1 above shows that there were more female respondents than male ones. the datum was considered statistically significant to the extent that it confirmed that most schools in zimbabwe had more female teachers than male ones. table-2. composition of respondents by age (n = 200) age in years frequency percentage below 20 0 0 20 – 29 65 32 continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 29-34 32 30 – 39 102 51 40 – 49 25 13 50 and above 8 4 total 200 100 the information on table 2 above reveals that the majority of the respondents are below forty years of age (83%). these are relatively young teachers who require more leadership guidance and direction than the older teachers. those above 40 years constituted 27% of the sample. table-3. composition of respondents by professional qualifications (n = 200) professional qualifications frequency percentage certificate in education 25 12 diploma in education 120 60 bachelors degree 17 9 masters degree 3 1 untrained 35 18 total 200 100 table 3 shows that 65% of the respondents were in possession of relevant professional qualifications. those without professional qualifications constituted 35% implying that a significant number of teachers are not equipped with skills to properly handle their professional work. table-4. responses to the question: “is your school known for producing high pass rates at public examinations?” (n = 200) category of responses frequency percentage yes 20 10 no 180 90 not sure 0 0 total 200 100 as table 4 reveals, the majority of the teachers indicated that their schools had no reputations for producing high pass rates in public examinations. a paltry 10% indicated that their schools were known for high pass rates at public examinations. table-5. responses to the question: “your head promotes a healthy atmosphere where everybody works towards promoting high standards of performance.” (n = 200) category frequency percentage yes 22 11 no 178 89 total 200 100 most of the respondents (89%) indicated that their heads did not build healthy atmospheres that promoted high standards of performance by teachers and pupils. those who felt that their heads promoted a healthy atmosphere constituted 11% of the respondents. this information almost correlates with the information on table 4 where 10% of the respondents indicated that their schools were well known for producing good results which could be due to heads‟ efforts in promoting a healthy climate. table-6. responses to the question: “there are regular conflicts amongst teachers, parents and the head in your school?” (n = 200) category frequency percentage yes 170 85 no 30 15 total 200 100 table 6 shows that the majority of respondents (85%) indicated that their schools were characterised by endless conflicts amongst teachers, parents and the head. those who disagreed with the statement constituted 15% of the respondents. table-7. responses to the question: “how are relations among stakeholders in your school?” (n = 200) statement always %ntage not at all %ntage frequency % high level of interaction between teachers and head. 70 35 130 65 200 100 teachers relate well with parents. 128 64 72 36 200 100 continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 29-34 33 high interaction level among teachers. 58 29 142 71 200 100 teachers interact very well with pupils. 61 31 139 69 200 100 teachers have complete freedom on teaching methods. 30 15 170 85 200 100 the school provides good working conditions for teachers. 20 15 180 90 200 100 table 7 above shows that the majority of respondents (65%) indicated that there was no high level of interaction between teachers and heads. however, 35% indicated that the interaction between heads and teachers was high. respondents also indicated that teachers related well with parents (64%) and related well (32%). seventy-one percent (71%) indicated that there was low interaction amongst teachers and 29% said the interaction was high. most respondents (69%) also indicated that teachers did not interact well with pupils and only 31% thought they interacted well with pupils. only 15% of the teachers indicated that they had complete freedom on teaching methods and the majority (85%) said there was no freedom on this issue. finally, only 10% of the respondents indicated that their schools provided good working conditions for teachers and the bulk (90%) said not at all to this statement. the questionnaire had one open-ended question which wanted to find out from the respondents what they thought were the positive the positive results of a positive climate. the most common responses included the following:  high pass rate at public examinations.  safe and organised working place.  effective classroom management.  high engagement of teachers, pupils and the head on their core business.  high achievement in co-curricular activities.  highly co-operative parents.  very minimum conflict situations in the school.  high success rate of former pupils in the field of work. 5. discussion most respondents are qualified teachers. this, under a healthy school climate, enhances the teaching/learning process. qualified teachers are an asset in any school because they provide professional guidance to pupils. however, this is dependent upon the atmosphere under which they will be operating. they are also particular about their conditions of service since some of them might be members of professional associations and might not accept a climate that they view as oppressive. they would prefer working under an open climate. as bowora and mpofu (2005) argue, qualified and experienced teachers prefer an autonomous climate where the head allows them to provide their own structures for interaction. most of the respondents indicated that the schools were also not associated with producing high pass rates at public examinations. one significant criterion that most authorities and stakeholders use to gauge the effectiveness of schools is the performance of pupils in public examinations. high performance of pupils is associated with healthy climates. in a healthy climate, the head‟s policies and actions facilitate the teachers‟ accomplishments of their tasks. as mlilo (2007) posits, in a healthy climate, there is very low hindrance and high achievement by both teachers and pupils. most schools were characterised by endless conflicts amongst teachers, parents and the head. conflict in schools is inevitable because naturally, where people work together, they are bound to differ in many respects. teachers may disagree on resource allocation, parents may diverge on how the school should be. emotions can run high on a variety of issues. the potential for conflict exists because people have different needs, views and values. the challenge for schools is to find ways of managing conflict constructively so that those involved can learn and grow from the experience. this can only happen in a healthy climate. as mccaffreey (2008) posits, where the climate is open, autonomous and positive, teachers obtain job satisfaction and are motivated to overcome difficulties and frustrations. they have the incentive to work things out and to keep the school going. data also reveals that relations in most of the schools were not conducive for promoting goal achievement. the majority of respondents indicated that there was minimum interaction between teachers and heads. teachers did not relate well with parents. there was also low interaction on professional business amongst teachers. pupils and teachers did not interact well. teachers indicated that their schools did not provide good working conditions that motivated them to perform better for the success of the pupils. relations between key stakeholders in the school constitute a very significant variable for the success of that school in realising its objectives. the school is a place to learn and that is the first thing that should be on the heads‟ , teachers‟, pupils‟, parents‟ and other stakeholders‟ minds when they interact on school business. the core business of any school as an enterprise is to produce education for the learners. as barry (2009) advises, it is the duty of every school leader to harness the energies of all stakeholders towards the core business of the school which is providing the best learning opportunities for its pupils. this implies that school leaders should create conducive atmospheres for all in the school to work harmoniously to achieve the school goals. the study also revealed that most teachers were aware of the positive results of a healthy climate. these results included high pass rates by pupils at public examinations, safe and organised working place, effective classroom management, high engagement of teachers, pupils and the head on their core business, high achievement in cocurriculum activities, a highly co-operative parents body and minimum conflict situations as well as high success rate of former pupils in life-after-school. a healthy climate therefore, according to this article, is a “dream climate” for most teachers. a healthy climate which uses a fair mixture of the various types of climates is a pre-requisite for school effectiveness (robson, 2012). it therefore, behoves every head of school to build a school climate that asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 29-34 34 promotes co-operation, high productivity and ownership of the school processes. school heads should understand that whilst teachers might be aware of healthy climates, they are also prepared to work under unhealthy climates merely to fulfil an obligation as employees and not as professional colleagues in the school. behind the scenes they might show their displeasure about goings-on in the school which may manifest itself through unproductive actions. 6. conclusions given the background of the findings above, the researchers make the following conclusions:  the majority of schools did not produce high pass rates at public examinations as a result of climates that inhibit high productivity of teachers and pupils.  in most schools, destructive conflict was endemic amongst all the stakeholders and most of the schools‟ productive time was spent on petty fights at the expects of paying attention to the schools‟ core business.  relations amongst various stakeholders are very poor. as a result, there was very minimal professional interaction amongst teaches, heads, pupils and parents.  most schools have poor working conditions for their teachers. as a result, teachers had not motivation to perform at their best.  teachers are aware of the role played by a healthy climate in the promotion of the school‟s achievement of its goals. 7. recommendations in light of the findings of this study, the researchers would like to make some recommendations.  school heads should work closely with their teachers to create conducive climates for high pass rates in their schools.  some mechanisms to reduce conflict should be put in place within the context of a healthy climate so that teachers‟ energies are expended more on teaching rather than fighting each other.  school leaders should ensure that relations amongst major school stakeholders are cordial and this is possible in a healthy climate within the school.  schools should improve working conditions of their teachers in order to motivate them to work harder as working conditions constitute fundamental needs for any worker.  heads of schools should know that most of their teachers understand what a healthy climate constitute; and therefore, should work closely with them to construct one for the benefit of the schools.  the ministry of primary and secondary education should organise workshops and staff development sessions for heads to provide guidance for the construction of healthy climates. references anderson, l., 2011. research in education. sydney: alwin. barry, t.j., 2009. management for excellence through quality. winsconsin: asqc quality process. belin, r., 2009. what every supervisor should know? academy of management review, 7(2): 219 – 227. bowora, l.c. and d.a. mpofu, 2005. managing schools. harare: zimbabwe open university. chakanyuka, s., 2009. leadership and organisational effectiveness. harare: zimbabwe open university. chivore, b.r.s., 1996. an evaluation of the effectiveness of primary teachers trained since zimbabwe attained independence. a pilot research study. harare. university of zimbabwe. halphin, a. and d. croft, 1963. measuring school climate: school climate and outcomes, issues, trends and controversies. new york: longman. jack, b., 2010. organisaitonal climate. survival guide for managers, 35(6): 280 – 293. leedy, p., 2009. practical research planning and design. new york: mcmillan. liston, b., 2012. a healthy school climate: how do you construct it? public personnel management, 27(2): 223 – 235. mccaffreey, j., 2008. international training module. boston: prentice hall. mlilo, p., 2007. supervision in zimbabwe. harare: longman. phillips, g. and c. pugh, 2011. research methods. london: routledge. razaviah, t., 2010. social research methods. boston: irwin. richard, c.g., 2012. effective schools. london: oup. robson, b., 2012. managing for effectiveness. london: harper and row ltd. szilagyi, a.d., 1981. management and performance. glenview, illinois: scott, foresman and company. authors’ bio-data 1. thembinkosi tshabalala (dr): he is a senior lecturer and national programme leader for the master of education in educational management in the faculty of arts and education at the zimbabwe open university. he is a phd holder in educational management. he has published more than 30 papers in peer reviewed journals. he can be contacted by e-mail (tshabalalathembinkosi@yahoo.com). 2. alfred champion ncube (dr): he is an acting pro-vice chancellor-academic at the zimbabwe open university. he is also the substantive dean for the faculty of applied social sciences. he holds phd studies in educational management. he has published more than 10 papers in peer reviewed journals. he can be contacted by e-mail (ncubeac@gmail.com). views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. mailto:tshabalalathembinkosi@yahoo.com mailto:ncubeac@gmail.com asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 2, 91-98, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 91 the impact of working conditions on academic staff turnover at africa university, mutare, zimbabwe stanislas bigirimana 1* --esnath ntombizodwa sibanda 2 --reason masengu 3 1 faculty of management and administration, africa university, mutare, zimbabwe 2 faculty of humanities and social sciences, africa university, mutare, zimbabwe 3 faculty of commerce, midlands state university, gweru, zimbabwe abstract contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 92 2. research problem ................................................................................................................................................................ 92 3. literature review ................................................................................................................................................................ 92 4. research methodology ........................................................................................................................................................ 93 5. findings ................................................................................................................................................................................ 94 6. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 97 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 97 bibliography ............................................................................................................................................................................ 98 citation | stanislas bigirimana; esnath ntombizodwa sibanda; reason masengu (2016). the impact of working conditions on academic staff turnover at africa university, mutare, zimbabwe. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(2): 91-98. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.91.98 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 29 june 2015/ revised: 10 october 2015/ accepted: 28 october 2016/ published: 12 november 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group a study was carried out to assess the impact of staff working conditions on academic staff turnover at africa university, mutare, zimbabwe. out of a total of 74 academic staff, a sample size of 35 was randomly selected in the four categories of lecturer, senior lecturer, associate professor and professor. several facets of working conditions were explored, namely, leadership style, perceived organizational support, performance management system, academic freedom, collegiality, opportunity and support for research activities, workloads and psychological contracts. this study found that the working conditions were unfavorable and this led to situations where academic staff leaving africa university at the earliest opportunity. keywords: africa university, higher education/university management, staff turnover, motivation, working conditions, job satisfaction, staff retention. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.91.98 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.91.98 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 91-98 92 1. introduction africa university is a private higher education institution that was founded by the united methodist church (umc) through a charter proclaimed by the president of republic of zimbabwe in march 1992. africa university is the first private university in zimbabwe and is located 17 kilometres from mutare, manicaland province, in the eastern highlands of zimbabwe. with an initial student population of 40 in 1992, the university now has over 1,400 full-time students and an additional 1,500 students undertaking block release or parallel programmes. africa university is pan-african by design with 7 academic faculties and an institute of peace leadership and governance (iplg). students come from 29 countries. presently africa university has 74 full-time academic staff. tertiary institutions in africa are confronted with numerous challenges of identifying, recruiting and retaining high caliber academic staff. according to babakus et al. (1996) the leaving of competent and well-trained employees makes it difficult for organizations to immediately fill those positions and maintain high organizational performance. labour turnover is an inevitable phenomenon in an organization‟s life cycle. however, it involves redundant monetary and non-monetary costs especially when efficient and experienced workers, leave voluntarily. according to the africa university charter (1992) remuneration and work conditions are expected to be at least 25% higher than the zimbabwe state universities. the report by the report of the africa university compensation committee (2011) noted that the au salaries are at least 31% below average when compared to other universities in the region. the university has been facing challenges in meeting its statutory obligations as stated in its 1992 charter. therefore, it is imperative to undertake a study on the role of working conditions on academic staff turnover. 2. research problem statistics from personnel and administration office at africa university indicate that between 2009 and 2013 the university has lost a total of 40 lecturers which results in an average of 8 lectures per academic year. not only lecturers continuously leave the institution but also lecturers who leave africa university for staff development purposes fail to return. the few who make an effort to report back to work, do not stay longer. instead, they move to other institutions of higher learning sometimes without giving adequate notice or following a proper resignation process. this can be a sign of frustration. is this high turner over of academic staff caused by working conditions? 3. literature review human resources are viewed as key in developing and utilizing other resources. according to a report by the international labour organisation (ilo) working conditions have a great impact on the teaching profession today. working conditions must be viewed as a whole. in an academic environment, it is imperative to have a proper understanding of what academic staff do, how much they are paid to do it and how much support and training they need in order to discharge their duties. the united nations education, science and culture organisation (unesco) upholds that the conditions of employment have a direct bearing on the flows of lecturers entering or leaving the profession because they determine how appealing the profession is, particularly in comparison to other types of employment (united nations educational scientific and cultural organization (unesco), 1997). according to working conditions refers to a work environment that promotes the efficient performance of job tasks by employees. working conditions include proper modes of recruitment and promotion, availability of office space and equipment, internal customer (employees) support services, clear formulation and administration of contracts, safety at the workplace, support from supervisors and management, and opportunities for self-development and career advancement. emphasizes that working conditions are created by the interaction of employees with their organizational climate. working conditions, in other words, include the physical and psychological wellbeing of employees and should not be limited to financial remuneration. most universities have been affected by a push for structural reforms that emphasize the adoption of private sector management practices. these reforms have resulted in increased emphasis on efficiency, effectiveness, accountability, formal and explicitly measurable standards, and output controls. these reforms have created a tendency towards managing academic institutions with commercial-like managerial approaches (watty et al., 2008) and have noted that transformations in the academic environment have placed increased pressures on academic staff. there are growing concerns over the increased stress associated with academic work, decrease in job satisfaction, and an overall negative attitude of academics towards their job. these changes in management theory and practice have changed the ways employees view their relationships with organisations. pointed out that perceived organizational support plays a great role in employee motivation and retention. perceived organizational support can be referred to as the degree to which employees perceive their employer to be concerned with their well-being and to value their contributions to the organization. in addition to perceived organizational support, performance management has been pointed out as a new strategy to motivate and retain academic staff. according to drucker (2003) the changes in academic management style have been accompanied by changes in performance management systems. there is an inherent expectation of measurable outputs, responsiveness to stakeholders‟ needs and greater accountability. performance management systems should include not only assessments but rewards in case of good performance and punishment in case on bad performance or non-performance. herzberg (1967) confirmed that performance linked to a reward will positively impact employee motivation. trevor et al. (1997) observed that the presence of salary growth or promotions resulted in lower turnover. observed that the absence of rewards and recognition for academics‟ work resulted in increased levels of job stress and eventually increased academic staff turnover. another motivating factor of academics is linked to academic freedom and research activities. according to nwadiani and akpotu (2002) academic freedom implies that academics are able to teach freely, undertake research of their own interest, and communicate findings and ideas openly and without any fear of persecution. for armstrong and long (1994) in an environment dominated by the ideas of accountability and productivity, academic freedom is compromised. in search of academic freedom, many academics have resisted “managerialism”. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 91-98 93 according to academics experience impingement on their autonomy and creative space through performance reviews, student evaluations, accreditation, and pressure to publish, plan, predict, and perform according to negotiated standards. nonetheless has pointed out, “research is a major source of satisfaction for academics and many academic staff would prefer to spend more of their time on research.” however, in practice there are impediments. sometimes, academics have to carry huge teaching loads and this limits the time devoted to research. the ilo/unesco (1997) suggested that in order to create favourable working conditions for academics they should be provided with support staff who perform the non-teaching tasks. provision of support staff would allow academics to concentrate on their core professional activities, namely, teaching, research and outreach. the same report has indicated that provision of support staff results in increased job satisfaction by academic staff with resultant retention possibilities (ilo/unesco, 1997). moreover, the availability of support staff increases the quality and nonteaching services in universities (ilo/unesco, 1997). academic staffs are part of what drucker called “knowledge workers.” knowledge workers most of the time know better than their bosses in their area of expertise (drucker, 1989). knowledge workers do not want just to be told what to do. they prefer to have a say not only in their specific areas but also to participate in decisionmaking and problem-solving processes. knowledge workers are suitable for organisations that abrogate hierarchy and encourage participation and collegiality. academics, like other knowledge workers, are reluctant to follow decisions that are cascaded on them without relevant participation and consultation. according to in the collegiate decisionmaking method, the members of an organization have equal decision-making power where each member abides by the common rules (academic regulations). in an academic context, the role of the dean is to raise questions to be solved by their colleagues and draw up mutual concessions that lead to a consensus. the ilo/unesco (2002) concurs that in a situation where individuals have to be part of the decision-making process in an organization but that opportunity is not granted, individuals feel dissatisfied. the report further states that where decisions are hijacked by management to the disadvantage of the academics, the collegial importance of the decision-making process will be lost and academic staff may move to institutions where their voices are heard (ilo/unesco, 1997). the academic workplace is shaped by a sophisticated network of hierarches, recognitions, mutual deference and loyalties but also tensions and conflicts of interests between academic units and non-academic units. because of their control over budgets and administrative decisions, non-academic units tend to assume a supervisory role (in terms of approvals and disapprovals) while their role is mainly supportive. in such a context, it become demotivating for academics who feel that academic work is being jeopardized to the advantage of non-core businesses. hence the need for distributive justice in the academia. distribute justice is grounded in adam‟s equity theory (adams, 1963; carrell and dittrich, 1978). equity theory is grounded by three basic assumptions: the theory assumed that individuals are guided by a moral system in which fair distribution of rewards is a fundamental tenet. it also assumed that employees expect a fair, just or equitable return for what they contribute to their job (carrell and dittrich, 1978). the third assumption is that employees who perceive themselves as being in an inequitable situation will seek to reduce the inequity. points out that distributive justice is premised on the extent to which rewards and punishments relate to performance. distributive justice was an important and significant predictor of organizational commitment and job satisfaction and negative predictor of turnover intentions. lack of distributive justice may create a climate of acrimony, discontent and dissent if not effectively handled and that such practice may contribute to low productivity and commitment amongst affected staff. distributive justice has be complemented with procedural justice. procedural justice concerns the fairness and the transparency of the processes by which decisions are made, and may be contrasted with distributive justice (fairness in the distribution of rights or resources), and retributive justice (fairness in the punishment of wrongs) (tyler et al., 1985). hearing all parties before a decision is made is one step which would be considered appropriate to be taken in order that a process may then be characterised as procedurally fair (tyler et al., 1985). some theories of procedural justice hold that fair procedure leads to equitable outcomes, even if the requirements of distributive or restorative justice are not met (tyler et al., 1985). hough et al. (2010) have pointed out that procedural justice in organisations leads to increased levels of trust. relational justice, on the other hand, is is defined as the justice produced through cooperative behavior, agreement, negotiation, or dialogue among actors in a post-conflict situation (casanovas and poblet, 2008). perceived equity leads to psychological contracts. while traditionally contracts are laid down against the background of self-interest, mistrust and potential conflicts, jack welch has pointed to a new form of loyalty that he called the “psychological contract”. psychological contracts imply fostering trust, independence, freedom, responsibility and autonomy psychological contracts give the employees the feeling they get from the company not only financial rewards but also job security and a sense of fulfilment and accomplishment that goes beyond the satisfaction of their vegetative needs. psychological contracts make employees feel that they are not working for “someone else” but that there are “insiders” and that their participation is acknowledged and rewarded. psychological contracts imply not only avoiding barriers between management and workers (bower, 1995) but also creating spaces of conviviality. therefore, there is a need to foster trust and collaboration within and between organisations. 4. research methodology 4.1. research design and method the researcher used a case study design and a qualitative approach. 4.2. population and sampling techniques africa university academic staff were used as the population for this study. there are 6 faculties and 1 institute at africa university. at the time of the study, 74 academic staff were employed by africa university. these 74 academic staff were first stratified into faculties/institute before they were either randomly or conveniently selected from their strata. given the facts that some faculties do not have professors or associate professors. to eliminate https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/transparency_%28humanities%29 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/distributive_justice https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/retributive_justice https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/retributive_justice https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/restorative_justice asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 91-98 94 errors of reliability, the researcher purposefully omitted the rate of professors but used the ph.d. category. the sample was selected as follows: 1 ph.d. staff, one per faculty/institute = 7 2 senior lecturers, two per faculty/institute = 14 2 lectures, two per faculty/institute = 14 total sample size = 35 to get a proportional sample fraction from each faculty/institute, proportional number of respondents were selected as above. the sum total of respondents is 47% of the total population under study. the combination of the sub-samples from all the academic staff strata at africa university constituted the sample size. 4.3. data collection procedure the researcher personally distributed 35 questionnaires to the respondents who are academic staff at africa university. the data was collected over a period of two weeks. the researcher received 32 questionnaires (91%), one of the questionnaires was returned blank, making a return rate of 89% of the respondents. the remaining 3 respondents did not return the questionnaires even after following up several times. the non-response rate was 11% including the returned blank questionnaire. collected questionnaires were sorted out and incomplete questions were followed up. the respondents had an opportunity to ask the researcher questions that were related to the completion of questions. the researcher also explained all vague or unclear areas to the respondents who solicited for more information. the researcher tried to find out if all unanswered questions were omitted by error or intentionally and the researchers established that all the unanswered questions were intentionally omitted. 4.4. research instruments in this particular study, a questionnaire based on research questions was designed to primarily collect data. existing secondary documents such as official records of meetings and resolutions were used as reliable sources of information. 4.5. data analysis and presentation the statistical package for social sciences (spss – version 14.0) was used to analyze qualitative data since the data had been coded. frequency tables, bar graphs and pie diagrams were also used to analyze qualitative data. 5. findings 5.1. leadership style results indicated that 38.7% of the academic employees, the majority, disagreed to the statement that the management and leadership at africa university is sensitive and supportive of their work schedules (table 1). about 19.4% of these employees strongly disagreed with this statement. despite being the second majority (25.8%), fewer academic employees agreed to the statement than those who disagreed and strongly disagreed. this meant that most of the academic staff viewed management and leadership as insensitive and unsupportive of their work schedules. table-1. management and leadership style (n=31) statement strongly disagree agree neither agree nor disagree agree strongly agree management and leadership is sensitive and supportive of academic staff‟s work schedules 19.4 38.7 12.9 25.8 3.2 management style does not allow for academic input in the decision making process 3.2 22.6 29.0 35.5 9.7 management style encourages academic career path and development 22.6 35.5 22.6 12.9 6.5 5.2. participation in decision-making and problem-solving the majority (35.5%) of the academic personnel agreed with the statement that management style does not allow for academic input in the decision making process (table 1). this is followed by (29%) of the workers who neither agreed nor disagreed with this statement and a much smaller proportion (22.6%) disagreed with this statement. these results indicated that most of the africa university academic employees were of the opinion that management style does not allow for academic input in the decision making process. the majority 41.9% of these workers disagreed that they are involved in the decision-making process from the faculties up to institutional level. this result further confirmed the earlier finding which indicated that africa university management style does not allow for academic input in the decision making process. 5.3. career path and staff development results also indicated that 35.5% of the academics disagreed with the statement that management style encourages academic career path and staff development (table 1). while 22.6% of these workers strongly disagreed with this statement, another 22.6% neither agreed nor disagreed. these results showed that more academic employees disagreed with the statement than those who agreed. according to these workers, the management style at africa university does not encourage academic career path and staff development. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 91-98 95 5.4. perceived organizational support and psychological contracts (n=31) table-2. perceived organisational support and psychological contract statement strongly disagree agree neither agree nor disagree agree strongly agree management cares about well-being of academic staff 25.8 29.0 22.6 22.6 0.0 management uses discretionary decisions rather than external forces in favourable treatments 6.5 35.5 16.1 32.3 9.7 organizational policies and procedures have positive orientation to all academic staff 9.7 45.2 29.0 9.7 6.5 the distribution of resources among academic staff is fair 16.1 35.5 22.6 9.4 6.4 supervision and evaluation of performance by deans is fair and transparent 3.2 22.6 35.5 32.3 6.5 working conditions are generally favourable to academic staff 13.3 50.0 10.0 20.0 6.7 results revealed that the majority 29% of the academic staff disagreed with the statement that africa university management cares about their well-being (table 2). the second highest percentage (25.8%) of the staff strongly disagreed with this statement. smaller but equal proportions of these workers neither agreed and nor disagreed or agreed (22.6% each). this implied that most of the academic employees were of the view that africa university‟s management does not care about their well-being. the academic employees were somehow divided about the statement which said „management uses discretionary decisions rather than external forces (e.g. labour unions) to award favourable treatments‟. while 35.5% of the academics disagreed with this statement, 32.3% agreed. this suggested that the management could be using both ways to award favourable treatments, one way with some members of staff and the other way with others, or they are not really aware which way is used. 5.5. organizational policies and procedures results further revealed that the majority 45.2% of the academic staff disagreed to the statement that organizational policies and procedures have positive orientation to all academic staff (table 1). the second majority (29%) neither agreed nor disagreed with this statement. according to the academic staff, africa university‟s organizational policies and procedures do not have positive orientation to all academic staff. 5.6. distributive justice most of the academic personnel also disagreed with the statement that said „the distribution of resources among academic staff is fair‟ (table 3). about 16.1% of these employees strongly disagreed with this statement. while 22.6%, the second majority, neither agreed nor disagreed, only 19.4% agreed to this statement. these results implied that the distribution of resources among academic staff was unfair to most of the academic staff. 5.7. distributive justice and support for academic staff (n=31) table-3. distributive justice statement strongly disagree agree neither agree nor disagree agree strongly agree university provides equipment and resources necessary for the academic staff to execute duties 16.1 35.5 3.2 45.2 0.0 academic staff salaries and benefits are paid according to qualifications and experience 16.1 38.7 12.9 29.0 3.2 the work of academic staff is evaluated according to the university‟s set standards 6.5 19.4 29.0 41.9 3.2 disciplinary procedures are well documented and communicated to all academic staff 9.7 22.6 22.6 41.9 3.2 academic staff are satisfied with their remuneration package 58.1 32.3 9.7 0.0 0.0 deans provide sufficient feedback and guidance on evaluation and performance 6.5 29.0 38.7 22.6 3.2 source: questionnaire results results indicated that the majority 45.2% of the academic staff agreed with the statement that said „the university provides the equipment and resources necessary for the academic staff to execute their jobs‟ (table 3). but 35.5% of these workers disagreed with this statement and 16.1% of them strongly disagreed. these results suggested that the academic workers were divided in their views regarding whether africa university provides the equipment and resources necessary for the academic staff to execute their jobs with some of them agreeing and others disagreeing with the statement. most of the academic staff disagreed that their salaries and benefits are paid according to their qualification and experience. this was mentioned by 38.7% of the academic staff and another 16.1% of them strongly disagreed with the statement. in contrast, a smaller proportion (29%) of the academic workers agreed that their salaries and benefits asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 91-98 96 are paid according to their qualifications and experience. lack of payment of salaries according to qualifications and experience is likely to discourage some academic workers and influence them to leave the institution especially when more qualified and experienced members of staff are lumped together with those with lower qualifications and fewer years of experience. the study further revealed that the majority 58.1% of the academic staff strongly disagreed with the statement that said they are satisfied with their remuneration packages. another 32.3% of them disagreed with the statement but none agreed. these results suggested that the academic staff at the university were strongly dissatisfied by their remuneration package. other researchers found that poor salaries and working conditions have caused university professionals in zimbabwe to leave the country in large numbers since the crisis in the 2000s. while 29% of the academic employees neither agreed nor disagreed with the statement that said „the work of academic staff is evaluated according to the university‟s set standards‟, the majority (41.9%) of them agreed with this statement (table 3). most of them also agreed that disciplinary procedures are well documented and communicated to all the academic staff. but, most of them neither agreed nor disagreed with the statement that said „supervisors or deans provide sufficient feedback and guidance on the academic staff‟s evaluation and performance‟. this result was consistent with the earlier finding where most of the academic workers also took a neutral view when given a statement which said „academic staff considers supervision and evaluation of their performance by the deans to be fair and transparent‟ (table 3). both results suggested that most of the academic workers doubted whether their evaluation by deans was fair and transparent. this could also mean that while some of them received feedback on their evaluation by deans, others did not. another author in the related literature reviewed asserted the need for the hrm to streamline the pay and incentive schemes and also administration policies in a fair and transparent manner to ensure that distribute justice is not just done but is seen to be done. 5.8. performance management most of the academic employees took a neutral view with regard to the statement which said „academic staff considered supervision and evaluation of their performance by the deans to be fair and transparent‟ (table 4). but, the second group (32.3%) of the staff agreed with the statement. this suggested that most of the academic personnel regarded their supervision and evaluation by the deans as fair and transparent. results revealed that the majority 41.9% of the academic staff disagreed with the statement that said „performance appraisals are consistent and fair‟ (table 4). the proportions of the academic employees who took a neutral view and those who agreed to the statement were equal at 22.6% each. this meant that most of the academic staff at africa university were of the view that performance appraisals were inconsistent and unfair. consistently, the majority (53.3%) of the academics also disagreed that promotion is based on performance at africa university (table 4). these results suggested a link between inconsistency and unfair performance appraisals which culminate in promotion not being based on performance. it is difficult for promotion to be based on performance when the system of performance appraisal is inconsistent and unfair. table-4. performance management system (n=31) statement strongly disagree agree neither agree nor disagree agree strongly agree goals and objectives are clear to all academic staff 12.9 29.0 16.1 38.7 3.2 performance appraisals are consistent and fair 9.7 41.9 22.6 22.6 3.2 promotion is based on performance 10.0 53.3 23.3 10.0 3.3 5.9. academic freedom and collegiality table-5. academic freedom and collegiality (n=31) statement strongly disagree agree neither agree nor disagree agree strongly agree academic staff cooperate and support each other in their academic tasks 16.1 25.8 22.6 32.3 3.2 academic staff share academic information with each other at all times 9.7 32.3 22.6 32.3 3.2 academic staff enjoy their academic freedom 9.7 16.1 22.6 51.6 0.0 academic staff are involved in decision-making processes from faculties up to institutional level 9.7 41.6 16.1 25.8 6.5 most of the academic staff agreed that they cooperate and support each other in their academic tasks. this was mentioned by 48.4% of the academic staff, which was the majority. those who disagreed with this statement were very few (table 5). consistently, 32.3% of the academic staff agreed that the academic staff share academic information with each other at all times. but, 25.8% disagreed and 16.1% strongly disagreed with the statement of sharing information at all times indicating a division among the academics with regard to this statement. this meant that while some of the academic workers were of the view that academic information is shared among the academic staff at all times, others did not think so. the academics were also divided on the statement that said „academic staff are given opportunities to express their professional experiences and developmental needs‟ with 32.3% agreeing and another 32.3% disagreeing with the statement (table 5). about 22.6% of the academic workers neither agreed nor disagreed with the statement indicating that they were not sure about this aspect. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 91-98 97 5.10. workload and pressure (n=31) table-6. workload and pressure (n=31) statement strongly disagree agree neither agree nor disagree agree strongly agree lecturers are allocated courses using their level of education / expertise 6.5 25.8 12.9 41.9 12.9 workload is fairly distributed among academic staff 12.9 38.7 6.5 29.0 12.9 workload is constituted by core business of academic staff 3.3 26.7 13.3 50.0 6.7 results indicated that the majority 50% of the academic workers agreed that their workload constituted of the core business of academic staff including teaching, research, service, leadership, and administration (table 6). only a few (26.7%) of these workers disagreed with this statement. while 41.9% of the academic staff agreed that lecturers were allocated courses using their level of education or expertise, 12.9% strongly agreed with this statement. this meant that most of the academic staff members were satisfied that lecturers are allocated courses using their level of education or expertise. on the contrary, the academic staff were somehow divided with regard to the fairness in the distribution of the workload. but, slightly more academic workers disagreed that the workload is fairly distributed among academics than those who agreed that is, 38.7% compared to 29%. a heavy workload which is not in commensuration with the remuneration is also likely to encourage some academics to exit from the system. 5.11. research and outreach activities (n=31) table-7. research activities statement strongly disagree agree neither agree nor disagree agree strongly agree africa university provides adequate research support to academic staff 13.3 46.7 26.7 13.3 0.0 research and/or publications are used to promote academic staff 13.3 30.0 23.3 30.0 3.3 africa university has a research ethics unit to guide research activities of academic staff 6.7 6.7 13.3 66.7 6.7 source: questionnaire results an overwhelming majority (66.7%) of the academic staff members agreed that there is a research ethics unit that guides research activities of the academic staff at africa university (table 7). some of them were however, not sure as they neither agreed nor disagreed with the statement. the academics were divided regarding the statement which said „research and/or publications are used to promote academic staff at africa university‟, with 30% of them agreeing and another 30% disagreeing. about 22.6% were also not sure whether research and/or publications are used to promote academic staff at the university. results then revealed that the majortiy 46.7% of these academics disagreed that the university provides adequate research support to them (table 7). these results suggested that because the university did not support research among the academic staff, it also does not use research and/or publications as a promotion criterion. these results were consistent with the earlier finding that the management style used at the university does not encourage the pursuance of a career path through staff development. supporting research and publications among academic staff is one way of supporting their career path and development, which africa university is failing to do. 6. conclusion overall, half of the academic staff rated the general working conditions at africa university as unfavourable to them. only one-fifth of them were of the view that working conditions were generally favourable to academic staff. the majority of the respondents were of the opinion that management style at africa university does not allow for academic input in the decision making process. the findings also revealed that the management style of the institution does not encourage academic career path and development. the attribution of discretionary treatments, fairness, rewards, and distribution of resources was rated negatively by academic staff. the findings have shown that most of the academic staff at africa university was of the view that performance appraisals were inconsistent and unfair. the results suggested a link between inconsistent and unfair performance appraisals and promotion not being based on performance. academic staff enjoyed their academic freedom (teaching, research, expression of opinions) and the sustained networks among their colleagues however most of these networks were rather based on personal affinity and friendship outside the institutional context. references adams, j.s., 1963. towards an understanding of inequity. journal of abnormal and social psychology and social psychology, 67(5): 422-436. africa university charter, 1992. archived in the africa university's deputy chancellor's office. mutare: africa university. armstrong, m. and p. long, 1994. 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satisfaction, and departmental turnover rates. organizational behavior and human performance, 24(1): 29-40. drucker, p.f., 1964. managing for results: economic tasks and risk-taking decisions. new york: harper and row. ilo/unesco, 2000. joint ilo/unesco committee of experts on the application of the recommendation concerning the status of teachers, seventh session, geneva, 11-15 september 2000. trevor, c.o., 2001. interactions among actual ease-of-movement determinants and job satisfaction in prediction of voluntary turnover. academy of management journal, 44(4): 621-638. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 4, 266-271, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 266 auditor independence: evidence from ghanaian polytechnics mawutorwu doe1  frank owusu2 eugene oware koranteng3 ebenezer mensah annan4 1,2,3,4 koforidua polytechnic, faculty of business and management studies, koforidua, ghana ( corresponding author) abstract there is a perception that internal audit units (iaus) in private and public sector organisations cannot be independent in executing their functions because the personnel of the units are on the one hand employees of their organisations and on the other hand expected to provide assurance services to management professionally. such an outlook has the tendency to impair the credibility of iaus as well as the professionalism of the iau. this exploratory study examined the independence in appearance of the iaus in selected ghanaian polytechnics within the framework of organisational status of the iaus, reporting line of the iau and the power conferred on the ghanaian public sector audit committee (ac) to ensure independence. data was collected from the directors of audit (doa) using a survey method. results of the study suggest that the iaus in ghanaian polytechnics are largely independent in appearance. however, the study suggests that the ghanaian ac has only an audit report implementation responsibility in reference to the enabling parliamentary act. the paper contributes to the auditing literature by providing some insights into the concept of auditor independence in public sector organisations within the context of national legislation and international best practice in the auditing profession. keywords: auditor independence, audit committee, objectivity. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 267 2. literature review .............................................................................................................................................................. 267 3. methodology....................................................................................................................................................................... 269 4. conclusions ........................................................................................................................................................................ 270 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 270 citation | mawutorwu doe; frank owusu, eugene oware koranteng; ebenezer mensah annan (2016). auditor independence: evidence from ghanaian polytechnics. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(4): 266-271. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: history: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. received: 8 june 2016/ revised: 19 august 2016/ accepted: 23 august 2016/ published: 27 august 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mawutorwu doe https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=frank owusu https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=eugene oware koranteng https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ebenezer mensah annan http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mawutorwu doe https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=frank owusu https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=eugene oware koranteng https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ebenezer mensah annan http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mawutorwu doe https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=frank owusu https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=eugene oware koranteng https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ebenezer mensah annan http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mawutorwu doe https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=frank owusu https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=eugene oware koranteng https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ebenezer mensah annan http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mawutorwu doe https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=frank owusu https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=eugene oware koranteng https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ebenezer mensah annan http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mawutorwu doe https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=frank owusu https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=eugene oware koranteng https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ebenezer mensah annan http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.266.271 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 266-271 267 1. introduction the call by corporate entities, professional bodies and academic researchers for the internal audit units (iaus) to improve their audit capability increased globally following the corporate scandal of enron and other reputed business organisations. in an attempt to salvage the situation, diverse legislations and regulations have emerged to give the iau prominence in the corporate governance process. to this end, the role and scope of the internal audit unit (iau) is evolving to meet the demands of the changing business environment and its diverse stakeholder needs so as to achieve and promote better corporate governance. the iau is currently expected to provide an independent assurance and consulting services to management to evaluate an institution’s risk management, internal control system, corporate governance processes to ensure that they are adequate and functioning properly and simultaneously ensuring proper safeguarding of assets, preventing and the detection of fraud and errors (the institute of internal auditors (iia), 2004; carcello et al., 2005; aikins, 2011). it is therefore not surprising that the iau has been identified as one of the pillars of good corporate governance that complements the board of directors, audit committees and external auditors (anderson et al., 1993) globally. essentially, good corporate governance will be incomplete without the iau. not only is the iau an essential pillar of the corporate governance structure but also an indispensable unit as it has a most profound knowledge of happenings in the organizational setting (cohen and sayag, 2010; iia, 2012). the establishment and conduct of the iaus in the private companies and firms is not required by statute or regulation however they are required as way of best practice. their establishment and conduct in the public companies and the public sector is required by statute and regulations (godwin, 2004; sterck and bouckaert, 2006). for instance, in the united states of america (usa), the sox (2002) regulates public companies while in the united kingom (uk), the uk corporate governance code and the turnbull report regulate public companies. to strengthen corporate governance in the ghanaian public sector administration, various legislations have been passed since independence to regulate the conduct of the internal audit. currently, among the legislations are the 1992 constitution of the republic of ghana, the audit service act, 2000, (act 584), the internal audit agency act, 2003, (act 658), the public procurement act, (act 663) and the financial administration act, (act 654). whether in the public sector, public or private companies, the iaus provide assurance services to multiple stakeholders. the assurance services of the iaus have credibility when they demonstrate an appearance of being independent from management. the usefulness of this quality in iaus operations has resulted in the formulation of legislations, guidelines, code of ethics and standards demanding that iaus must be independent and objective in their outlook (sox, 2002; american institute of certified public accountants (aicpa), 2010; international ethics standards board for accountants (iesba), 2010). research evidence has demonstrated that the independence of the iau is best complemented by the organizational status, reporting levels and the existence of an audit committee (ahmad et al., 2009; cohen and sayag, 2010). it can therefore be envisaged that there may be threats to the independence of the iaus in the absence of an independent ac in an organization. a survey by the global internal audit common body of knowledge (cbok, 2015) the world’s largest ongoing study of the internal audit profession, in 2015, revealed that only an average 67% of public sector organisations have audit committees compared to 83% in the non-public sector organisations. the iaus are increasingly playing an important role in the judicious use of resources in the public sector (theofanis et al., 2011). they however thread a very slippery path in corporate governance practice because on the one hand they provide assurance services to management and on the other hand provide consultancy services to management as professionals (sarens and de beelde, 2006). the iaus is expected to advise management in their consultancy service and are equally expected to independently assess management. notwithstanding the fact that internal auditors are employees of the organisations within which they work, they are to report on the adequacy of internal controls as a contribution to the proper, economic, efficient and effective use of resources. as a result of this dual role, there are questions as to whether the iaus as part of the group of employee of an organisation can be truly independent of management influence and report events in a true and fair manner (richard and jordan, 2000; van peursem, 2005; paape, 2007). to the best knowledge of the researchers, almost two decades after the establishment of the polytechnics in ghana, there is no empirical research conducted to examine the independence of the iau in ghanaian polytechnics as public sector organisations. the primary objective of this paper is to examine the independence in appearance of the iau in ghanaian polytechnics. this independence in appearance will be examined within the framework of organisational status of the iaus, reporting line to the board of directors and the powers of the audit committee in ghanaian public sector organisations. 2. literature review auditor independence is important because it has an influence on audit quality. the iaus are regarded as an integral component of corporate governance practice and are expected to provide assurance and consulting services (christopher et al., 2009). the iaus threads a very slippery path in corporate governance practice in an attempt to be independent because on the one hand they provide assurance services to management and on the other hand they provide consultancy services to management as professionals (sarens and de beelde, 2006). attempts have been made to explain and define the concept of independence. an observation made by regulators and professional bodies alike is that the word cannot be explained nor defined in isolation (fearnley and beattie, 2004). there is independence in mind and independence in appearance. regulators and research academicians have largely come to an understanding that independence in mind relates to one’s state of mind and is not easy to prove. whittington and pany (2004) concluded that auditor independence is relative and not absolute as it depends on the context. fearnley and beattie (2004) summarized definitions of auditor independence from the perspective of various regulators from the uk, usa, australia, canada and the european commission. all the individual definitions by these regulators asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 266-271 268 clearly distinguished between independence in fact and independence in appearance. independence in fact is perceived as a mental state and objectivity of the auditor and is not easily subject to proof. deangelo (1981) remarked that auditor independence is ‘the conditional probability of reporting a discovered breach’ and this position appears to be inclined more to the mental disposition of the auditor as an individual in being objective and explains the concept of independence in fact. the common understanding shared by the framework regulators about independence in appearance is that the auditor should avoid situations where a reasonable and informed third party would suspect the objectivity of the auditor. hence, one can reasonably conclude that whereas independence in fact appears to be covert, independence in appearance is overt and subject to some level verifiability without much difficulty. the iia (1999) defined the independence of the internal auditor as “the freedom from conditions that threaten objectivity or the appearance of objectivity. such threats to objectivity must be managed at the individual auditor, engagement, functional and organisational levels”. without the concept of independence, the audit activities and the audit report will lose their value of reliance and credibility. research evidence has demonstrated that the assurance services provided by the auditor will lose their value of reliance and credibility if not for the concept of auditor independence (stewart and subramaniam, 2010). according to iia (2012) organisational independence allows the audit function to conduct work without interference by the entity under audit. the organizational position of the iaus can affect its independence in appearance cohen and sayag (2010). to achieve organisational independence, international best practices demand that the iau should be positioned within the organisational structure to enable the head of the iaus, the chief audit executive (cae), report to a level that allows it to fulfill its responsibilities (iia, 2004). attribute standard (as) 1110 of the international standards for the professional practice (ispp) of internal auditing (iia, 2004) prescribes that the chief audit executive (cae) should report to a level within the organization that allows the iaus to fulfill their responsibilities. research results suggest that the organisational status of iaus is critical in enabling the function to achieve its responsibilities (sarens and de beelde, 2006; stewart and subramaniam, 2010). godwin (2004) conducted a study on the similarities and differences between public sector and private sector internal auditing and confirmed that public sector internal auditors report to higher levels compared to private sector internal auditors. to further enhance the organizational independence of the iau, practice advisory 1000-1 of the international professional practices framework (ippf), captioned purpose, authority and responsibility, stipulates that the purpose, authority and responsibility of the iau should be defined in an internal audit charter (iia, 2009). consequently, the iaus are empowered to be independent in their operations when the board of directors (bod) or its equivalent agency approves the internal audit charter. research has demonstrated that the consequence of an approved internal audit charter in organisations is an added source of authority that strengthens the organisational independence of the iaus (van peursem, 2005). in a comparative study between germany and china concluded that the iaus be set up without interference and influence from other departments and should be structured in such a way that it is only under the bod or by inference the ac which is the functional arm representing the board of directors. the availability of appropriate legislative instrument also gives the iau the legal mandate and anchorage to be established to conduct its audit without apprehension and enhances the independence of the iau (iia, 2012). the independence of the iau in the public sector is most effective when there is the legal requirement for the establishment of iau among other factors (sterck and bouckaert, 2006). the international organization of supreme audit institutions, intosai, which issues the international standards of supreme audit institutions, issais, has also remarked that available legislative instruments establishing the iau in the public sector gives the function a legal protection and enhances its independence (intosai, 2010). it is expected that the iaus provide accurate and unbiased information on the judicious use of public resources. best practice demands that the iau should have a dual reporting relationship in an organisation in an attempt to maintain independence. attribute standard 1110 foresaw the relevance of this function and has stipulated that in the pursuit to maintain the independence of the iau, the cae should report functionally to the board or the ac and administratively to the chief executive officer. because the public sector auditor’s role is to provide unbiased and accurate information on the use of public resources, auditors must be able to conduct and report on their work without interference or the appearance of interference. oyerogba et al. (2014) conducted a study on the reporting independence of iaus among the nigerian public sector organisations. the results suggest that the iaus maintain a reporting independence in the nigerian public sector organisations. erasmus and coetzee (2009) in a study on iaus in south africa concluded that to adhere to best practice, the iaus should report functionally or operationally to their ac and administratively to the ceos. this posture is also upheld in by the professional bodies (iia, 2004; iia, 2012). contrary to the benefits of functional reporting to the ac, norman et al. (2010) in their study found that some cae perceive personal threats to their job security when they report directly to the ac. indeed, there are behavioural issues that accompany the dual reporting functions of the iaus. besides the above mentioned organizational factors which impacts on the independence in appearance of the iaus, the existence of the ac also strengthens the independence of the iaus. the iaus are expected as discussed above to report functionally to the ac. previous studies have demonstrated that where the iaus report functionally to the ac, the independence of the iaus is enhanced by the presence of a strong, independent audit committee and the freedom to act objectively on audit examination (goodwin and yeo, 2001; gray and manson, 2001; rittengberg and schweiger, 2001; christopher et al., 2009; muqattash, 2013). the ac and the iau as elements of the corporate governance process complement each other (goodwin and yeo, 2001; iia, 2009). the role of the ac continues to evolve as a result of the passage of the sox (2002) in the u.s.a. the ac can reduce management pressure and demonstrate support for the iau by ensuring that the head of the iau is not penalised as a consequence of audit which reflect unfavorably on management. studies have revealed that the existence of the ac helps to maintain the independence of the iau from management pressures (fearnley and beattie, 2004; ahmad et al., 2009). the increasing need for good corporate governance coupled with legislation such as the sox have expanded the responsibilities of ac (bronson et al., 2009) beyond their oversight responsibilities of assurance to include governance, risk assessment and management, compliance with regulatory and ethical issues. professional bodies asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 266-271 269 and academic researchers have remarked that the ac as sub-group of the bod should give approval to the appointment, dismissal and remuneration of the cae (iia, 2004; alktani and ghareeb, 2014). in ghana, the attempt to safeguard the independence of the iaus in particular is underscored by section 19 of the internal audit agency act, 2003, (act 658). the auditor-general in ghana is mandated by articles 187,188 and 189 of the 1992 constitution of the republic of ghana to undertake internal auditing in the public sector. prior to the constitutional provisions giving recognition to the internal auditing in the public sector organisations in ghana, internal auditing of public sector organisations in ghana derived its authority from the audit service decree, 1972 (nrcd49) and later specific provisions of the financial administration decree, 1979 (smcd221). when the audit service act 2000, act 584 was enacted, it repealed the audit service decree, 1972 (nrcd49) and part v of the financial administration decree, 1979. the financial administration act, 2003 (act 654) in section 44 sub-section (i) empowered the iaus of public corporations to audit the accounts of their respective departments corporations in accordance with act 584 and regulations made under the act. the act that expressly establishes the internal auditing in ghanaian public sector organisations is the internal audit agency act, 2003 (act 658). section 16(i) of act 658 states that public sector organisations shall have an iaus. in ghana, the audit service act, 2000 (act 584) in section 30(1) requires the establishment of an audit report implementation committee (aric) which has the semblance of the ac. section 30(2a) of act 584 empowers the aric to implement all matters raised in audit reports. 3. methodology the population of this study comprises all the directors of audit (doa) in the ten (10) ghanaian polytechnics. the researchers employed the non-probabilistic sampling technique, specifically purposive sampling in selecting the ten (10) polytechnics. the doa were selected because the researchers believed that these personnel are reasonably positioned and informed to provide relevant and reliable information on the internal audit activities in the individual polytechnics. the researchers personally travelled to five (5) out of the ten (10) polytechnics and employed the assistant of contemporaries in the other polytechnics to obtain the data. permission was sought with the individual rectors of the individual polytechnics and where they were not available the vice rectors were contacted. four (4) rectors and three (3) vice rectors provided the permission needed. the purpose of the study was explained to the authorities and anonymity of each individual polytechnic response assured. the researchers adopted a qualitative research approach in collecting data for this paper using a semi-structured interview guide. the qualitative research approach was employed as opposed to a quantitative research approach because the researchers desired to report on a phenomenon, the independence in appearance of iaus in ghanaian polytechnics. the semi-structured interview guide was employed in this study to allow the respondents ample opportunity to express themselves within the confines of the purpose of the study. the research instruments were pretested among internal auditors of the ghana audit service, koforidua through a pilot study in order to ensure the questions were simple, straightforward and unambiguous. constructive feedback was received and appropriate modifications incorporated into the research instruments. the data was collected within a period of four (4) weeks. data from the interview was analysed and presented descriptively to offer a detail and rich explanation of the existing phenomenon. 3.1. findings and discussion out of ten (10) doa who were to provide data for this study, seven (7) of them were available constituting 70% response rate. in assessing the organizational status of the iaus in the individual polytechnics, the researchers sought information from the respondents on their individual organizational positioning and benchmarked the responses in comparison with the international best practice requirements as stipulated by the iia. practice advisory 1100-1, captioned independence and objectivity, of the iia stipulates that the independence of the iaus is achieved through the organizational status of the iaus. practice advisory 1000-1, captioned organizational independence, supports the organizational independence of the iaus by demanding that the organizational position of the iaus should be appropriately defined and documented in an internal audit charter approved by the board of directors. the respondents (doa) mentioned that the iaus are positioned administratively under the rectors who are equivalent to the chief executive officers (ceos) in corporate organisations. the respondents also indicated that their position and authority is supported by the internal audit charters which have been duly approved by their respective board of directors (bod). the iaus are not placed under the finance departments nor do they report to the directors of finance (dof). in relation to the organizational status of the iaus, the researchers sought to ascertain whether the iaus are restricted in the performance of their day to day function. all the respondents revealed that that there are no restrictions placed on their work by management, however, one of the doa remarked that there are occasions when the necessary cooperation from management was lacking for them to perform their function effectively respondents were asked to indicate their reporting line in the individual polytechnics. in assessing the independence in appearance of the iaus within the framework of their reporting line, the researchers benchmarked the respondents’ responses in comparison with the international best practices as stipulated by the iia. practice advisory 1110-2, captioned cae reporting lines, states that the cae should report to a (higher) level within the organization that will give it the leverage to achieve its responsibility. this reporting line is achieved when the iaus report administratively to the ceo and functionally to the bod or its equivalent agency the ac. the responses obtained from the doa from the individual polytechnics indicate that the iaus submit their audit reports functionally to the aric and administratively to the rectors. this finding is consistent with the result of (godwin, 2004; oyerogba et al., 2014) that iaus in public sector organisations report to higher levels. the administrative reporting relationship relates to the iau reporting to the management of an institution for the purpose of day-to-day administration such as budgeting and management accounting, human resource administration and internal policies and procedure administration. a functional reporting line is a principal indicator of the iau independence. it encompasses functions such as the ac approving the internal audit charter; the approval of the appointment, removal asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 266-271 270 and the annual compensation of the cae by the ac; private meetings between the doa and the ac and the approval of the internal audit risk of the organization by the ac. in order to assess the independence in appearance of the iau within the framework of the powers conferred on the ac, the researchers benchmarked the respondents’ responses in line with international best practice and legislative acts in ghana. according to section 30(1) of the audit service act, 2000 (act 584) all the public sector institutions subject to auditing by the auditor general of ghana are to set up an audit report implementation committee (aric) to ensure the implementation of the recommendations of audit reports. section 16(8) of the internal audit agency act, 2003 (act 658) complements section 30(1) of act 584 and stipulates the establishment of arics in public sector organisations. by inference to sections 30(1) of act 584 and sections 16(8) of act 658, the aric is empowered to act fundamentally only as an implementation body of audit reports. an apparent functional gap in the two acts mentioned above is which audit report is the aric expected to implement. is it the audit report of the external auditor or the internal auditor? by inference, one can reasonably posit that the aric in ghana is only an audit report implementation committee. the acts do not appear to cloth the ac with sufficient coercive powers to act independently and effectively with the powers conferred on functional reporting relationship as it relates to the ac and the aric as reported above. the framework for professional practice of internal auditing issued by the iia also requires organisations to have an independent and effective audit committees. all the respondents revealed that their individual institutions had established the aric as stipulated by the relevant sections acts 584 and act 652. 4. conclusions the study sought to examine the independence in appearance of iaus in ghanaian polytechnics. the concept of auditor independence in appearance was examined against the framework of organisational status of the iaus, the iaus’ reporting line to the bod or the ac and the powers conferred on the ac in ghanaian polytechnics. the study suggests that there exist iaus in each the ghanaian polytechnics which are appropriately positioned under the rectors, the higher level authority, in ghanaian polytechnics. the iaus derive their mandate from an act of ghana’s parliament. in addition, the organizational status of the iaus in the individual polytechnics is anchored and empowered in an internal audit charter approved by the individual bod. of the seven (7) doa, who participated in this study, all of them reported that to a large extent there are no restrictions placed upon their scope of work. this position is consistent with international best practice for promoting organisational independence of the iau. the study suggests that the iaus in ghanaian polytechnics report functionally to the ac and administratively to the rectors (ceos) of the individual polytechnics. this posture is consistent with international best practice and contemporary research findings in promoting the independence of the iau. finally, the study suggests that there exist ac in each of the individual polytechnics mandated by an act of ghana’s parliament with the principal responsibility of implementing audit reports. the study evidence suggests that the iaus in the ghanaian polytechnics to a large extent are independent in appearance. however, a sober consideration of the scope and responsibility of the ac (aric) in ghanaian polytechnics indicates that the responsibility of the aric is restricted only to an audit report implementation committee. in making generalizations about this study, the following limitations are noteworthy: the study did not examine the independence in fact of the iaus since this will relate more to the personal objectivity of the doa of the individual ghanaian polytechnics. the study did not consider the composition, qualification and meeting frequencies of the individual ac. the study results relied largely on selfreports made by the individual doa which might have some elements of subjectivity. the study did not consider the view of other staff of the individual polytechnics in examining the independence in appearance of the iaus. future research can explore the competences of the members of the ac and the qualifications of the doa who head the individual iaus. the scope and responsibility of the aric in the various laws such as the audit service act, 2000 (act 584), and the internal audit agency act 2003 (act 658) must be reviewed. currently the aric is recognized only as an implementation body. the various acts, enabling the scope and responsibility of the aric must empower the public sector ac to be more assertive in their function so as to strengthen the independence of 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(act 654), accra: ghana publishing corporation constitution of the republic of ghana 1992. accra: ghana publishing corporation financial administration act 2003. (act 654), accra: ghana publishing corporation. internal audit agency act 2003. (act 658), accra: ghana publishing corporation. public procurement act 2003. (act 663), accra: ghana publishing corporation. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.theiia.org/guidance/standards-and-guidance/ippf/definition-of-internal-auditing/ http://www.theiia.org/guidance/standards-and-guidance/ippf/definition-of-internal-auditing/ http://www.theiia.org/ http://www.theiia.org/ http://www.globaliia.org/ http://www.intosai.org/ http://www.icaew.com/en/library/subject-gateways/corporate-governance/sarbanes-oxley http://www.icaew.com/en/library/subject-gateways/corporate-governance/sarbanes-oxley http://www.theiia.org/?doc_id=1499 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 2, 108-114, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 108 impact of best hrm practices on retaining the best employees: a study on selected bangladeshi firms md. sajjad hosain 1 1 senior lecturer, department of business administration, uttara university, dhaka, bangladesh abstract contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 109 2. rationale and significance of the study............................................................................................................................ 109 3. hr practices in bangladesh .............................................................................................................................................. 109 4. literature review .............................................................................................................................................................. 109 5. research hypotheses and conceptual framework .......................................................................................................... 111 6. research methods .............................................................................................................................................................. 111 7. analysis and interpretations of results ............................................................................................................................ 112 8. conclusion and limitations of the study .......................................................................................................................... 113 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 113 citation | md. sajjad hosain (2016). impact of best hrm practices on retaining the best employees: a study on selected bangladeshi firms. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(2): 108-114. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.108.114 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 19 october 2015/ revised: 11 november 2015/ accepted: 20 november 2015/ published: 24 november 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group this study has been developed to endeavor the relationship between ten human resource practices (job analysis, recruitment & selection, adequate training facilities, performance appraisal, adequacy of information, supervisory treatment, opportunities for career development, compensation & benefit, managerial relationship with employees and degree of employee participation in decision making) and their possible impact on employee retention. the research was carried out with a sample size of 252 non-managers and 62 top level managers of 23 public and private corporate firms in bangladesh. data have been collected through a detailed structured questionnaire from the respondents. judgment sampling method has been used to recruit the respondents. result after careful statistical analysis has drawn a very interesting and unusual conclusion. it has indicated that there is a positive but insignificant relationship between job analysis, adequacy of information, management-employee relationship and participation in decision making with employee retention. the other six independent variables, recruitment & selection, job training facilities, performance appraisal, supervisory treatment, career development and compensation & benefit have negative relationship with employee retention. among them, job training, compensation & benefit and supervisory treatment have strong negative relationship with employee retention. keywords: bangladesh, human resource management, human resource management practices, employee retention. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.108.114 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 108-114 109 1. introduction the optimum effectiveness and efficiency of a firm do not depend on its financial resources or using the latest technology, rather it is determined by the extent to which way it is using its dedicated, motivated and efficient employees. again, it also depends on the number of its satisfied employees who will continue to provide their valuable service to the same organization. so, the success of a corporate firm lies on how efficiently it is using its quality and talented employees with optimum satisfaction. the term ‘human resources’ refers to the knowledge, skills, creative abilities, talents, aptitude, values and beliefs of an organization’s work force (mahmud and idrish, 2011). as people are the only lively resources of a firm, the effective utilization of other resources is mostly dependent upon human resources. employee retention is the number of employees who are continuing with the firm. employee retention is again determined by job satisfaction. a satisfied employee means better quality of service or production for the firm which in turn reduces the turnover cost and increase goodwill through quality products or services. the final result is higher profit for the organization. in the verge of knowledge based economy, human resource is considered as the most important resource and it is becoming more and more decisive for success of any organization (schular, 1990; werther and davis, 1996; moyeen and huq, 2001). the objective of hr is to improve the contributions of employees towards the firm and develop competitive advantage to the organizations (werther and davis, 1996). it is now very well accepted that an organization enriched with committed, motivated, talented, skilled and competent human resources can achieve any challenging goal. in modern business world full of diversified challenges, success is entirely dependent upon the way managers are utilizing the capabilities of their human resources (absar and mahmood, 2011). most of the successful firms in today’s business world are investing heavily in employee development programs and also trying to retain them at any cost even though they can get replacements at a much less compensation package. therefore, it is crucial for a firm to retain its valuable workforce through motivation. it comes in a variety of ways mainly through better human resource practices (hrps). hrp is a relatively new term used in bangladeshi corporate firms and very few firms have adapted proper hr practices in bangladesh. before that, old management styles were in practice. 2. rationale and significance of the study the study is aimed to identify the sources of job satisfaction that ultimately lead to employee retention. this study will hopefully of great help for those who are doing research about job satisfaction and employee retention. it will also come to the use for the employers who are trying to identify the sources of job satisfaction to keep their competitive workforce. finally, the study can balance the proper use of hr practice and financial performance gained by utilizing them. 3. hr practices in bangladesh bangladesh is small agro based country of south asia that got independence in 1971. here, half of the population is still engaged in agriculture (gob ministry of finance, 2007). but the trend is declining year by year with the increasing number of small and medium firms. after independence, only 4% of gdp came from the industrial sector (ahmed and patan, 1979). after a massive change in political philosophy in 1975, the governments were emphasizing on the growth and development of private sector enterprises. but the private firms did not achieve their ultimate success due to a number of issues like ineffective hr practices, lack of motivation, lack of training etc. despite having such problems, bangladesh is still one of the major emerging economies in near future according to many large economic institutions and think tanks. there were a few studies conducted in bangladesh regarding hrp. they include rab (1991); shelly (1994); mohiuddin and mahmood (2001); moyeen and huq (2001); mamun and islam (2001); akter (2002); islam (2003); mahmood (2004); hossain et al. (2004); akand (2006); uddin et al. (2007); huda et al. (2007). two recent studies conducted by billah and islam (2009) and billa et al. (2009) revealed that hr practices have significant correlation with employee retention and organizational commitment (absar and mahmood, 2011). the above studies on different hrm practices show that like all other undeveloped and developing countries, hrps are an area of researches that have not received proper attention yet in bangladesh. this study is, therefore, obviously an effort to fill this gap a little more. 4. literature review 4.1. previous research on employee turnover every organization invests a lot on their employees through job analysis, recruitment & selection, training, development and a healthy compensation package. to utilize these investments, the firm must try at all possible ways to reduce the employee turnover. although, there is no standard framework for understanding the employee turnover process as a whole, a wide range of factors have been found useful in interpreting employee turnover (kevin et al., 2004). employees are extremely crucial to the organizations since their value to the organizations is essentially intangible and not easily replicated (meghan and nick, 2002). therefore, managers must recognize employees as major contributors to the efficient achievement of the organizational success (abbasi and hollman, 2000). employee turnover remains as one of the most widely researched topics in organizational analyses (dalton and todor, 1981). despite having a number of significant researches by the specialists in this field, there is still no clear idea about the forces that drives an employee to dissatisfaction and leaves the job. among those factors, there are some external factors (demand and supply position in the labor market), some factors are organizational itself (pay scale, working environment, job skill, supervisory treatment etc.), personal characteristics (attitude, knowledge, personal interests, length of service etc.) and employee’s own reaction to his/her job (perceived job satisfaction and dissatisfaction, job involvement and job expectations) (knowles, 1964). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 108-114 110 the reason for paying so much attention to the issue of turnover is because it has some significant implications on organizations (demicco and giridharan, 1987; dyke and strick, 1990; cantrell and sarabakhsh, 1991; denvir and mcmahan, 1992). many researchers argue that high turnover rates might have negative effects on the profitability of organizations if not managed properly (barrows, 1990; hogan, 1992; wasmuth and davis, 1993). according to hogan (1992) nearly twenty years ago the direct and indirect cost of a single line employee leaving was between $1400 and $4000. turnover has many hidden or invisible costs and these invisible costs are result of incoming employees (through new job analysis, recruitment & selection process, training & developing the new employee etc), co-workers relationship with the departing employee, time taken for the co-workers to develop a good working relationship with the new employee and the other expenses occurring while the position is being filled. chang (1999) studied the relationship between career commitment and organizational commitment turnover intention among korean executives and found that the role of career commitment was stronger in predicting turnover intentions. if an individual is committed to the organization, he or she is less willing to leave the firm. this was found stronger for those highly committed to the organizations (mahmud and idrish, 2011). it has been proved that the employees with low career and organizational commitment had the highest turnover intentions as they did not care either about the company or their careers. individuals with high career commitment and low organizational commitment also tend to change the job frequently because they do not believe that the organizations can satisfy their career goals (mahmud and idrish, 2011). their mahmud and idrish (2011) findings were consistent with the previous research that high career committers consider leaving the firm if they are not provided the development opportunities by the organization. chang (1999) found that individuals become affectively committed to the organization when they perceive that it is pursuing internal promotion opportunities, proving proper training and supervisors are providing information and advising about the career prospects. 4.2. relationship between hrm practices and employee turnover to be competitive, the firms must retain their competent and motivated employees (mahmud and idrish, 2011). therefore, we must understand the interrelationships between hrm practices and employee turnover. these relationships for selected hrm practices in this study are: job analysis: job analysis is the base for all hrm activities. it is a process of obtaining information about jobs (mccormick, 1979). a proper conduction of job analysis and eventually providing employees with a proper job description prevents the complexities where the employees do not know what is expected from them to do. job analysis is the basis on which all other hr activities are stood and have an impact on employee turnover in reality. job analysis subsumes all other hr activities and therefore has a significant effect on employee turnover in general (hoon et al., 2000). recruitment & selection: an appropriate and up to date recruitment and selection process is a part and parcel of a good hr practice. recruitment and selection for larger organizations have proved to be a core human resource planning activity and as such, they are a vital part of an organization’s overall strategic plan (cameron and pierce, 1994). the role of recruitment and selection is to put in order preparations for potential long-term employment requirements, as well as deal with day-to-day employment vacancies, all as part of a human resource strategy (kramar, 1992). it is an important objective of all businesses to ensure that the people who are employed through the recruitment and selection process are the right people for the job. in addition, it is crucial to take the people who show the keen interest in the job responsibilities that are attached to. otherwise, they will be dissatisfied later and leave the job as they will not like it. adequate job training facilities: all employees in an organization should have an adequate training program. this should include an orientation to the position and the firm, as well as all necessary information to perform up to standard, including procedures, policies and way of doing the activities. employees who feel knowledgeable and comfortable in their surroundings will more often feel successful and content with their position (robert, 2008). though there has not been any significant relationship between training and retention (terera and ngirande, 2014) still it is one of the major determinants of job satisfaction and employee retention. performance appraisal: a fair appraisal system is essential in any organization to retain valuable employees. it enables employees to understand their job responsibilities and show them the path towards individual growth. employee participation in the appraisal process, equity, fairness and justice will give benefits to organizational commitment (paul and anantharaman, 2003). therefore, a fair appraisal helps in extracting the best from workers. an unfair appraisal system can result in unrest and dissatisfaction amongst employees. scholars usually argue that performance appraisals that are conducted properly can produce positive organizational results (pettijohn et al., 2001). adequacy of information: researchers like pitt and ramaseshan (1995) identified that employees who showed a higher desire to leave their jobs were those who perceived that the job previews and information they received during and after interview were not enough. when an employee do not get the necessary information from his/her company, he/she might feel that he/she is being ignored by the management and also, have a negative feeling for the company policy which in turn, induces him/her to leave the firm. supervisory treatment: a study done by firth et al. (2007) suggested that emotional support from supervisors and self-esteem can mediate the stressors on stress reactions, job satisfaction, commitment to the firm and lower the tendency to leave. therefore, it had been suggested that managers need to constantly monitor staff workloads and the relationship between supervisors and subordinates. career development opportunities: miller and wheeler (1992) found that the lack of meaningful work and opportunities for promotion significantly affected employees’ intentions to leave an organization. organizations were able to improve their employees’ retention rate by adopting job enrichment programs and enhancing their advancement opportunities (mahmud and idrish, 2011). besides promotion opportunities, the evaluation criteria used in the promotion and reward system also had significant effects on employees’ turnover intentions (quarles, 1994). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 108-114 111 ineffective performance appraisal and planning systems contributed to employees’ perceptions of unfairness and they were more likely to consider leaving the organization (dailey and kirk, 1992). compensation & benefit: in their research related to compensation package, park et al. (1994) and trevor et al. (1997) found that salary growth effects on turnover were greatest for high performers, i.e. high salary growth significantly reduced turnover for high performing employees. abbasi and hollman (2000) in their study have identified lack of proper recognition and lack of competitive compensation system is some reasons for employee turnover in an organization. management – employee relationship: cappelli (2000) stated that the relationship between managers and employees influences employees’ decision to staying in a job. previous research shows that supervisors and managers have an important impact on employee turnover (arokiasamy, 2013). the length of time that employees stay in an organization is largely determined by the relationship between employees and their managers (dailey and kirk, 1992). employees generally consider certain factors about their managers. first of all, gomez-mejia and balkin (1992) noted that employees desire managers who know and understand them and who treat them justly. they also prefer managers who can be trusted with their job environment. job satisfaction level normally increases when employees feel that managers are fair, reasonable and supportive. in addition, if the managers show interest in the well-being of employees and is supportive and sensitive towards them emotionally, job satisfaction level increases (miller and wheeler, 1992). furthermore, autonomy is valued by employees and decreases turnover (arokiasamy, 2013). participation in decision making: hewitt (2002) mentioned that modern businesses always keep employees well informed about all the important affairs of its business and involves them in decision-making at all levels which can exploit the talents of its employees. supporting the view, noah (2008) found in his research that employee involvement in decision-making helps in creating a sense of belongingness among the employees, which helps in creating a good congenial working environment and contributes towards building a good employer-employee relationship. the above cited literature reviews indicate a positive and strong (for most hr practices) impact on employee retention. therefore, the main purpose of this study is to find out the relationship between hr practices and employee retention for selected bangladeshi firms. a conceptual framework has been developed for this study (figure-1). 5. research hypotheses and conceptual framework from the above literature, two hypotheses can be developed. they are: h1: there is a positive and significant relationship between hrm practices and employee retention. h2: there is a positive but not significant relationship between hrm practices and employee retention. figure-1. conceptual framework in figure-1 ten hrm practices have been assumed as independent variables and employee retention has been considered as the dependent variable. 6. research methods the sample size for this research is 314 out of which 62 are top level managers and 252 are non-managers working in 23 different public and private corporate firms in bangladesh. judgment sampling method had been used to select the respondents. before the distribution, the questionnaire was checked properly to find out whether it was understandable for everyone or not, needed any improvement etc. the questionnaire had 74 questions altogether. a questionnaire was designed in a five point likert scale to measure hr practices and employee retention. five point likert type scale has been used in the questionnaire to measure hr practices where 5 was considered as strongly agree, 4 for agree, 3 for no comment, 2 for disagree and 1 for strongly disagree. table-1. questionnaire distribution according to category category no. of questions in the questionnaire job analysis 5 recruitment & selection 5 adequate job training facilities 10 performance appraisal 4 adequacy of information 3 supervisory treatment 7 career development opportunities 6 compensation & benefit package 8 management-employee relationship 5 employee participation in decision making 4 employee retention 17 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 108-114 112 the cronbach co-efficient was used to find the inter item consistency reliability (walsh, 1995). cronbach alpha for job analysis was 0.7199, for recruitment & selection 0.8834, for job training 0.8676, for performance appraisal 0.7311, for adequate information 0.7112, for supervisory treatment 0.8892, for career development 0.8622, for compensation & benefit 0.9123, for management-employee relationship 0.8645, for participation in decision making, 0.7839 and for employee retention, it was 0.8773. therefore, it is evident that each instrument’s internal reliability was satisfactory. 7. analysis and interpretations of results 7.1. pearson’s correlation for all selected variables and employee retention table-2. pearson correlation for all selected variables and employee retention independent variables dependent variable (employee retention) job analysis -0.044 recruitment & selection -0.051 adequate job training facilities 0.39 performance appraisal -0.012 adequacy of information -0.011 supervisory treatment 0.63 career development opportunities 0.52 compensation & benefit package 0.54 management-employee relationship -0.490 employee participation in decision making -0.044 in table-2 pearson’s correlation coefficient suggest that job analysis, recruitment & selection, performance appraisal, adequacy of information, employee-management relationship and opportunities for staffs in decision making are negatively correlated with employee retention. among them, recruitment & selection has a strong negative correlation with retention. on the other hand, job training facilities, supervisory treatment, career development opportunities and compensation package has positive correlation with staff retention but training is weakly correlated. the other three independent variables have a strong positive correlation with employee retention. 7.2. multivariate analysis multivariate analysis evaluates the simultaneous effects of all the independent variables on dependent variables. the results of regressing the ten independent variables against dependent one are shown in the table computed in spss. table-3. aggregate impact of hr practices on employee retention r r square adjusted r square standard error of estimate change r square change f change df1 df2 significance f change a 0, 876 0.626 0.63 0.6253 0.656 6.9411 5 252 0.00005 a. predictors: (constant), job analysis, recruitment & selection, job training, performance appraisal, adequacy of information, supervisory treatment, career development opportunities, compensation & benefit, management-employee relationship and participation in decision making the square of the multiple r is 0.656 indicates that 62% of variance in employee retention is explained by ten independent variables jointly. the f value is 6.9422 means that it is significant at p= 0.00005 suggesting that ten independent variables have significantly explained the 69% of the variance in employee retention. table-4. the strengths of influence of independent variables on dependent variable (employee retention) model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t significance b std. error beta (constant) job analysis recruitment & selection job training performance appraisal adequacy of information supervisory treatment career development opportunities compensation & benefit management-employee relationship participation in decision making 5.421 0.912 0.432 -0.151 0.161 0.410 -0.517 0.321 -0.743 0.151 -0.576 0.258 0.086 0.090 0.062 0.292 0.018 0.038 0.078 0.095 0.078 0.048 0.089 -0.254 -0.760 -0.221 0.046 -0.625 -0.051 -0.872 0.049 0.012 27.348 -9.765 6.745 1.432 3.118 2.561 -0.669 4.670 -0.452 -3.549 -0.567 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.006 0.004 0.332 0.119 0.003 0.126 0.231 0.397 the strengths of influence that each of the independent variable had on the dependent variable is determined by the multiple regression coefficients of the independent variables. the influence of each independent variable is shown in table-4. according to table-4 compensation & benefit has the strongest significant effect on employee retention with a standardized bata of -0.872. job training facilities has also significant effect on employee retention with a beta of 0.760 followed by supervisory treatment (-0.625). according to this data, recruitment & selection process has the highest positive t value indicating that there is no negative relationship between recruitment & selection and employee retention. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 108-114 113 the above analysis draws a very interesting outcome. after interpreting of the above results, it is evident that there is a positive relationship between job analysis, adequacy of information, management-employee relationship and participation in decision making with employee retention. but the relationship is not significant. the other six other independent variables, recruitment & selection, job training facilities, performance appraisal, supervisory treatment, career development and compensation & benefit have negative relationship with employee retention. among them, job training, compensation & benefit and supervisory treatment have strong negative relationship with employee retention. according the literature review, except job training, the other hrm practices have positive significant relationship with employee retention. therefore, this study does not support the previous literatures and also rejects both the hypotheses. 8. conclusion and limitations of the study most of the findings of this study do not match with previous literature review. the implication of this study suggests that there is no single or couple reasons that are liable for employee retention. rather, the reasons are diversified and they sharply differ from person to person, company to 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online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 72 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 3, 72-81, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.72.81 decision support model in the strategic management of the portuguese air force alpha jet fleet antónio abreu1  rúben piedade2 1iselinstituto superior de engenharia de lisboa, instituto politécnico de lisboa, portugal uninova institute, centre of technology and systems, portugal 2iselinstituto superior de engenharia de lisboa, instituto politécnico de lisboa, portugal ( corresponding author) abstract based on exploration criteria, the phase-out of an asset comprises the operation end of that asset. however, given the high cost of some assets, decision makers are faced by the dilemma of developing policies that allow them to extend the exploration period or find alternative scenarios for their use. with the aim of creating value, in terms of maintenance planning, this paper proposes a decision support model based on a multi-criteria approach, with the objective of selecting the best alternative. the proposed model analyzes the exploration extension scenario of an asset, identifying the actions necessary to guarantee its operational availability in relation to other alternative scenarios. the model developed was applied to the alpha jet fleet of the portuguese air force, which is in phase-out period and will cease to operate in january 2018, and there is no definite decision for its use. keywords: asset management, operational availability, maintenance planning, risk analysis, multiple criteria decision making. citation | antónio abreu; rúben piedade (2018). decision support model in the strategic management of the portuguese air force alpha jet fleet. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(3): 72-81. history: received: 26 march 2018 revised: 16 april 2018 accepted: 20 april 2018 published: 23 april 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .......................................................................................................................................................................................73 2. maintenance management ..............................................................................................................................................................73 3. maintenance planning model – msd-geca .............................................................................................................................74 4. case study application of the proposed model ......................................................................................................................75 5. conclusion ..........................................................................................................................................................................................80 references ...............................................................................................................................................................................................80 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.72.81&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8839-5606 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7860-3288 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8839-5606 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7860-3288 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8839-5606 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7860-3288 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8839-5606 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7860-3288 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 72-81 73 1. introduction the maintenance function, has long since ceased to be considered a "necessary evil" and a costs center, to take a leading position for business success, with features that generate profits for organizations in the so-called first world countries. it is in these terms that the maintenance has gained a greater importance in the organizations, having as main focus the profitability of the organization, through the increase of the maintenance effectiveness, more properly the increase of availability, increase of reliability, increase of quality, increase of personal safety and reduced downtime (muchiri et al., 2011; arslankaya and atay, 2015). in terms of maintenance planning, reliability is a very efficient variable for analyzing the likelihood of the adequacy of the functioning of components and systems, guaranteeing high safety standards (kinnison, 2012) and thus optimizing the management of aircraft maintenance. reliability centered maintenance (rcm) becomes an ideal, efficient, and cost-effective planning methodology to help close the resource gap. in the aeronautical industry, the methodology used in the development of maintenance programs with the objective of maximizing the reliability of the assets is called msg-3 (maintenance steering group-3), this methodology incorporates the principles of rcm, could these two methodologies be seen as similar (ahmadi et al., 2010). the two methodologies use asset risk analysis tools, identifying those most susceptible to failure, in particular the msi tool (maintenance significant items) in msg-3, and the fmea tool (failure mode and effects analysis), in the rcm. however, an assessment at the strategic level of an organization, in terms of aircraft operation, will require efficient and multi-criteria decision making, so the adoption of multicriteria decision analysis methods is justified by the purpose of providing a complex decision of greater transparency and clarity (ishizaka and nemery, 2013) so that it can be taken closer to the ideal. in this context, exploring the different possibilities of value creation for an aircraft fleet, based on different criteria, this paper proposes the development of a decision support model using a multicriteria approach to evaluate the extent of the operation of the alpha jet fleet of the portuguese air force, however, the application of the proposed model is not restricted to the aeronautical maintenance industry, allowing a strategic evaluation and management according to the condition of the assets, in another industry. 2. maintenance management ensuring the maximum operational availability of an asset is one of the challenges that any maintenance manager faces in his day-to-day life. availability is the ability of a good to perform its required function at a given time or during a given time interval under certain conditions (tont et al., 2008). as shown in figure 1, the operational availability of goods depends on two variables, intrinsic availability, which is imposed by the reliability (probability of non-failure) and maintainability (ease of repair) of the good or system, and the operating variable, the maintenance organization that can maximize operational availability with its maintenance policy. figure-1. factors influencing operational availability) source: adapted from bussel and zaaijer (2001) thus, in the 1970s the rcm methodology was developed, it is a management process that seeks to define the best operational maintenance policies for each asset, based on the preservation of the function of the assets, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 72-81 74 avoiding or reducing the consequences of the failures (nowlan and heap, 1978) and to maximize the reliability and security of goods (ahmadi et al., 2010). the implementation of the rcm is based on the response to seven key questions, using as a guide the standards iec 60300-3-11, sae-ja1011, sae-ja1012 (emovon et al., 2016): what are the functions and performance standards of the equipment, in the context of operation? in what ways is an equipment incapable of carrying out its functions? what are the causes of each functional failure? what are the effects of each functional failure? what is the importance of each failure (criticality and costs)? what can be done to predict or prevent each failure? what should be done if the appropriate preventive task or procedure is not identified? in order to address these key issues, the fmea is normally used (moubray, 1997). fmea is a structured method that allows the visualization and evaluation of all cause-and-effect relationships among the various components of a system and, as a result, allows the identification of failures and malfunctions in a system by studying its failure modes and effects on the various system components, as well as to determine effects mitigation tasks (ahmed et al., 2007). the method application stands out in the areas of chemistry, aerospace, military, automotive, electronics, mechanics and semiconductors (maheswaran and loganathan, 2013). the fmea has a qualitative and quantitative objective (pillay and wang, 2003). qualitative because it predicts the probability of certain types of system failures and quantitative because it aims to identify the components whose failures could lead to accident, injury and loss of property. however, when applied in an isolated way there are some limitations, for example: the three risk factors: failure mode severity, failure mode occurrence probability and failure mode detection probability are usually difficult to evaluate; the relative importance between the three risk factors is not taken into account; the rpn (risk priority number) determination is questionable: it ignores the relative importance of the three risk factors; the assessment is imprecise; a low rpn value is obtained when, multiplying the three risk factors, two of the risk values have low values and the third value is high; the interdependence between various failure modes and effects is not taken into account (emovon et al., 2016); (maheswaran and loganathan, 2013). however, the maintenance management process will only be effective if capable of responding in an integrated way to the three decision levels in an organization (figure 2): strategic, tactical and operational. figure-2. organizational levels of maintenance by goals source: adapted from horenbeek and pintelon (2014) 3. maintenance planning model – msd-geca in order to mitigate some of the limitations of the fmea and develop a decision support model that allows to respond to the three levels of organizational decision, the msd-geca (decision support model in the strategic management of asset condition) was developed, whose implementation goes through the use of the fmea tool and the application of multicriteria decision making (mcdm) methods. however, when applying the ishikawa diagram, as a risk identification tool that breaks down a problem into its possible causes, allied to the fmea (arvanitoyannis and varzakas, 2009) it reveals a greater ease in the fmea application and in the perception of the variants of a problem. based on the literature (goossens and basten, 2015) the ahp (analytic hierarchy process) is the most appropriate multicriteria decision method for risk analysis through the definition and subjective quantification asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 72-81 75 of risk factors, according to the overall goal. however, for greater effectiveness, validity and consistency in the evaluation and selection of the maintenance strategy, it is necessary to integrate ahp with topsis (the technique for order preference by similarity to the ideal solution), allowing the hierarchization and selection of the best alternative according to various criteria, whether they are imprecise or ambiguous (emovon, 2016); (ioannis and nikitas, 2013). in this context, and although both methods allow the hierarchization of alternatives, the ahp will assign values to criteria, while the topsis will select the maintenance plan (emovon, 2016) thus allowing to raise the results at a strategic level. the msd-geca model comprises the following steps (figure 3): i. problem identification: identification of the object of study, through the ishikawa diagram, and definition of goal (s); ii. risk analysis: fmea analysis of critical components and corrective actions; iii. response strategy: definition and weighting of criteria and alternatives, through ahp analysis, hierarchization of alternatives and selection of the answer to the problem in question, through the topsis analysis. figure-3. pillars of the maintenance planning model msd-geca the maintenance planning model will be applied to an aircraft maintenance organization that is in the degradation period that will, in particular, allow an assessment of the most critical components of an aircraft fleet, in terms of available potential and corrective actions, in order to occur a more correct evaluation of the various alternatives that could give a more viable future to the fleet of aircraft, aiming at the continuity of operation. 4. case study application of the proposed model the case study has the objective of applying the proposed maintenance planning model, more specifically to the alpha jet fleet, operated by the 103 squadron of the portuguese air force's. the specific plan developed, by the portuguese air force, states that it should be exploited to the point of exhaustion, the phase-out, assuming that after january 2018, the fleet will no longer operate. however, there are no solutions proposed so far. the alpha jet aircraft is a light fighter-bomber, whose function covers the offensive air support, surface support and advanced operational instruction areas. due to these capabilities and to the mission, of generating airpower, of the portuguese air force, the mission assigned to 103 squadron is the one of instruction, forming combat pilots that could be assigned to the operational squadrons, 201 and 301, in which the f16 aircraft operates. 4.1. application of the model msd-geca i. problem identification: identification of fleet exploitation limitations. respecting the operational support plan, it was decided that the fleet will cease to operate in january 2018, leaving 5 operational aircraft with a remaining potential of 237 fh (flight hours). so far, no solution has been defined for the end of the fleet, however, exploring the solution of extending the operation of the fleet beyond 2018, figure 4 illustrates the main sources and causes of the problem in question: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 72-81 76 figure-4. ishikawa diagram applied to the case study the phase-out period has influenced the shortage of available material due to the high price and delay in material supply, affecting the aircraft availability and rotatable wear. the structures or cells of the aircraft suffered a fatigue life extension in 2010, allowing them to operate up to a limit of 150% of fatigue index. this extension of life allows to control 27 critical locations, however the most limiting identified was the location ws 54/55, which corresponds to the bores of the wing-engaging sections in the fuselage. this more critical location allows an 1818 fh of operation (up to the 2nd half of 2020), from january 2018, up to the 150 % of fatigue index. these 1818 fh (already included the 237 fh), are, however, limited by the engines that equip these aircraft, the larzac 04 c20 engines, consisting of a modular structure of eight modules. this limitation is due to the lack of proper maintenance to these modules, due to the poor capacity of maintenance intervention in these modules, allowing only their replacement, which, consequently, has been degrading them, in terms of performance, reliability and material fatigue. the overhaul is no longer a solution due to the end of the maintenance contract with the engines manufacturer. taking into account critical engine systems, the msd-geca aims to evaluate alternatives that could allow the creation of value to the fleet, in the event of an extension of operation or not, considering the associated costs and the maintenance load to be performed. ii. risk analysis ii.1 fmea in order to quantify the risk that the potential failure modes may be causing to the fleet operation, two time samples were defined, for which the rpn will be calculated, the first time sample was defined between january 1st, 2010 and august 31st, 2014, of which 3778 fh were performed, 133 faults were registered, being the second time sample defined between january 1st, 2015 and december 31st, 2016, of which 1365 fh were performed, 54 faults were recorded. in the scope of the case study, it was necessary to adapt the scales of the index severity, occurrence and detectability. the severity index table was adapted to the level of maintenance depth and consequent downtime to perform this maintenance. the occurrence index table was defined by the failure rate (considered constant) in the two time samples. the detection index table was based on the immobilization times for the failure mode detection actions. finally, it should be noted that not all failure modes have the same criticality or urgency to be minimized or mitigated, in order to reduce the risk associated with each failure mode. therefore, three ranges of values are defined by which the fmea analysis will be guided (table 1), in terms of which failure modes should be prioritized. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 72-81 77 table-1. rpn classification applied to the case study risk priority number classification (rpn) urgency of corrective actions high risk rpn ≥ 200 immediate and urgent action moderate risk 120 ≤ rpn < 200 deferred and non-urgent action low risk 1 ≤ rpn < 120 non-urgent action table-2. critical rpns summary and recommended actions analyzing table 2, the systems identified as being the most critical are the 3rd (high pressure compressor) and 5th (high pressure turbine) modules, occasionally the 6th modules (low pressure turbine) which is one of the sources of vibrations in the engine. it should be noted that there is a severe increase and a slight decrease in the 3rd modules and in the 5th modules criticality, respectively, however, it can be seen that, to a large extent, the insufficiency of power and vibrations in the engines are originated in the 3rd modules and in the 5th modules, respectively. it verifies that the solution would be to replace or overhaul these three modules, however, there are no 3rd and 5th modules with sufficient potential or reliability for use, to minimize these failure modes, in s y st e m s u b sy st e m c o m p o n e n t f u n c ti o n p o te n ti a l f a il u re m o d e s e v e ri ty 1 0 -1 4 s e v e ri ty 1 5 -1 6 o c cu rr e n c e 1 0 -1 4 o c cu rr e n c e 1 5 -1 6 d e te c ta b il it y 1 0 -1 4 d e te c ta b il it y 1 5 -1 6 r p n 1 0 -1 4 r p n 1 5 -1 6 r e c o m m e n d e d a c ti o n 3 rd m o d u le 4-stage rotorstator set compress the air mass from the low pressure compressor, heat it and send it to the combustion chamber compressor insufficiency pressure 10 10 4 7 6 7 240 490 m o d u le r e p la c e m e n t o r o v e rh a u l compressor insufficiency rotation 10 10 4 7 2 2 80 140 5 th m o d u le 1-stage high pressure stator set stator vanes direct the hot air mass flow from the combustion chamber wear of the vanes 10 10 5 4 5 5 250 200 v a n e s r e p la c e m e n t 1-stage rotor rotor blades transform kinetic energy of the air mass from the combustion chamber, moving the high pressure compressor wear of the blades 10 10 6 5 6 7 360 350 m o d u le r e p la c e m e n t o r o v e rh a u l 1-stage low pressure stator set stator vanes direct the remaining hot air mass from the high pressure turbine to tap the blades of the lowpressure turbine, moving it fractures in the vanes 10 10 6 2 5 5 300 100 v a n e s r e p la c e m e n t abnormal engine operating vibrations 8 8 3 5 6 7 144 280 m o d u le r o ta ti o n 6 th m o d u le 1-stage rotor rotor blades transform the kinetic energy of the remaining air mass of the high pressure turbine into mechanical energy wear of the blades 10 10 1 2 5 6 50 120 m o d u le r e p la c e m e n t o r o v e rh a u l asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 72-81 78 addition to those installed in operational aircraft, that is, the recommended action of the 3rd and 5th modules replacement is not feasible. in the case of the 6th modules, the replacement solution is still feasible, as there are still some modules with some reliability and potential to be able to minimize the increasing risk of these failure modes. the overhaul solution of the 3rd and 5th modules is not feasible since 2009, with the end of the contract with the engine manufacturer, much due to the small annual budget allocated to the fleet. according to the above, and from the most critical failure modes, it can be concluded that the systems that most compromise the operational availability of the fleet are the 3rd and 5th modules, due to the lack of proper maintenance due, in large part, to the budget cuts. so, the next step of the msd-geca has the main goal of selecting the maintenance strategy that will allow the creation of value to the fleet, that is, to identify and evaluate other alternatives that make it possible to extend the operationality of the fleet or minimize degradation, and eventual loss, of the national heritage, using a multicriteria approach that allows the evaluation of the variables obtained in fmea analysis, at the operational level of maintenance, and other variables or criteria that allow to extend the evaluation of msdgeca to a strategic organizational level of maintenance. iii. respond strategy iii.1 ahp the hierarchy defined, in figure 5, is based on the experience of the researcher of the present scientific research work:  level i: definition of the global goal of value creation;  level ii: criteria influencing the different decision scenarios (c1, c2, c3, c4, c5);  level iii: decision alternatives or scenarios (ap, am, av, ar). figure-5. hierarchical structure of the operationality extension evaluation decision table 3, used the saaty scale (ioannis and nikitas, 2013); (gurung and phipon, 2016) represents the pairwise comparison matrix (a) between the criteria in relation to the global goal, the priority vector (ci) and the consistency vector (xi): table-3. priority vector (ci) and consistency vector (xi) criteria c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 priority vector ( ) consistency vector (xi) c1 1 1/7 1/3 1/6 1/2 0,0529 0,2852 c2 7 1 1/2 1/2 3 0,2207 1,1919 c3 3 2 1 1/2 6 0,2881 1,6302 c4 6 2 2 1 2 0,3432 1,8684 c5 2 1/3 1/6 1/2 1 0,0951 0,4941 the comparison of preference between criterion i (row) and criterion j (column), is obtained from: criteria i 9 7 5 3 1 3 5 7 9 criteria j asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 72-81 79  if the numerical judgment between criterion i and j falls to the left side of the value 1, the value will be the value selected in the saaty scale, aij;  if the numerical judgment between criterion i and j falls to the right side of the value 1, the value will be aij=1/aij. then, the values are normalized by dividing each element by the sum of its column and, finally, the vector ci is calculated by the average of each line. the vector xi is calculated by the multiplication between the pairwise comparison matrix (a) and the vector ci. table 4 represents the relative weight of each criterion relating to each alternative and the overall weight of each alternative relating to the global goal: table-4. overall weight of the alternatives criteria c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 overall weight ap 0,4258 0,0352 0,4285 0,2635 0,3411 0,2766 am 0,0347 0,2231 0,0364 0,0365 0,0788 0,0816 av 0,2047 0,3066 0,1633 0,5951 0,1998 0,3488 ar 0,3349 0,4351 0,3718 0,1049 0,3803 0,2930 as was done previously in the calculation of the vector ci, each column of table 4 represents the vector ci, the preference of each criterion in relation to the alternatives. the overall weight is obtained by multiplying the priority vector for each alternative, expressed in table 4, and the main priority vector (ci), expressed in table 3. the overall weight allows to conclude that the ahp hierarchy places the sale alternative (av) as the most preferred, with 34.88%, and museum alternative (am) as the least preferred, with 8.16%. the calculation of the judgments consistency is carried out by the following steps:  principal eigen vector (eigenvalue), is the measure of consistency of the pairwise comparisons for the five criteria (n = 5): λmax = (1 / n) × ∑ (xi / ci) = 5,4181; o xi is the consistency vector and ci is the main priority vector (table 3).  consistency índex: ci = (λmax n) / (n 1) = 0,1045;  consistency ratio: cr = ci / ri = 0,0933, the inconsistency is acceptable, because the premise cr ≤ 0,1 is verified. note: ri is the random consistency index, which is obtained from the table of values of random consistency index in relation to the order of the matrix (n) (ishizaka and nemery, 2013). iii.2 topsis according to gurung and phipon (2016) a scale is developed (table 5) that evaluates the relation of conformity between each criterion and each alternative, and then this conformity assessment is expressed (table 6), that is, each criterion will be evaluated according to its suitability to each alternative: table-5. criterial attributes scale values criterion 1 criterion 2 criterion 3 criterion 4 criterion 5 1 nonexistent unnecessary unnecessary does not favors disregarded 3 low little needed little needed little favors little considered 5 moderate moderately moderately moderately moderately 7 high required required favors considered 9 very high much needed much needed favors a lot highly regarded table-6. decision matrix d alternatives criteria c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 ap 5 5 9 1 3 am 3 9 3 7 5 av 5 7 3 9 5 ar 5 9 5 5 5 importance (wi) 0,0529 0,2207 0,2881 0,3432 0,0951 note: the wi values represent the main priority vectors (ci), obtained in ahp. table 7 shows the pis and nis values, as well as their separation measures, finally the relative closeness values (ci*) to the ideal solution (pis) of each alternative and its hierarchy: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 72-81 80 table-7. separation measures between pis and nis of the weighted-normalized matrix v and relative closeness values (ci*) to the ideal solution alternatives criteria di + di ci* hierarchy c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 ap 0,0289 0,0718 0,2329 0,0275 0,0311 0,2699 0,0586 0,1784 4 am 0,0173 0,1293 0,0776 0,1923 0,0519 0,0804 0,2274 0,7389 2 av 0,0289 0,1006 0,0776 0,2473 0,0519 0,0288 0,2717 0,9043 1 ar 0,0289 0,1293 0,1294 0,1374 0,0519 0,1344 0,1528 0,5321 3 pis (v+) 0,0289 0,0718 0,0776 0,2473 0,0519 nis (v-) 0,0173 0,1293 0,2329 0,0275 0,0311 from table 6, the following values are calculated in table 7:  normalized decision matrix r is obtained by dividing each element of table 6 by the square root of the squared sum of the respective column : rij = xij / √(∑ xij 2);  weighted-normalized decision matrix v is calculated by multiplying the importance wi and the elements of the normalized decision matrix r : vij = wi × rij;  pis (v+) are the highest benefit values and the lowest non-benefit values of each column of the weighted-normalized decision matrix v;  nis (v-) are the lowest benefit values and the highest non-benefit values of each column of weightednormalized decision matrix v. cost is a non-benefit, represented by c2 and c3;  the calculation of the separation measures (euclidean distance) of each alternative from the positive ideal solution pis: di + = √(∑ (vij vj +)2);  the calculation of the separation measures (euclidean distance) of each alternative from the negative ideal solution nis: di = √(∑ (vij vj -)2);  the relative closeness values: ci* = di / (di + + di -), where the closest solution to the ideal solution will be the one closest to ci* = 1. it is concluded that, taking into account the current state of the alpha jet fleet and its dependent variables, the closest solution to the ideal one for the creation of value to it, among the available alternatives, is the sale of the fleet. 5. conclusion the presented model of decision support using a multicriteria approach to value creation, concludes that an operation extension of the alpha jet fleet is the least preferred solution. being the sale alternative the most preferred, however, it is advised that an aircraft preservation planning should be applied to this fleet, since the timing of the purchase is unknown, but also to avoid a more rapid degradation of its materials and components due to the non-use and to reduce, as much as possible, the buyer maintenance effort to return the fleet to the airworthy state. the fmea analysis allows a more in-depth assessment of failure modes, revealing the ones that most compromise the operation of the engines. as 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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=a%20methodology%20of%20availability%20assessment%20for%20complex%20manufacturing%20systems asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 1, 1-16, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 1 mapping accessibility and shortage of the protestant church in china: applying two spatial research methods zhaohui hong 1* --jiamin yan 2 1 professor of history and director of the center for global studies at purdue university calumet, and the co-director of the center on religion and chinese society, purdue university, usa 2 graduate assistant, purdue university calumet, usa; purdue university calumet; street, clo, purdue university calumet, hammond, usa abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................... 2 2. methodology: the two step floating catchment area and the network analysis method ............................................. 2 3. data ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 4 4. spatial church accessibility in east china .......................................................................................................................... 4 5. spatial church accessibility in central china ..................................................................................................................... 9 6. spatial church accessibility in west china ....................................................................................................................... 11 7. conclusion: comparative studies on the two spatial methods ........................................................................................ 15 8. acknowledgment.................................................................................................................................................................. 15 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 15 the issues of church accessibility and church shortage are critical for understanding religious market and religious economy in china. assisted by gis, this article uses and compares two spatial research methods, the two step floating catchment area (2sfca) and the network analysis method (nam), to examine the church accessibility and church shortage in the thirty-one provincial capital cities of china. despite the two different methods, this article sets up a common criterion in determining the geographic area of church shortage, or rather determining the number of protestants who cannot reach the nearest churches from their residential locations within 30 minutes through driving or public transportation. the research findings discovered by both methods have identified nine provincial capital cities in the three regions of china as the areas of church shortage and low church accessibility. keywords: church accessibility, church shortage, spatial study of religion, religious market, china studies, multi-methods http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 2 1. introduction in an effort to study the protestant market in china, the authors have completed two projects that focus on: 1) hangzhou, china and chicago, usa (hong and zeng, 2012) and 2) four provincial capital cities in china (hangzhou, zhengzhou, fuzhou, and hefei) (hong et al., 2014). this article is designed to apply two innovative methods to addressing the issues of church accessibility and driving time between the demand-side (protestant members' residential area) and the supply-side (protestant church). measuring the driving distance between church and protestant living areas is critical in analyzing the church accessibility and church shortage in the specific regions. assisted by the geographic information system (gis), the magnificence of spatial study is capable of adding time and space considerations to study the gap of supply and demand in a religious market. this article is a pioneering effort to combine two spatial research methods to jointly test the issues related to the chinese church accessibility and church shortage. these methods include the two step floating catchment area (2sfca) method and the network analysis method (nam). specifically, this article uses both methods to examine thirty-one provincial capital cities in three chinese regions (east, central, and west) in order to estimate the percentage of chinese protestants who could not reach their nearest churches within the specified time and distance. the similar and different results produced by both methods will improve research methodology and reveal additional research findings on the protestant market and religious economy in china. 2. methodology: the two step floating catchment area and the network analysis method this project relies on arcgis 10.1 studying the driving time from the protestant residential areas to the protestant churches in specific locations, in an attempt to estimate the percentage of protestants who cannot reach their nearest church within the allotted time frame. the project has applied both 2sfca and nam measuring and comparing the driving time and the geographic areas between the designated locations to understand their church accessibility and church shortage. first, this study utilizes the 2sfca method as the main tool for studying church accessibility. developed by john radke and lan mu, the 2sfca was originally designed to "develop a method which measures access to social services for each household and makes adjustments among service providers to better accommodate under-served regions" (radke and lan, 2000). the 2sfca method is a special case of a gravity model of spatial interaction that was developed to measure spatial accessibility to primary care physicians (luo and wang, 2003a). the 2sfca can also be used, however, to measure other types of accessibility such as accessibility to jobs, gas stations, bank branches, cancer care facilities, etc. the 2sfca method not only has most of the advantages of a gravity model, but it can also intuitively interpret the result as a special form of physician-to-population ratio (wang, 2006). in essence, the 2sfca method measures spatial accessibility as a ratio of primary-care physicians to population, combining two steps. first, it assesses “physician availability” at the locations of physicians (supply) as the ratio of physicians to their surrounding population (i.e., within a threshold travel time from the physicians). second, it sums up the ratios (i.e., physician availability derived in the first step) around (i.e., within the same threshold travel time from) each location of residents (demand) (luo and wang, 2003b). in applying this method to church accessibility, this project searches all protestants' residential locations (k) that are within a threshold travel time (d0) from the protestant church location j, and compute the number of protestant churches to protestant population ratio rj within the catchment area: , here, pk is the protestant population of protestants’ residential location k whose centroid falls within the catchment (i.e., dk d0), sj is the number of protestant churches at location j; and dkj is the travel time between k and j. (wang and luo, 2005). as the second step of the 2sfca, for each protestant population location i, this study searchs all protestant church locations (j) that are within the threshold travel time (d0) from location i (i.e., catchment area i), and sum up the number of church to the number of protestant population ratios rj at these locations: , where represents the accessibility at protestants' residential location i based on the 2sfca, rj is the churchto-protestant ratio at church location j whose centroid falls within the catchment centered at i (i.e., dij d0), and dij is the travel time between i and j. to be doable and measurable, the threshold time may be set at 30 minutes of driving for all locations. a larger value of indicates a better church accessibility at a location. the 2sfca method is effective in identifying areas with low church accessibility (wang and luo, 2005). rather than using the street map based on travel time, this paper is using a simplified 2sfca, which uses the straight line of distance travel time because there are not sufficient street map data in all chinese cities. the analysis unit involves polygon integrated census information and the church point. due to the insufficient data, this study assumes that the population is distributed throughout the district equally. it is worth noting that the colors or shapes of the map developed by the 2sfca represent the different scores of the church accessibility in a specific city. the darker the color the higher the church accessibility score. according to the definition of church accessibility, non-color section or white color signifies that the accessibility score is zero, indicating that there are no churches available within 30 minutes of one-way driving. to interpret the distribution of the accessibility score, wang and luo define health professional shortage areas through assessing spatial and nonspatial factors for healthcare access as an integrated approach (wang and luo, 2005). as a result, they identify the area with score lower than 1/3,500, which is around 0.00028571, as a health professional shortage area (hpsa), asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 3 according to the criteria for hpsa designation. in particular, hpsa defines that the area should be classified as the health professional shortage if the residents can't reach their nearest health clinic within 30 minutes of driving (u.s. department of health and human services, 2004). following this definition as a reference, this study uses 30 minutes of one-way driving as a criterion to estimate the shortage of church in chinese large cities. however, the threshold score for church shortage may have to be redefined due to its different characteristics from health care. demonstrated by map 1 below, the areas without color or white color represent church accessibility scores lower than 1/10,000, indicating that protestants who are living in the areas must take more than 30 minutes of one-way driving to reach the nearest church destinations or meaning that one church may not be enough for protestants. the areas with the blue color symbolizes the best or highest church accessibility score, demonstrating that the protestants in these areas are able to reach their closest churches within 30 minutes of one-way driving and at the same time, one church may be abundant for the protestants around that area. map-1. the map sample by the two step floating catchment area (2sfca) to supplement the 2sfca method, it is vital to apply the additional spatial research method, the network analysis method (nam), to the study of church shortage in china. the nam is to integrate and analyze network data, maps, and spatial information through gis and other spatial statistical methods in an attempt to calculate church availability and accessibility. different from the 2sfca, the nam is capable of demonstrating a street layer which "can contain the road type, distance, and travel speeds (miles or kilometers per hour) permitted in the underlying data table within gis. this allows users to identify a station location, specify a travel time, and run a network analysis" (environmental systems research institute (esri), 2006). as the first step, the nam completes the map transformation designed to change the map to the right format and proper setting before it is usable and applicable, as the raw map data is only available online. in doing so, the nam should transfer the current map format to the coverage format and export the coverage data back to the shapefile that can be edited through the arcgis software. creating a network dataset is the second step of the nam. given that the shapefile documents are transferred from the original online maps, it is critical to create the network dataset for further network analysis. the third step is to import church point coordinates, including the longitude and latitude of each location, to locate the coordinates as the service facilities. the network analysis is the next step, in which the church points and the maps should be imported into the software. after running the built-in function through the network analysis, the project is able to calculate the driving time covering the selected areas by using three different time periods--15 minutes, 30 minutes, and 45 minutes--that represent the distances of 6km, 12km, and 18km, respectively. furthermore, the network analysis will allow this project to calculate the coverage areas through using the built-in function, arrange the resulting data through excel, and determine the percentage of protestants or number of protestants who cannot reach their nearest church within the designated time. another benefit of using the nam is that it allows us to figure out the average driving speed in the cities based on the selected samples. assuming that the provincial capital cities in china have the similar traffic conditions, this project selects beijing, shanghai and xi'an as three samples. google maps is effective in calculating the selected starting and ending locations for the randomly selected routes around the center of the representative city, including one at the city center, one at the city boundary, and the last one between the city center and city boundary. given the designated distance and driving time, the project lists the driving speed information regarding the three cities: beijing--14.71km/h, 25.85 km/h, and 38.54 km/h; shanghai--18.00 km/h, 21.4 km/h, and 25.89 km/h; and xi’an-32.40 km/h, 32.88 km/h, and 39.00 km/h. as a result, the average driving speed is 27.63 km/h. to ensure consistency across calculations, this study sets up 24km/h for all provincial capital cities as the average driving speed. demonstrated by map 2 below, the nam is able to visualize different driving times (in minutes) and distances in a designated location. while the inner circle (green color) symbolizes 15 minutes of driving time and the middle circle (yellow) means 30 minutes of driving, the outsider circle (red) one represents 45 minutes of driving. each spot on the map represents the location of a protestant church. to make the calculation consistent with the 2sfca, this study selects 30 minutes as the common time unit to test the church accessibility and church shortage in china following the nih's definition of the health professional shortage area. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 4 map-2. map sample by the network analysis method (nam) 3. data searching and verifying the data concerning chinese christianity is exceptionally challenging due to the lack of church transparency, including both official protestant churches and non-official churches, such as the house churches. while the authors are fully aware of inaccurate and incomplete data in measuring church accessibility and church shortage in china through the 2sfca and the nam, the project has tried its best to utilize the following data as the key references: the number of total chinese protestants. while a variety of resources released different numbers of chinese protestants, such as the pew data (58 million) (pew research center, 2011), the project relies on the official data, which reported 23,050,000 of chinese protestants in 2009 (research project team of the institute of world religious studies in the chinese academy of social sciences, 2010). although this study fully recognizes that the official data has underestimated the real protestant members in china, the project doesn't have enough empirical evidence nor the intellectual capability to disprove this estimate. the number of total chinese protestant churches. after carefully studying the 2004 china’s economic census data with gis maps released by the chinese government, this project follows this official estimate, which was 14,509 of chinese protestant churches in 2004, excluding catholic churches and non-official protestant house churches (china census bureau, 2005). furthermore, data compiled and designed by the university of michigan and purdue university, the "spatial explorer of religion" (china census bureau, 2005) has developed a network that incorporates the aforementioned 14,509 churches through spatial information technology. this study notices the time disparity between the number of protestants in 2009 and the number of churches in 2004, but in light of the limited data, the project has to use the data during the similar periods as the estimated reference. the number of protestants at the levels of province and provincial capital city. unfortunately, this study is unable to find any official information concerning the number of protestants at the levels of province and city. therefore, this study has to selectively rely on 1) the data released by the amity foundation (2004) the county and city gazetteers (fang zhi); and 3) ying fuk-tsang (2009). the spatial street and district maps at the level of city. this study is relying on the following three resources to calculate the church accessibility score and church shortage: 1) the “cloudmade” website 1 to retrieve the information concerning the spatial street maps in the thirty-one provincial capital cities; 2) the “bo ya di ming” website (博雅地 名网) 2 to recover the district map information about the cities; and 3) google maps at the levels of country, province and city. 4. spatial church accessibility in east china mainland china is comprised of three regions, east, central, and west regions, and thirty-one provinces and municipalities in addition to taiwan, hong kong, and macau. east china includes eleven provinces and municipalities, such as zhejiang, fujian, shanghai, liaoning, jiangsu, beijing, shandong, hebei, guangdong, tianjin, and hainan. in applying the aforementioned 2sfca method to the study of church accessibility in east china, this study selects 30 minutes or 12 km as the reference to figure out the church accessibility score in eleven provincial capital cities in east china. in other words, the project defines the areas in which the protestant population cannot reach their nearest churches within 30 minutes through either driving or public transportation as the church shortage or low church accessibility. map 3 (including eleven maps in the eleven provincial capital cities) demonstrates that the areas with white color represent a zero church accessibility score; protestants living in these areas cannot reach their nearest churches within 30 minutes. here, in addition to the areas with the white colors, the blue color illustrates that the protestants can't reach their nearest church within 30 minutes of one-way driving. 1 see its website: http://downloads.cloudmade.com/asia/eastern_asia/china. 2 see its website: http://www.tcmap.com.cn/. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 5 a. fuzhou b. guangzhou c. haikou d. hangzhou e. shijiazhuang f. nanjing asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 6 g. shenyang h. jinan i. shanghai j. tianjin k. beijing map-3. spatial maps of church accessibility by the 2sfca in east china table 1 below summarizes the church accessibility scores in the eleven cities above and concludes that some percentages of the protestants in nine cities need to take more than 30 minutes of one-way or 60 minutes of round trip transportation to arrive at the nearest churches. it is worth noting that the calculation of the percentages of protestants who must take more than 30 minutes to reach the nearest church is based on the assumption that the density of the protestant (ρ) is the same in different districts. then, the percentage of protestants can be calculated by using the following formula: [(area that can be reached in 30 minutes)* ρ]/[(total area of the city)* ρ]= (area that can be reached in 30 minutes)/(total area of the city). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 7 table-1. church accessibility in east china by the 2sfca provincial capital cities percentage of protestants that have lower accessibility score than 1/10000 nanjing 100.0% haikou 94.8% beijing 83.8% jinan 73.7% shenyang 69.4% fuzhou 67.7% hangzhou 64.9% guangzhou 42.8% shanghai 10.4% shijiazhuang 0.0% tianjin 0.0% in addition, it is meaningful to use the nam to check the reliability of the 2sfca method on the study of church accessibility and church shortage. following the aforementioned nam, this study selects 30 minutes as the same driving time in eleven provincial capital cities in east china. table 2 show the results in terms of 1) their accumulated areas; 2) protestant members; 3) the area coverage; 4) protestants who can't reach the nearest church within 30 minutes, and 5) the number of protestants in the area. table-2. church accessibility in east china by the nam (30 minutes) 12km (30 minutes) accumulated area (km2) protestants and area coverage protestants can't reach the nearest church number of protestants in the area haikou 153.1992 6.53% 93.47% 467 beijing 593.2156 60.61% 39.39% 18,625 jinan 568.0469 71.76% 28.24% 31,881 fuzhou 1,097.782 105.80% 0.00% 58,089 guangzhou 512.6185 138.33% 0.00% 17,998 hangzhou 974.5984 133.84% 0.00% 157,423 nanjing 464.8829 178.66% 0.00% 105,760 shanghai 1,297.462 448.95% 0.00% 151,468 shenyang 1,097.721 142.75% 0.00% 69,912 shijiazhuang 435.4794 108.51% 0.00% 12,820 tianjin 1,101.038 636.44% 0.00% 15,385 illustrated by table 2, haikou, beijing, and jinan should be the areas which have the issues of church shortage because 93.47%, 39.39%, and 28.24% of their protestants have to take more than 30 minutes of one-way driving to their nearest churches. for the remaining eight cities in east china, all protestants were able to reach their nearest churches within 30 minutes of one-way driving. significantly, both the nam and the 2sfca identified haikou, beijing, and jinan as having church shortage with zero church accessibility. note that the rankings of church shortage and the percentages of protestants taking more than 30 minutes to their nearest churches are different among the three cities, based on the two research methods due to their different analysis database. actually, their differences can be reduced by using more detailed district maps through the 2sfca method. however, given the lack of data infrastructure and spatial resources in china, the detailed district maps are hard to obtain or develop. as a result, it can be concluded that the nam is more effective than the 2sfca in the countries with few district maps and spatial data. in an attempt to visualize the driving distance in each specific city, the project sets up three different driving times (15 minutes, 3f0 minutes, and 45 minutes, respectively), demonstrated by the different ranges of ring (see map 4, including 11 city maps). while the inner ring or the smallest one symbolizes 15 minutes of driving time and the middle ring means 30 minutes of driving, the outer ring or the largest one represents 45 minutes of driving. each spot on the map corresponds to the location of a church. a. beijing b. fuzhou asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 8 c. guangzhou d. haikou e. hangzhou f. jinan g. nanjing h. shanghai i. shenyang j. shijiazhuang asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 9 k. tianjin map-4. spatial driving maps in east china by the nam 5. spatial church accessibility in central china central china covers eight provinces, including henan, anhui, heilongjiang, jilin, hubei, shanxi, jiangxi, and hunan. using the 2fsca method testing eight provincial capital cities in central china, map 5, including eight city maps, shows that harbin, changsha, taiyuan, and hefei cities have the highest percentage of area with zero accessibility score. a. hefei b. harbin c. zhengzhou d. wuhan e. changsha f. nanchang asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 10 g. changchun h. taiyuan map-5. spatial maps of church accessibility in central china by the 2sfca table 3 below provides the statistical perspective in identifying the rankings of church shortage cities and calculating the percentages of protestants taking more than 30 minutes of one-way driving to the nearest churches. as a result, harbin (64%) (map 5-b), changsha (45%) (map 5-e), taiyuan (16%) (map 5-h) and hefei (1%) (map 5a) should be identified as the areas with the lowest church accessibility scores and the worst church shortage situation. table-3. church accessibility in central china by the 2sfca provincial capital cities percentage of protestants that have lower accessibility score than 1/10000 hefei 95.7% harbin 76.9% zhengzhou 70.5% changsha 44.6% taiyuan 15.8% changchun 0.0% nanchang 0.0% wuhan 0.0% similarly, the project needs to apply the nam as an additional way to compare the results provided by the different spatial research methods. shown by table 4 below, some percentages of protestants in hefei, harbin, zhengzhou, changsha and taiyuan could not reach their nearest churches within 30 minutes. the protestants in the remaining three cities in the region could take less than 30 minutes to reach their nearest churches. therefore, hefei, harbin, zhengzhou, changsha and taiyuan could be defined as the areas of church shortage based on the results provided by the nam. table-4. church accessibility in central china by the nam (30 minutes) 12km (30 minutes) accumulated area (km2) protestants and area coverage (%) protestants can't reach the nearest church (%) number of protestant in the area changsha 350.5395 36.18% 63.82% 3,442 taiyuan 923.2529 65.21% 34.79% 10,134 nanchang 75.44191 88.76% 11.24% 17,540 harbin 4,620.649 99.42% 0.58% 63,940 changchun 3,601.888 124.16% 0.00% 40,287 hefei 774.0141 106.50% 0.00% 81,924 wuhan 860.9509 304.36% 0.00% 65,230 zhengzhou 1,102.777 108.51% 0.00% 135,929 map 6 (including eight city maps) below provides the spatial driving maps for eight provincial capital cities in central china. similarly, the different rings represent the different driving distances and time, such as 15, 30 and 45 minutes, respectively. a. changchun b. changsha asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 11 c. harbin d. hefei e.nanchang f. taiyuan g. wuhan h. zhengzhou map-6. spatial driving maps in central china by the nam a closer look at the comparative data from the 2sfca and the nam reveals interesting results. on one hand, both shared the similar discovery that changsha, taiyuan, and harbin should be identified as the areas of church shortage, although the rankings of church shortage in the three cities are different. on the other hand, they also showed some disparities: while the nam confirms nanchang as the area of low church accessibility, the 2sfca identifies hefei and zhengzhou as the areas of church shortage. again, their different results could be minimized by applying more detailed and accurate district maps through the 2sfca method. 6. spatial church accessibility in west china in addition to east and central china, west china includes twelve provinces and municipalities: yunnan, chongqing, shaanxi, sichuan, gansu, guizhou, xinjiang, neimenggu (inner mongolia), ningxia, qinghai, guangxi and xizang (tibet). however, this project doesn't include tibet and yinchuan because the project is unable to find any church information from the official data. fortunately, the 2sfca is capable of assessing the church accessibility in ten other western cities with the assistance of gis. map 7, including ten city maps in west china, demonstrates a variety of church accessibility scores. while the blue color represents high accessibility scores, the white color or non-color areas stand for zero accessibility scores or the worst areas of church shortage. a. chongqing b. lanzhou asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 12 c. nanning d. guiyang e. huhhot f. xining g. xi’an h. chengdu i. wulumuqi j. kunming map-7. spatial maps of church accessibility in west china by the 2sfca table 5 below reveals clear information concerning the church shortage situation in west china. given that some protestants in chengdu, kunming, nanning, huhhot, urumqi, and chongqing must take more than 30 minutes to asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 13 reach their nearest churches, these six cities may be categorized as the areas with low accessibility scores and serious church shortage according to the 2sfca. table-5. church accessibility in west china by the 2sfca provincial capital cities percentage of protestants that have lower accessibility score than 1/10000 chengdu 100.0% kunming 100.0% nanning 90.8% huhhot 84.8% urumqi 43.6% chongqing 37.9% guiyang 0.0% lanzhou 0.0% xi'an 0.0% xining 0.0% lasa n/a yinchuan n/a similarly, the project needs to test west china's church accessibility through the nam to confirm whether or not its results are similar to the 2sfca. following the same research method, the nam is able to discover the percentage of protestants who could not reach the nearest church within 30 minutes of one-way driving or with the distance of 12 km (see table 6). as a result, table 6 shows that nanning, kunming, huhhot and chongqing could be determined as the areas of church shortage because 18%-80% of protestants in these four cities could not arrive at their nearest churches in 30 minutes of driving from their residential locations. table-6. church accessibility in west china by the nam (30 minutes) 12km (30 minutes) accumulated area (km2) protestants and area coverage (%) protestants can't reach the nearest church (%) number of protestants in the area nanning 330.5973 20.37% 79.63% 1,292 kunming 501.8277 23.13% 76.87% 14,398 huhhot 697.2991 33.19% 66.81% 2,623 chongqing 1,183.309 82.40% 17.60% 251,322 chengdu 466.7656 110.87% 0.00% 29,266 guiyang 466.7656 154.09% 0.00% 22,981 lanzhou 1,383.937 196.86% 0.00% 22,981 urumqi 1,150.604 138.96% 0.00% 22,981 xi'an 557.8924 613.07% 0.00% 65,570 xining 633.3008 130.07% 0.00% 65,570 lasa n/a n/a n/a n/a yinchuan n/a n/a n/a n/a map 8 provides the spatial evidences regarding the driving time demonstrated by three different times (15, 30 and 45 minutes, respectively) with three different rings. a. chengdu b. chongqing c. guiyang d. huhhot asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 14 f. kunming g. lanzhou h. nanning i. wulumuqi j. xi'an k. xining map-8. spatial driving maps in west china by the nam obviously, the results from the nam and the 2sfca methods share their consensus that nanning (map 8-h), kunming (map 8-f), huhhot (map 8-d) and chongqing (map 8-b) should be the areas of church shortage. however, the 2sfca highlights the cities of chengdu and urumqi as the locations of low church accessibility. to demonstrate a clear nationwide picture concerning china's shortage of protestant churches and the church accessibility in the 31 provincial capital cities, it is essential to summarize and compare the results from the nam and the 2sfca methods (see table 7). generally speaking, the results by both methods conclude that the following ten provisional capital cities should be identified as the areas of church shortage: haikou, beijing and jinan in east china; changsha, taiyuan and harbin in central china; and nanning, kunming, huhhot and chongqing in west china. however, both methods attest the different results in the remaining several cities in three regions. while the nam identifies nanchang as the low church accessibility, the 2sfca method classifies additional ten cities as the areas of church shortage. to provide the overall information concerning the average percentages for those protestants who could not reach their nearest church within 30 minutes, column 4 of table 7 adds the average percentages of protestants calculated by the nam and the 2sfca and shows the rankings of the combined percentages. as a result, among the ten cities with the church shortage in china, haikou has the lowest church accessibility and highest percentage of protestants who must take more than 30 minutes to reach their nearest churches (94.15%). by contrast, taiyuan has its relatively lowest percentage of protestants (25.3%) who need more than 30 minutes travel to attend their church services. table-7. provincial capital cities with the shortage of protestant church in china name of city % of protestants can't reach the nearest church: nam % of protestants can't reach the nearest church: 2sfca average percentages and rankings (%) 1. haikou 93.47 94.8 94.15 2. kunming 76.87 100 88.44 3. nanning 79.63 90.8 85.24 4. hohhot 66.81 84.8 75.8 continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 1-16 15 5. beijing 39.39 83.8 61.59 6. changsha 63.82 44.6 54.2 7. jinan 28.24 73.7 50.97 8. harbin 0.58 76.9 38.74 9. chongqing 17.6 37.9 27.77 10. taiyuan 34.79 15.8 25.3 7. conclusion: comparative studies on the two spatial methods assisted by gis, it is an innovative effort to utilize the 2sfca and the nam addressing the protestant church accessibility, church shortage, and religious market in china. this study has proved that the combined methods are better than one method alone to optimize the spatial study of religion. obviously, the key difference between the two methods is that while the nam relies on the spatial street maps, the 2sfca is using the district maps that can only be divided into a few small districts instead of streets, and thus cannot be measured by its center allowing higher accuracy. for instance, within the area a below, there is a b area with slash lines in which the residents in the area c can reach there within 30 minutes (see figure 1 below). here, churches are located in the area c. based on the nam, the area b can't be identified as the area with church shortage. however, the area ac, the center of the area a, is beyond the area c. therefore, according to the 2sfca method, the area b should be determined as the location of church shortage. in other words, the different methods based on the street maps (the nam) or the district maps (2sfca) may generate slightly different results in the same location. figure-1. sketch on the differences between the nam and 2sfca methods it is worth noting that although the 2sfca may be somewhat less accurate than the nam, the inaccuracy can be significantly diminished by using more detailed district maps. while both methods are useful in studying the church shortage and religious market, the 2sfca is much more capable of calculating the accessibility scores for each small area and demonstrating the different degrees of church accessibility in a given area. needless to say, in light of the incomplete district maps and spatial data in china, it is difficult, if not impossible, to use the 2sfca method to study china's church accessibility based on the accurate and comprehensive district maps. thus, applying two methods on the same research subject may generate the supplemental effects and added values based on their similar and different results. on one hand, their similar conclusions would have much more powerful credibility and solid foundation to support each other on the study of church shortage in china. on the other hand, their different discoveries would invite further in-depth study and inspire the innovation of new additional research methods benefitting from the deficiencies of the two methods. in conclusion, although the theory-driven and qualitative research on chinese religious markets is important, the innovative research methods supported by the qualitative analysis are vital to improve the quality of religious studies. evidently, in addition to the spatial study of chinese protestantism, it is compulsory to integrate the conventional research methods, such as survey, interview, observation, and statistics. given the complex nature of religious studies, the interdisciplinary study is necessary to enhance our understanding of religions and society in china and other parts of the world. 8. acknowledgment the authors would like to express their sincere appreciation to the editor, anonymous reviewers, and the following scholars and students who provided their valuable suggestions and assistances: shuming bao, yi sun, le zeng, jianfeng jin, karen morris and leanne munoz. the authors also appreciate grants supported by the henry luce foundation from 2011 to 2016, "establishing a spatial information network for the study of christianity in china" (no. 4301-41573), and "the spatial study of chinese religion and society" (no. 4301-59088). references china census bureau, 2005. the 2004 china’s economic census data with gis maps. beijing, china: all china market research co., ltd. environmental systems research institute (esri), 2006. gis technology and 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2003b. measures of spatial accessibility to healthcare in a gis environment: synthesis and a case study in chicago region. environment and planning b: planning and design, 30(6): 865–884. pew research center, 2011. global christianity. available from http://www.pewresearch.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity/ [accessed july 31, 2014]. radke, j. and m. lan, 2000. spatial decomposition, modeling and mapping service regions to predict access to social programs. geographic information sciences, 6(2): 105–112. research project team of the institute of world religious studies in the chinese academy of social sciences, 2010. the survey report on china’s christians. (zhongguo jidujiao ruhu wenjuan diaocha baogao). in ze jin & yonghui qiu (eds) annual report on china’s religions, 190-212. beijing, china: shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe. the amity foundation, 2004. how many sheep are there in the chinese flock? amity news services. available from http://www.amitynewsservice.org. u.s. department of health and human services, 2004. primary medical care hpsa designation criteria. available from http://bhpr.hrsa.gov/shortage/hpsas/designationcriteria/primarycarehpsacriteria.html [accessed december 12, 2013]. wang, f., 2006. quantitative methods and applications in gis. london: crc press. wang, f. and w. luo, 2005. assessing spatial and nonspatial factors for healthcare access: towards an integrated approach to defining health professional shortage areas. health & place, 11(1): 131–146. ying fuk-tsang, 2009. the regional development of protestant christianity in china: 1918, 1949 and 2004. the china review, 2(2): 63-97. . views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.pewresearch.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity/ http://www.amitynewsservice.org/ http://bhpr.hrsa.gov/shortage/hpsas/designationcriteria/primarycarehpsacriteria.html asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 3, 101-108, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 101 is billboard advertising an effective tool in the marketing of home appliances? israel kofi nyarko 1* --ernest kafui tsetse 2 --simon kojo mesa avorgah 3 1,2,3 department of marketing, ho polytechnic ho ghana abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................. 102 2. literature review .................................................................................................................................................................... 102 3. methodology ............................................................................................................................................................................ 106 4. results and discussions .......................................................................................................................................................... 106 5. conclusions and recommendations ...................................................................................................................................... 107 6. contribution to knowledge .................................................................................................................................................... 108 7. acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................................................. 108 8. competing interests ................................................................................................................................................................ 108 references .................................................................................................................................................................................... 108 in an attempt to create awareness, inform, educate and persuade marketing audience to patronize products, retail companies adopt diverse forms marketing communication to send messages across to their targets. billboard ads are not left out of the mix of above-the-line communication tools used by home appliance marketers to achieve the above objectives. the aim of this study is to explore the importance of billboards advertisements in the marketing of home appliances. many researchers have studied and reported widely on billboards ads but none has so far addressed the importance of this creative form of marketing promotion is the marketing of home appliances. this study will help pull out some of the unique ways that billboard can help advertise home appliances to a wide audience with its ripple effects of increased sales revenue. data for the study was collected with questionnaires administered on 500 respondents in the study area. simple frequency tables and bar graphs were used to analyze and report the findings of the study. findings of the study revealed that most respondents are of the view that billboard advertising is a good tool for creating awareness and persuading customer to choose appliances of their choice. keywords: billboard, home appliances, outdoor advertising, selective perception, media, marketing. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 101-108 102 1. introduction increasing global competition has made many companies want to find more innovative ways of promoting their goods and services. this has contributed to the increased use of billboard advertisement (an example of outdoor advertisement) as a communication tool to enhance the promotional efforts of many organizations and by extension sales revenue in many industries. billboard advertisement is however an initiative undertaken by many organizations to increase sales and ultimately create awareness of their products. the overriding aim of this study is to gain a deeper understanding of the „importance of billboard advertising in the marketing of home appliances‟. it is obvious that the influence of billboard advertisements on promotional audiences impacts their decisions to either purchase a product or not. this happens in different ways which also affect the advertising organization by impacting on the image of the organization and the product or service being advertised. billboard ads influence the way a product is perceived and consequently affects audience preferences. in a time when traditional media is often ignored or tuned out, smart marketers have the opportunity to benefit from the results-driven ads that billboard can offer. despite the fact that billboards are our latter-day town criers that announce what‟s hot and what‟s not, it has been observed that billboard advertisements of home appliances has not been strategically placed by most home appliance retailers in the ho municipality of ghana, west africa. this could also be informed by the misconception of some marketers that due to the emergence of several other advertising techniques in the market, the effectiveness of billboard advertising has lessened. however, such a strategy has certainly proven to be beneficial for several businesses around the globe. although a majority of advertisers employ electronic and other kinds of advertising and marketing strategies, billboard advertising continues to be an effective method of reaching out to a large section of marketing audience. since these advertisements can be viewed by targets at any point in time, this type of advertising works very efficaciously in conjunction with other advertisement alternatives. 1.1. objectives of the study the purpose of this paper is to explore the importance of this innovative form of advertising by reporting the results of a survey of audience who have or have not been influenced in their choice of a home appliance by a billboard advert. this study first examines why companies use billboards, and then considers how to use them effectively. it also introduces two theoretical perspectives, based on gravity models and selective perception, to aid in a better understanding of what drives the effectiveness of outdoor advertising followed by a review of academic research on the characteristics of billboard advertising, followed by a description of the conceptual framework guiding the study. the study's methods are then described, results are discussed, and implications and conclusions are drawn. the specific objectives to this research study are to: i. explore the effects of billboard advertisements of home appliances on customer purchasing decision. ii. identify the essence of billboard advertisement in the marketing of home appliances. iii. identify the effects of billboard ads on the decisions and choices of home appliance buyers. iv. proffer recommendations that would help marketers of home appliances to appreciate and understand the relevance of billboard ads. 2. literature review various scholars and researchers have come up with theories in their attempt to explain how advertising messages are received, processed and acted on by their target audience. these theories also explain the possible effects that these messages have on their target audience as far as the intent of the advertiser is concern. one of such studies looked at the information processing model (ipm) which is discussed extensively by belch and belch (2001) and shimp (2000). the ipm discusses how consumers process and respond to advertising information. with the ipm, the ultimate objective of the advertiser is to encourage the target audience to choose his, (the advertiser‟s) brand or products rather than competing ones, (shimp, 2000). this means that advertiser‟s main aim is to direct their audiences‟ attentions towards their brand or products and subsequently encourage them patronize them. the model sees the consumer as someone in a complex buying situation and looking for information relevant to his/her buying decision (belch and belch, 2001). marketers and advertisers being aware of this will then flood the consumer with his – the advertiser‟s information that are considered relevant to the consumer‟s buying needs (shimp, 2000). this then leaves the consumer with numerous information competing for his/her attention and choice. to avoid being in a confused state, the consumer, according to belch and belch (2001) passes through five stages in an attempt to process the information and finally make a choice. the first stage, according to belch and belch (2001) is exposure. it means consumers coming into contact with the advertiser‟s message through radio, television, newspaper or billboard ads (shimp, 2000). in their daily routines; in the house, office, on the road, etc, consumers intermittently hear, see or read radio, television, newspaper or billboard ads on varied kinds of products. but this – exposing consumers to advertising messages is not enough to gain their patronage. in the opinion of shimp (2000) “gaining information is a necessary but insufficient condition for communication”. as a result, the consumers‟ attention needs to be hooked to the message and be caused to engage in selective attention – focusing on, and considering a specific message out of the many that he/she was exposed to. this will cause the consumer to attempt to comprehend – make meaning out of the messages that he/she had attended to. in doing so, the consumer would have moved to the second stage, comprehension, according to belch and belch (2001). to comprehend means to understand and create meaning out of symbols and sounds (shimp, 2000). but ads are a mixture of words, pictures, colors and/or sound yet aimed at sending a united message. this means that the target audiences need to see and understand the ads as they are intended by the advertiser. this, corroborated meaning of the ads by the advertiser and the audience) can only be successful if the target audiences understand the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 101-108 103 ads and their contents very well. thus, advertising contents need to compliment the central theme of the ad in other for it to communicate one meaning to all the varied audiences. after the comprehension, the consumer then tries to accept or reject what he/she had interpreted and understood. this will then lead him/her to the yielding stage – the third stage as indicated by belch and belch (2001). yielding to or agreeing with what has been comprehended means whether or not the consumer will agree with the message argument put forward by the advertiser (shimp, 2000). this means that consumers do not only comprehend (understand) advertisers‟ messages but they reject or accept them based on the importance those messages have on their choices and needs at the time of delivery and reception. should the consumer yield to, (agree with) the advertiser„s message, the comprehended messages are then retained, searched for and retrieved at the appropriate time, according to shimp (2000). in that case, the consumer would have moved to the fourth stage which is the retention stage (belch and belch, 2001). at the retention stage, the consumer stores the processed information and uses it to make choices when in need. this means that stored information about a product, service or brand can remain in the consumer‟s mind for a while and be relied on at the appropriate time and place. thus, in making purchase decision, a consumer then relies on the stored information and this manifests in his/her actions towards the various competing brands or products that are available. at that point, the consumer will be expected to retrieve the stored information and subsequently act on it. this is seen when he/she put up a positive behavior towards the needed product or brand out of the numerous. this action according to belch and belch (2001) is the last stage in the ipm. from this model, one can infer that the actions or inactions of a consumer towards a product, service or brand at any particular time are due to how successful the said product‟s ad(s) have being able to take such a consumer through the above stages. it further indicates that advertiser‟s audiences consciously or unconsciously process the messages that they are exposed to and subsequently act on them. thus, adverts when well packaged and delivered through the right media to the target audience will have positive impact on customer attraction, retention and loyalty. in conclusion, this theory‟s assertions will guide this study‟s data collections, its analysis and discussions and the conclusions to be drawn from the findings. 2.1. related issues about billboards billboards have existed and being used by many institutions, organizations, companies and individuals to advertise their products, services and/or promotions to their target audience over a period of time. as a result, many researchers how these audiences perceive the billboards ads and the impact they have on them. recent years have seen growth in outdoor advertising revenues. according to the outdoor advertising association of america, annual revenues were $2.8 billion in 1993; over the following 10 years, expenditures almost doubled, increasing to $5.5 billion in 2003. this rise has occurred in spite of the loss of cigarette advertising on billboards due to the master settlement agreement of 1998 and a decline in the relative proportion of billboards for alcoholic beverage (https://www.oaaa.org/newsevents/news/pressreleases/tabid/327/archive/true/default.aspx). in recent years, a broader range of product categories has been advertised on billboards, led by a variety of retail and service businesses. zenith optimedia classifies outdoor advertising as a "major medium," along with television, radio, newspapers, magazines, the internet, and cinema. zenith optimedia projects continued growth in outdoor advertising expenditures, and ranks outdoor as the fifth largest advertising medium worldwide, behind only television, newspapers, magazines, and radio (http://www.advertolog.com/agencies/zenithoptimedia-londonyear-2005mediabillboard). despite revenue growth, however, outdoor advertising remains "one of the least researched of any mass medium" (katz, 2003). even among the limited number of studies that have been conducted, few have focused on what factors drive its effectiveness (donthu et al., 1993). the growth of outdoor advertising has included a considerable increase in the use of nontraditional formats, including street furniture (e.g., bus shelters, kiosks), alternative media (e.g., arenas and stadiums, airborne, marine), and transit (e.g., buses, airports). the focus of this study is on billboards, however, which remain the most common form of outdoor advertising. numerous academic articles, textbooks, and industry publications list key advantages and disadvantages of outdoor advertising/billboards in comparison to other media. no prior study has examined managerial perceptions of the primary reasons for using billboards, however. moreover, despite numerous discussions of factors associated with billboard advertising success, the literature does not address the attributes of the medium that users see as the primary factors associated with successful billboard advertising. textbook authors and academic researchers have identified a variety of distinctive characteristics of billboards and outdoor advertising (kelley and jugenheimer, 2004), (sissors and baron, 2002), (taylor, 1997), (vanden bergh and katz, 1999), and woodside (1990)]). according to these authors, the advantages of using billboards include, among other things: i. potential placement of the advertisement close to the point of sale ii. high frequency of exposure to regular commuters iii. high reach iv. 24-hour presence v. geographic flexibility for local advertisers vi. economic efficiency in terms of low production costs and low cost per thousand exposures vii. visual impact from advertisement size and message creativity viii. brand awareness some noted disadvantages in using billboards include: i. the need to limit the number of words in the message ii. short exposure to the advertisement iii. low demographic selectivity iv. measurement problems a recent study of billboard users found that compared with other media, billboards were rated higher in terms of ability to communicate information affordably, attract new customers, and increase sales (taylor and franke, 2003). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 101-108 104 while many advantages of billboards have been identified anecdotally, from experience, or through academic study, there is a need to investigate whether frequently listed advantages overlap with each other, and to examine whether they truly are advantages that are important to billboard users. 2.2. executional factors associated with the success of billboards relatively few studies have attempted to examine executional factors associated with the effectiveness of billboard advertising. however, a few have provided very specific advice for outdoor advertisers. in examining the outcomes of outdoor advertising, some studies found that a novel or very creative execution could improve recall or attention to billboards (fitts and hewett, 1977). thus, use of a clever creative execution is one factor that has been hypothesized to correlate with effective outdoor advertising. in a content analysis of billboards, (blasko, 1985) examined whether advertisers were following accepted creative principles associated with outdoor advertising. (blasko, 1985) listed five main principles of effective billboard advertising: i. short copy (eight or fewer words in copy), ii. simple background, iii. product identification (billboard clearly identifies product or advertiser), iv. simple message (single message communicated), and v. creative (use of clever phrases and/or illustrations). studies conducted by donthu et al. (1993) and bhargava et al. (1994) found recall of billboards to be positively related to a variety of factors, including brand differentiation, emphasis on product performance, inclusion of price, use of a photograph, use of humor, use of color, and a good location for the billboard. the 1993 study emphasized that advertising recall can be enhanced by using fewer words or unusual executions. as with the key advantages of outdoor advertising, there have been many discussions of strategic and executional factors related to the success of billboards, but little systematic investigation of the underlying factors that drive successful billboard advertising. below, we offer some insight on these factors by providing two theoretical perspectives on the promotional role of billboards. two theoretical perspectives are used as a basis for hypotheses in this study. first, because humans have limited information-processing capacity, part of the attraction of billboards involves their ability to cut through clutter. to deal with the large volume of advertisements shown, people engage in selective perception, which involves screening out advertisements that are less relevant to them celsi and olson (1988) and mowen and minor (1998). second, because a billboard appears at a specific location, many of its advantages are linked to geographic factors. as is suggested by gravity models in retailing (allaway et al., 2003); (bell et al., 1998), in the absence of a compelling stimulus such as substantially larger floor space for selling, consumers are more prone to shop closer to home. selective perception and clutter, a key obstacle to advertising effectiveness, is the volume of advertising to which consumers are exposed. godin (1999) reports that an average consumer is exposed to approximately one million marketing messages every year. to help manage this volume of information, consumers control their own information processing and engage in selective perception, which leads to processing only a limited number of advertisements and ignoring many others. selective perception has been conceptualized as a four-part process consisting of selective exposure, attention, comprehension, and retention. in an advertising context, selective exposure refers to people limiting the communications they see and hear to those that conform to their preexisting ideas and attitudes (burgoon et al., 1994). selective attention refers to actually paying attention to the advertisement once exposed to it. selective comprehension involves the process by which the consumer reconciles the advertisement's content with preexisting beliefs. finally, selective retention is defined as remembering messages that are more consistent with one's prior beliefs and one's own self-image. when related to advertising, these four stages generally must occur before the advertisement reaches the consumer. at a minimum, attention and retention must take place (assael, 1981). as a result, advertisers must consider how selective perception is affecting their ability to get a message through to consumers. because of the heavy volume of advertising to which consumers are exposed, they must decide which advertisements to screen out and which to process. as media-planning expert erwin ephron has observed, outdoor advertising is unique in that people are not involved in the medium as they would be when watching a television program or reading the newspaper. as a result, (ephron, 2004) has described outdoor advertising as a unique case in which the "medium is the message." when driving by a billboard, a motorist is not bombarded with other media options, so selective perception is not as much of an obstacle as in some other media. although the short exposure time and lack of involvement in the medium mandate that higher frequency of exposure is necessary for billboards to have the same impact as other media (cannon and riordan, 1994); (murray and jenkins, 1992), the ability to cut through a cluttered advertising environment is a key benefit of billboards. in short, billboards have a special advantage in that they are generally seen in a setting where there is less competition for people's attention. as a result, they may appeal to advertisers because of their ability to get noticed, especially at times and places when consumers are considering a purchase or are ready to buy (e.g., billboards for tourist attractions, retail stores, and restaurants). there are, of course, some contexts in which billboards are used for brand building and/or supplementing other media, but the recent shift toward local retail and service businesses accounting for a high proportion of billboards is indicative of the applicability of billboards being present at the right time (e.g., when a motorist is looking to stop for a meal). gravity models dating back to reilly's law of retail gravitation (reilly, 1931), it has been theorized that in the absence of a known major advantage of an alternative (such as larger floor space), consumers will shop closer to home. building on reilly's law, (huff, 1964) focused on the spatial behavior of shoppers. at the heart of huff's law is the notion that travel time to a shopping center is inversely related to the likelihood of shopping there. in other words, the greater the distance to the shopping area, the less likely the consumer is to make a trip there. huff and subsequent modelers (bell et al., 1998) have examined factors that can asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 101-108 105 induce consumers to travel further. the overriding assumption of these models is that some additional attraction must be present to offset distance, thereby making close location proximity an advantage in most retail contexts. because gravity models suggest that consumers have a natural preference for traveling shorter distances and shopping at nearby places, it follows that billboards that point the consumer to a nearby location will have a stronger influence on store traffic and sales. the idea that billboards located in close proximity to the store are advantageous from a gravity perspective is also consistent with the media-planning advantages of billboards, namely, high reach and frequency in a local trade area. a study by allaway et al. (2003) supports the notion that the billboards in close proximity to a store enhance gravity effects. in examining the spatial diffusion of a loyalty card for a major u.s. retailer, the authors found a relationship between distance from the store and likelihood of signing up quickly. they also found a significant billboard effect, stating, "even within the 0-3-mile ring nearest the store, non-adopters were significantly further from the nearest billboard than adopters". allaway et al. (2003), further found that residents who lived within two miles of a billboard advertising the program had a 26% higher probability of adoption during the launch period, and that the speed of adoption was influenced by the number of billboards within two miles of the resident. additional evidence for the influence of location elements on billboard effectiveness is provided by bhargava and donthu (1999), who found that sales response to billboards is influenced by location of exposure. in addition to academic research suggesting that billboard effectiveness is related to location, the welldocumented fact that most retail businesses draw most of their customers from a limited geographic area supports the application of gravity models to billboards. while the primary trade area for retailers and service business can range from very small for small businesses such as independent restaurants, gas stations, and convenience stores, to being considerably larger, as in the case of amusement parks or large shopping malls, the need to reach consumers in the local area is readily apparent. the locational advantages of outdoor advertising are consistent with the need to engage in "recency planning" (ephron, 1997). in the modern environment, advertising works by influencing those who are ready to buy. in this new model, "consumers control messages by screening-out most and selecting only a few that are relevant to them at the time. the new model accepts the relevance that “what makes ads work is provided by what is happening in the consumer's life and seldom by the advertising" (ephron, 1997). the ability to avoid being screened out via selective perception processes allows many billboards to get noticed at the point at which the driver is considering a purchase. billboard characteristics that influence a business to use the medium may pertain, in part, to both gravity and selective-perception issues. in terms of providing advantages for billboard users, however, two broad factors can be categorized as being more closely associated with gravity, while two others are more closely associated with selective perception. the factors more closely linked to gravity are tangible response and local presence. tangible response refers to the ability of billboards to bring in customers, increase traffic, and build sales. there is widespread agreement that a billboard's ability to attract customers is closely linked to its proximity to the place of business (taylor and franke, 2003), thereby linking this factor to gravity models. the ability to build a local presence based on providing a "last hit" close to the place of business is also linked to retail gravity. furthermore, the gravity model is linked to ephron's concept of recency planning, in that a billboard's proximity to the place of business enhances the likelihood of a stop at a time when the consumer is ready to buy. thus, gravity helps explain the place advantage that billboards have over other media. two factors that are more closely tied to selective-perception theory are visibility and media efficiency. visibility, which refers to the ability of a billboard to make a strong visual impression, allows billboards to break through the clutter. media efficiency, such as broad and frequent exposure to the target audience, suggests that the medium is effective and cost-efficient since it is being noticed even in a competitive environment. although the literature indicates that both the gravity and selective-perception factors are important advantages of billboards, it is not clear which factors are more important to businesses in terms of their reasons for continuing to use the medium. an a priori case can be made for a prediction in either direction, indicating that neither an exploratory approach nor the specification of a single dominant hypothesis is appropriate (armstrong et al., 2001). therefore, we develop alternative competing hypotheses without choosing one over the other. findings of gravity models have consistently verified the importance of location in retailing (allaway et al., 2003); (bell et al., 1998); (huff, 1964); (reilly, 1931). as a result, it can be argued that exposure to an advertisement in close proximity to a retail outlet can be more valuable than exposures that take place farther away. in essence, because of the tendency for consumers not to drive farther than they deem necessary to get to a retail location, exposure to the advertisement in close proximity to the store may be of key importance. thus, one reasonable hypothesis is: gravity-related factors are more important than selective-perception factors in the decision to use billboards. an alternative case can be made for the central importance of overcoming selective perception. in a cluttered environment, where many advertisements compete for attention, it is critical for advertising to get noticed and, in turn, processed by the consumer. because advertisements that are not noticed will not be effective, high visibility and frequency of exposure at an affordable price may be key contributors to the message being perceived and in it having an impact. we therefore hypothesize that; selective-perception factors are more important than gravity-related factors as a reason for using billboards. prior research has suggested that many smaller businesses and travel-related retailers, such as hotels, restaurants, and tourist attractions, often use billboards as a central part of their media mix (taylor and franke, 2003). therefore, in conjunction with testing these hypotheses, we will also address the following research question: do the reasons for using billboards vary by number of billboards used per month, company size, or company type? the literature suggests that for a billboard to be effective, it must communicate a relevant message in a clear, interesting, and readable manner to the appropriate audience. it must also be at an appropriate location in order to be seen by the target audience. therefore, a straightforward expectation is that message, format, and location are important factors associated with the effectiveness of billboard advertising. relevant message factors include name identification and other information about the company or its products, the creativity of execution, and the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 101-108 106 integration of the billboard content with the company's other promotional messages. format factors include the readability of the verbal message, the brevity and simplicity with which the message is presented, and support of the verbal message with effective visuals. location involves the appropriateness of where the billboard is placed. 3. methodology this study is exploratory in design in order to help develop a better understanding of the concept of billboard advertising. the study was conducted within the township of ho in the volta region of ghana. sample for the study were drawn from ho polytechnic campus using multistage sampling method to select respondents. ho polytechnic has a population of approximately 6500 people (comprising 5000 students from all parts of the world and about 1500 staff and other inhabitants of the polytechnic campus). this study area was chosen because of its cosmopolitan nature: playing host to diverse inhabitants from many walks of life. first, a total of five hundred (500) respondents were chosen purposively for the study. at the second stage, accidental sampling technique was used in the distribution of questionnaires to sample the opinions of respondents. in the use of accidental sampling, respondents were selected on the basis of chance; respondents were sampled based on the probability of meeting them on campus, lecture rooms or their places of residence. some respondent were not immediately willing to complete questionnaires administered on them due to diverse constraints. due to this, the questionnaires were left for them to fill at their convenience. some respondents were also not familiar with some of terminologies and questions; this required the research team to explain to them. both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from respondents. data gathered were checked for clarity, organized and analyzed in line with the research objectives. the analysis of data was done with descriptive statistics in the form of simple frequency tables and bar graphs for easy comprehension. 4. results and discussions in all, questionnaires were administered on 500 respondents in ho, capital city of volta region, ghana. the findings and analysis are presented under the various objective of this study. table-1. respondents gender distribution gender frequency percentage (%) male 210 42 female 290 58 total 500 100 table 1 indicates that 42% of respondents were male and 58% were female. responses for this study therefore are partially skewed towards females‟ perspectives. this could perhaps be an indication that females are more attracted to billboards than men. figure-1. respondents age distribution the ages of respondents ranged from 20 to 41years and above. it is significant to note that 50 percent of respondent were between the ages of 20-30 years where as 36 percent were between the ages of 31-40 years and a marginal 14 percent were between the ages of 41 and above. this is to say that majority of respondent were young people or youth. this is a signal that people of this age brackets are usually fond of electronic gadgets, particularly home appliances. table-2. number of billboards on home appliances seen in ho in the last 1 month no. of billboards frequency percentage % more than 10 305 61 between 5 and 10 100 20 less than 5 50 10 none 45 9 total 500 100 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 101-108 107 results of the survey revealed that 61 % of respondents have seen ten billboards or more advertising electronic appliances in the last one month as against 20% who indicated that they had seen between 5 to 10 billboard ads during the same period. a cumulative percentage of 91 have seen a billboard ad during the period under study whereas a significant 9% of the sampled population (45 respondents) indicated they had not seen any billboard ad during the period. figure-2. effects of billboard ads on respondents the survey revealed that all 91% of respondents who had seen a billboard ad during the period under study were positively impacted by the ads they saw. 64% of the total respondents attributed the effect billboard ads had on them to awareness creation; 24% hinted that the ads they saw were informative and 12% responded that they were persuaded by the billboard ads they saw to make a choice or decision on a product. it is therefore instructive to note that the overriding impact of billboard ads per this study is awareness creation. billboard advertisements are therefore effective for creating awareness in the marketing of electronic home appliances. figure-3. respondents who discussed billboards with friends and family figure 3 indicates that 52% of respondents who said they had seen billboard ads discussed the impact of the ads with family and friends. 24% representing 120 respondents did not discuss their experiences with anyone whereas another significant 24% of respondents said they sometimes discussed their experiences with friends and family but not always. it is important to note that one of the effects of billboard ads is word of mouth referral. getting people to talk positively about your company is a big advantage of word-of-mouth marketing. before printing and broadcasting transformed communications, people relied on word-of-mouth to tell others about their goods. today, many companies employ word-of-mouth marketing tactics to build their customer base. the advantages of overcoming customer resistance and the ease of using social media on the internet make word-of-mouth marketing an important tool for businesses desiring to grow while spending fewer marketing dollars. it can be concluded from the findings that; i. billboard advertising helps targets audience to decide on the type and brand of home appliance to purchase ii. most respondents are of the view that billboard advertising is a good tool for creating awareness iii. billboard advertising as one of integrated marketing communication tools really draws the attention of customers to existing and new products 5. conclusions and recommendations this study has actually shown that billboard advertising in the marketing of home appliances has been a major contributing factor towards the success of marketing electronic home appliances. it should be noted that even though billboard advertising plays a vital role in the operations of the company yet it does not function on its own. but rather, it also depends on the other elements of integrated marketing communication like sales promotion, public relation, personal selling and others to succeed. it was concluded that billboard advertising has the ability to asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 101-108 108 influence customers in their decision making. it is evident that though billboard advertising has the ability to influence the decisions of customers, yet there are still some loopholes. in view of this, the following cures are suggested: 1. home appliance marketers should strategically place billboards along high ways, busy roads and high traffic areas where they can easily be seen by pedestrians and or potential customers. 2. firms should lay more emphasis on the attributes of products in their billboard ads. in other words, billboard ads should easily offer information on the benefits of products being advertised. 3. attractive pictorials and simple fonts should be used for the designs and write-ups on billboards. 4. though quite expensive, marketers should consider mounting more billboards at strategic locations to create more awareness for their products; 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no.3, 87-93, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 87 impacts of household wastewater on the environment: the case of debre markos town, amhara regional state, ethiopia maru abebaw 1 1 energy sources and technology promotion expert and process coordinator, bibugn woreda, ethiopia abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 88 2. methods and materials ............................................................................................................................................................. 88 3. research design ........................................................................................................................................................................ 89 4. results and discussion .............................................................................................................................................................. 89 5. conclusions ................................................................................................................................................................................ 92 6. recommendations ..................................................................................................................................................................... 92 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 93 the study is conducted in debre markos town which is the capital of east gojjam administrative zone. the paper aims at assessing the impacts of household wastewater management on environment. the existing household wastewater management in the town is very poor and creates adverse impact on environment like health problem, river and air pollution. these are due to shortage of vacuum trucks to empty toilet, absence of central sewer system, improper drainage systems of household wastewater, low income and lack of awareness of the community to manage household wastewater are the common problems in the town. as the result, the community discharges household wastewater in to open space, river and streams. both primary and secondary data were used. the existing household wastewater management condition, the impact of inadequate household wastewater management and challenges were evaluated after findings based on the household survey of 162 sample respondents, interview and field observations. microsoft-excel were used to present and analyze; and bar graph, pie chart and tables, percentages and figures were used. the results of the study included: the existing household wastewater management services was inadequate, health problem, river, stream and air pollution are impacts of improper management of household wastewater, insufficient infrastructure, lack of coordination between institutions, inadequate participation of stakeholders and lack of community awareness are challenges to manage household wastewater in the town. based on findings of the result and the case study; increase inaccessibility of household wastewater management facilities, creating awareness to community, coordination and integration among institutions, participation of stakeholders and provide sewerage system are the recommendations forwarded in order to promote proper household wastewater management system in the town. keywords: household wastewater, environmental pollution, environmental impact, waste water management, debre markos, ethiopia. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 87-93 88 1. introduction debre markos town is one of the administrative zone of amhara regional state, which has the deterioration of urban environment becomes one of the major problems that we are facing today. because, most of the households are directly discharging their wastewater into the environment through drainage line, from overflowing and seeping pit latrines, septic tanks, public toilets, open ground excreta defection and grey water from kitchens and bathrooms flow through drainage lines that connect to river and open spaces near to them without any treatment (feyera, 2007). therefore, the discharging of untreated household wastewater on the environment such as air, rivers, streams and open space are adverse environmental impacts on the human health by unpleasant odour and diseases like typhoid and diarrhoea (environmental protection authority, 2005). due to this, proper waste water management is fundamental for maintaining public health and protecting the quality of the environment. man has always generated waste materials which are either by-product of his activities or products which have reached the end of useful lives. although this was going on throughout the ages, it was not a problem until recent times because natures own waste treatment processes like dispersion, dilution and degradation, which took care of these problems (syed, 2006). methods for wastewater management for centuries simply relied on the self purification mechanisms of natural waterways for the renovation, dispersion and redistribution of low concentration wastes (craggs et al., 1996). whilst these natural mechanisms might have historically provided adequate treatment, current effluent discharge volumes and concentrations now exceed effective treatment thresholds of these natural ecosystems (harlin and darley, 1988). cities are now facing serious problems of high volumes of wastewater, characterized by inadequate disposal methodologies, raising costs of management and the adverse impact of wastes on the environment. these problems, however, also have provided opportunities for cities to find solutions that involve the community and the private sector, including innovative technologies, disposal methods, behavior changes, and awareness raising (sridhar and joe, 2005). like other developing countries, the management of household wastewater service has been one of the major problems in ethiopia. the first attempt to address these problems in ethiopia appears to have been undertaken in the 1920s when the sanitation inspection section was established under the municipal police of addis ababa (assen, 1987). a notice of cleanliness and health was also issued in 1927, and in 1928 the `yetsidatzebegna` or sanitation guards were set up to ensure environmental sanitation when residents started cleaning dirt and burying it (assen, 1987).the first recorded household wastewater sewage disposal system for the city of addis ababa is reported to be the one constructed by the italians in the 1930s (bceom, 1970) and the first time centralized sewage collection system in addis ababa was started in the late 1960s (environmental protection authority, 2005). in light of the fact that, debre markos town has shown speedy growth in every direction, the present installation of modern sewerage infrastructure i.e. sewerage line have been covering limited area of the town and only serving 8% of town`s residents from the total. as the result, the current sewerage disposal work has been mainly undertaken through sewerage cars (debre markos town water and sewerage office, 2011). due to shortages of sewerage infrastructure management of household wastewater in debre markos, that has created environmental problems like water pollution, human health problem and air pollution. one of the major problems facing urban areas today is the contamination of soil, groundwater, surface water and air with wastewater discharged from households. while management of household wastewater in the recent past to reduce or eliminate the production and release waste into the environment, nevertheless a significant deterioration of the environment has already occurred so far (ashager, 2009). debre markos town, with high population number, it is very difficult for collection of pit latrines and septic tank sludge and services running at very slow capacity. overflowing pit latrines and septic tanks are in many parts of the town, which is common and are aggravated via road inaccessibility, insufficient management of household wastewater, increase population and lack of community awareness, most of the existing households has low incomes and live in slum areas and most of the toilets are left unattended for many years (feyera, 2007). the challenges are also similar in debre markos town; as the result, it difficult to provide proper household wastewater disposal infrastructures such as toilets and sewerages. the household wastewater is discharged into the environment through drainage canal, from overflowing and seeping pit latrines and septic tanks. in addition to these, open ground excreta defection and grey water from kitchens and washing cloth flow through drainage canals that connected to river and streams in the town (mazhindu et al., 2010). this river is used as sources of washing cloths and bathing for the communities who are lived near and around to the river. improper management of household wastewater is adversely affects the environment such as human health by unpleasant or offensive odour and diseases like typhoid, diarrhoea, common cold and asthma (environmental protection authority, 2005). it also affect the quality of the environment through reduce aesthetic value of the town due to creating unpleasant odour by the stagnant of the wastewater on themselves drainage and the open spaces. in view of the above stated problems, improper management of household wastewater has adverse effects for environmental protection like air, river, stream pollution and social impact. hence, this study tries to assess the impact of household wastewater on environment in debre markos town. 2. methods and materials 2.1. description of the study area location: debre markos, the capital of east gojjam administrative zone is located in the north west of the capital city of the fdre of ethiopia, addis ababa at a distance of 300 kms and 265 kms to the capital of amhara nation regional state, bahir dar. specifically it is located in the amhara regional state, east gojjam zone. the town served as the capital city of east gojjam zone. until 1995, debre markos was the capital city of the province of gojjam. it has latitude and longitude of 10 0 20’n, 37 0 43’e and altitude of 2,446 meters above sea level and it has moderate temperature (the enlightenment, 2009) . the town is named debre markos after its principal church, which was constructed 1869 and is devoted to saint mark. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 87-93 89 area/size: the area of debre markos town is 6,160 ha and has oval shape; its average annual temperature is 18.5ºc; mean annual rainfall is 1,380 mm and the existing wind direction is from north to south. the main natural constraints for the physical expansion of the debre markos town are hills, swamps, rivers and forests; while the manmade constraints are illegal settlements and urban rural boundary conflicts. population: according to central statistics agency (2007), the population of the town was 62,497. out of this 29,921 (47.87%) were males and 32,576 (52.1%) were females; 16,325 (26.14%) were within the age group of 0-15 years, 42,185 (67.49%) 16-60 years, and 3,987 (6.37%) 61 years and above. the population growth rate at low variant was 2.4%, while household size in the town is calculated to be 3.2. the majority of the urbanites worshiped ethiopian orthodox tewahido church. 97% of the inhabitants are speakers of amharic language. the remaining 3% of the inhabitants are speakers of tigiregna, agew and afan oromo. according to central statistic agency (2013), the population projection figure of the town had been estimated 38291 male and 41689 female inhabitants which is a total of 79980 populations. area of the town is expected to be 1214.9 sq. km and 65.82 km/square density. 3. research design descriptive type of research helps in describing the existing condition of household wastewater management and its impact on the environment. it also enables to describe the situations like access to toilets, type of toilets, toilet ownerships and disposal system of wastewater, their impact on environment and challenges of household wastewater management in the study area. each research method has own techniques, hence the researcher prefers to use survey techniques though questionnaires, interview and field observation employed for data collection. it helps to assess the impact of household wastewater on the environment to attain the research objectives. to do this, four enumerators were hired and trained to distribute the questionnaires and collect the data for analysis. to conduct the study thoroughly both probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling techniques were used. in order to get reliable information, the research was adopted stratified sampling methods particularly systematic random sampling method and purposive from non probability sampling methods. in systematic random sampling, the researcher had used the order of the house number list available in each kebele for choosing the sample. in addition, stratified random sampling has the advantage that contributes much representatives of the sample for large sample size and it is easy to apply. purposive type of sampling was another important method of selecting sample units that aims in obtaining detailed information from different officials and experts to increase the validity of the study. the study had employed both probability and non probability sampling techniques. probability sampling technique was used for selection of households. the way of selecting sampling was using stratified system until it reaches to specified target for each kebele under study. while non probability sampling technique was for officials from water and sewerage office of the sub city and woreda health office by using purposive sampling technique. as stated above, the sample size of the study was 162 households and 3 officials from the sub city water and sewerage office. in addition to this, 3 woreda health officials were interviewed. therefore, 168 respondents were involved in the study as the sample in order to collected primary information to achieve the stated objectives in the study area. the researcher determines to use this much sample that by considering it’s representativeness of population, it’s manageability, man power, and financial constraint and experience of the researcher. 4. results and discussion this section, presents the interpretation and discussion of the major findings. 4.1. the existing condition of household wastewater management systems 4.1.1. sources of household wastewater the investigation of the study shows as, debre markos town, gray water and black water are the two types of wastewaters which are generated at household level. similarly, during field survey, the main sources of wastewater in the households are: from cloth washing, kitchen, bathroom and toilet services. hence, the result indicated that, from the major sources in the town, household wastewater was generated from washing clothes and materials. in relation to this, duncan (2004) explored that, household wastewater sources are black water (toilets) and gray water (slullage), which are wastewaters resulting from personal washing, laundry, food preparation and the cleaning of kitchen utensils. similarly the result of the study revealed as, washing clothes, kitchen, and bathroom and toilet services are main sources of household wastewater in the study area. 4.1.2. means of discharging household wastewater the findings of the study shown as, household wastewater produced in the sub city is discharged at drainage canal, open space, river and septic tank. majority of households discharged in to drainage canal that was prepared for storm water drainage. in support of the finding, rosenthal (2005) said that, most of the household wastewater generated in developing countries, including ethiopia, is discharged in to the environment such as river and open space without treatment, which contaminating downstream water supplies used for drinking water, irrigation, and recreational activities. similarly according to interview results, from health office officials even if the majority of household discharged their wastewater to drainage canal, the canal was built long time, opened and majority of existing drainage canal was blocked by solid wastes, it does not give proper function to the community. therefore, the study shows that, wastewater discharged in to the environment such as open spaces, river and streams without any treatment systems, which polluted river and air and also create health problem on community like diarrhea and upper respiratory diseases in the study area. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 87-93 90 4.1.3. access to toilet access to toilet is the main to manage household wastewater. around 300 million urban residents have no access to sanitation and they are mainly low-income urban dwellers that are affected by lack of household wastewater discharging infrastructure (walid et al., 2008), 27% of the population in debre markos has no toilet facility, who are defecated on open ground in any open spaces especially river bank. similarly, debre markos town is one of town which has high density of population and lives in crowded homes. hence, the management of household wastewater is very poor and some of the populations have no access to toilet and used river banks and open space for defecation. as a result, it created health problem, pollution of air, river and steams. 4.1.4. types of toilets and emptying condition the degree of household wastewater management varies in most developing countries. hence, household wastewater is discharged to offsite (centralized plants) and on site (pit latrines, septic systems) or disposed of in unmanaged drainage canal or waterways that can open or closed sewers. in urban area of ethiopia, the most common used for the management of household wastewater is on site wastewater disposal method. this is because its cost for construction and management is easy as compared to off-site disposal method. similarly, the findings of the study indicated as, like any other ethiopian urban cities, in debre markos town the common type of household wastewater management is on site systems (pit latrine, septic tank and ventilated pit latrine). in addition, debre markos town has no offsite (sewerage line) system; instead canal system that covers a small part of the city, only 7% of the population is connected to channel line (debre markos town water and sewerage office, 2011). in contrast to this, according to interview findings, from the town water and sewerage office official off site wastewater management is absent in the sub city due to it takes large amount of resources to construct and maintain and majority of community who lived the town are low income and lives in slum homes, hence, they have no a capacity to build off site wastewater management system. the most common type of toilet used by the community in the town is pit latrine and used as shared with each other. on the other hand, emptying of onsite facilities is often neglected and wastewater overflows from the pits to the roads or gardens, and is often disposed without treatment in to open streams and rivers (kebede, 2004) that create a negative effects on urban environment. this is also, the result shows, to some extent common in debre markos town, residents who have access to toilet 23.3% are not emptying. according to interview responses from woreda officials, households did not get trucks from town water and sewerage office to emptying their latrine; because some pit latrines are not accessible for transportation to pick waste water and some communities have financial constraints to emptying the latrine. therefore, it is difficult to access truck for the community in the required time; as a result, the latrine could not empty on time. the sub city water and sewerage branch office give emptying service and charged 69 birr per truck at household level. some communities are connected their toilets directly to river and drainage canal at rainy season. as a result, its consequence of the problem resulted in pollution of river and stream water in the study area. 4.2. impacts of household wastewater on the environment improper management of household wastewater has various impacts on environment. the result of the study shown as, the impacts of improper household wastewater management are observed and these impacts are grouped in to health problem, water and air pollution. 4.2.1. social impacts household wastewater is the principal vector by which a large number of communicable diseases are transmitted and spread in urban areas (sien, 2001). the findings of the study revealed as in the study area, 94.4% of sampled households source of wastewater were gray water, 16.6% of respondents have no access to toilets and 23.3% those have access to toilet but not empting in truck who disposed their wastewater either or both in open space, in river and drainage channels. as a result, it creates environmental problems. in relation to these, according to debre markos town health centre annual report (2013) the mostly occurred top diseases were: upper respiratory disease and diarrhea 35% and 9.8% respectively, which are resulted from, the town households were discharging there wastewater in to the environment without any treating mechanisms. therefore, these methods of wastewater management have a negative consequence on health status of the community in the sub city and it also has health cost, needs additional cost and reduce the productivity of the community. a losing of a working day to health problems related to poor household wastewater management has an economic cost, which brings a reduction of household income and the productivity of local and national economy and conflicts between neighborhoods due to improper disposal of waste water in the study area. 4.2.2. river pollution improper management of household wastewater has great impacts on the quality of water. hence, the finding of the study indicates in the study area, household wastewater is directly discharged to the river and streams, which pollutes the water. the river and stream which were found in the town are used as washing cloth and bathing for those low income communities lived near and around the river and streams. results from field observation shows people of kebele 2 released their wastewater directly to the river. this river was also used as washing cloth and recreational activity for low income groups live around and downstream of the river. in addition, interviews from woreda health office, the community who uses the river and stream for washing cloth and bathing are affected by different diseases like skin infection. in relation to these data from debre markos town socio economic annual report (2013) explained that, 6.2 % of the diagnoses in the town were skin infection disease. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 87-93 91 4.2.3. air pollution air pollution occurred due to improper management of household wastewater in town. wastewater discharged from household overflowing on road, and stagnant at drainage canal and open space that decays create bad smell that hinders the aesthetic value of the town. stagnant of wastewaters that discharged from households at road side and drainage canal are not mostly flow in to the river or stream. this creates bad smell and reduces the aesthetic value of the sub city. similarly according to interview finding from health offices, the wastewater which are produced at household level are not flow properly; due to, majority of the drainage canal in the town are works for long year, opened and outdated. households also openly had thrown solid wastes on and around drainage canal which restricts the flowing of wastewater, which resulted in stagnant of household wastewaters on canals. due to this, wastewater is not flow and stay long time cause to create offensive odder and the community easy to catch with common cold and the cause of disease of those asthmatic patients. 4.3. challenges of household wastewater management systems many cities in developing countries have problem in managing the household wastewater, especially in big and densely populated cities. debre markos town is one of most densely populated and business area; such massive person needs adequate sanitation infrastructure services, and fulfilling these needs was the challenges faced by the town. hence, the result of findings from interviewee officials; shortage of household wastewater management infrastructures, lack of awareness and sense of ownership on the communities, inadequate participation of private sectors, ngos and inadequate coordination between institutions were the main challenges of household wastewater management in the study area. 4.3.1. shortage of household wastewater related infrastructures infrastructure accessibility and sufficient services is the base for urban development. in debre markos town, some of the communities were in accessed with basic sanitation infrastructures like toilets and drainage canals as the result, used open space, street road, river bank and streams defecation and discharging mechanism. similarly, due to shortage of trucks to collect the wastewater, some of the communities are also discharging their wastewater through direct connect to river and drainage canals. in relation to this, according to about briscoe (1993), onesixth of the world’s population lives in urban area with inadequate sanitation infrastructure like; toilet, septic tank, drainage canal and wastewater treatment plants. in debre markos town, currently to collect wastewater only one truck is available. according to debre markos town water and sewerage office (2011).therefore, due to shortage of the trucks, some community has no access to get truck to emptying their toilet, and prefers to discharge their toilet illegally through directly connecting in to the river and drainage canal at rainy season. hence, from the findings it can summarized that, shortage of infrastructures, produced household wastewaters are not managed properly, and discharging in to river and stream, street road, open space and open defecation creates an adverse impacts on health problems of the communities, air, river and stream pollutions in the study area. 4.3.2. lack of coordination between institutions the provision of effective and efficient household wastewater management service is not possible alone; rather coordination of other sector is important to provide adequate services to the community. in debre markos town, as the result of inadequate coordination, the management of household wastewater is very poor. similarly, according to interviews response the coordination between debre markos town water and sewerage service office, the town solid waste management office, health and land and planning administration office was poor on proper management of household wastewater in the town. in addition, interviews from woreda health office officials, due to lack of coordination among the concerned sector, some of community were dumping their solid waste in to drainage canals and open spaces. due to the absence of timely maintenance, the existing drainage canals are old and open on which the community dispose wastewaters. as a result, due to lack of coordination and integration between institutions this fuels the environmental problems like river and air pollution and health problems on the community in the study area. 4.3.3. inadequate participation of stakeholders household wastewater management is not government task only, but ngos and private sectors should also participate. in debre markos town the participation of stakeholder was very limited. according to debre markos town water and sewerage office (2011), there is no any private sector that participates in collecting and transporting wastewaters in to disposal site in debre markos. similarly interviews finding indicated that, not only small private sectors small participation but also are not covered whole parts of the town. hence, due to the private sectors are small, they are no providing services to the community, charged high price and select the nearest areas that accessible to transportation as compared to the government sectors. therefore, it can be generalized that in adequate participation of concerned private sector was the challenge for household wastewater management in the study area. 4.3.4. lack of awareness and sense of ownership on the community increasing public understanding and know how on the value of proper household wastewater management is critical. household wastewater management is the most important basic function for protecting public health, wellness and the environment. in debre markos town, due to lack of awareness and sense of ownership of the communities, the management of household wastewater is very poor. according to interview result from woreda health office, some of households are damping solid wastes produced at home in to drainage canal, directly connect their toilet and gray water with drainage canal, river and streams at rainy season. therefore, it can generalized that, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 87-93 92 due to the absence of awareness and sense of ownership of local communities, the dispose their wastewaters in to the environment without treatment which causes a health problem of the community, air, rive and stream pollution in the sub city. 4.4. strategies to improve household wastewater management the creation of suitable and favorable environment requires the proper management and disposal of household wastewaters through involving concerning stakeholders like government sectors, private companies, ngos, local communities, cbos, and associations by involving them from planning to implementations. in addition the involvement of major stakeholders by itself do nothing without continuous monitoring and evaluation and undertaking remedial measures for the identified gaps and problems in relation to household wastewater management. the findings of the study also revealed that, government sectors to properly mange household wastewaters, design mechanisms that are cost, time and effort effective in order to minimize the costs of the tasks accomplishments in the study area. similarly, local communities can be encouraged to participate; to contribute indigenous, valid ideas, have strong sense of ownership by members of the community. it is also very important to engage 'gatekeepers or influential community leaders and existing community in to maintenance and cleaning of wastewater related activities in the study area. 5. conclusions this part concludes the overall existing condition of household wastewater management services, the impacts of improper management of household wastewater on environment, and challenges to manage household wastewater in debre markos town. in addition, enabling ways to solving the identified problems were recommended in the recommendation part. thus: household wastewater management, among other urban problems, has currently become a concern of local government of developing countries including the public at large. the degree of household wastewater management varies in most developing countries. hence household wastewater is discharged in off site (centralized plants) and on site (pit latrines, septic systems). in most cities particularly ethiopian cities, the management of household wastewater is commonly used to on site discharged systems. unlike other cities of ethiopia, debre markos town was the town which has no offsite (sewerage line) system that covers a small part of the city, only 8 percent of the population is connected to sewer line, but, debre markos town is not included in the existing sewerage system. hence, the study finds that, the town used to manage the wastewater by using on site like septic tank, pit latrine and ventilated pit latrine. among these, majority of households in the town used pit latrine and they utilized by sharing, few of the household used ventilated pit latrine and a very few used septic tank. in the study area, the management of household wastewater is not in proper way. as a result, the wastewater disposed in to the environment like to river and stream, drainage channel, road side and open space. hence, majority (49.7 percent) of households discharged their wastewater in to drainage canal that was prepared for storm water drainage and 16.6 percent have no access to toilets and they were used different mechanisms for defecation (river banks and open space) in the study area. consequently, it results a serious water contamination, over flow toilet and stagnant of wastewater in to the road side in the town and particularly in the congested low-income neighborhoods. these exposed the community to disease such as, diarrhea, skin infection, upper respiratory diseases like influenza and common cold, and also reduce an aesthetic value of the study area. these problems are aggravated due to shortage of household wastewater management infrastructures provision, lack of awareness and sense of ownership on the communities, inadequate participation of private sectors, ngos and inadequate coordination between institutions in the study area. 6. recommendations the points discussed below are forwarded for improvement of household wastewater management system in debre markos town. the provision of household wastewater management at present is not as such properly. so, in order to create proper management of household wastewater in the sub city the following recommendations are forwarded; increase accessibility of household wastewater management facilities: the management of household wastewater in the town is poor due to less accessibility facilities like less access to toilet, lack and poor drainage canal and shortage of truck to collect wastewater. hence, to mitigate the current toilet access problem, the municipality should construct additional public latrines on areas that problems are commonly observed and areas that open space and river bank defecated. the municipality should also, maintain the existing drainage canal and construct drainage canals in areas that drainage canal were not available by participating communities to support money. in addition, debre markos water and sewerage office should buy additional emptying trucks. therefore, as all this needs high cost, the municipality should operate in cooperation with concerning bodies like the town land administration office, the town road authority, debre markos town water and sewerage office, involving ngos and donors by preparing proposals related to inadequate management of household wastewater management infrastructures. creating awareness to communities: findings indicates that majority of households discharge their household wastewater in to the environment like open space, river and streams without any treatments, thus awareness for all required. solid waste disposed of illegally in drainage canal, connecting their toilets in the river, open space and drainage canal at rainy season are not only because of lack of solid waste disposal container and other services like truck for empted toilet to discharge wastewater but also lack of awareness of the consequences of mismanagement of wastewater in the sub city. the concerned bodies such as the health office, solid waste office, water and sewerage office should be raise public awareness about proper household wastewater management and its impacts on the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 87-93 93 environment and how to maintain and use household wastewater management facilities by using and participate in construction of drainage canal and toilet by using techniques like mass media, pamphlet and demonstration of best experience woreda to woreda. furthermore the town health extension workers should work to bring continues behavioral change though communication to improve the awareness and attitude of the community concerning household wastewater management in the town. make strong coordination and integration among institutions: a single institution cannot perform the required service being alone; the coordination of other institution seems to the crucial. the municipality should promote institutional coordination among different sectors like water and sewerage office, health offices, lad administration office, road authority and solid waste management office in order to proper management of household wastewater in the town. the municipality should be also participation of community and cbos like edir in different components of household wastewater management services such as construction of toilets, maintaining and building of drainage canal in the town. participation of stakeholder: household wastewater management is only the task of government. ngos, stakeholders and private sector should involve in household wastewater management services in various motivational activities like tax fee imported truck, spare parts and other relevant materials, and the municipality should be a favorable condition for ngos participation to promote and support on activities like, facilitation of credit provision; providing supporting skills, management, financial and training. expand sewerage system: debre markos town like other town has no sewerage line, due to the presence of slum areas and low income households living in the area which restricts the development of sewerage lines. therefore, the municipality should give attentions and renew the slum areas for the future to provide sewerage line in the town by giving kebele houses with minimum fee, providing condominium houses and creating job opportunities to the communities to afford the house. references ashager, m., 2009. assessment of industrial waste management practice and its impact on the surrounding environment a case study of kompolcha town. unpublished report. assen, e., 1987. the growth of municipal administration and some aspect of daily life in addis ababa, 1910-1930. proceeding of the international symposium on the century of addis ababa. adiis ababa: ies. pp: 79-92. bceom, 1970. water supply and sewerage feasibility studies of addis 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15). sien, c.l., 2001. overview of impact of sewage on the marine environment of east asia: social and economic opportunities. united nations environment programme. sridhar, m. and b. joe, 2005. waste management, processing, and detoxification. available from www.maweb.org/documents/document.315.aspx.pdf. syed, s., 2006. solid and liquid waste management. emirates journal for engineering research, 11(2): 19-36. available from www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/ejer/issues/v11/pdf_iss2_11/2.%20syed.pdf. the enlightenment, 2009. the history of debremarkos, semi-annually magazine, debre markos university. waaland (eds). algae and human affairs. cambridge university press, 1(2). walid, a., w. dirk, k. rosenwinkel and v. johan, 2008. sustainable sewage treatment and re-use in developing countries: twelfth international water technology conference, iwtc12 2008, alexandria, egypt 1397. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.pseau.org/.../earthscan_ltd_domestic_wasewater_treatment_in http://www.maweb.org/documents/document.315.aspx.pdf http://www.engg.uaeu.ac.ae/ejer/issues/v11/pdf_iss2_11/2.%20syed.pdf asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 2, 70-76, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 70 cluster analysis approach to understanding the philippine sustainable consumer: an initial empirical study pamela f. resurreccion 1 1 faculty, department of marketing, mindanao state university-iligan institute of technology iligan city, philippines abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 71 2. review of related literature ................................................................................................................................................... 71 3. research methods ..................................................................................................................................................................... 72 4. results and discussion .............................................................................................................................................................. 74 5. conclusion and recommendation ........................................................................................................................................... 75 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 75 the pressing climate change issue is difficult to ignore today as more and more of its effects are felt and experienced by many people and countries across the globe. although cross-cutting policies have been enacted by various governments, the complexity of the consumer as thinking, feeling and socially interactive individuals call for more targeted interventions to become an effective reinforcement to consumption-related legislations and programs as embedded in the four e‟s framework developed by the uk sustainable development research network. recognizing the unfeasibility of personalized campaigns towards sustainable consumption, this paper aims to provide an initial empirical analysis of the philippine consumer market having the propensity to buy environment-friendly products by exploring its various segments. cluster analyses reveal that there are five groups of consumers inclined to buy environment-friendly products in the philippines, each bound together by their normative susceptibility, belief that environment-friendly products are difficult to identify and find in the market, frequency of buying and amount spent for these products, age, education, civil status and income. these identified segments serve as a guide in crafting programs and campaigns promoting and supporting sustainable consumption behavior that are more tailored to each of their attributes. the paper concludes with a discussion on the practical implications for implementation of interventions and directions for future research. keywords: sustainability, sustainable consumption, consumer behavior, sustainable consumer, consumerism, market segmentation, cluster analysis, philippines. jel classification: m30. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 70-76 71 1. introduction the pressing climate change issue is difficult to ignore today as more and more of its effects are felt and experienced by many people across the globe. as such, many governments have recognized the need to address these issues and take action. this concern has been manifested as early as 1972 in the united nations (un) conference on the human environment along with the release of the significant publication, limits to growth, by the club of rome; followed by the earth summit in rio de janeiro, brazil in 1992; the world summit in johannesburg where the delegates called upon the united nations environment programme (unep) to formulate a 10-year framework to foster sustainable consumption; the enhancement of the guidelines for consumer protection by the un general assembly in 1999 (unep, 2012a) and the most recent rio+20 the future we want summit in 2012. somehow, these efforts and initiatives become futile when the individual consumer continues to engage in purchase behaviors that are not at all good for the environment in both short and long run. these purchase behaviors include, but are not limited to, buying products coming from non-environment friendly raw materials and processes, tolerating excessive packaging, and improper disposal of post-consumption product components. on the policy perspective, unep has adopted developments in social science research which lends support to the possibility of transforming consumption patterns to positive behaviours through relevant legislation. however, even unep recognizes the limited evidence of the applicability of the concept as for instance, little is known on the appropriate behaviour modification approaches to be used (unep, 2012b). furthermore, while firms are slowly showing support to sustainable business through first mover strategies in pursuing competitive advantage as well as in building up goodwill with their stakeholders through their respective corporate social responsibility initiatives, “sustainable consumption (particularly in asia) is constrained by a daunting lack of information on the impacts of consumption and availability of sustainable choices, the unmet aspirations for a „western‟ lifestyle, and a „grow now, clean up later‟ attitude despite great efforts by some regional policy makers and practitioners” (king et al., 2010). as a research theme, sustainable consumption has received considerable attention. one track focuses on identifying the antecedents of sustainable consumption behaviors such that of witkowski and reddy (2010), black and cherrier (2010), and luchs and mooradian (2012) who explored the influence of motivation, values, culture, gender. it is worthy to note that despite the growing enlightenment on the drivers of pro-environment consumption patterns, there appears to be a slow transition toward desired behavioural outcomes. vermeir and verbeke (2006), dunlap et al. (2000), kaplan (2000) and several other social scientists and scholars observe a dissonance between intentions and actual behaviors. another research track revolves around determining the attributes of certain segments of consumers in terms of pro-environment consumption patterns. in portugal, certain environmental and demographic variables are significant for differentiating between the “greener” segment and the other segments (paco and raposo, 2009). in the u.s., green product buyers differ significantly in terms of cognitive attitude, affective attitude, social norm, personal norm, and recycling intention compared to non-green product buyers (park et al., 2012). there appears, however, limited literature on the subsegments within the sustainable consumer market. as concerned stakeholders are selling the idea of sustainability to a market with deeply rooted materialist orientation, the basic marketing management process prompts that the market be first segmented (kotler and keller, 2009) so that the appropriate messages can be communicated and thus achieve higher chances of reception and a positive long-term response is reinforced. the question is: does the “green” consumer market exhibit distinction between segments as well? given these circumstances, this purpose of this study is to further our understanding of sustainable consumption by identifying various segments of the sustainable consumer market with the pro-environmentally inclined consumer as the unit of analysis. more specifically, this study aims to achieve the following research objectives: (1) to determine how the sustainable consumer market can be further segmented; and (2) to identify the attributes of the sub-segments of the sustainable consumer market. indubitably, there had been earlier studies that had focused on the antecedents of consumers buying environment-friendly products. in fact, a major part of this study adopts the indicators focused on by chan (2001). to the author‟s knowledge, this is the first study investigating the sustainable consumer market segments in an asian context. this study will hopefully offer better directions for policy formulation and implementation improvements pertaining to transforming consumption patterns to a more sustainable one. henceforth, the paper shall proceed as follows: first, it reviews the extant literature on sustainable consumer market segmentation and the criteria used for segmentation; second, it describes the methods and data analysis techniques employed in the study; third, the results of the study are discussed; and finally, the paper concludes with recommendations on marketing communications and an agenda for future research. 2. review of related literature 2.1. market segmentation and the sustainable consumer market market segmentation is defined by kotler et al. (2009) as the process by which marketers “identify and profile distinct group of buyers who might prefer or require varying product and services mixes by examining demographic, psychographic and behavioral differences among buyers” (p. 13). the rationale behind this process is anchored on the premise that “a single product item can seldom meet the needs and wants of all consumers” (peter and donnelly, 2008). this makes identifying the aspects by which the segments shall be evaluated and described become crucial. there have been several attempts to segment the market in environment-related criteria. the initial research works centered more on the consumers‟ concern for the environment such as that of kassarjain (1971), fisk (1973) and kinnear et al. (1974). straughan and roberts argue that using demographic criteria is insufficient in market segmentation (straughan and roberts, 1999). in the succeeding discussion, segmentation bases shall be examined to achieve a grounded perspective on the sustainable consumer market segments. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 70-76 72 2.2. psychographic and behavioral criteria several studies such that of chan and yam (1995) have found that environmental behavior are greatly influenced by “ecological knowledge, affect, and intention.” for instance, in a comparison between green product nonpurchasers and those who are, green product purchasers exhibited significantly higher levels of cognitive attitude, affective attitude, social norm, personal norm, and recycling intention (park et al., 2012). on a similar note, meneses and palacio (2006) found that the major difference between sustainers and non-sustainers is the degree of ecological concern. this is further corroborated by a meta-analysis of 16 studies on sustainable food consumption based on the theory of planned behavior framework which further confirm that personal norm, attitude and subjective norm are strong predictors of intention and behaviour (han and hansen, 2012) .[23] these findings reiterate the relevance of psychographic and behavioral criteria in market segmentation. burns and neisner (2006) and hunter (2006) emphasized that in anticipating specific behaviors , it is important that a person‟s “feeling-based evaluation of an attitude object (i.e. affective attitude)” must be considered. chan refers to this as environmental affect and defines it as the degree of emotionality that an individual displays in relation to environmental issues (1999). meanwhile, ohtomo and hirose (2007) and stern (2000) have placed emphasis on the significant role of norms in determining pro-environmental behaviors tendencies. social norm “concerns how significant others think one should behave in relation to a certain behavior” (ajzen and fishbein, 1977). according to bamberg et al. (2007) consumers are inclined to adhere to social norms because of either social pressure or “their referents provide them with guidance about an appropriate or beneficial behavior in their society. citing bandura (1986), cheah and phan (2011) explained that “the social influences of peers, family groups and influential bodies can convey information and activate emotional reactions through factors such as modeling, instruction and social persuasion; social environments such as family, friends and peer networks (normative susceptibility) strongly influence buying decisions that involve environmentally friendly products; interpersonal processes and relationships between opinion leaders and professionals are likely to have a substantial impact on similar attitudes towards buying decisions (informational susceptibility).” another of the factors that is recognized as preceding pro-environmental behavior is ecological consciousness (mustafa, 2007). individuals who have a positive attitude towards the environment are more involved in the purchase and consumption of environment-friendly products (balderjahn, 1988). the concept of marketing introduces the premise that people‟s buying decision is triggered by a stimulus paving the way to the 4ps framework – product, price, place and promotion. these stimuli largely constitute the direct personal experiences, by the experiences of other individuals and by the communication produced by the media. it results in environmentally friendly behavior based on a number of conditions such as price, the performance of the product (paco and raposo, 2009). employing regression analysis, tanner and kast (2003) found that green purchases are favorably influenced by positive attitudes of buyers toward environmental protection and availability of action-related knowledge while unfavorable linked with perceived time barriers and frequency of shopping in supermarkets. a core marketing concept is defined as wants for specific products backed by a willingness and ability to buy (kotler et al., 2009). there has been anecdotal evidence suggesting that environmentally-sound products and services are perceived to be expensive. in a study of highly educated people in india, consumers are willing to buy eco-friendly products but not many are willing to pay a higher price for such products (ishaswini and datta, 2011). 2.3. demographic criteria despite some contradicting perspectives on demographics as a behavior predictor, this paper adheres to mcdonald and oates (2006) position that the main segmentation tools that have been used include demographics with a view to aligning consumers‟ characteristics with their propensity to purchase green products. several studies such as those of d'souza et al. (2007) and jain and kaur (2006) have investigated the role of age in environmentrelated marketing phenomenon. it is noteworthy to observe that the influence of age on attitudes and behavior are inconsistent as was found in the studies of zimmer et al. (1994) versus (roberts, 1996).several research endeavors revolving around the determinants of sustainable consumer behavior have found a “robust gender effect” – that is, women are more likely to express concern about consumption‟s broader impacts and to act upon those concerns than men (luchs and mooradian, 2012). there are research however that showed significant differences between gender (witkowski and reddy, 2010). in the study of paco and raposo (2009), individuals with greater training and higher educational levels, and consequently enjoying access to more information, are expected to display greater concern, acting more frequently in favor of the environment. meanwhile, it is generally believed that income is positively correlated with environmental sensitivity. the most common justification for this situation, according to paco and raposo (2009), is based on the fact that individuals with a higher income level can more easily bear the marginal increase in the costs associated with supporting “green causes” and buying green products. against this backdrop, the study identifies the following specific criteria to serve as bases for segmenting the sustainable consumer market: normative susceptibility, informational susceptibility, ecological affect, man-nature orientation, perceptions of product attributes, frequency of shopping for environment-friendly products, amount spent on environment-friendly products, age, gender, civil status, education and income. 3. research methods 3.1. sampling the study aimed to investigate and determine the various segments of the sustainable consumer market in the philippines. a convenience sampling method was used, employing the snowball technique. with the individual sustainable consumer as the unit of analysis, those who responded to the survey were filtered, including only those respondents who is either considering buying products because they are less polluting, considering switching to other brands for environmental reasons, or planning to switch to an environment-friendly version of a product over the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 70-76 73 next month. of the total 215 individuals who completed the survey, the screen excluded 24 respondents. hence, only 191 questionnaires were determined useful. this particular sampling method was used as this was the only feasible option given the unique circumstances of the study. it must be noted, therefore, that results of the study should be interpreted with caution due to the manner by which the respondents were chosen. the descriptive statistics of sample i presented in table 1. table-1. descriptive statistics of sample frequency percentage of valid cases gender male 63 32.98% female 128 67.02% total 100.00% age 20 years old and below 28 14.81% 21 – 30 91 48.15% 31 – 40 44 23.28% 41 – 50 19 10.05% 51 – 60 5 2.65% above 60 years old 2 1.06% missing data (2) total 100.00% civil status single 130 68.06% married 59 30.89% widow/widower 2 1.05% total 100.00% educational attainment high school 5 2.62% college 155 81.15% masters level 28 14.66% doctorate level 3 1.57% total 100.00% gross household monthly income below php 10,000 44 23.04% php 10,000 – 19,999 65 34.03% php 20,000 – 29,999 27 14.14% php 30,000 – 39,999 15 7.85% php 40,000 – 49,999 10 5.24% php 50,000 – 59,999 4 2.09% php 60,000 – 69,999 2 1.05% php 70,000 and above 24 12.56% total 100.00% 3.2. data collection data for the study was collected during the 3 rd week of november 2012 using an online survey form and disseminated through the referral or snowball technique as well as through posting in various e-groups in a popular social networking site. this data collection method is particularly chosen to minimize the use of paper and consequently contribute to the efforts of sustainable practices. 3.3. scale development and data analysis the survey questionnaire consisted of two parts. the first part contained variables for five psychographic criteria while the second part contained the demographic criteria. the instrument was pretested with a convenience sample of 30 individuals distributed through a popular social networking site. the reliability of the scales was determined using cronbach‟s α. the number of 7-point likert scale items for the first part is presented in table 2. all values of cronbach‟s α are well above 0.60 signifying relatively high reliability and internal consistency. composite scores for every criterion were computed by getting the average of the respondents‟ answers across the items and were used in the analysis. in order to determine the various underlying segments in the sample, the criteria were subjected to cluster analysis. anova was utilized to ascertain each criterion‟s ability to significantly characterize the clusters derived. table-2. measures for each criteria and its corresponding cronbach‟s α scales cronbach’s α a. social influence a. normative susceptibility • eight measures of cheah and phan (2011) normative susceptibility 0.954 b. informational susceptibility • two measures of cheah and phan (2011) informational susceptibility • one researcher-made item on internet-based social networks 0.724 b. ecological affect • adapted five measures from chan (2001) 0.778 c. man-nature orientation • two measures from chan (2001) 0.788 d. perceptions of product attributes • three researcher-made measures based on the 4ps of marketing framework 0.622 e. frequency of shopping for environment-friendly products within the previous month • from the work of chan (2001) f. amount spent on environmentfriendly products with the previous month asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 70-76 74 4. results and discussion using hierarchical partitioning procedure, specifically the complete linkage agglomerative algorithm in cluster analysis, the dendogram illustrating the euclidean distances of the cases is shown in figure 1. fig-1. tree diagram of 191 cases using complete linkage two groups can be clearly deciphered from the dendogram. this is deemed a reasonable number of groupings as increasing it would produce clusters that contain elements insufficient for statistical analysis. results of the analysis of variance presented in table 3 show that the two groups are not significantly different in terms of ecological affect, man-nature orientation, gender composition. furthermore, one cluster is not significantly different from the other in their view that environment-friendly products are more expensive than non-green products; that environment-friendly products are difficult to identify; and that man should master instead of adapt to the environment. one criteria that significantly distinguishes the two clusters is normative susceptibility (α=0.0102) where cluster 1 exhibits lower normative susceptibility than cluster 2. the two groups are also significantly different in terms of information susceptibility (α=0.0186). in terms of this criterion, cluster 1 has lower information susceptibility than cluster 2. green buying behaviour is another significant criterion that distinctly characterizes the two clusters. it appears that cluster 1 is more pro-environmental compared to cluster 2 in terms of frequency of shopping for environmentfriendly products and amount spent on environment-friendly products. however, cluster 1 tends to be more willing to pay more than cluster 2. this may have some connection on the gross household monthly income of cluster 2 which is lower than those of cluster 1. results of the analysis of variance further indicate that the two clusters are significantly differentiated by age (α=0.0000), educational attainment (α=0.0000) and civil status (α=0.0000). a closer scrutiny of the mean values reveals that cluster 1 is relatively older, generally married and is comprised of college graduates with some either taking masters or doctorate degrees. table-3. descriptive statistics for each of the clusters *significant at α=0.05 **significant at α=0.01 given these findings the clusters are hereby labelled and described as follows: 4.1. cluster 1 “the mature and product cautious” this group are older individuals, in between their early 30‟s to late 40‟s or older, and are generally married. most of them are college graduates with some pursuing graduate studies. they have relatively high household income per month – ranging from php30,000 to php50,000 or higher. though they are willing to pay more for environmentfriendly products, they tend to be cautious spenders, spending only moderate and reasonable amounts. they also frequently shop for environment-friendly products and when they do, they have moderately high tendency to ask tree diagram for 191 cases complete linkage euclidean distances c _1 51 c _1 50 c _1 29 c _1 78 c _1 47 c _1 13 c _1 61 c _1 72 c _1 57 c _1 73 c _1 46 c _1 76 c _1 63 c _1 66 c _1 45 c _5 2 c _8 1 c _9 5 c _2 4 c _1 4 c _1 80 c _1 68 c _1 56 c _1 55 c _1 52 c _1 42 c _1 54 c _1 41 c _1 36 c _1 15 c _1 37 c _4 4 c _5 7 c _4 c _4 5 c _1 53 c _1 24 c _1 14 c _4 9 c _3 c _1 75 c _1 62 c _1 91 c _1 69 c _1 79 c _1 77 c _1 71 c _1 70 c _1 74 c _1 67 c _1 58 c _1 39 c _1 44 c _1 34 c _1 18 c _1 12 c _1 65 c _1 11 c _1 43 c _1 40 c _1 17 c _4 7 c _1 38 c _8 6 c _5 6 c _1 07 c _2 8 c _3 9 c _5 5 c _4 8 c _2 c _1 90 c _1 89 c _1 87 c _1 86 c _1 82 c _1 27 c _1 04 c _1 48 c _9 1 c _8 3 c _1 22 c _1 19 c _1 33 c _7 9 c _1 32 c _9 3 c _6 0 c _1 01 c _4 1 c _1 3 c _1 1 c _1 25 c _8 2 c _6 8 c _2 0 c _5 4 c _1 9 c _7 3 c _2 7 c _1 6 c _9 7 c _8 0 c _7 7 c _3 2 c _2 9 c _3 1 c _1 5 c _9 c _1 06 c _1 00 c _9 8 c _5 3 c _8 8 c _7 6 c _7 5 c _6 3 c _9 9 c _3 6 c _6 6 c _1 02 c _9 6 c _1 31 c _3 7 c _1 20 c _8 9 c _4 0 c _2 5 c _3 0 c _1 03 c _3 8 c _8 5 c _2 2 c _1 2 c _7 4 c _1 7 c _4 3 c _2 1 c _1 8 c _1 23 c _6 9 c _1 0 c _8 c _9 2 c _7 2 c _1 08 c _1 35 c _1 21 c _7 0 c _4 2 c _3 5 c _6 c _7 c _5 9 c _5 c _1 85 c _1 84 c _1 88 c _1 83 c _1 81 c _1 10 c _1 60 c _8 7 c _1 59 c _8 4 c _9 0 c _7 1 c _1 09 c _6 5 c _1 64 c _1 49 c _1 30 c _1 26 c _6 7 c _5 1 c _9 4 c _1 28 c _3 3 c _2 6 c _1 05 c _6 2 c _6 4 c _3 4 c _2 3 c _1 16 c _5 0 c _7 8 c _4 6 c _5 8 c _6 1 c _1 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 (d lin k/ d m ax )* 10 0 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 70-76 75 their friends about a product if they have little experience with it; gather information from friends or family about a product before they buy; and, if uncertain about a product‟s features and quality, they search for more information in the internet through social networking sites. they are not so much concerned with what people around them will say or how their peers react about their product choices. 4.2. cluster 2 “the young and socially pressured” this is a relatively younger group – about 30 years old and below. they are single and are in the early stages of their careers if not still in their college studies. they have lower household income of about php20,000 and below per month. they are willing to pay more for environment-friendly products but their willingness is not as much as that of cluster 1. they only purchase pro-environment products sometimes and spend moderately on such items but not as much as those from cluster 1. they have higher information and normative susceptibility than cluster 1 – that is, they have higher tendency to seek for information before buying products and are more concerned with social acceptance when it comes to the products they buy. 5. conclusion and recommendation with the pressure from the government and environmentally concerned groups, businesses are compelled to align their marketing strategies with these growing concern for the environment, not only in their corporate social responsibility initiatives, but in their market offerings. to aid in the formulation of relevant strategies and initiatives to achieve this end, the study was undertaken to determine the sub-segments within the sustainable consumption – inclined market. to the researcher‟s knowledge, it is the first study to focus on the sustainable consumer market rather on the “green” and “not green” consumer groups. it is likewise the first study to focus on the philippine context. the cluster analysis reveal that the sustainable consumer market in the philippines diverged into two distinct groups. the “matured and product cautious” group is composed of relatively older individuals who have higher incomes and tend to seek for information before buying. the “young and socially pressured” group, on the other hand, are younger individuals who have lower incomes and are concerned with social acceptance in their product purchases. the limitations of this study are related to the self-reporting questionnaire, to its cross-sectional design, and to issues of generalizability in the light of the convenience sampling used. given these insights, it is recommended that marketing communications be tailored to the 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department of accounting usmanu danfodiyo university sokoto, nigeria 3 department of accounting waziri umaru federal polytechnic birnin kebbi kebbi state, nigeria ( corresponding author) abstract the study discusses the relationship between accounting disclosures and market value under new accounting reporting. the study addresses whether accounting information has improved after the ifrs adoption among nigerian listed firms. the study adopted ohlson (1995) stock price model that has commonly been used in the capital market for a 5-year data of 129 companies listed in the nigerian stock market. the findings of the study have shown disaggregated assets and liabilities have a strong relationship with stock price. however, there is higher association after the adoption of ifrs from the adjusted r 2 . furthermore, current assets presented more explanatory power than all other variables in the model, signifying that investors rely on current assets for decision making. however, cramer (1987) z statistics provided no significance difference in value relevance between the two periods. a possible explanation of the changes could be that investors do not view accounting information to be different in the two periods. therefore, policy makers, standard setters, and regulators need to come together to address the issue of ifrs adoption by firms in nigeria. keywords: accounting information, value relevance, assets, liabilities. jel classification: g10, g14, g15. contents 1. introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................... 2 2. literature review .................................................................................................................................................................. 2 3. data and methodology........................................................................................................................................................... 4 4. discussion of results .............................................................................................................................................................. 5 5. robust test ............................................................................................................................................................................ 6 6. conclusions ............................................................................................................................................................................ 7 references .................................................................................................................................................................................. 8 citation | musa yelwa abubakar; nasiru abdulsallam; muhammad yusuf alkali (2017). the impact of the new accounting reporting among listed firms in nigerian stock market. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(1): 1-9. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.1.9 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. history: received: 24 august 2016/ revised: 1 september 2016/ accepted: 26 september 2016/ published: 27 october 2016 ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.1.9 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=musa yelwa abubakar https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=nasiru abdulsallam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad yusuf alkali http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.1.9 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.1.9 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=musa yelwa abubakar https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=nasiru abdulsallam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad yusuf alkali http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.1.9 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.1.9 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=musa yelwa abubakar https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=nasiru abdulsallam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad yusuf alkali http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.1.9 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.1.9 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=musa yelwa abubakar https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=nasiru abdulsallam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad yusuf alkali http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.1.9 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.1.9 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=musa yelwa abubakar https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=nasiru abdulsallam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad yusuf alkali http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.1.9 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 1-9 2 1. introduction this study explores the relevance of accounting information on the disaggregated assets and liabilities after the adoption of international financial reporting system(ifrs) in nigeria. the study adopted the most widely used ohlson (1995) price model to determine whether accounting information is more value relevant after the adoption of ifrs in nigeria. the motivation of this study is premised on the quality of accounting information reported by the world bank in the year 2010. the report of the world bank in the period was that nigerian accounting and auditing reporting suffered a serious neglect, non-update of domestic accounting standard, non-compliance, and disclosures of accounting reporting by the companies. also, nigerian stock market is one of the biggest markets in africa and among the emerging markets in the world, therefore, conducting a study in the market would provide a better understanding of the capital market in emerging market. accounting research after ball and brown (1968) produced several studies presenting association between market value and accounting earnings. immediately, after their study, more researchers on value relevance were carried out to include balance sheet disclosures on total assets and total liabilities, income statements, cash flows, and earnings using ohlson (1995). however, the prior studies on value relevance focused on the us and uk markets only (barth, 1994; barth et al., 1996; barth et al., 1999). the increasing importance of accounting information within the international markets, lead to more studies investigating the value relevance of accounting information in markets that are non-us developed markets (amir et al., 1993; collins et al., 1997; graham et al., 2000) extended to emerging markets (chen et al., 2001; kargin, 2013a; chebaane and othman, 2014; mironiuc et al., 2015; păşcan, 2015) and in nigeria (umoren & enang 2015; omokhudu & ibadin 2015; mohammed & lode 2015; muhammad et al. 2015). the choice for the nigerian market between the year 2009 to 2011 (pre-adoption) and 2012 to 2013 (after the adoption) is on the fact that, 2009 was the year immediately after the 2008 financial crisis in the country while the period 2012 was the year of ifrs adoption in the country. another reason for taking nigeria in africa was because nigerian capital market is reported by nse in 2013 and cia fact book 2013 to be the second largest capital market after south africa and the most famous in the west african sub-region. the nigerian equities market appreciation in 2012 to 2013 made the market be among the best-performing markets in the world (peter and nnorom, 2013). nigerian capital market is reported to be in a weak-form efficiency, therefore, follows a random walk (sule et al., 2015). the growth of the nigerian capital market attracted many investors into the capital market, this evident by the increasing number of investors in the economy. the nigerian domestic bond registration with jp morgan local currency index in the year 2012 is another milestone for the market. also, the local bond in nigeria gets another huge boost in 2013 from the inclusion in the sovereign bonds of barclay‟s emerging bond index. this contributes significantly in attracting foreign investors that have an estimated investment in the country of about usd5.6 billion in nigerian bonds (peter and nnorom, 2013). the level of value relevance of accounting information for the sample is operationalised using price regression that has commonly been used in value relevance of accounting information ( see, (barth et al., 2001; gordon, 2001; mechelli and cimini, 2014)) studies and empirically tested. share price is being used in the survey as dependent variable while disaggregated assets (current assets and fixed assets), and liabilities (current liabilities and non-current liabilities) as independent variables. panel data regression was employed throughout the regression analysis. the data is divided into two periods as pre-and post-adoption of ifrs. pre-adoption period commenced from 2009 to 2011 (three years), and post-adoption is 2012 to 2013(two years). in nigeria, all listed firms are mandated to report their financial statement by the ifrs effective 2012. however, before the period of 2012 companies in nigeria were expected to report based on the nigerian domestic accounting reporting (sas). despite the importance of the value relevance of disaggregated assets and liabilities to investors little or no studies were conducted in emerging markets particularly in nigeria. one of the important study conducted on aggregated assets and liabilities was from kadri et al. (2010) from malaysia. therefore, this study is important for the investors, standard setters and policy makers in nigeria to understand the relevance of disaggregated assets and liabilities. 2. literature review value relevance has been defined as an association between accounting amounts and security values (barth & beaver 2000). the ability for accounting reporting to summarise and capture accounting information affecting share information has been examined in testing the statistical relationship between accounting numbers and market values and mapping from financial statements to “intrinsic” values (aboody et al., 2002; hellström, 2006; vijitha and nimalathasan, 2014). similarly, value relevance of financial information can be predictive and statistically measured through the relationship between stock market values from the information reported on the financial statement (barth et al., 2001) with the ability to the information provided in the annual reports to summarise and capture firm value (beisland, 2009; kargin, 2013b). as the ability to account information provided by a financial statement to report and summarise firm value (păşcan, 2015). several scholars have studied the value relevance of accounting information in different perspectives. beisland (2009) reported that majority of value relevance researches are related to market efficiency because they can provide the relationship between accounting measures and stock prices. holthausen and watts (2001) examined whether the relations between accounting numbers and stock prices are value relevant in explaining market value. ebaid (2012) studied the influence of accounting-based methods on market returns and prices and their predictive values to be referred to as the value relevance of accounting reporting. brien (2005) emphasised that relevance and reliability be the capacity of accounting numbers to summarise and capture accounting information that has a significant effect on stock prices. kommunuri (2008) provided that relevance and reliability of accounting information be two key features of accounting information. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 1-9 3 barth (1994) measured value relevance of banks' investment securities using fair value and historical cost for both assets and related earnings. the study provides evidence on the two methods of relative and incremental explanatory power with relative measurements error. barth (1994) documented that fair value measurement estimates from investment securities have more significant explanatory power over historical costs. the results of fair value of gains and losses from securities investment have no significant incremental power; historical cost provides significant incremental explanatory power over fair value. in contrast, ahmed and carolyn (1995) document different results compared to barth (1994) with the controlling effects of other net assets. they found that both realised and unrealised gains and losses to provide a significant positive effect in regular periods of bank returns, although realised security gains and losses have lower significant effect in a period of weak earnings and capital. mozes (2002) examined fair value disclosures as required by the statement of financial accounting standards (sfas) 119, derivatives disclosure of fair value of the financial instrument to be value relevant. the study adopted residual valuation model to investigate the association between two variables to measure the fair value of book value and security prices of financial instruments. also, mozes found that firms with a greater return on investment on capital have a relative cost of capital growth; the estimated relationship will improve and becomes negative in fair value of book value. barth and clinch (1998) reported that intangible assets are value relevant regardless of re-evaluation period, and non-financial firms‟ investment is value relevant other than the current year. baboukardos and rimmel (2014) concluded that relevant accounting numbers on purchased goodwill generate relevant accounting numbers on companies that have a high disclosure only under ifrs. 2.1. studies conducted related to value relevance and ifrs studies on value relevance research provide contradictive results as a result of factors in which the study is carried out (mironiuc et al., 2015). however, several studies were conducted on the value relevance in a different environment and context because of the growing number of accounting information demand. agostino et al. (2011) investigated european banks the relevance of association between stock market, book value and earnings for the periods before and after the adoption of ifrsamong european banks. the findings provided that, book value and earnings to be more informative after the post-adoption of ifrs. also, palea (2014) examined the value relevance of different financial statements in italian firms under gaap and ifrs. the report of their study showed that separate financial reports were value relevant because they both provided useful information to the capital market. contrary to expectations, the findings indicated that reporting under ifrs to have less incremental information content than italian gaap. using bursa malaysia, kwong (2010) examined preand post-adoption of ifrs for the period of 1993 to 2007 using the balance sheet and income statements. overall, ifrs was more value relevant than gaap for investors‟ decision-making and book value, and earnings were significantly valued relevant in the old regime which is consistent with kadri et al. (2009). in contrast, kwong (2010) found that earnings had greater value relevance under ifrs than book value under bursa malaysia. prather-kinsey (2006) measured two different capital markets using earnings announcement (johannesburg stock exchange (jse), south africa & bolsa mexicana de valores (bmv) stock, mexico), testing the association between book value and earnings with firm market value. he reports that book values were value relevant in both markets, with the significant positive association between earnings or equity values and market value in the published financial statements in the two markets. there was also immediate significant increase in earnings announcements in the jse. khanagha (2011) adopted two periods of accounting information using samples of the adx under preand post-ifrs adoption to determine the value relevance of accounting variables. two empirical (models) approaches were employed for the study portfolio: return approach and regression-variations approach. the assumption of the adoption of the two methods is that they will offer different viewpoints on the issue of value relevance of accounting information in the adx. the study adopted 17 entities that are listed on the adx for the samples of the survey periods of 2001-2008 with 136 firm-year observations for eight years using regression-variation approach; while the portfolio approach employed 119 firm-year observations for seven years. the results obtained from the two methods provide evidence that the portfolio approach has more information content under the adx capital market before adoption. similarly, a decline in value relevance of accounting measures after the adoption of ifrs was noticed when the two approaches were combined. this combined results showed that there was no improvement on value relevance after the enactment of the ifrs. this concurs with francis and schipper (1999) that portfolio approach measures relevance more than the explained variation test. several studies on the value relevance of accounting information were conducted in nigeria using different perspectives. mohammed and lode (2015) analysed the value relevance of assets and liabilities on explaining the market value in the nigerian stock market from 2009 to 2013(five years) for the pre-and post-adoption of ifrs. the report of the study provides evidence of an increase in value relevance of accounting information after the adoption of ifrs. similarly, omokhudu and ibadin (2015) study was related to earnings, cash flows and dividend from 1994 to 2013(ten years). the findings show that earnings, cash flows, and dividend were significantly associated with stock prices, but found book value not to be statistically significant. furthermore, the study of uthman and abdul-baki (2014) related to the extent of finance theory on the timing of information among nigerian firms. the study measured ifrs disclosure and fair value valuation of economic events. the study findings revealed that there is a significant relationship between ifrs and finance measurement of information. they conclude that ifrs enhanced value relevance of accounting information in nigeria. this present study differs with other studies in nigeria in the sense that, they based their research findings on the book value, earnings, and cash flows. consequently, the results of the survey were concluded base on the adjusted r 2 , consistent with (ball et al., 2000; graham et al., 2000). even though mohammed and lode (2015) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 1-9 4 conducted a study on assets and liabilities in nigeria, and measured value relevance based on the adjusted r 2 . this study uses selected assets and liabilities that uses adjusted r 2 for the value relevance with an additional test from 1 cramer (1987) statistics to determine the explanatory power and significant statistics of the adjusted r 2 . 3. data and methodology 3.1. sample description to determine the value relevance of accounting information, the study generates data derived from 2009 to 2013 from nigerian listed firms. the periods were petitioned into two as pre-ifrs(2009-2011) and post-ifrs adoption (2012-2013) to observe whether there is an increase in value relevance of accounting information. two sources for data collection were used, first for non-financial firms data was collected from thomson reuters datastream and secondly, financial firms data was collected from bankscope data stream. all companies that have been reporting ifrs in nigeria and listed in the nigerian stock market were hand picked for the study. table 1 has the number of samples for the for the study. the first column (column 1) presents cross-sectional years employed for the survey, with 126 samples. the second column (column 2) is the number of observation of 630, 378 and 273-year observations for pooled samples, pre-and post-adoption respectively. the third column (column 3) is the samples for the non-financial firms present 70 companies for pooled, pre-and post-adoption. the fourth column(column 4) is the 350 observation for pooled data and 210 and 140 for the pre-and post-adoption of ifrs respectively. the fifth column(column 5) is the sample of financial firms in the study that 56 for pooled and preand post-adoption of ifrs. last is six column(column 6) that has an observation of 280, 16 and 112 for the pooled, pre-and post-adoption of ifrs. table-1. number of firms 2009-2013 year column1 samples column2 observ column 3 non-financials column 4 observ column 5 financials column 6 observation pooled samples 2009-2013 2009-2013 126 630 70 350 56 280 pre-ifrs 2009-2011 2009 126 378 70 210 56 168 2010 126 378 2011 126 378 post-ifrs 2012-2013 2012 126 252 70 140 56 112 2013 126 252 source: nse 2013 3.2. methodology and models most often value relevance models are measured by regressing stock prices and accounting disclosures (liu et al., 2012). according to lang et al. (2006) accounting data are expected to be more useful if they show a higher association with market value. the stock price is collected three (3) months after the end of fiscal year as the required by the nse for announcement date. a test for value relevance for the two the period is conducted with the r 2 as in the equation 1a using ohlson (1995) model. price model is reported to have more advantages over return models because the model anticipate accounting earnings components and at the beginning of stock price all anticipated are incorporated (chen et al., 2001). in contrast, kothari and zimmerman (1995) stated that price model produces unbiased coefficients in earnings because prices reveal total earnings information effect. the significant test to compare the differences between r 2 of the two periods was done with 2 cramer (1987) then the test of value relevance is conducted with the r2 from eq. (1) based on ohlson (1995) framework. r2 of two consecutive periods are then compared with cramer (1987). 1a and 1b 1c 1d 1h 1i where = value of the firm. = current assets for firm i at the end of year t = fixed assets for firm i at the end of year t = current liabilities for firm i at the end of year t =non-current liabilities for firm i at the end of year t = audit as dummy variable “1” for firms that uses audit „4” and „0‟ otherwise. all variables are deflated by the total number of outstanding shares 1 to determine the statistical significance of adjusted r2 2 statistical comparisons are based on the expectation and variance of r2 as derived in cramer (1987). z-statistics as follows: √ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 1-9 5 4. discussion of results table 2 provides the result of yearly cross-sectional regression data of model 1, of share price on current assets, fixed assets, current liabilities and non-current liabilities. ordinary least square (ols) estimation that has commonly been used in value relevance studies is employed to calculate the coefficients estimates. the adjusted r 2 in table 2 range from 16.19% in 2011 to 22.48% in 2012 with an average mean of 21%. the coefficients of ca, fa, and aud are positive and significant in each year with a p<0.05% expect in the year 2010 with ca significant level of p<0.10%. furthermore, variables cl and ncl have a significant negative level as expected with the p<0.05%. the diagnostic test was conducted in the state include, (i) multicollinearity is appraised by variance inflation factors(vif). the vif provide no evidence of multicollinearity issue in the model, and (ii) white (1980) test on heteroscedasticity is found to be significant in some period and not significant in other periods. however, that has been taken care by robust standard error. table-2.yearly cross-sectional regression of price on selected assets and liabilities note: p=price per share for firm i at the end of the year t. ca=current asset for firm i at the end of the year t. fa=fixed asset for firm i at the end of the year t. cl=current liabilities for firm i at the end of the year t. ncl=non-current liabilities for firm i at the end of the year t. aud= aud = auditors as dummy variable “1” for “big 4” auditors and “0” otherwise. all variables are deflated by the total number of outstanding shares. β= coefficient of the explanatory variables. white‟s heteroscedasticityconsistent variances and standard error significant level of p<1%, 5%, & 10%. r2=adjusted r2 within the panel regression. all p-values are estimated based on the white (1980) corrected error for heteroscedasticity table 3 was divided into two panels (panel a and panel b). panel a presents pooled data for all the variables and data for the pre-and post-adoption of ifrs. the panel also has the pooled data for ca and fa and also pre-and post-adoption of ifrs. panel b provides the regression analysis of cl and nlc pooled data and pre-and postadoption of ifrs. panel a data is the regression analysis of pooled data that utilises all the observation of 630 from 126 firms for the before and after the adoption of all variables. the panel also provides observations of 378 for the data before the adoption and 252 after the adoption of ifrs. the value relevance of accounting information has shown to improve in the periods after adoption for the pooled data and ca, fa, (total adjusted r2 before=18.77% and after=22.11% for pooled data, ca before=5.48% and after=7.96%, fa before=4.83% and after=6.03%) in the panel b presents 630 observations from 126 firms for the pooled data of ncl and cl. the panel also provides observations of 378 for the data before the adoption and 252 after the adoption of ifrs. however, the variable ncl provides a greater value relevance of accounting information after the adoption (before= 4.64% and after=4.74%). however, cl presents a decline in the value relevance of accounting information (adjusted r 2 before=3.56% and after=3.45%). the study compares the adjusted r 2 of 2009 and 2011 with that of 2012and 2013 to examine whether there is more value relevance of accounting information after the adoption. using 3 cramer‟s (1987) z statistic test, there is no evidence of significant statistical differences between pre-and post-adoption (panel a and b, the z value preand post-adoption, pooled data=0.2823, individual variables ca=0.04902, fa=0.04901, cl=0.048803, and ncl=0.48803). even though the results of adjusted r 2 provide evidence of increase between pre-and postadoption of ifrs but no evidence the r 2 between the two periods is statistically different. the last columns in the panel b, last three columns in the panel b show the incremental explanatory power of value relevance of each of the variables (ca, fa, cl, ncl) together with the common explanatory power. the variable ca total variant in stock prices explained and increase from 13.29% at the period before to 14.5% in the period after and (fa before= 13.94% and, after= 16.03%, cl before 15.32% and after= 18.66%, ncl before=14.13% and after=17.37%). the results presented in the column suggest an increase in value relevance, but the cramer‟s z provides no statistical significance difference between the r 2 . the findings of the study need to be interpreted with care; this is because firms that did not provide data from 2009 to 2013 are excluded from the survey. the study also uses three years before and two years after the adoptions as the number of samples are not equal, with a deficiency of 1 year after the adoption. furthermore, unlike graham et al. (2000) their study measured adjusted r2 for only one year within four quarters for 1997 and 3 the z values in the model did not provide and significant value. p is not significant in all the variables  measure α0 β1 β2 β3 β3 β4 r 2 coeff 0.3026 0.0802 0.0047 -0.0021 -0.2345 0.6155 0.2097 t-value 1.13 3.28 10.69 -2.65 -3.17 1.98 p-value 0.261 0.001 0.000 0.009 0.002 0.050 vif 1.15 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.11 white 0.0204 0.3652 0.0002 0.2121 0.2131 coeff 0.4733 0.0756 0.0013 -0.0008 -0.2221 0.6492 0.2294 t-value 1.66 3.99 4.77 -2.65 -3.87 1.98 p-value 0.100 0.000 0.000 0.009 0.000 0.050 vif 1.01 1 1.03 1.02 1.03 white 0.000 0.023 0.002 0.453 0.000 coeff 0.6417 0.0465 0.0025 -0.0003 -0.1367 0.5994 0.1619 t-value 2.08 1.83 4.23 -0.97 -1.77 1.74 p-value 0.039 0.070 0.000 0.335 0.079 0.085 vif 1.110 1.020 1.070 1.020 1.210 white 0.000 0.213 0.654 0.324 0.654 coeff 0.6969 0.0591 0.0055 -0.0025 -0.1635 0.5354 0.2248 t-value 2.29 3.59 7.4 -3.83 -3.29 1.58 p-value 0.024 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.118 vif 1.200 1.300 1.020 1.020 1.010 white 0.054 0.000 0.235 0.243 0.068 coeff 0.738986 0.0646 0.0046 -0.0024 -0.1791 0.7109 0.2236 t-value 2.6 2.54 6.11 -2.84 -2.34 2.23 p-value 0.010 0.012 0.000 0.005 0.021 0.028 vif 1.010 1.000 1.020 1.020 1.220 white 0.355 0.037 0.088 0.765 0.254 model1 1a pit = α0+ β1cait+ β2fait+ β3clit+ β4nclit+ β4audit+µit 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 1-9 6 1998. this study will conclude that nigerian, adoption of ifrs had a marginal improvement in value relevance of accounting information from 2009 to 2013. another evidence, liu et al. (2012) reported that results from adopting ifrs often provides support for the differences on the relevance of accounting information, so also, when a new standard is applied to the same accounting regulations. table-3. stock price models panel a: pooled regression results of selected assets and liabilities ***significant level 1% **significant level 5% * significant level 10% 1 price regression: sp= α1 + β1cait + β2fait + β3clit + β4nclit + β5audit+µit sp= β1cait + β5audit+µit sp= β2fait t + β5audit+µit variable definitions for table 15: sp= share price of firm three months after the year end t. ca=current assets per share of firm i at the end of fiscal year t. fa=fixed assets for firm i at the end of fiscal year t. cl=current liabilities per share of firm i at the end of fiscal year t. ncl=non-current assets for firm i at the end of fiscal year t. aud = auditors as dummy variable “1” for “big 4” auditors and “0” otherwise. β= coefficient of the explanatory variables. r2=adjusted r2 within the panel regression. cramer (1987) is for the statistical difference in adjusted r2 between pre-and post-adoption of ifrs from table lists p-values. all p-values are estimated based on the white (1980) corrected error for heteroscedasticity table-3. continued b: pooled regression results of selected assets and liabilities ***significant level 1% **significant level 5% * significant level 10% 1 price regression: sp= α1 + β1cait + β2fait + β3clit + β4nclit + β5audit+µit sp= β1clit + β5audit+µit sp= β2nclit t + β5audit+µit variable definitions for table 15: sp= share price of firm three months after the year end t. ca=current assets per share of firm i at the end of fiscal year t. fa=fixed assets for firm i at the end of fiscal year t. cl=current liabilities per share of firm i at the end of fiscal year t. ncl=non-current assets for firm i at the end of fiscal year t. aud = auditors as dummy variable “1” for “big 4” auditors and “0” otherwise. β= coefficient of the explanatory variables. r2=adjusted r2 within the panel regression. cramer (1987) is for the statistical difference in adjusted r2 between pre-and post-adoption of ifrs from table lists p-values. all p-values are estimated based on the white (1980) corrected error for heteroscedasticity 5. robust test to find whether the value relevance of accounting information is as a result of non-financial or financial firms. we separate the firms into two for non-financial and financials in table 4 and table 5. 5.1. regression for non-financial firms the result in table 4 presents regression result of non-financial companies for the selected assets and liabilities. the coefficient of estimates for the pooled data for ca and fa are positively significant, and cl and ncl are negatively significant, all the variables ca, fa, cl and ncl have a significant level of associations p<0.001% with the stock price for the pooled data. the results of before and after the adoption present similar results expect ncl that does not provide any significant level of association with stock prices before and after the adoption of ifrs. the results from the regression provide evidence of increase value relevance of accounting information from the increased adjusted r 2 provided in the table (adjusted r 2 before=21.49% and after=24.19%). supporting the pooled data of having higher adjusted r 2 after the adoption of ifrs. the cramer z statistics shows no statistically significant difference between the two periods equally. 5.2. regression of financial firms the result in table 5 presents regression result of non-financial firms for the selected assets and liabilities. the coefficient of estimates for the pooled data for ca and fa are positively significant, and α1 β 1 β2 β3 β4 β5 r2 β 1 β5 r2 β 2 β5 r2 coef 0.5823 0.0596 0.0026 -0.0008 -0.1746 0.6394 0.1903 0.26704 0.831783 0.0545 0.0032 0.8319 0.0484 tvalue 4.54 5.51 3.75 -2.83 -5.33 4.39 3.61 5.44 4.24 5.45 p-value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.005 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 coef 0.4775 0.0608 0.0022 -0.0006 -0.1789 0.6407 0.1877 0.0022 0.8385 0.0548 0.0028 0.8429 0.0483 tvalue 2.9 3.65 3.95 -2.12 -3.54 3.4 4.84 4.19 4.58 4.24 p-value 0.004 0.000 0.000 0.034 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 coef 0.7199 0.061 0.0051 -0.0025 -0.1691 0.6232 0.2211 0.0087 0.8027 0.0796 0.0053 0.8671 0.0603 tvalue 3.51 4.41 10.21 -4.64 -4.05 2.71 3.83 3.41 5.28 2.61 p-value 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.007 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.010 0.2823 0 .49202 0.49601 price 1 1b: α1 + β1cait + β2fait + β3clit + β4nclit + β5audit 1c: β1cait + β5audit 1d: β2fait + β5audit pooled data 2009-2013 pre-adoption 2009-2011 post-adoption 2012-2013 cram z statistic price 1 β 3 β5 r 2 β 4 β5 r 2 ca r 2 fa r 2 cl r 2 ncl r 2 comm coef -0.0003 0.8481 0.0346 0.0057 0.844 0.0433 0.1358 0.1419 0.1557 0.0147 0.5804 tvalue 3.58 5.52 5.57 5.5 p-value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 coef -0.0033 0.8543 0.0356 0.0356 0.0052 0.0464 0.1329 0.1394 0.1532 0.1413 0.5668 tvalue -5.87 4.26 6.94 4.24 p-value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 coef -0.0035 0.8378 0.0345 0.0147 0.833 0.0474 0.1415 0.1603 0.1866 0.1737 0.6621 tvalue -1.57 3.51 5.06 3.51 p-value 0.117 0.001 0.000 0.000   0.48803 0.48803 1h: β3clit + β5audit 1i: β3nclit + β5audit incremental pooled data pre-adoption 2009-2011 post_adoption 2012-2013 cramer-test(p-value) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 1-9 7 cl and ncl are negatively significant, all the variables ca, fa, cl and ncl have a significant level of p<0.001% with the stock price for the pooled data. table-4. price regression model 1 non-financial selected assets and liabilities price 1 1f: α0 + β1cait + β2fait + β3clit + β4nclit + β5audit α1 β1 β2 β3 β4 β5 r 2 pooled data 2009-2013 coef 1.2631 0.0569 0.0020 -0.0010 -0.1669 0.3206 0.2070 tvalue 4.98 7.08 3.54 -3.45 -6.85 1.2 p-value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.230 pre-adoption 2009-2011 coef 0.0651 0.0015 0.0009 -0.1921 -0.3986 1.0620 0.2149 tvalue 6.23 3.52 3.84 -6.07 1.13 3.14 p-value 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.261 0.002 post-adoption-2012-2013 coef 0.0516 0.0040 0.0026 -0.1407 -0.1789 1.5302 0.2419 tvalue 4.33 8.01 5.85 -3.93 0.45 4.09 p-value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.654 0.000 cramer-test(p-value) 0.4880 ***significant level 1% **significant level 5% * significant level 10% 1 price regression: sp= α0 + β1cait + β2fait + β3clit + β4nclit + β5audit+µit variable definitions for table 3: sp= share price of firm three months after the year end t. ca=current assets per share of firm i at the end of fiscal year t. fa=fixed assets for firm i at the end of fiscal year t. cl=current liabilities per share of firm i at the end of fiscal year t. ncl=non-current assets for firm i at the end of fiscal year t. aud = auditors as dummy variable “1” for “big 4” auditors and “0” otherwise. β= coefficient of the explanatory variables. r2=adjusted r2 within the panel regression. cramer (1987) is for the statistical difference in adjusted r2 between pre-and post-adoption of ifrs from table lists p-values. all p-values are estimated based on the white (1980) corrected error for heteroscedasticity all variables before the adoption of ifrs present similar results expect aud with p<0.01% significant level. after the adoption of ifrs fa and ncl do not provide any significant level of association. the results from the regression provide evidence of increased value relevance of accounting information from the lower adjusted r 2 in the before ifrs adoption (adjusted r 2 before=23.80% and after=24.89%). the cramer z statistics shows no statistically significant difference between the two periods. this could be attributed to non-use of fa and ncl by banks for investments. also, banking sectors invest mostly in financial assets than non-financial assets. table-5. price regression model 1 financial selected assets and liabilities price 1 1a: sp=α1 + β1cait + β2fait + β3clit + β4nclit + β5audit α1 β1 β2 β3 β4 β5 r 2 pooled data 2009-2013 coef 0.0605 0.0495 0.5006 -0.0939 -0.1573 0.4200 0.2253 tvalue 0.49 3.88 7.51 -6.09 -3.97 2.93 p-value 0.627 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.004 pre-adoption 2009-2011 coef -0.0477 0.4690 0.0838 -0.1519 -0.3918 -0.0354 0.2380 tvalue -3.92 6.43 6.91 -3.9 -2.22 -0.23 p-value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.028 0.821 post-adoption-2012-2013 coef 0.1502 0.6365 0.5047 -0.4461 -0.3994 0.1820 0.2489 tvalue 1.78 5.18 1.6 -1.75 -1.64 0.88 p-value 0.078 0.000 0.114 0.083 0.105 0.378 cramer-test(p-value) 0.45620 ***significant level 1% **significant level 5% * significant level 10% 1 price regression: sp= α0 + β1cait + β2fait + β3clit + β4nclit + β5audit+µit variable definitions for table 4: sp= share price of firm three months after the year end t. ca=current assets per share of firm i at the end of fiscal year t. fa=fixed assets for firm i at the end of fiscal year t. cl=current liabilities per share of firm i at the end of fiscal year t. ncl=non-current assets for firm i at the end of fiscal year t. aud = auditors as dummy variable “1” for “big 4” auditors and “0” otherwise. β= coefficient of the explanatory variables. r2=adjusted r2 within the panel regression. cramer (1987) is for the statistical difference in adjusted r2 between pre-and post-adoption of ifrs from table lists p-values. all p-values are estimated based on the white (1980) corrected error for heteroscedasticity. 6. conclusions before 2012 nigerian firms have been reporting financial reporting based on sas as domestic accounting reporting. although, banks and multinationals companies were making two reports based on sas and ifrs because of their link with international firms. the law of the country at the period all firms should prepare their financial report based on the sas and company and allied matters act of 1990 (cama, 1990) however, from 2012 the nigerian financial reporting council (frc) of nigeria mandated all firms listed in the nigerian stock market to prepare their financial report based on ifrs. the financial crisis of 2008, even though it was a global issue but nigerian stock market was considerably heating. the failure of the market in the period has made some firms in the capital market to either close down or merge with others. as a result of the turmoil, the central bank nigerian (cbn) issued a bailout to the banks in the period amounting to usd3.3 billion in 2009. therefore, this study addresses whether a change in accounting reporting in nigeria has any effect on the value relevance of accounting information. the result of the study presents an increase in value relevance of accounting information after the adoption of ifrs. the results of non-financial firms provide an increase in value relevance after the adoption of ifrs. an increase in value relevance in financial firms is also noticed in the financial firms. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 1-9 8 the cramer z test for statistical significant provide no significance differences between the two periods all the models. 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http://doi.org/10.1016/j.intaccaudtax.2014.02.002 http://doi.org/10.1016/s2212-5671(15)01435-5 http://www.vanguarngr.comd/2013/12/ http://doi.org/10.1016/j.intacc.2006.04.007 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 3, 205-207, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 205 discussion on self adjustment method of sports for psychological health zhao hua-sun1 1 instructors, department of police training, liaoning police academy, liaoning province, china abstract with the aggravation of the social competition, the mental health problems brought by the pressure have a great impact on people's life quality. physical education as the main means to promote human physical health can also play an effective role in the human body's psychological health. this article mainly began from the role of physical education for promoting mental health of the human body, through the studying of the self-regulating methods for the psychological health to provide a way of self-regulation for human mental health. keywords: psychological health, pe, self-regulating, method, participation, promotion,. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 206 2. promoting effect of physical education on mental health of people ............................................................................. 206 3. sports self regulating method .......................................................................................................................................... 206 4. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 207 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 207 citation | zhao hua-sun (2016). discussion on self adjustment method of sports for psychological health. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(3): 205-207. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.205.207 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 21 march 2016/ revised: 14 april 2016/ accepted: 18 april 2016/ published: 22 april 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zhao%20hua-sun http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.205.207 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 205-207 206 1. introduction in today's society, the competition of human in society is becoming more and more serious. especially in china, the traditional thinking of the utilitarianism for thousands of years is serious. it can be said that from the beginning of the birth, the competition will be accompanied by life, but this kind of competition consciousness and competition environment cannot change in short term. so the intrigues occur from time to time in the process of competition and the trust between people is declining, which led to all kinds of psychological problems have occurred from time to time in the process of competition. with the continuous development of society, competition intensified and psychological problems caused by the competition has no age limited, psychological problems caused by competition which leading to various events happened in all ages, therefore adjust psychological problems has become an important task in our country. as is known to all, it is no doubt that sports as a kind of human body activities has a great role in promoting body health, then, the promotion of sports to human mental health has also been recognized by the public. but according to the effect of sports on mental health and how to establish sports selfregulating and controlling methods are rarely studied, and this is what people demand when they are out of school physical education which only a short time in life .so, this paper puts forward the self-regulation and control method of physical education based on the study of the effect of physical education on human mental health, and hoped to improve the overall improvement of mental health in our country. 2. promoting effect of physical education on mental health of people 2.1. sports on the promotion of social communication it is because of social intrigues; the relationship between people gradually alienated, and then limits people's social communication ability. however, today's society is a cooperative society, although people are wary, but must be effective collaboration, so the social communication ability is particularly important. sports provide a platform for the exchange and promotion of communication. people in the process of participation in sports, is bound to exchange or contact with other people in a certain space and environment (gao, 1990) and this must greatly increases the opportunity to communicate with other people, and promote the interpersonal development of human. for example, by taking part in the collective activities, we can recognize the people who share the same interests, a friendly exchanging and competition on the sports field. this process is not only to allow them to get the concept of selfperception, but also to get to know more friends and let the mood to pleasure. 2.2. the adjustment of sports to the bad mood feelings and emotions are a feedback and experience to the objective reality of body. mental health requires people to be able to do the appropriate regulation of their emotions and emotions according to the actual situation. but because people who lack a necessary means to vent their grievances, then all kinds of bad feelings continue to accumulate and gradually produced biased, distorted mental state, and impact on human health, or even cause serious consequences. such as ma jiajue case, the grand event is due to be laughed at by his classmates, and can not correctly deal with their feelings, then go to the extreme revenge (gao, 1990). behind a series of events, chasing the tracing ability can found who cannot handle their emotion, then format the psychological problems. one of the most obvious functions of sports is to regulate the nerve center of the brain and can transfer the concentration from the negative state of mind participating in the sport can move and vent out the unpleasant emotional quickly, make the inner state of people to be soothing, help people build a positive, stable and optimistic attitude. 2.3. the relieve of sport to the mental fatigue in the state of fatigue, people's mental state will produce negative mind, which is not conducive to the shaping and cultivation of mental health. the narrow sense of fatigue refers to the body fatigue, the generalized fatigue also include mental fatigue. only when the individual psychological pressure is too large, this will make people feel the spirit fatigue. it is clear that both the physical fatigue and mental fatigue have no benefit to people. a person who is in a state of fatigue will produce a depressive mood, a solitary and lazy mental state and a depressed will, which will directly affect academic achievement. through participation in physical exercise, such as jogging, walking or some other aerobic exercise can relieve physical and mental fatigue. a large number of medical research proof that the human body in exercise process can produce a kind of promote pleasurable thing called the endorphin, which can relieved the anxiety. so, the body movement can help people to eliminate fatigue is also an effective way to cultivate healthy psychology. 3. sports self regulating method 3.1. choose appropriate sports items sports have a variety of item, but for personally, it is not suitable to participate all, even the very love project is not necessarily suitable for participation. each person's body structure, muscle type is different; its physical quality is also different. different sports put forward different requirements for physical quality of people (yao, 2016). therefore, in the choice of sports, the individual can accord to their own situation to determine suitable sports. of course, we also join the unsuitable sports project, but cannot experience the success in the not suitable sports project for a long time will be directly affect the psychological too. 3.2. cultivating sports interest sports interest is the direct motive of sports participation, if there is no interest as a guarantee, participation motivation will fall. how to train the sports interest? first of all, choose their sports. as has been said above, suitable sports items allow participants to enjoy the joy of success, and willing to invest in the project; secondly, by watching the related sports events, let the wonderful events attract us and through the example demonstration to improve participation interest; thirdly, choose effective training methods. effective training can effectively improve the level asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 205-207 207 of exercise. the deeper sports level, the higher understanding of the sports project, and then become more involved in the related activities. 3.3. excavate the beauty of sports beauty is the goal that human beings have been pursuing since ancient times. no matter what kind of things, once connecting with beauty, will get people's love and pursuit, the same is true for sports. in fact, no matter what kind of sports events, this has a close relationship with beauty. for example, long time engaged in sports, the body will become more symmetrical; this is a kind of physical beauty. in addition, often engaged in sports, looks more young, this is a kind of beauty. while wearing clothing when engage in sports and give people a full of youthful spirit beauty. in a word, there is infinite beauty in sport. sports participants, once engaged in sports and found the beauty of sport, will be more involved in sports. 3.4. dilute athletics, strengthen the entertainment in the last century, our country has developed competitive sports with the strength of the whole nation and has achieved remarkable results. after twenty-first century, under the drive of competitive sports, mass sports have made great development. the purposes of sports gradually change from getting gold to health promotion. the transformation from the movement to the activities has also led to the transformation of sports to the entertainment. if winning is the sole purpose for sports participants, the motivation of participate in sports has changed. if competition has become the main, the fail will also impact on people's psychology. therefore, the competition should be used as an auxiliary for entertainment; its purpose is to promote the entertainment. however, it is not completely abandon the competition, or sports activities cannot live longer. therefore, in the sports movement, the participants should play down the athletics firstly and taking the entertainment for body and mind as the main objective of participation. 4. conclusion we all know that sports can improve the health of psychological. but, everything has two blades. when people take part in sports without procreate inanition, they also get frustrate. so when people join the sport, they must choose the appropriate sport item base on their interesting, and then find the beauty of this item. in addition, diluting athletics, strengthening the entertainment is the essence to avoid the frustration from the sports. all these are self adjustment method of sports for psychological health. references gao, h., 1990. on mental health education in physical education training. journal of education, 30(6): 254-255. yao, b., 2016. influence of physical education on mental health of college students. journal of zongshubaogao, 56(2): 56-57. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 4, 152-162, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 152 employee stock options: a new possibility at beximco pharmaceuticals limited naheem mahtab 1 1 lecturer, school of business, independent university, bangladesh, bashundhara, dhaka, bangladesh abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................. 153 2. literature review .................................................................................................................................................................... 154 3. research design ...................................................................................................................................................................... 156 4. questionnaire design .............................................................................................................................................................. 157 5. data collection ........................................................................................................................................................................ 157 6. limitations ............................................................................................................................................................................... 162 7. conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................................ 162 references .................................................................................................................................................................................... 162 employee stock option is an employee equity ownership plan that can include stock, stock options or what is often referred to as phantom stock. employee stock option plans have been popularized by the success realized by technology firms such as microsoft, cisco systems, and grameenphone in that the implementation of stock option plans has resulted in great personal wealth for the early employees of these companies. esops represent more as a mechanism whereby employees can generate a different source of income through their stock options. these plans represent a means for a given enterprise‘s various stakeholder groups to mutually benefit and generate lasting wealth, not only for the individuals associated with the company, but also for the region in which it is located. keywords: business assets, business performance, job performance, employee attitudes, employee stock options, external investment, organizational encouragement, firm profitability http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 152-162 153 1. introduction the provision for employee stock options helps attract and retain key or skilled employees. esop helps to creates provision for ownership mentality among employees. through this provision employees can recognize the valuation of their contribution. this provision increases the productiveness of company through the employee individual performance. employee stock option use as a potential exit strategy for owners and lower the expectation for a company pension plan. esop offer employee to have directly share in the success of the enterprise. potentially esop is helpful for significant tax savings upon share disposal. from the viewpoint of individual companies, the implementation of esop requires the attention of the following issues:  employee productivity;  employee attitude towards work;  employee performance;  company competitiveness;  firm profitability;  effects on business assets;  low cost business financing; and  succession planning. the key idea of ensuring a successful implementation of employee stock option is ensuring it has a firm wide effect. it may include only shares or a combination of the above mentioned form of equity. the successful implementation of such esop plans in the past has been significant but in today‘s world it is one that can guarantee a success. while implementing such plans special attention should be paid to the fact that it aligns with company mission and vision and employee needs and satisfaction. a company‘s strategy culture and management style dictates the way in which such esop plans should be implemented. this may seem like rather an oversimplified approach but decisions pertaining to establishing the esop should also be considered in parallel. firm‘s which have a need to attract, retain employees or restrict cash employment options are better suited for esop than firms which just which to consider esop as just an alternative to employee pension schemes, or use it as a tool for liquidity for current ownership. 1.1. problem statement employee stock option is common practice for many corporations, when negotiating an employment contract with an administrative officer, to grant the employee an option to purchase a designated number of shares in the corporation which employees own. in general it increase work forcemeat of the employee when they own a portion of share of the organization. but some case some condition may apply while offering stock to the organizational employees. employee stock option is one of the favorable and acceptable ways to compensate executive and employees to level comparable to major corporations. it‘s one of the most acceptable ways to motivate employees by the organizations instant of offering other incentives. it helps to stimulate employee‘s effort for good work and reduce gap between owners and employees. in the prospects of bangladesh analyzing employee stock options is quite hard because only one organization offers this opportunity to the employee. so it‘s difficult to compare the data and analyzing these employee stock options. here i am going to examine bangladeshi companies, which provide these facilities‘ to their employee and also examine the companies which do not provide these facilities to their employee. why they do so? what is the benefit of providing these facilities to their employee? but the concuss level of information of this opportunity is not so high in bangladeshi organization. so it is quite difficult to make the concern about this opportunity that comes from organization. to investigate, employee stock option and its availability and the effect of business performance and effective use of assets alongside an external sharing investment effect on business performance and finding out the total relationship on business performance with this two shareholdings and also investigate the individual employee interest and their preference, and owners expectation from their employee if this offer to them. in general management turning employees into shareholders increase their loyalty to the organization and lead to improved performance also its offered as a potential significant financial rewards. 1.2. study objectives 1. to investigate how many companies are doing employee stock option. 2. to investigate why they need to do employee stock option. 3. to investigate who are the employee stock option recipient. 4. to investigate how much external investment comes from external shareholder of big company. 5. to investigate the profitability of big company in terms of employee stock option. 6. to investigate the business performance in terms of assets and liabilities in terms of employee stock option and external shareholders. 7. to investigate individual employee interest on employee stock option. 8. to investigate organizational encouragement to their employee on employee stock option. 9. to investigate employee attitude to their organization if they offer employee stock option. 10. to investigate employee overall performance on employee stock option. 11. to investigate stock holder interest to offering stock option to their employee. 12. to investigate individual motivation on employee stock option when they are offering employee stock option. 13. to investigate level of responsiveness to their organization if they offer employee stock option. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 152-162 154 2. literature review 2.1. independent variable 2.1.1. business assets integration of finance, planning, engineering, personnel and information system to effectively manage assets in terms of its cost is known as asset management. in order to achieve this asset management includes tools that includes systematic processes, tools and data that enables the firm and its manager to take informed and rationale decision with a view of achieving investor expectations. for this purpose asset management can also be referred to as a technique for resource planning and utilization and decisions associated with process are usually a reflection of policies, goals and objectives of an organization. performance indicators and benchmarks are established to measure the current and desired level of outcomes. asset management requires detailed attention to the effects of investing in various different kinds of assets at a structured level. a structured asset management system must provide information about both the short term and long-term impacts of allocating different amounts of resources among those activities. results from program delivery are monitored using performance measures to quantify the asset management program‘s effectiveness and to allow timely corrective actions as needed. these tools develop decision support information from quantitative data regarding the agency‘s resources, current condition of physical assets, and estimations of their current value. to manage assets effectively, the decision-making process must be aligned with the agency‘s goals, objectives, and policies. policies regarding engineering standards, economic development, community interaction, political issues, administration rules, and the agency‘s organizational structure influence asset management components. another study estimates the value of u.s. corporate investment in intangibles during 2000 to be around $1.0 trillion, making it roughly equal to the total investment of the non-financial sector in property, plant and equipment.‖ (bangs david, 1998) 2.1.2. business performance business performance refers to a performance measurement and management process which focuses on managing organizational performance throughout the firm through various multidisciplinary activities.business performance involves you understanding and acting on performance issues at each level of your organization, from individuals, teams and directorates, through to the organization itself. it is a systematic way of integrating various performance management techniques to investigate and study the effects of the various ways human resource within an organization work and perform and observe its resulting effects. however even in the hr field best practice emphasizes the contribution of people to the achievement of organization performance. in order to ensure that an effective decision making process is established it is very important to ensure proper identification of objectives and performance management tools. a research from ernst and young shows that when investors valuate companies they consider strategy execution to be the key factor in comparison to the strategy quality. in spite of this very little attention is paid to planning integration and implementation. (ankita, 2014) 2.1.3. job performance job performance is one of the most important independent variables and has been studies for a long decade. a study identified two types of employee behavior that are necessary for organizational effectiveness: task performance and contextual performance. a study focusing on factors that have an impact on job performance illustrated that these behaviors play a key role in shaping the organizational, social and psychological features which acts as a catalyst for performing tasks and activities. elizabeth (2012)task performance was defined as the effectiveness with which job incumbents perform activities that contribute to the organization‘s technical core. the results of this study reveal that transformational leadership, organizational justice, work engagement have direct effects on task, and contextual performance. transformational leadership, however, has indirect effect on task, and contextual performance through organizational justice, work engagement. if the effect of job performance on job satisfaction is insignificant firm action designed to increase job performance should not have a direct effect on job satisfaction and related outcomes like employee turnover. it‘s intuitive that effort and compensation are critical determinants for the viability of any employment situation. a contract needs to be individually rational both parties must expect to be better off by engaging in the work relationship. motivation acts a key factor in performance management and if the workforce is not motivated in the right manner it will lead to higher turnover and cost the firms expenses associated with turnover, negative morale and various other factors. a study has described motivation to be proactive in the sense of; in dealing with employees who are high performers, motivation is essential, otherwise their performance will decline or they will simply leave the job. (idris adamu and wan fauziahbt, 2011) 2.1.4. employee attitude employees, both directly interacting and indirectly interacting with the customers can have a major impact on the type and quality of customer service being delivered and this will have a major effect on the business performance. a non cooperating behavior from the employees will result in dissatisfaction from the customers and will cause the employees to act as a failure in identifying their needs. customers can prove to be a very big barrier to effective employee performance and particularly be a hindrance to employees possessing a negative attitude. an important study demonstrated that an individual satisfaction from their job becomes stable over time even though they switch between jobs. (lise and timothy, 2013) 2.2. dependent variable 2.2.1. employee stock option employee stock options (esos) are an important type of employee compensation in the usa. towards the late 1990s, esos outstanding at large corporations averaged 7% of total outstanding shares, with top executives holding approximately one-third of total esos. underlying the eso debate is the concern that the choice among alternative asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 152-162 155 financial accounting treatments have real economic consequences. opponents of expensing esos argue that deducting esos' cost from earnings conveys an impression of weaker financial results to investors and, under the assumption that investors fixate on reported earnings, could raise the firms‘ cost of financing and stifle corporate investment and innovation. there is also a concern that external parties, such as taxing authorities, might use changes in financial accounting treatment as a cue to alter regulatory and tax policy. issuance of eso‘s require two different accounting transactions. in the first transaction, the firm sells warrants to the employee for cash. this is a pure financing transaction, resulting in the generation of cash and an increase in the firm's equity capital. in the second transaction, the firm pays the cash to the employee as compensation for services rendered. this is a pure operating transaction, resulting in the subsequent use of resources and a corresponding charge to earnings. in accounting terms it is a reflection of an entry which results in an increase in contributed equity alongside a simultaneous entry depicting a decrease in reporting income of the firm from which it is subtracted. to see this point, consider two economically equivalent firms: firm a issues common stock warrants to investors for cash and then uses cash to pay for all production inputs. firm b uses esos to pay for all production inputs. firm a computes earnings as revenue received from the sale of the inputs less the purchase price of the inputs. assuming no expense for esos, firm b‘s earnings equal revenues. thus, earnings are very different across the two firms, yet both firms raise the same amount of capital and generate the same economic earnings. as with all barter transactions, determination of the fair value of the stock. exchange is an accounting issue. although option-pricing techniques (e.g., black scholes) are well developed, esos have features, such as vesting provisions, no transferability, and accelerated maturity when the holder terminates employment, that deviate from the assumptions underlying standard option pricing models for publicly traded options. esos are a key component of top executive compensation that serve useful contracting functions. however, the goal of accounting is not to distort financial performance to subsidize particular business activities. accounting should reflect the true costs of doing business, and labor acquired through eso grants is a real economic cost that firms should deduct from earnings as an expense. armed with clear information on operating costs, investors, creditors, boards of directors and regulators should be left to determine business practice. (wayne guay and kothari richad, 2003) 2.2.2. business performance and employee stock option in cases of executive pay, employee stock options have shown significant growth and has resulted in several debates because in many cases it may not be related to performance pay or employees performance levele, and be just a mere representation of executive awarding. employee stock options have become an integral part of ceo compensation packages in large american companies and about 30% of senior operating managers‘ pay. options and stock grants also constitute almost half of directors‘ remuneration(alfred rappaport, 1999). if markets are fully efficient and can perfectly infer to performance consequences of employee incentives, then an analysis of short run returns around the announcement of an employee stock option program would be an appropriate means to determine the relation between firm performance and option based incentives. but there is a conflict, if market is fully and immediately able to anticipate all of the performance consequences of a stock option plan, and expect that the announcement date reason for questioning whether stock prices immediately reflects options‘ full performance implications is that relatively little historical data guides investors about their expected performance consequences. it is essentially relying on a long window event study. this approach allows us to discern more of the total performance consequences of using option as their implications and results become incentives and firm performance to the extent that this relation is reflected during the announcement period. if market is perfectly efficient and if firms are constantly optimizing with respect to option based incentives then no statistical association should emerge between stock options and firms stock performance once researchers have controlled for the exogenous determinants of the optimal level of options. equity based incentives and firms performance held by top managers and ceo‘s, omission of unobservable in the performance regressions. after controlling for unobserved heterogeneity using a firm fixed effects framework, they find no significant associations between managerial holdings of equity incentives and firm performance.(stephen a and fernando, 2004) 2.2.3. business assets and employee stock option if businesses are largely owned by employees, customers etc. they become accountable to the various community needs the business caters to. the important way a business can give their employees a direct stake to the business‘s activities is through employee stock options. these employee stock options can be a part of their retirement packages and requires high level of liquidity. smaller businesses may be structured as worker-owned co-operatives or collectives, in which employees maintain various degrees of shared ownership and management(gates, 1998). financial institutions serve as a bridge to reduce the gap between socially-minded investors and community-based initiatives. this helps in providing financial and legal forms of ownership that distribute benefits and responsibilities of ownership both equitably and with accountability. this results in community accountable ownership thus giving growth to financial institutions which can provide assistance to people from all income levels resulting in the buildup of resilient local economies and reinvest back in the local community. (morrison, 1989) 2.2.4. job performance and employee stock option it is a difficult task to determine how managers and employees believe what will be the outcome of their compensation at rewards at the workplace. the key question that every manager needs to ask themselves is that whether compensation plan can act as an external motivator for employees or not. unfortunately, as author g. douglas jenkins, jr., has noted, most organizational studies to date—like the articles published—have tended ―to focus on the effects of variations in incentive conditions, and not on whether performance-based pay per se raises performance levels.‖ especially at the executive level, the compensation is more concerned with getting a share in the company‘s profit rather than the organizational performance. indeed, several studies over the last few decades asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 152-162 156 have found that when people are asked to guess what matters to their coworkers—or, in the case of managers, to their subordinates—they assume money heads the list. (alfie, 1993). 2.2.5. employee attitude and employee stock option employees with a positive attitude at the workplace will have a sense of belonging to their job given that they perceive that their job gives their satisfactory income and security of job. however if they perceive to have a negative effect it can pose a great threat to the organization performance. (dr douglas, 2002). they also found that, as a group, only the takeover related esos are associated with increased leverage. they finally concluded that esops provide, at best, only a short term boost to corporate performance hoven et al. (2007).firms have always used equity grants as sweetener not only to attract managers to their firms but to also make them think like stockholders. in particular employee option grants affect value per share because they affect current and future earnings and also because they have the potential for altering the number of shares outstandingcore and guay (2002). figure-1. conceptual framework 2.3. hypothesis business assets q1: how do business assets create opportunities to provide employee stock option? ho1:utilization of business assets does not provide opportunities to provide employee stock option. ha1:utilization of business assets provides opportunities to provide employee stock option. business performance q2: does employee stock option provision depend on business performance? ho2:employee stock option provision does not depend on business performance. ha2:employee stock option provision depends on business performance. job performance q3:how does employees job performance creates opportunities for them to avail employee stock option? ho3:employees job performance does not create opportunities for them to avail employee stock option. ha3:employees job performance creates opportunities for them to avail employee stock option. employee attitudes q4:does employee attitude towards their work and workplace influence employers to provide them with employee stock option? ho4:employee attitude towards their work and workplace does not influence employers to provide them with employee stock option. ha4:employee attitude towards their work and workplace influence employers to provide them with employee stock option. 3. research design in this report a formal research design has been used. this study is a structured précised way which represents the relationship between independent and dependent variable for testing hypothesis. understanding the investor‘s perception about issue of esop by the company was one of the key factors of this study. here communication study applies to do the questioner survey. because it‘s needed to communicate with different level of employee in different departments and understand their perception of this study. their trust, believe, attitude, and interest has significant impact on employee stock option. this study is about causal explanatory, it explains the relationship between dependent and independent variable as how employee stock options affect employee attitude. firms disclose specific information on employee stock option and remuneration. this study also explains range and scope, established the guide line of research and develop hypothesis. this research reflects the snapshot of on point of time. in this research 60 employees have been considered as the sample size. this study focuses on statistical study. this research design to test hypothesis quantitatively, it is require a good number of samples which reflected the population. this research occurred in actual environmental conditions. this option was chosen because we had to receive information from our sample on field and relationships in variables of our study were required to represent via mathematical models. participants‘ were aware of presence and knew the reason of being selected as sample. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 152-162 157 3.1. sampling 3.1.1. sample unit the basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in a population, i may draw conclusions about the entire population. it may be a person but it could also be any object of interest. sample unit of research is based on the employee working in the organizations. in order to gather information, participants had been asked to fill up questionnaires. the population for the current research was employee who working in beximco pharmaceuticals‘ ltd. bangladesh. in bangladesh, employee stock option is offered by only grameen phone ltd. this research is about the get the overall perception of other organizations employees. in particular, the research revealed that the sample consisted of more males than females and also most of them were corporate executives. 3.1.2. sample size sample size relates to how many people to pick for the research. in this research both male and female were picked of different ages, educational back ground and occupation. the sample size for this research was 60. 3.1.3. sample procedure this research utilized probability sampling technique that involved selecting participants randomly for questionnaires. two facts were considered to select the participants for the questionnaires. firstly, the sample members should be aware of the research topic. secondly, their interest of their organizations stock option for employee. sample member has been selected from different department of different organizations. information has been collected via questionnaire by meeting them in front of their institutions as well as at their home. a population is the total collection of elements about which tried to make some inferences. 4. questionnaire design the key variables in this research were measured by a self-report questionnaire. the first part of the instrument included demographic characteristics of gender, age, occupation and educational background. the rest of the questionnaire assessed the five variables in the research hypotheses. there were 31 numbers of questions excluding demographic questions in the questionnaire. every variable has different questions for each and each questionnaire introduces five points likert scale to each participants. the information had been collected about employee stock option from different participants from different department. the points are first one is strongly agree, second one is agree to some extent, third one is neutral, forth one is disagree to some extent and lastly fifth one is strongly disagree. the participants easily understand our rating scale and successfully completed the survey. business assets: by this variable we came to know that how employee stock options‘ recommendation affects the organizations assets and how employees are inspired by the recommendation. business performance: this has question about how business performance affected by the employee stock options. job performance: performance of job of an employee is important for an organizational success. so this variable address the condition of job performance if they are offered the employee stock option opportunity. my research question addresses the job performance of individual employees. employee attitude: every participant gave the good response on research questioner; our question is about their attitude toward organization and employee stock options. employee stock options: this variable informs us about the participants‘ future tendency on employee stock options and in questionnaire there are 5 questions about employee stock option. 5. data collection both primary and secondary data were collected. both methods used to do the research. there were live interviews of participants of different department of bpl and other organizations which fell in the primary data collection method. the primary data‗s of the research were mainly collected by questionnaires that were filled up by corporate employees and who engage in corporation. using data from other research fell in the secondary data collection method. the secondary data for this research was collected from articles, internet, and also from books. table-1. gender frequencies statistics gender n valid 60 missing 0 mean 1.20 median 1.00 mode 1 gender frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid male 48 80.0 80.0 80.0 female 12 20.0 20.0 100.0 total 60 100.0 100.0 in this research i did my survey on sixty people among them twelve are female consist of twenty percent and 48 are male consist of eighty percent. age: this sample data are collected from different age of people, among sixty people 17 of them are in 23-29 consist of 28.3 percent, 16 of them are in 30-36 consist of 26.7 percent, 10 of them asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 152-162 158 are in 39-43 consist of 16.7 percent, only 6 person is in between 44-50 consist of 10 percent, and 11 of them are 51 and above consist of 18.3 percent. different ages are given below: table-2. age frequency statistics age n valid 60 missing 0 mean 2.63 median 2.00 median 1 age frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid 23-29 17 28.3 28.3 28.3 30-36 16 26.7 26.7 55.0 39-43 10 16.7 16.7 71.7 44-50 6 10.0 10.0 81.7 51 and above 11 18.3 18.3 100.0 total 60 100.0 100.0 in this survey questioner set our lighter scale in five points and that is strongly agree (1), agree (2), neutral (3), disagree (4), and strongly disagree (5). 5.1. reliability reliability means the relation between the variable and the questions of the research. it basically shows that, how much the questions are reliable. reliability analysis is conducted when researchers have two or more questions that will be summed to determine a specific variable if the questions on the survey or items being tested have very high inter-correlations, the questions are considered to be measuring different dimensions of the same construct.  cronbach alpha value (should be between 0.5-0.6 which is sufficient, 0.7 and above is desirable)  if the value is too low, then look for ―item deleted‖ table 1. if cronbach‘s alpha is greater than 0.07 than the alpha value is desirable and it is highly reliable variable. 2. if cronbach‘s alpha is between 0.5-0.6 that the alpha value is sufficient and it is a reliable variable. 3. if cronbach‘s alpha is smaller than 0.5 than the alpha value is not acceptable and it is not reliable variable. internal consistency reliability is the accuracy or precision of a measuring instrument, which is the extent of unidimensionality, that is, the detailed items (questions) measure the same thing. the internal consistency reliability was assessed by calculating cronbach‘s a value. a commonly accepted rule of thumb for describing internal consistency using cronbach's alpha is as follows  α ≥ 0.9 excellent  0.7 ≤ α < 0.9 good  0.6 ≤ α < 0.7 acceptable or desirable  0.5 ≤ α < 0.6 poor or sufficient  α < 0.5 unacceptable table-3. business assets reliability summary n % cases valid 60 100.0 excluded a 0 .0 total 60 100.0 a. listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. reliability statistics cronbach's alpha n of items .771 6 according to cronbach‘s alpha if the reliability statistics is in 0.7≤0.9 this answer is acceptable. as the data above the value of the alpha is within the acceptable range as a result of which the hypothesis is taking the relationship between the two variables is accepted and null is rejected. here the result is 0.771 so it is good result. first in the reliability analysis of q1 to q6 for the variable ―business assets‖ table-4. business performance reliability summary. n % casesvalid 60 100.0 excluded a 0 .0 total 60 100.0 a. listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 152-162 159 reliability statistics cronbach's alpha n of items .914 7 here the reliability statistics is 0.914 which is in more than.09 so it‘s an excellent result. as the data above the value of the alpha is within the acceptable range as a result of which the hypothesis is taking the relationship between the two variables is accepted and null is rejected. this reliability analysis consist of question number q7 to q13 for the variable ―business performance‖ table-5. job performance reliability summary n % cases valid 60 100.0 excluded a 0 .0 total 60 100.0 a. listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. reliability statistics cronbach's alpha n of items .814 7 here the reliability statistics is 0.814 which is in between 0.7 to 0.9 so it‘s a good result. as the data above the value of the alpha is within the acceptable range as a result of which the hypothesis is taking the relationship between the two variables is accepted and null is rejected. this reliability analysis consist of question number q14 to q20 for the variable ―job performance‖ table-6. employee attitudes reliability summary n % cases valid 60 100.0 excluded a 0 .0 total 60 100.0 a. listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. reliability statistics: employee attitudes cronbach's alpha n of items .871 6 here the reliability statistics is 0.871 which is in between 0.7 to 0.9 so it‘s an good result. as the data above the value of the alpha is within the acceptable range as a result of which the hypothesis is taking the relationship between the two variables is accepted and null is rejected. this reliability analysis consist of question number q21 to q26 for the variable ―employee attitudes‖ table-8. employee stock option reliability summary n % cases valid 60 100.0 excluded a 0 .0 total 60 100.0 a. listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. reliability statistics cronbach's alpha n of items .787 5 here the reliability statistics is 0.787 which is also in between 0.7 to 0.9 so it is also good result. as the data above the value of the alpha is within the acceptable range as a result of which the hypothesis is taking the relationship between the two variables is accepted and null is rejected. this reliability analysis consist of question number q27 to q30 for the variable ―employee stock option‖ 5.2. correlation analysis: pearson’s correlation pearson‘s correlation is used to see the strength of relationship between variables. if significance or p≤ 0, then null hypotheses (h0) will be rejected and alternate one will be considered. calculations are done under ‗table 05‘. correlation is an effect size and so we can verbally describe the strength of the correlation using the guide that evans (1996) suggests for the absolute value of r. if there is a no stars in the result then the relationship is negative, if one stars is present then somehow correlated, if two stars is present it‘s a pretty good correlations, if three stats is present then it‘s a very good correlations.  .00-.19 ―very weak‖  .20-.39 ―weak‖  .40-.59 ―moderate‖ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 152-162 160  .60-.79 ―strong‖  .80-1.0 ―very strong‖ table-9. correlation between business assets (ba) and employee stock option (eso) correlations ba eso ba pearson correlation 1 .688 ** sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 60 60 eso pearson correlation .688 ** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 60 60 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). there is a correlations between the two variables at the significant level 0.01 the correlations value is 0.688** hence the hypothesis depicting there is a relations between the two variable business assets and employee stock option and alternate variable is accepted and null hypothesis is rejected. the interpretation result is 0.688** which is in between 0.60 to 0.79 so it refers strong relationship between this two variable. there is a correlations between the two variables at the significant level 0.01 the correlations value is 0.999** hence the hypothesis depicting there is a relations between the two variable business performance and employee stock option and alternate variable is accepted and null hypothesis is rejected. the interpretation result is 0.999** which is in between 0.80 to 1.0 so it refers very strong co relationship. table-10. correlation between business performance (bp) and employee stock option (eso) correlations bp eso bp pearson correlation 1 .999** sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 60 60 eso pearson correlation .999** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 60 60 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). table-11. correlation between job performance (jb) and employee stock option (eso) correlations jp eso jp pearson correlation 1 .688** sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 60 60 eso pearson correlation .688** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 60 60 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). there is a correlations between the two variables at the significant level 0.01 the correlations value is 0.688** hence the hypothesis depicting there is a relations between the two variable job performance and employee stock option and alternate variable is accepted and null hypothesis is rejected. the interpretation result is 0.688** which is in between 0.60 to 0.79 so it refers this relationship is strong. table-12. correlation between employee attitudes (ea) and employee stock option (eso) correlations ea eso ea pearson correlation 1 1.000** sig. (2-tailed) .999** n 60 60 eso pearson correlation 1.000** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .999** n 60 60 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). there is a correlations between the two variables at the significant level 0.01 the correlations value is 0.999** hence the hypothesis depicting there is a relations between the two variable employee attitudes and employee stock asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 152-162 161 option and alternate variable is accepted and null hypothesis is rejected. the interpretation result is 0.999** which is in between 0.80 to 1.0 so it refers this relationship is very strong. 5.3. nonparametric correlations 5.3.1. spearman’s correlation spearman‘s correlation is used to see whether there is any relationship among variables or not. if correlation coefficient or ρ (rho) ≠ 0 and significance or α (alpha) <0.05, there will be a relationship between variables. table-13. correlation between business assets (ba) and employee stock option (eso) correlations ba eso spearman's rho ba correlation coefficient 1.000 .811 ** sig. (2-tailed) . .000 n 60 60 eso correlation coefficient .811 ** 1.000 sig. (2-tailed) .000 . n 60 60 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). communications and cumulative satisfactions as correlations of 0.811** to each other at the significant level of 0.01, hence this shows very strong correlations. thus the result is more than 0.05 so null hypothesis should be rejected and 0.811** so there is a positive relationship between the variable (business assets and employee stock option). table-14. correlation between business performance (bp) and employee stock option (eso) correlations bp eso spearman's rho bp correlation coefficient 1.000 .688** sig. (2-tailed) . . n 60 60 eso correlation coefficient .688** 1.000 sig. (2-tailed) . . n 60 60 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). communications and cumulative satisfactions as correlations of 0.688** to each other at the significant level of 0.01, hence this shows very strong correlations. thus the result is more than 0.05 so null hypothesis should be rejected and 0.688** so there is a positive relationship between the variable (business performance and employee stock option). table-15. correlation between job performance (jp) and employee stock option (eso) correlations jp eso spearman's rho jp correlation coefficient 1.000 .811** sig. (2-tailed) . .000 n 60 60 eso correlation coefficient .811** 1.000 sig. (2-tailed) .000 . n 60 60 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). communications and cumulative satisfactions as correlations of 0.811** to each other at the significant level of 0.01, hence this shows very strong correlations. thus the result is more than 0.05 so null hypothesis should be rejected and 0.811** so there is a positive relationship between the variable (job performance and employee stock option). table-16. correlation between employee attitudes (ea) and employee stock option (eso) correlations ea eso spearman's rho ea correlation coefficient 1.000 .881** sig. (2-tailed) . . n 60 60 eso correlation coefficient .881** 1.000 sig. (2-tailed) . . n 60 60 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 152-162 162 communications and cumulative satisfactions as correlations of 0.881 to each other at the significant level of 0.01, hence this shows very strong correlations. thus the result is more than 0.05 so null hypothesis should be rejected and 0.881** so there is a positive relationship between the variable (employee attitudes and employee stock option). 5.3.2. regression analysis here r 2 values represent how much a dependent variable is explained by the independent variable and if p≤ 0, then null hypotheses (h0) will be rejected and alternate one will be considered. table-17. regression summary r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate .852 a .625 .425 .70328 r 2 (square) value represent that 0.625 or 62.5% of dependent variable is explained by the independent variables. thus null hypothesis is rejected. 6. limitations  it was quite difficult for me to explain the interviewer about my research topic, because use of it in pharmaceuticals company more over use of eso in our country is not popular. though it was difficult but i tried my level best to concern them about this topic. 7. conclusion eso plans are now the norm in multi-national companies and are becoming popular in many companies in other industries as part of an overall equity compensation strategy. esops are an invaluable tool for the modern enterprise. from long-time devotees, history dictates that a firm‘s employee can derive a long-term benefit from these plans as they enable the recruitment & retention of talented staff, foster an entrepreneurial environment and provide a mechanism for the alignment of interests between employers & employees. over time and in the wake of successful companies, these plans also tend to build sustainable wealth for employees and their communities. esops represent an opportunity for companies to establish a relative advantage in an increasingly competitive global marketplace. the flexibility available to a firm contemplating esop implementation is also an important factor, as these plans should be tailored in order to support the long-term strategy of the enterprise. while these plans typically come at a cost to both parties, be it dilution and out of pocket expenses for the employer or lower cash compensation and an illiquid investment for the employee, the overall benefits of such plans have been historically shown to outweigh the related costs for both stakeholder groups. references alfie, k., 1993. why incentive plans cannot work. boards, september. journal of accounting research, 38(2): 416-420. alfred rappaport, 1999. new thinking on how to link executive pay with performance. journal of accounting research, 40(3): 630-640. ankita, d., 2014. how should it be managed. assistant professor, lingaya‘s university. influence of performance management on manpower planning. journal of financial economics, 39(1): 237–269. bangs david, h., 1998. the business planning guide: creating a plan for success in your own business. the accounting review, 53(1): 112134. core, j. and w. guay, 2002. estimating the value of employee stock option portfolios and their sensitivities to price and volatility. journal of accounting research, 40(3): 613-630. dr douglas, k., 2002. research evidence on prevalence and effects of employee ownership. journal of financial economics, 32(2): 3–21. elizabeth, m., 2012. job satisfaction and employee turnover intention: what does organizational culture have to do with it? journal of accountingand economics, 34(1): 89–127. gates, j., 1998. the ownership solution: toward a shared capitalism for the 21st century. reading, ma: perseus books. hoven, m., r. joseph and l. weili, 2007. managerial turnover and esop performance. quarterly journal of business and economics, 46(1): 3-19. idris adamu, a. and w.y. wan fauziahbt, 2011. faculty of technology management and business, university tun hussein onn malaysia. does motivational factor influence organizational commitment and effectiveness? a review of literature, 18. quarterly journal of business and economics, 40(1): 20-30. lise, m.s. and a.j. timothy, 2013. employee attitudes and job satisfaction. quarterly journal of business and economics, 43(1): 20-30. morrison, r., 1989. we build the road as we travel: mondragon, a cooperative social system. gabriola island, bc: new society publishers. stephen a, h. and p. fernando, 2004. stock option incentives and firm performance. quarterly journal of business and economics, 46(1): 319. wayne guay, s.p. and s. kothari richad, 2003. accounting for employee stock optio. american economic review, 54(1): 45-57. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 2, 45-56, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 45 head of departments’ instructional supervisory role and teachers’ job performance: teachers’ perceptions simin ghavifekr 1* --mohammed sani ibrahim 2 1 senior lecturer, department of educational management, planning & policy, faculty of education. university of malaya, 50603 kuala lumpur, malaysia 2 senior research fellow, department of educational management, planning & policy, faculty of education. university of malaya, 50603 kuala lumpur, malaysia abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction .............................................................................................................................................................46 1.1. instructional supervisory and teacher‟s performance .......................................................................................47 2. statement of problem ..............................................................................................................................................47 3. theories and the conceptual framework .............................................................................................................48 4. research objectives ................................................................................................................................................49 5. methodology .............................................................................................................................................................49 5.1. research design .................................................................................................................................................49 5.2. sample and sampling procedure ........................................................................................................................49 5.3. instrument ...........................................................................................................................................................50 5.4. data collection procedure ..................................................................................................................................50 5.5. data analysis method ........................................................................................................................................50 6. findings ....................................................................................................................................................................50 this study examines the effect of instructional supervisory role of the head of departments on teachers‟ job performance. more specifically, the study was conducted to obtain an understanding on how the head of department supervisory role is perceived, and how it affects the instructional development and job performance of private secondary school teachers in private secondary schools in kuala lumpur, malaysia. data for this quantitative research was collected via the distribution of a questionnaire among 100 teachers from private secondary schools in kuala lumpur. the 5-likert-scale questionnaire was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. the findings of this study indicate that there is a significant relationship between teacher‟s perception on the instructional supervision role of the head of department and improving teachers‟ job performance from various aspects including teaching practices, professional competencies and motivation. all the findings have signify positive relationship on how the good qualities and roles of the head of department will instill difference towards better changes in achieving better job performance among teachers in the schools. in short, this study reveals that it is important for the head of departments in schools to play the role of instructional leader as it possesses good characteristics in enhancing better teaching and learning for both leaders and the subordinates. in this regard, both the head of departments and the teachers are able to develop and create a platform for teaching and learning, and this will also indirectly develop the teachers‟ teaching practices, competency and motivation. as a result, good leaders influence their subordinates and encourage them towards better job performance. keywords: instructional supervision, teacher‟s performance, teaching practices, professional competency, motivation, job performance, malaysia. contribution/originality finally, this study contributes in the existing literature by providing a detailed account on instructional leadership and supervisory as well as schools‟ head of departments role regarding teachers‟ job performance. this is a original study that was conducted to obtain a clearer understanding about teachers‟ perceptions on head of department‟s supervisory role. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 45-56 46 6.1. background of the respondents .........................................................................................................................50 6.2. reliability of the variables .................................................................................................................................51 6.3. correlation analysis ...........................................................................................................................................52 6.3.1. relationship between teaching practice, professional competency and motivation in improving teachers‟ job performance ...................................................................................................................................52 6.3.2. teachers‟ perception on how the head of departments‟ role as a supervisor contribute towards the development of teachers‟ teaching practices .....................................................................................................53 6.3.3. teachers‟ perceptions on how the head of departments‟ role as a supervisor enhances teachers‟ professional competencies ....................................................................................................................................54 6.3.4. teachers‟ perceptions on the head of departments‟ role as a supervisor and how it contributes towards teachers‟ motivation in their job performance ....................................................................................54 7. discussion .................................................................................................................................................................54 8. conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................55 9. recommendations ...................................................................................................................................................55 references ....................................................................................................................................................................56 1. introduction instructional supervision includes various roles and responsibilities that entail technical, professional and interpersonal aspects (weller and weller, 2002). it also includes strategies and actions to improve conditions for the teaching and learning process (daresh et al., 2000). for schools to be effective, they need to look for opportunities to increase the professional development and job performance of teachers for the betterment in managing the teaching and learning process, and this can be done through supervision (arong and ogbadu, 2010). hence, when taking on the responsibilities of a supervisor, the head of departments play an important role in promoting and developing the learning and professional growth of teachers. head of departments can be a major source of reliance and support for teachers when it comes to addressing issues and problems related to the teaching and learning process and instructional development. as such, it would be fitting to look into how the role of the head of departments as an instructional leader related to instructional supervision, will help teachers perform their jobs better. with the technological boom of the 21st century, school environments have become increasingly complex and diverse. children are expected to learn and acquire knowledge and skills that will help them obtain success in school and life. high learning standards are set for them to achieve educational success. this in turn has placed high demand on educational leaders. not only do they need to have knowledge on school management and finance, it is now imperative for them to develop instructional leadership skills to promote effective teaching and high level learning which comes with their ability to not only be able to recognize and assume shared responsibility for students‟ intellectual and educational development, but also their personal, social, emotional and physical development (hallinger and murphy, 1986; chan yuen and gurnam kaur, 2009). the issue of leadership at school level will always be brought up whenever there are issues related to the success or failure of an educational system, especially when it comes to instructional practices in schools and how they reflect educational policies (yukl, 2010). hussein mahmood (1993) said that leadership is of great interest to parents, administrators and policy makers and supporting this is when krug (1992) said that for schools to be effective, the quality of leadership plays an important role in it. school leadership is important as not only are they accountable for the school‟s academic performance, they play an important role towards realising the country‟s educational vision. if school leaders are unable to carry out their roles effectively, they will not be able to motivate the teachers or take advantage of their knowledge and experience, and this may affect their ability to motivate students to excel in their education (chan yuen and gurnam kaur, 2009). ponnusamy (2010) believes that school leadership greatly influences the teachers, who in turn have a direct influence on students‟ achievement. leaders who can provide the necessary leadership when managing the teachers‟ performance can have a large impact on their school‟s work environment and if the impact is positive, it may lead to teachers practicing and displaying desired behaviors in the workplace, especially in their commitment towards the school organizations (hallinger and heck, 1996a; ponnusamy, 2010). weber (1996) proved this in a study when he explained to increase teachers‟ commitment towards the schools; leaders need set high expectation on teachers‟ performance. hence, for teachers to become more committed to the school, school leaders need to practice effective leadership behavior. when discussing the concept of supervision in malaysia, many teachers still perceive it as a form of inspection. many teachers have yet to distinguish between the concept of inspection and instructional supervision. the first is a form of controlled assessment and evaluation method to ensure the improvement on the standards of schools, whilst the latter focuses more on providing continuous guidance, support and feedback for teachers to develop professionally and to also improve on the teaching and learning process in school (kruskamp, 2003; tyagi, 2010). this is because teachers still view supervision as a form of “inspection” tool where an external party will enter their classroom and play the role of observing, examining and assessing teachers on their teaching practices (mpofu, 2007). they see the supervisor‟s role as an inspectorate, examiner and evaluator, rather than a source of guidance and support. this has been teachers‟ perception towards supervision. this study is intended to investigate whether teachers perceive the instructional supervisor‟s role as a source for improving job performance or an encumbrance for growth. in malaysia, the role of the instructional leader is much stressed upon especially with the implementation of the integrated curriculum for secondary schools (kbsm) where school leadership were required to provide curriculum leadership, which essentially refers to instructional leadership (hussein mahmood, 1993). moreover, most principals and head teachers of private schools hold multiple roles and are responsible for the schools‟ management and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 45-56 47 administration, finance, marketing, operation and academic matters. however, most private schools would also have heads of department to help them with academic matters and are responsible for the smooth running of their respective departments. lim hui (2010) observed that the capabilities of a head of department as an instructional leader are most vital in determining the success of the department. to what extent does the head of department play the role of instructional leadership? does this role include instructional supervision? educational supervision is not something new in malaysia but has been in practice since the british colonial days (mohd salleh, 2000). in the malaysian educational system, the concept of supervision varies for different educational organisations. supervision on teaching colleges and university conduct supervision to evaluate trainee teachers for their practical teaching. the ministry of education has a school inspectorate that conducts supervision for assessing teaching activities, organising function, allocation of resources and overall management of the school, and consequently, offer recommendations for school improvement. at school level, supervision is usually done by the school‟s senior team management and their duties are usually to give support and guidance for teachers to upgrade their teaching performance, provide motivation and boost teachers‟ morals (yunus et al., 2012). this study seeks to investigate the perceptions of teachers on the instructional supervisory role and responsibilities of the head of departments from the aspect of developing teaching practices, professional competency and motivation. looking into these three aspects will give a better understanding on how teachers view the head of departments as instructional supervisors and leaders, and if their perceptions on the role and responsibilities of the head of department as a supervisor encourage professional growth and improved job performance in school. instructional supervision plays an important role to the development of education and thus, it is pertinent to establish how teachers perceive supervision and the role of supervisors in schools. 1.1. instructional supervisory and teacher’s performance lashway (2002) refers to the leader who provides feedback and monitors as a „facilitative leader‟, as same as the head of departments when facilitating and monitoring the teacher‟s teaching performance. this is because; he believes that the outcome of continuous monitoring can be seen in the teachers‟ performance and the students‟ performance. this is the reason why monitoring and providing feedback in the teaching and learning process is one of the variables that characterises instructional leadership. similarly, gamage et al. (2009) indicate that the practice of providing feedback and monitoring have significant impact on the teachers‟ and students‟ performance. this is due to the head of departments who conduct their duty effectively by discussing instructional issues; observation of classroom teaching and providing feedback; giving support to the teacher autonomy and protection of instructional time; monitoring progress by providing and supporting improvement; and using learner progress data for program improvement. furthermore, (chang, 2001) suggested that instructional leaders should spend more time in the observation process to help the teachers‟ improve their performance. he believes that this will help the teachers‟ to focus and enable them to work together in planning curriculum and instruction. blase (2004) added that head of departments as an instructional leader should encourage communication among the teachers to discuss on their work in an attempt to prevent isolation. he also suggested that instructional leaders should support the teachers by making suggestions, giving feedback; solicit opinions, provide professional development opportunities; and also give praise for effective teaching. accordingly, al-ghanabousi and idris (2010) stated that teacher appraisal is another form of formal base for the leader to communicate with the subordinates. therefore, monitoring and providing feedback act as an important element as well in determining the role of the instructional leaders 2. statement of problem generally, classroom observations or supervision is viewed as a method to gather information for appraisal purposes. supervision should be seen as a way to improve the quality of the teaching and learning process and ultimately improve the quality of children‟s education by improving on teachers‟ effectiveness and job performance (mpofu, 2007). mpofu (2007) also stated that supervision in schools work best when it is designed in a cyclical method of preparation, observation and feedback. for this to achieve its desired objectives, it is vital that the supervisor and the supervisee develop continuous communication and work closely before and also after the observation process. it is imperative to understand that teachers‟ attitudes and perceptions towards supervision play a major role for the improvement of the teacher leaning process and development of job performance (fraser, 1980). if teachers do not understand supervision as a process towards promoting professional growth and students‟ learning, the notion of supervision will not achieve its purposes. teachers need to realise that the role of the supervisor is to provide them with guidance and support towards becoming more effective teachers (wiles and lovell, 1975). teachers need to believe that the supervisor is there to help them and not burden them with constraints. teachers tend to have mixed feelings about supervision as they are mistrustful of “direct supervisory intervention in the classroom” (cogan, 1973). however, over the years, the concept of instructional supervision has evolved (marks, 1985) and teachers have gradually come to understand the modern concept of supervision to be more democratic and fair (cogan, 1973). with that view, the current condition of instructional supervision of private schools in malaysia is as yet relatively unknown subject. despite needing to adhere to the ministry of education‟s regulations and procedures for registration and the establishment of a private school, their management is not strictly bound to the ministry‟s as with public schools. due to the nature of how the management in private schools are not completely bound to the ministry, very little information can be found or gathered on the practices of instructional supervision in private schools. for that matter, conducting a study related to instructional supervision in private schools in malaysia would be fresh topic to explore on. it would be worthwhile to investigate how teachers of private schools in malaysia asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 45-56 48 perceive the role of instructional leadership and how instructional supervision can contribute to the improvement of teachers‟ job performance in school. 3. theories and the conceptual framework for a supervision system to become successful, it is important to understand how teachers perceive supervision. previously, supervision has been seen as a process of inspection and evaluation. kapfunde (1990) stated that teachers usually associate instructional supervision with appraisal, rating, and controlling them. only in recent years has supervision been understood to be a system created to provide support and guidance to teachers for the instructional process. tyagi (2010) described inspection as a top-down approach concentrating on the assessment and evaluation of school improvement based on standards that have been set, while supervision involves providing guidance, support and continuous assessment to teachers for their professional growth and improving job performance. alemayehu (2008) described that the major responsibilities of instructional supervisors are: examining and reporting programs, organizing and managing of teaching-learning activities; developing and presenting different methods that can be used to improve instructional programs; guiding and monitoring schools and teachers; preparing and organizing professional development programs such as trainings, workshops and seminars; monitoring and supporting mentoring programs for teachers who have just entered the profession; providing direct assistance and performing instructional and administrative activities in schools with teachers and school management through organizing and carrying out clinical, collegial, peer coaching and cognitive coaching methods of supervision. fraser (1980) stated that there is a relationship between supervision and teacher satisfaction where improvement in the teaching learning process relies on the teachers‟ attitudes towards supervision. fraser (1980) noted that teachers need to perceive supervision as a process of promoting professional growth; otherwise the process of supervision will not be effective and bring out the results it wants to achieve. acheson and gall (1997) noted that if supervision focuses on teacher appraisal and efficiency, teachers will not perceive supervision as a helpful method for teaching and professional growth. tshabalala (2013) stated that the hierarchy and burdensome nature of certain supervisory approaches can cause resistance of teachers towards supervision. acheson and gall (1997) concluded that teachers are not resistant to supervision but rather to the supervision styles and approaches used. it is important to know how to select and apply models of supervision that can develop trust, autonomy and professional learning culture to achieve improvement in teachers‟ job performance and professional growth (hargreaves and fullan, 2000). the main outcome of supervision of to help teachers improve which includes improving on what the teachers already know, their teaching skills and their ability to make informed professional decisions (sergiovanni and starratt, 2006). zepeda (2007) stated that it is important to clearly understand the connection between supervision and professional growth and teacher evaluation. zepeda (2007) also noted that there is a bridge between the various models of supervision and professional development. if supervision focuses on collegiality and professional development, it can be used as an effective tool for teacher‟s professional growth and improved job performance. nolan and hoover (2008) noted that instructional supervision that focuses on teacher growth can cause improvement in teaching performance and greater student learning. continuous improvement in methods and skills is necessary for every professional, and so the professional development of teachers has become highly important (alfonso and firth, 1990; zepeda, 2007; alemayehu, 2008). from the supervisor‟s view point, professional development should focus on “providing teachers with the opportunity and resources they need to reflect on their practice and to share their practice with others”(sergiovanni and starratt, 2006). there are many models of supervision. to enhance and improve teacher‟s job performance, supervisory practices cannot depend on only one model. this is because each teacher is a different individual and approaches to supervision need to consider and combine the best characteristics of different models so as to assist teachers‟ growth and development in their job performance. differentiated supervision (glathorne, 2000) is an approach to supervision where teachers are given options on the kinds of supervisory methods they would like to adopt. this model assumes that all teachers should involve themselves in teacher evaluation, staff development and informal observations to improve instruction, regardless of their experience and competence. this model involves clinical supervision, cooperative development and selfdirected development in working towards teacher‟s growth (glathorne, 2000). developmental supervision glickman et al. (1998) is another model that involves three approaches to supervision, which are directive, collaborative and non-directive. this model concentrates on the professional development of the teachers to enhance their job performance (tyagi, 2010) the planning and administration of effective staff development programs should result in staff development that promotes school improvement, a school climate and culture supportive of change, and individual and institutional professional learning (wood and thompson, 1993). instructional supervision of teachers should be an important component of an effective, comprehensive teacher professional development program towards improving teachers‟ job performance. kutsyuruba (2003) explained a conceptual framework of instructional supervision where supervisors and teachers need to work as a team of professionals to reach the desired outcomes of supervision in improving learning and classroom instruction. kutsyuruba (2003) further explained that supervision has to be the “glue”, that holds the school together, that is a joint, collaborative effort between the teachers and supervisors. the role of the supervisors is to enhance the purpose of supervision through using various approaches and strategies on different teachers. it is important to understand that teachers as adult learners have different backgrounds and experiences, different abilities in abstract thinking, and different levels of concern for others (wiles and bondi, 1996; glickman et al., 1998; beach and reinhartz, 2000). for supervisors to be effective in their role, they must try to practice a framework that is suitable for the individual needs and characteristics of the teacher. being able to select and match suitable approaches for individual needs can help towards increasing the motivation and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 45-56 49 commitment of teachers at work. making the right choices in supervisory approaches to suit individual needs and preferences can be difficult but decisions can be made by considering different styles in supervision (sergiovanni and starratt, 2006). the conceptual framework model (see figure 1), shows that the teachers‟ perception of the role of the head of department as a supervisor can contribute towards effective teaching and ultimately, improving job performance. the role of the head of department as a supervisor in the development of teaching practices, professional competency and motivation can assist teachers to become effective and to constantly improve. figure-1. conceptual framework of the study 4. research objectives the purpose of this study is to: i. determine the perception of private secondary school teachers from private secondary schools in kuala lumpur on how the head of departments‟ role as an instructional supervisor: (a) on contributing towards the development of teachers‟ teaching practices (b) in enhancing teachers‟ professional competencies (c) on contributing towards teachers‟ motivation in their job performance ii. find out if there is a significant relationship between how private secondary school teachers from private secondary schools in kuala lumpur perceive the role of head of departments‟ as an instructional leader and its influence in improving teachers‟ job performance from the aspect of developing teaching practice, professional competency and motivation. 5. methodology 5.1. research design a quantitative survey using a questionnaire was used to carry out the research in private secondary schools in kuala lumpur. using a questionnaire was appropriate for this study because they can reach a significant number of people in a relatively quick amount of time and with minimal expenditure (ary et al., 2006). the survey was aimed to provide on the perceptions of private secondary school teachers in kuala lumpur regarding the instructional supervisory role of the head of department in improving teachers‟ job performance, focusing on three key elements: development of teaching practices, professional competency and motivation. the study was conducted to obtain an understanding on how the head of department supervisory role is perceived, and how it affects the instructional development and job performance of private secondary school teachers in kuala lumpur. 5.2. sample and sampling procedure kuala lumpur has eleven private secondary schools officially registered under the ministry of education and the sample was drawn from three of them. the three schools are founded and registered according to the ministry of education regulations and were selected using simple random sampling because they are presumed to have a professional code of conduct for teachers that includes a monitoring system in practice for teachers‟ job performance. an even distribution was made between the three schools and the respondents involved included 100 teachers who are teaching in those schools. selection of the sample was made using the simple random sampling method. the three schools were selected from eleven private secondary schools in kuala lumpur officially registered under the ministry of education. they teachers from private secondary schools in kuala lumpur, malaysia teachers’ perception head of departments role as instructional supervisor in the development of: teaching practices professional competency motivation teachers’ improved job performance effective teaching improved quality of students’ education asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 45-56 50 are believed to be bound by a professional code of conduct for teachers that include a monitoring system in practice for teachers‟ job performance. the respondents selected were made based using the simple random sampling method, where each respondent is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. a questionnaire was personally handed to each respondent. respondents were then given time to complete the questionnaire, whereby once they were done, it was immediately collected from them. 5.3. instrument the instrument was a questionnaire compiled from various past researches on instructional supervision. the items selected for the questionnaire were edited to customise the objectives of the survey which focused on three main elements related to instructional supervision in terms of the development of teaching practices, professional competency and motivation. cronbach‟s alpha was used to test the reliability of the items. the cronbach‟s alpha value must be above 0.7 to show that the items are reliable to the study and to ensure precise value for the result. the questionnaire was divided into four sections with the first section containing items regarding the respondent‟s profile, the second section on the development of teaching practices, the third section on professional competency and the fourth section on motivation. section one consists of six items asking for the respondent‟s background, while sections two, three and four consist of ten items each using a likert type scale of five choices and they are: strongly disagree, disagree, not sure, agree and strongly agree. 5.4. data collection procedure an instrument was designed to collect the data from respondents. one hundred questionnaires were distributed to one hundred respondents from three private schools randomly selected from eleven private secondary schools in kuala lumpur. an equal distribution of the questionnaire was made between the three schools. permission was first obtained from the school‟s administration before the questionnaires were distributed to the respondents. once approval was given, respondents were selected using the simple random sampling method. each respondent was personally handed the questionnaire and given time to complete it. the questionnaires were immediately collected once the respondents were done. the administration of the questionnaire was found to be straightforward and uncomplicated. the respondents were observed to have completed the questionnaire in a relative short amount of time, making it less time consuming to gather them back. however, there were some initial challenges in distributing the questionnaire to respondents as there were only eleven private secondary schools located in kuala lumpur and as it was nearing the end of the school year, many schools were occupied with end-of-the-year activities, events and tasks. some teachers found it laborious to complete the questionnaire when their time was much needed elsewhere to undertake their school‟s end-of-year tasks and responsibilities. 5.5. data analysis method the data was processed and analysed using spss package program (version 20) and the results are presented using descriptive and inferential statistics. analysis of the data was divided into three sections. descriptive statistics was used for measure of central tendency using mode, median and mean, and measure of dispersion using range, variance and standard deviation. pearson correlation was used for inferential statistics, while cronbach‟s alpha was used for reliability test. 6. findings this chapter reveals the findings for the study on the role of the head of departments in improving teachers‟ job performance, focusing on three main elements: development of teaching practices, professional competency and motivation. one hundred set of questionnaire were distributed to obtain the data for this study as mentioned in chapter 3: research methodology. the data was processed and analysed using spss package program (version 20) and the results are presented using descriptive and inferential statistics. this data is analysed in three sections. the first section consists of the background of the respondents, the second section deals with the reliability of the variables and the third section deals with the correlation analysis with regards to the relationship of the independent variables in influencing the dependent variable. 6.1. background of the respondents table-1. frequency and percentage of the participants‟ gender, age, qualification, and teaching experience frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent gender male 41 41.0 41.0 41.0 valid female 59 59.0 59.0 100.0 age 23-29 years old 49 49.0 49.0 49.0 valid 30-39 years old 41 41.0 41.0 90.0 40-49 years old 9 9.0 9.0 99.0 > 50 years old 1 1.0 1.0 100.0 qualification diploma 1 1.0 1.0 1.0 valid bachelor's degree 74 74.0 74.0 75.0 master's degree 25 25.0 25.0 100.0 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 45-56 51 teaching experience < 5 years 62 62.0 62.0 62.0 valid 5-9 years 28 28.0 28.0 90.0 10-14 years 10 10.0 10.0 100.0 total 100 100.0 100.0 table 1 shows the frequency distribution for background information of the participants including gender, age, qualification, and teaching experience. as mentioned earlier, the total number of respondents for this study was 100. from the total number of respondents, 41 (41%) were male while 59 (59%) were female. these amounts are not the same as the data collected randomly from various private schools in kuala lumpur. moreover, the table shows that the majority of the respondents were aged between 23 to 29 years old (49%), followed by those aged 30 to 39 years old (41%). the third highest percentage were at the age of 40 to 49 years old (9%), followed lastly by the age of more than 50 years with only 1%. this data shows that the majority of the teachers were young and may have different perceptions on their supervisor as compared to senior teachers. table 1 indicates the qualification of the teachers from diploma level to doctorate level. most of the teachers hold a bachelor‟s degree (74%), followed by a master‟s degree (25%), and there was only one teacher who possesses a diploma qualification. this reflects that the teachers in private schools are highly educated and may hold different point of views on what can enhance their job performance in their school. as stated above in table 1, there were 62 teachers with teaching experience of less than 5 years (62%), followed by 28 teachers with teaching experience between 5 to 9 years (28%). lastly, there were only 10 teachers with teaching experience of 10 to 14 years (10%). from here, it can be concluded that the teachers have less teaching experience due to their young age as the majority of the teachers are between 23 to 29 years old 6.2. reliability of the variables in this study, the inferential statistic was used to measure the role of the head of departments in improving teachers‟ job performance based on three factors: teaching practice, professional competency and motivation. this part deals with the findings of the descriptive analysis of all variables involved in this study. the variables are measured using the mean and standard deviation or the average score of all variables. the data analysis is shown in table 2 below: table-2. distribution of standard deviations & mean on teaching practice, professional competency and motivation mean std deviation n performance 3.882 .453 100 competence 3.763 .446 100 motivation 3.831 .515 100 as stated in table 2, the item of performance (development of teaching practice) according to the respondents‟ view is high at mean=3.882 and sd=.453. respondents also display high preferential on the role of the head of departments in determining their motivation with a mean=3.831 and sd=.446. the third and last element which influences teachers‟ job performance related to the instructional role of the head of departments is competency with the mean=3.763 and sd=.446. based on the mean stated above, it is apparent that the head of departments‟ role of instructional leadership mainly influences the teachers‟ teaching practices as the head of departments help and encourage teachers to perform well in their job. table-3. summary of the case processing for the items n % valid 99 99.0 cases excluded 1 1.0 total 100 100.0 table 3 shows the case processing summary for the items tested in this study. as stated in the table above, n refers to the number of respondents in this study. the number of respondents in this study is 100. table-4. cronbach's alpha reliability statistics table 4 above, shows the reliability score for this study which is also known as cronbach's alpha. the cronbach's alpha value must be above than 0.7 to show that the items are reliable whereas if the value is below 0.7, it means that the items are not reliable to the study. thus, it is important for researchers to check their items and also the coding for the data to obtain the precise value for the result. as stated in table 4, the cronbach's alpha for this study is 0.916 which means the items are reliable to the study. cronbach's alpha n of items .916 30 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 45-56 52 table-5. distribution of standard deviations & mean on development of teaching practices, professional competency and motivation items mean sd a. development of teaching practices: 1. hod assists teachers in lesson planning. 3.88 .627 2. hod assists teachers in developing/selecting instructional materials. 3.88 .594 3. hod helps teachers to evaluate curricula and suggest changes to meet the students‟ needs. 3.88 .627 4. hod encourages teachers to use appropriate methods of teaching. 3.89 .768 5. hod assists teachers in evaluating student performance. 3.83 .821 6. hod advises teachers about new developments in teaching. 3.81 .804 7. hod conducts meetings with teachers to review progress. 4.01 .678 8. hod communicates with administrators about instructional concerns. 3.79 .746 9. hod communicates with teachers about instructional concerns. 3.90 .614 10. hod promotes the exchange of ideas and materials among teachers. b. professional competency 4.02 .571 11. hod directs all supervisory activities for the teachers‟ improvement. 3.80 .742 12. hod helps to facilitate teachers‟ access to professional resources. 3.91 .671 13. hod evaluates the performance of teachers. 4.09 .608 14. hod uses evaluation as a means for development. 3.74 .723 15. hod evaluates teachers only through their classroom performance. 3.42 .870 16. hod uses more than one source in evaluating teachers. 3.61 .780 17. hod provides feedback and offer suggestions for instructional improvement. 3.96 .588 18. hod encourages teachers‟ professional growth. 3.92 .650 19. hod conducts in-service programs to improve the performance of teachers. 3.79 .773 20. hod conducts orientation activities for new teachers. c. motivation 3.47 1.063 21. hod is an example of good work and behaviour for me to follow. 3.93 .539 22. i consider the hod as a symbol and sign of success and accomplishment in our teaching profession. 3.84 .584 23. hod inspires and encourages teachers to aim high in our teaching job and in life. 3.80 .742 24. hod makes me feel proud to be associated with him/her. 3.72 .770 25. hod has a special ability and talent for seeing what is really important for me to consider in my teaching job and life. 3.57 .797 26. hod encourages me to hope for a bright future in our teaching profession and in life. 3.82 .761 27. hod inspires loyalty and commitment to the department. 3.76 .744 28. hod encourages me to express my ideas and opinions in staff meetings. 4.04 .653 29. hod shows a sense of duty and work commitment which he/she transmits to me. 3.89 .683 30. hod stimulates and encourages teachers to participate willingly and happily in doing departmental duties. 3.92 .791 table 5 shows the mean and standard deviation for all the items tested in this study. the highest mean for the items is from the question 13 (4.09) while the highest standard deviation score for the items is from question 20 which is 1.063. table-6. scale statistics meanwhile, table 6 shows the scale statistics for the items. it shows the mean, variance and standard deviation for the study. as indicated in this table the mean is 114.86, variance is 135.612 and standard deviation is 11.645. the data shows that the items used in the questionnaire are reliable to the study and help to obtain the correct data as well. 6.3. correlation analysis 6.3.1. relationship between teaching practice, professional competency and motivation in improving teachers’ job performance in order to determine the relationship between teaching practice, professional competency and motivation in improving teachers‟ job performance, pearson correlation is used. pearson correlation coefficients (r) can only take on values from -1 to +1. the size of the total value provides a sign of strength for the connection. it is a good idea to create a scatter plot before performing a correlation analysis. this enables verification for the damage of the assumptions of linearity and homogeneity of variance (homoscedasticity). scrutiny of the scatter plots also gives greater idea of the nature of the relationship between the two variables. to be precise, a correlation of 0 indicates mean variance std. deviation n of items 114.86 135.612 11.645 30 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 45-56 53 that there is no relationship between the two variables. the hypotheses used to investigate this relationship are stated as below. the hypotheses are stated as the following: ho: p = 0 (there is no significant relationship between teaching practice, professional competency and motivation in improving teachers‟ job performance.) ha: p ≠ 0 (there is a significant relationship between teaching practice, professional competency and motivation in improving teachers‟ job performance.) table-7. pearson correlation **.correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). in table 7, n shows the information about the sample of the study. as the total respondents are 100, thus the value of n is also 100. the correlation coefficient value will determine the direction and strength of the relationship. here, the value for motivation is .439. according to the guilford rule of thumb, it has a strong and positive relationship which means that there is a strong relationship between motivation and teachers‟ job performance. next, the value for competence is .644 and conferring to guilford rule of thumb, it has a strong and positive relationship too. thus, there is also a connection between competence and teachers‟ job performance. the last key element which is teachers‟ teaching practice (performance) has the value of 1 for the correlation coefficient which means that there is also positive and strong relationship between teachers‟ teaching practice and teachers‟ job performance. the sig (2-tailed) value in the correlation box shows the value is .000. it means sig-t (.000) < α (.01), and therefore the null hypothesis is rejected. as the three key elements (teaching practice, competency and motivation) depending on each other, it is to be concluded that there is a significant relationship between teaching practice, professional competency and motivation in improving teachers‟ job performance. in other words, the instructional role of the head of departments in improving teachers‟ job performance through developing their teaching practices, enhancing the professional competency and providing motivation is reliable and significant to the study. these factors influence the teachers‟ job performance in schools. 6.3.2. teachers’ perception on how the head of departments’ role as a supervisor contribute towards the development of teachers’ teaching practices table-8. teachers‟ responses towards the supervisor‟s contribution on teachers‟ teaching practices table 8 above shows the teachers‟ responses towards the supervisor‟s contribution on teachers‟ teaching practices. as stated in the table, there are basically ten items related to teaching practices and the total respondents were 100. the respondents had to answer ten questions to evaluate their perception on the instructional leadership role of the head of departments in improving their teaching practices. as can be observed from question 1 to question 10 (q1 – q10), most of the teachers answered “agree” to these questions, which ranged from 49 to 79 teachers. this means that they agreed that the role of instructional leadership of the head of departments helped them to improve their teaching practices in school. the highest responses were for question 2 which indicated 79 teachers agreed to this statement. the statement was that the head of departments helped teachers in developing and selecting instructional material for their teaching practices. in other words, by doing this, the head of departments have directly and indirectly helped to improve the teachers‟ teaching practices in school. there were only two teachers who answered “strongly disagree” for question 1 and question 4. they may have a different concept and perspective on how the head of departments can help them to increase their teaching practices in school. the responses for “not sure” and “strongly agree” are almost similar where they ranged from 0 to 31 teachers. in conclusion, the head of departments need to make greater contribution to the teachers in helping them improve their teaching practices such as providing guidance in lesson planning, curricula, giving advices in teaching and so forth. performance motivation competence performance pearson correlation 1 .439 ** .644 ** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 n 100 100 100 motivation pearson correlation .439 ** 1 .469 ** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 n 100 100 100 competence pearson correlation .644 ** .469 ** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 n 100 100 100 q1 q2 q3 q4 q5 q6 q7 q8 q9 q10 strongly disagree 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 disagree 3 5 4 4 9 9 4 4 2 0 not sure 11 9 15 18 16 16 13 31 19 15 agree 77 79 71 60 58 60 63 49 67 68 strongly agree 8 7 10 17 17 15 20 16 12 17 total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 45-56 54 6.3.3. teachers’ perceptions on how the head of departments’ role as a supervisor enhances teachers’ professional competencies table-9. teachers‟ responses on how the head of departments‟ role as a supervisor enhances teachers‟ professional competencies q11 q12 q13 q14 q15 q16 q17 q18 q19 q20 strongly disagree 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 4 disagree 8 5 2 2 12 8 1 4 9 17 not sure 15 12 8 37 41 34 17 14 18 23 agree 65 70 69 47 36 48 68 69 60 41 strongly agree 11 13 21 14 10 10 14 13 13 15 total 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 the data above shows the teachers‟ responses on how the head of departments‟ role as a supervisor enhances teachers‟ professional competencies. for this section, there are also ten items that are tested to measure the teachers‟ responses related to professional competencies. the items for professional competencies ranged from question 11 to question 20 (q11 – q20). the total number of respondents was 100, so 100 teachers gave their responses for these items. however, due to some missing data, only 99 teachers responded for question 11. as stated in table 9, it can be found that the majority of the teachers answered “agree” for question 11 to question 20, which ranged from 36 to 70 teachers. the lowest responses for question 11 to question 20 were “strongly agree”. about 1 to 17 teachers answered “disagree”, 8 to 41 teachers answered “not sure” and 10 to 21 teachers answered “strongly agree”. based on the data, the highest responses were from question 12, where about 70 teachers agreed to the statement. the statement was about the teachers‟ access to professional resources in improving teachers‟ professional competencies. most of the teachers claimed that their head of departments helped to facilitate their access to professional resources, which in turn may help to develop their knowledge in target areas and thus develop their professional competencies as well (question 12). furthermore, in order to improve teachers‟ professional competencies, the head of departments also need to evaluate the performance of teachers in class or school. this statement is supported by 69 teachers as they answered “agree” for question 13. by referring to all this data, it can be concluded that there is a link between the head of departments‟ instructional leadership role in improving teachers‟ professional competencies. 6.3.4. teachers’ perceptions on the head of departments’ role as a supervisor and how it contributes towards teachers’ motivation in their job performance table-10. teachers‟ responses on the head of departments‟ role as a supervisor and how it contributes towards teachers‟ motivation in their job performance q21 q22 q23 q24 q25 q26 q27 q28 q29 q30 strongly disagree 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 disagree 1 0 4 2 3 6 6 3 1 3 not sure 9 20 21 35 47 21 24 10 20 20 agree 82 72 62 48 36 57 57 67 64 55 strongly agree 7 7 12 14 13 16 13 20 14 21 total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 table 10 above shows the data for question 21 to question 30, which captured the teachers‟ responses on the head of departments‟ role as a supervisor in contributing towards teachers‟ motivation in their job performance. motivation is one of the factors tested in this study to determine the head of departments‟ role in improving teachers‟ job performance. thus, question 21 to question 30 (q21 – q30) is based on the theme of motivation for the teachers. based on the data, the responses are categorised into five main scales which are “strongly disagree, disagree, not sure, agree, and strongly agree”. the teachers were to give their responses based on these scales. as stated above, the highest responses given by the respondents for question 21 to question 30 were “agree” which ranged from 36 to 82 teachers respectively. there were 82 teachers who answered “agree” for question 21, which also contributed to the highest value for this data. the lowest responses were for the scales “strongly disagree and disagree”, which involved 0 to 6 teachers only. question 21 dealt with the statement that stated “hod is an example of good work and behaviour for the teachers to follow”. this implies that this particular quality in their head of departments helps to improve their motivation to perform well in their work. while question 21 shows the highest value for the data, the second highest value was from question 22 which indicated 72 teachers answered “agree” for the question. according to the data received, the teachers considered their head of departments as a symbol and sign of success and accomplishment for the teaching profession (question 22). this contributes to the increase of motivation among teachers and improves their job performance as well. thus, in conclusion, the head of departments‟ role as an instructional supervisor does influences the teachers‟ motivation in cultivating their job performance. 7. discussion looking into the findings and data analysed, the result indicated that there is a significant relationship among teachers‟ teaching practices, professional competency and motivation in improving their job performance. it also asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 45-56 55 concluded that the head of departments‟ roles and responsibilities as the leader influence the teachers‟ teaching practices, professional competency and motivation. in other words, the role of the instructional head of department in improving teachers‟ job performance by developing their teaching practices, enhancing professional competency and providing motivation is reliable and significant to the study. these factors influence the teachers‟ job performance in school. furthermore, there are three main elements analysed in detail. firstly, teachers‟ responses towards supervisors‟ contribution to the teachers‟ teaching practices was analysed. from the survey conducted, it has been identified that head of departments have played a vital role in contributing to the teachers‟ teaching practices. most teachers tend to agree that the head of departments help them in their teaching practices. as said by phillips (2009), head of departments as the instructional leader must be a practicing teacher. acting as a practicing teacher, head of departments are capable of providing good teaching practices for the teachers to perform better. the second element analysed was on teachers‟ responses on how the head of departments enhance teachers‟ professional competencies. from the results, most of the teachers claimed that their head of departments helped in facilitating their access to professional resources which in turn helps to develop their knowledge in the target area and thus developing their professional competencies as well. as mentioned by pitsoe (2005), an instructional leader must be capable of transferring knowledge, skills, attitudes, techniques and proficiencies. this means that as a head of department, one must be capable of transferring knowledge and skills that he or she has to the teachers in order to gain success in teachers‟ performance and students‟ achievement as well. head of departments capability in transferring their knowledge to the teachers‟ will enhance the teachers‟ competency. the final element is on the teachers‟ responses on the head of departments‟ role as a supervisor in contributing towards teachers‟ motivation in their job performance. according to the data received, the teachers considered their head of departments as a symbol and sign of success and accomplishment of the teaching profession. this contributes to the increase of motivation among teachers and improves their job performance as well. thus, in conclusion, the head of departments‟ role as an instructional supervisor does influence the teachers‟ motivation in cultivating their job performance. similarly, referring to yukl (2010), he said that an instructional leader must have the competency and ability to encourage and motivate subordinates to work together to achieve and perform better. therefore, head of departments who can motivate their teachers will develop the sense of motivation in them and encourage them for better performance. 8. conclusion in this research, it has been attempted to investigate the roles and responsibilities of head of departments in influencing teachers‟ teaching practices, professional competencies and motivation. the results presented showed a positive relationship between the head of departments‟ roles and responsibilities and its influence on teaching performance. the findings indicated that there is a significant relationship between the head of departments‟ role in enhancing teachers‟ performance from the aspect of teaching practices, professional competency and motivation. all findings signify a positive relationship on how the good qualities and role of the head of departments will instil difference towards better changes in order to achieve good job performance among teachers in school. in short, this study revealed that it is important for the head of departments of the school to play the role of the instructional leader as it possesses good characteristics in enhancing better teaching and learning for both leaders and the subordinates. in this case, both head of departments and the teachers are able to develop and create a platform for teaching and learning, and this will also indirectly develop the teachers‟ teaching practices, professional competency and motivation. as a whole, good leaders influence their subordinates and encourage them towards better job performance. finally, this study contributes in the existing literature by providing a detailed account on instructional leadership and supervisory as well as schools‟ head of departments role regarding teachers‟ job performance. this is a original study that was conducted to obtain a clearer understanding about teachers‟ perceptions on head of department‟s supervisory role. 9. recommendations looking into the data analysis results, it clearly shows that head of departments as instructional leaders give a huge impact on the teachers in the sense of performance of teaching practices, professional competency and motivation. therefore, the head of departments should look for possible improvements in the instructional leadership role to develop the performance of the school as whole. thus, there are a few recommendations in order to develop the quality of instructional leadership among the teachers. firstly, the ministry of education should start taking the professional development programs for private schools seriously. as we know, in malaysia there are already various kinds of staff development programs being implemented in order to improve the teachers‟ performance. however, there is very little focus given on the training for the leaders themselves, especially for leaders of private schools. in the attempt to enhance the teachers‟ performance, it is vital to pay attention to the leader‟s quality and roles first. more practical workshops and training courses must be provided. these workshops must at least be conducted twice a year. these workshops are necessary since head of departments seldom receive training in instructional leadership. the second recommendation is in relation to the first recommendation given. since it has been suggested to the ministry of education to take professional development programs for private schools seriously, they must also play their role to ensure that the head of departments attend workshops that are conducted. head of departments as instructional leaders must avail themselves to the opportunity as it would not be effective if they do not give proper commitment to these programs. the ministry may spend a huge amount of sum in order to conduct the professional development programs, but it will only be effective and meet its purpose if the head of departments take up the initiative to take part and participate in the programs prepared for them. the third recommendation is that the head of departments in private secondary schools be given compulsory training in communication skills. good communication is a basic requirement to bridge and develop the road asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 45-56 56 between teachers and leaders. in order for head of departments to deliver their knowledge, ideas and visions to the teachers, communication is the only way. therefore, instructional leaders must have very good communication skills. this will enable the head of departments to communicate with the teachers‟ to bring about healthy communication within the school and also enhance good relationship between them. in conclusion, these recommendations are believed to enhance the role of instructional leaderships among head of departments in private secondary schools and also influence teachers‟ to give better teaching and learning performance. references acheson, k.a. and m.d. gall, 1997. techniques in the clinical supervision of teachers: preservice and inservice applications. 4th edn., new york: longman. al-ghanabousi, n.s. and a.r. idris, 2010. principal's practices in the performance appraisal for teachers in al-sharqiah south zone's schools in oman. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 2(2): 3839–3843. alemayehu, g.o., 2008. the current practices and problems of subject-area instructional supervision in secondary schools of addis ababa city administration (unpublished master‟s thesis). addis ababa: addis ababa university. alfonso, r.j. and g. firth, 1990. supervision: needed research. journal of curriculum 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the use of the content. http://www.onlinereview.segi.edu.my/ http://www.eyeoneducation.com/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 3, 89-100, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 89 assessment of level of public knowledge about leprosy and its effects on leprosy control programmes in anambra and ebonyi states of southeast nigeria nwankwo, ignatius uche 1 1 department of sociology/anthropology nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state, nigeria abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 90 2. materials and methods ............................................................................................................................................................. 93 3. discussion of research findings .............................................................................................................................................. 98 4. conclusions and recommendations ........................................................................................................................................ 99 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 99 three related objectives informed this research paper. the first was to ascertain the level of knowledge about leprosy among residents of anambra and ebonyi states of southeast nigeria. the second was to find out if there were differentials in levels of knowledge about leprosy across socioeconomic profile of residents of the two areas. the third objective interrogated how the prevailing level of knowledge in the area affected the effectiveness of leprosy control programme in the area. the study adopted a cross-sectional survey design. quantitative data was generated through structured questionnaire schedule administered on 1116 study participants, selected through a combination of cluster and simple random sampling methods. qualitative data were generated through focus group discussion (fgd) administered to persons affected by leprosy and in-depth interview (idi) of leprosy control staff and officials of both world health organization and the donor agency supporting leprosy control in the two states. the statistical package for the social sciences (spss) software was employed in analysis of data. frequency tables, percentages, bar charts, chi-square and multiple regressions were used for presentation, analysis and in testing the stated hypotheses. the study found that knowledge level about cause, early danger signs, place of treatment and curability of leprosy was very low in the two states. such low level of knowledge about leprosy and low literacy level among patients were among major socio-cultural factors found to affect leprosy control in the area. it was recommended that aggressive public enlightenment through public, private and local media; incentive package for health workers; prohibition of sociocultural practices and beliefs that promote the spread of leprosy be adopted to actualise leprosy control in anambra and ebonyi states. keywords: knowledge, leprosy, leprosy control programme, isolation, rehabilitation, isolation, social stigma, persons affected by leprosy. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 89-100 90 1. introduction nigeria’s federal ministry of health (federal ministry of health department of public health, 2004) defined leprosy as a chronic, infectious disease that mainly affects the skin, peripheral nerves and mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract caused by mycobacterium leprae. the disease has remained a public health problem and cause of morbidity in nigeria. lockwood (2000) also notes that the disease is a leading cause of permanent disability worldwide, and has over the year’s left terrifying memory of mutilation, rejection and social exclusion. nigeria has a national leprosy control programme, an organised effort with clearly defined goals to reduce leprosy burden in the country. key activities of the programme include problem assessment, health education of the public, case finding, diagnosis, chemotherapy, rehabilitation and efforts to integrate persons affected by leprosy into their community. there is also inbuilt monitoring and evaluation arrangements in the programme. however, over the years, nigeria’s leprosy control programme and persons affected by leprosy have encountered several problems. these include poor funding of leprosy control activities and unsuccessful integration of leprosy control with general primary health care. particularly disturbing is the graph below from world health organization (2010), which shows consistent increases (rather than decreases) in both new case detection and prevalence of leprosy from 2006-2009 in southeast area of nigeria.. this raises worries about the effectiveness of leprosy control programme in the area and whether leprosy is a re-emerging disease in the area and for what reasons. furthermore, poor leprosy control outcomes has persisted to the extent that a former world health organization’s country representative in nigeria, dr peter ekiti lamented that in 2008; only 14% of the estimated new leprosy cases in nigeria were actually detected and enrolled for treatment (ekiti, 2010). similarly, adagba (2011) was very critical that prevalence of leprosy among children in nigeria is still high and unacceptable. fig-1. leprosy new case detection(ncd) and prevalence,2005-2009 for south-east zone of nigeria source:who (2010). in 2008, nigeria was ranked at the fifth position among nations with high leprosy burden in the world, and in africa, second only to republic of congo (who, 2008). nigeria’s registered prevalence of leprosy as at 2002 was 5890 (fmohdoph, 2004). it declined to 5381 by the beginning of 2008 (who, 2008) and further to 3913 cases at the end of 2010 (adagba, 2011).the above situation appears to be compounded by enormous fear of leprosy among the nigerian populace (ogoegbulem, 2000). furthermore, community participation and socio-economic rehabilitation which are crucial elements in leprosy control have remained weak (osakwe, 2004). consequently, community response or behaviour toward those suffering from leprosy is characterized by avoidance, insult and rejection. even discharged leprosy ex-patients are not spared of these actions that also constitute violation of human rights. nicholls (2000) further observes that leprosy more than any other disease has caused individuals to leave their families and communities and be forced to live as outcasts in separate colonies and settlements. some of such colonies or settlements are still operating at okija, otolo-nnewi, and amichi communities in anambra state; and at mile four abakaliki and uburu communities at ebonyi state. there are others at other parts of nigeria. their continued operation is an evidence of the failure of the national leprosy control programme to implement home based or ambulatory care arrangement where most patients access treatment from their homes, except those who are in critical conditions and require hospitalization. the advantage of home based care in reducing segregation and facilitating the new thrust toward community based rehabilitation (cbr) cannot be over-emphasized. the lukewarm attitude of health workers toward leprosy control activities (adagba, 2011) is also a major challenge facing the control programme poor allowances, negative cultural reactions towards leprosy and fear of contracting the disease negatively affect the disposition of health workers to committed service. above all, knowledge of leprosy in nigeria seems to be low, which may likely produce negative impact on the control effort. ‘knowledge of leprosy’ in the context of this study refers to having correct information on the cause, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 89-100 91 early signs, curability and place of treatment. it also includes being well informed of the existence of functional leprosy control programme in one’s local area. it is against the above background and problems that the research was undertaken to investigate the level of knowledge of residents of anambra and ebonyi states of southeast nigeria about leprosy, and how such prevailing level of knowledge about leprosy affect the effectiveness of leprosy control programme in the area. 1.1. brief review of literature on knowledge of leprosy across societies and medical / bio-physical features of the disease the level and accuracy of knowledge about leprosy, possessed by individuals across social systems has remained relatively low (rafferty, 2005). this is notwithstanding the fact that research works on medical and biophysical characteristics of leprosy have continued to expand over the years. who (2000) notes that the handicap posed by tendency for leprosy to evolve slowly which make fast documentation of its epidemiological pattern difficult, have had an insignificant effect on research output. scott (2000) therefore frowns at poor dissemination of knowledge arising from researches and the concentration on medical without commensurate emphasis on social aspects of leprosy.this review work on knowledge and bio-physical features of leprosy will specifically address the following areas; causative organism of leprosy, mode of spread of leprosy disease, signs and symptoms of leprosy, types of leprosy, treatment of leprosy. (a) causative organism of leprosy a norwegian doctor, gerhard hennikarmauer hansen (1841 – 1912) was the person who in 1873 found that leprosy is caused by a bacillus, mycobacterium leprae, and not a punishment from gods or a hereditary disease (bryceson and pfaltzgraff, 1990; who, 2000). rees (1989) observes that the appointment in 1866, of armauerhansen as a medical officer to a leprosy hospital in bergen set the stage for his interest in leprosy research. according to rees (1989), hansen severally examined under the microscope materials from skin lesions of leprosy patients and came to a conclusion that rod-shaped bodies (mycobacterium leprae) consistently observed were the cause of leprosy. (b) mode of spread of leprosy the human being is the most significant reservoir of infection of mycobacterium leprae from where the disease agent could spread to other humans (who, 1985; noordeen, 1989; ezekpeazu, 2000). noordeen (1989) reports that the limited growth of organisms indistinguishable from mycobacterium leprae in the foot pad of mice and cases of naturally infected armadillous in southern parts of u.s.a were of negligible significance in the spread of leprosy in human population. chukwu (2004) observes that among human beings, untreated lepromatous or multi bacillary types of leprosy carry largest load of infectious mycobacterium leprae organisms and pose greater risk of transmission to others. who (2000), reports that the commonest mode of spread of leprosy from infected person to an uninfected one is by means of droplets. this means that tiny drops of liquid coughed/sneezed out from the nose, throat or mouth of leprosy patients carry leprosy bacilli which can easily be inhaled by an uninfected person. chukwu (2004) also affirms that nasal and other secretions from respiratory tract and lepromatous ulcers are two main portals of exit of leprosy germs from the patient. he adds that the respiratory tract and the skin are similarly portals of entry of leprosy bacilli into the body system of persons who had prolonged contact often at intra-familial situations with untreated leprosy patients. green (1995) emphasized that indirect transmission does not play an important role in the spread of leprosy. he however noted that leprosy may occasionally occur through wearing clothes or using beddings of a patient with multi bacillary leprosy. this is because mycobacterium leprae may remain viable for several days on beddings and clothing’s etc. the consideration of contaminated clothing and other formites acting as sources of infection were anchored on findings that mycobacterium leprae in nasal secretions can survive up to 36 hours or more (davey and rees, 1974) and for up to 9 days under tropical conditions (desikan, 1977). nigeria’s federal ministry of health (fmohdoph, 2004) sums up factors affecting transmission of leprosy as follows: 1. the infectiousness of the infected person which is affected by his bacillary load. 2. the susceptibility of the contact which depends on his immune status. 3. the closeness, frequency and duration of contact with the source of infection according to ezekpeazu (2000), education of persons affected by leprosy about how the disease is spread is a crucial aspect of leprosy control. this is with a view to encourage them to limit the spread. unfortunately, he observes that this important strategy is yet to reach its peak in nigeria due to public enlightenment challenges. (c) signs and symptoms of leprosy leprosy presents with many signs and symptoms but their degree of manifestation or clinical picture vary in individuals due to different levels of immune response (ezekpeazu, 2000). the who (1988); who (2000) and fmohdoph (2004) outlined the following major signs and symptoms as typical in leprosy disease: 1. presence of skin lesions/patches (hypo pigmented areas of skin) with definite loss of sensation to touch. 2. enlargement and or pain in one or several peripheral nerve trunks. 3. positive skin slit smear for acid fast bacilli (mycobacterium leprae) 4. numbness (loss of feeling) of the hands, feet or areas of the skin. v. weakness or total loss of function of hands and feet federal ministry of health (fmohdophc, 1997) further notes that depending on duration of the disease and the spread of leprosy through the body, various other organs may show typical signs and complications like: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 89-100 92 1. loss of eyebrow and eyelashes 2. enlarged and elongated ear lobes which show hanging down defect. 3. depression or total collapse of nose bridge 4. ulceration or bleeding from the nose (epitasis) 5. swelling of breast (gynaecomastia) in males pointing to involvement of the testes. 6. husky (coarse) voice due to damage of vocal cords by leprosy germs 7. dryness of the skin, loss of hair (alopecia), loss of sweat and leopard like face 8. various forms of eye involvement like trichiasis (eyelashes touching the eyeball); entropion (upper eyelid turning in); ectropion (lower eyelid turning down and out); lagophthalmos (inability to close the eye fully leaving a lid gap due to facial nerve damage); conjunctivitis, corneal ulcer, acute iritis etc. 9. swollen painful fingers (dactylitis) and painful testicular swelling (orchitis) during lepra reactions. 10. ulcers of the feet and hand arising from pressure on insensitive areas 11. fixed or mobile clawing of fingers and toes, wasting of muscles of palm 12. dropped feet. (d) types of leprosy leprosy is classified either as paucibacillary leprosy or multibacillary depending on the number of skin lesions/patches and number of nerve trunks affected (who, 2000; fmohdoph, 2004). table-1.types of leprosy (w.h.o classification): paucibacillary multibacillary skin lesions 1 – 5 lesions 6 or more lesions nerve damage only one nerve trunk involved two or more nerves involved source:fmohdoph (2004) (e) treatment of leprosy the w.h.o study group on chemotherapy of leprosy for control programmes, in 1981, recommended multidrug therapy (mdt) for treatment of leprosy on the grounds that the regimen prevents drug resistance, cures patients faster and that relapses are minimal (who, 1982; who, 1988). in nigeria, the federal ministry of health commenced implementation of the policy to treat patients with mdt as recommended by w.h.o in 1983 but it was formally launched with national tuberculosis and leprosy control programme (ntblcp) in1991. according to fmohdoph (2004), world health organization’s multi-drug therapy (mdt) has been positive, it cures patients within a short period and interrupts the transmission of the disease very rapidly. the regimen is also operationally feasible for field use and socially acceptable. smith (2000) observes that the use of mdt and the political commitment of counties to leprosy control gave rise to 85% reduction in leprosy prevalence globally. according to fmohdoph (2004), mdt is readily available to patients in nigeria free of charge throughout their period of treatment. however, nwankwo (2006) frowned that without viable mdt advocacy groups, the public are inadequately informed of the efficacy of the drug. the researcher however frowns that treatment success with mdt has had minimal impact on social dimensions of leprosy especially in nigeria. stigma has not subsided, and economic and social rehabilitation programmes are not adequate. these situations are reminiscent of the area of study where persons affected by leprosy are not fully integrated into their communities. 1.2. research questions the following research questions guided the study 1. to what extent are residents of anambra and ebonyi states of southeast nigeria knowledgeable about leprosy? 2. are their differential levels of knowledge about leprosy across social demographic profile of residents of anambra and ebonyi states of southeast nigeria? 3. how does level of knowledge about leprosy in the area affect leprosy control programme? 1.3. research hypotheses 1. respondents with higher level of formal educational qualification are more likely to be knowledgeable about the cause of leprosy than those with lower educational qualification. 2. persons with lower level of formal education are more likely to isolate/discriminate against persons affected by leprosy than those with higher level of formal education. 1.4. theoretical framework health belief model (hbm) is a health behaviour change model first developed in the 1950s by social psychologists, houchbaum g.h., rosenstock i.m, and kegel. according to glanz et al. (2002), the proponents used the theory in its original form to explain why free medical screening for tuberculosis offered by the u.s. public health service was not successful. however, the model has been furthered by howard becker and colleagues in the 1970s and 1980s. subsequent amendments to the model were made as late as 1988, to accommodate evolving evidence generated within the health community about the role that knowledge and perceptions play in personal responsibility glanz et al. (2002). in its latest packaging, the hbm has been defined as a conceptual tool used to understand, explain and predict health behaviour (curative and preventive), including possible reasons for non-compliance with recommended health action (becker and rosenstock, 1984). in its task of explaining and predicting behavioural responses to treatment and other health services (health behaviours) and to promote uptake of health services, hbm focuses on the role that asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 89-100 93 knowledge, belief, perceptions and attitude play in personal responsibility, decisions and actions toward a disease or health service. conner and norman (1996) identified three broad areas of application of hbm. these are 1. preventive health behaviours which include health promoting (e.g. diet, exercising) and health risk behaviours (e.g. smoking) as well as vaccination and contraceptive practices. 2. sick role behaviours which refer to compliance with recommended medical regimens usually following professional diagnosis. 3. clinic use which includes physicians visits for a number of reasons. the core assumptions, propositions and statements of hbm are based on the understanding that a persons’ willingness to take a health action or change his health behaviour in a recommended direction is hinged on four major considerations or constructs. these are: 1. perceived susceptibility (an individual’s assessment of their risk of getting a condition. 2. perceived severity (an individual’s assessment of the seriousness of the condition, and its potential consequences) 3. perceived barriers (an individual’s assessment of the influences that facilitate or discourage adoption of the promoted behaviour) 4. perceived benefits (an individual’s assessment of the positive consequences of adopting the behaviour). a variant of the fourth construct include the perceived cost of adhering to prescribed intervention. two constructs added later were: 5. perceived efficacy (an individual’s self assessment of ability to successfully adopt the desired behaviour). 6. cues to action (external influences promoting the desired behaviour). the four major constructs of perception however respond to modifying or mediating factors that affect behaviour. such modifying factors include the media, health professionals, personal relationships, incentive, culture, education level, past experiences and skill etc. against the above background, hbm has become a very useful tool to explain the problems associated with leprosy and its control programme in society. the quantum and nature of knowledge, beliefs, perception and attitude toward leprosy is largely negative in many societies. this affects actions and decisions of individuals toward the disease. despite strong perceptions of susceptibility and severity of leprosy, hbm explains poor compliance to treatment and low uptake of leprosy services as products of barriers posed by socio-cultural interpretations that stimulate a preference to cover-up the disease among victims. among health workers, the perceived risk of contracting leprosy surpasses their estimation of perceived benefits from participation in leprosy management process. this accounts for their poor attitude to leprosy control duties. unfortunately the role of mediating or modifying factors like the media and incentives has been abysmally low. they could not attenuate the negative perceptions of victims, health workers and the public hence the tenacity of leprosy and its related problems in society. 2. materials and methods the study which is located in anambra and ebonyi states, randomly selected out of five states of southeast nigeria, adopted cross-sectional survey design. the study participants consisted of adults, aged 18 years and above. there are about 3,515,370 of such adults in the area which represented 57.2% of the area’s total population of 6,354,775 (national population commission, 2006) three instruments (questionnaire, focused group discussion and in-depth interview) were combined for optimum results. there are four categories of respondents, namely, the general public, persons affected by leprosy, leprosy control staff and officials of world health organization and the donor agency operating in the two states. all residents of the two states constituted the population of study. however, a sample size of 1116 adults (about 0.32% of adults/study population), considered adequate for applicable statistical techniques were the study participants on who a uniform set of structured questionnaire schedule, containing closed and open ended items were administered on a one-on-one (other administered) basis to generate quantitative data. the sample also accommodated geographical spread and rural-urban bias at the ratio of 2:1 (see table 2 below). respondents were selected through a combination of cluster and random sampling methods. qualitative data via focused group discussion (fgd) were generated from purposively selected 52 persons affected by leprosy from state leprosy treatment registers. there were four sessions of fgd (two in each state) with 6-12 participants per session segmented along gender. the moderator of each fgd was of the same sex with their fgd group. also, purposively selected 10 leprosy control staff and 2 officials of world health organization and the donor agency operating in the two states were respondents to in-depth interview (idi). all instruments used in the study were pre-tested outside the study locations by the researcher and five field assistants trained for the research this was to ensure reliability and suitability of instruments to meet study objectives. the language of administration of the questionnaire and fgd was igbo, spoken in the area, because there were many respondents who could not read, write or understand english language. nonetheless, english was used where any respondent showed preference for english language. the instrument which was originally in english was translated into the local language, which is igbo and retranslated into english, to provide both igbo and english versions. same sex administration of questionnaire was carried out to prevent any cultural barriers and permit free discussion or responses to questionnaire items. all idi sessions were conducted in english because respondents were all very literate. quantitative data gathered in the course of research were analyzed with the help of the statistical package for the social sciences (spss) soft ware. descriptive statistics like frequency distribution tables, mean, median, percentages and bar-charts were used to interpret data. one correlation analysis (the chi-square) was employed in hypothesis test. on the other hand, qualitative data generated through fgd and idi were transcribed and organized under different aspects of the discussion and used to explain quantitative data where applicable. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 89-100 94 table-2. local government areas (lga), communities and villages used in the study states lgas communities villages/streets compounds visited no of respondents a n a m b r a nnewi north (urban) otolo orizu road 62 186 idemili south (rural) alor ifite village 62 186 awka north (rural) achalla umudiana village 62 186 e b o n y i abakaliki (urban) abakaliki ibibio street 62 186 ohaozara (rural) okposi okposi-ukwu 62 186 ohaukwu (rural) efiom akparata village 62 186 total 6 lgas 6communities 6 villages/str. 372 1116 source: field survey, 2010. 2.1. research findings one thousand, one hundred and sixteen (1116) questionnaires were administered out of which 1104 were used for analysis after coding and cleaning/ editing all validly completed and returned questionnaire schedules. results and their analysis were presented according to research questions for easy comprehension. 1. socio-demographic/personal characteristics of respondents the socio-demographic profile of respondents is presented in table 3 below. table-3.distribution of respondents by socio-demographic characteristics socio – demographic characteristics (items 1 – 11) frequency n = 1104 percentage % sex male female 505 599 45.7 54.3 age group 18 – 27 28 – 37 38 – 47 48 – 57 58 – 67 68 and above 246 206 326 201 78 47 22.3 18.7 29.5 18.2 7.1 4.3 marital status married single divorced separated widowed 499 363 51 62 129 45.2 32.9 4.6 5.6 11.7 religious affiliation christianity islam traditional religion others 890 21 189 4 80.6 1.9 17.1 .4 highest formal educational attainment no formal education primary school certificate secondary school certificate vocational/technical school certificate tertiary 145 142 414 168 235 13.1 12.9 37.5 15.2 21.3 occupation civil/public servant trader/business man farmer student apprentice artisan unemployed others 239 243 260 119 85 80 74 4 21.6 22.0 23.6 10.8 7.7 7.2 6.7 .4 nature of income per month regular periodic no income 239 634 231 21.6 57.4 20.9 income per quarter of a year (every 3 months period) none below n30,000 n31,000 – n50,000 n51,000 – n70,000 n71,000 – n90,000 n91,000 – n110,000 n111,000 – n130,000 above n131,000 232 147 141 123 149 124 93 95 21 13.3 12.8 11.1 13.5 11.2 8.4 8.6 source: field survey, 2010. table 3 shows that females constituted 54.3% of the total respondents, while the males constituted 45.7%. many of the respondents (29.5%) fall within the age bracket of 38 – 47 years. the least number of respondents (4.3%) came from the age – group of 45 years and above. however, the modal and median ages were 41 and 45 years respectively. also, the mean age of respondents was 40.33 years with a standard deviation of 13.45. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 89-100 95 with regard to the marital status of the respondents, 45.2% were married while 32.9% are single. the widowed, separated and divorced respondents were very few (11.7%, 5.6% and 4.6% respectively). the large number of married respondents illuminates the high premium placed on marriage and family institution in the area. similarly, divorce is low probably because the value system abhors it. being married and having stable marriage are accorded high esteem and social honour among igbo people. with respect to religious affiliation, the table clearly shows that more than three-quarter of the respondents (80.6%) were christians. a few of the respondents belong to other religious groups including islam (1.9%), traditional religion (17.1%) and other unspecified groups (.4%). in terms of highest formal educational attainment, those who possess secondary school certificate constituted 37.5% of the respondents. other categories of educational attainment/ certification were tertiary (21.3%), vocational/technical school (15.2%), and primary school certificate holders (12.9%). with only 13.1% of the respondents without any form of formal education, the literacy level in the area is relatively high. however, more respondents from anambra state (27.7%) had tertiary education than those from ebonyi state where only 15% had tertiary education. the respondents were almost equally divided across three major occupations. these are farmers (23.6%), traders (22%), and civil/public servants (21.6%). students, apprentices, artisans and the unemployed were few. they constituted 10.8%, 7.7%, 7.2%, and 6.7% respectively. the occupational distribution of the respondents highlighted above mirrors the popular description of ebonyi state as food basket (major agricultural zone) of the nation, and anambra state as center for commerce and other entrepreneurial activities. the predominance of farmers and traders in the area of study is therefore not a major surprise. however, the nature of income reveals that most of the respondents (57.4%) earn periodic income; 21.6% earn regular income on monthly basis, while 20.9% earn no income at all. in terms of actual income earned per quarter (every three months), many of the respondents (21%) earn no income. these include students, apprentices, some artisans and the unemployed. more than two-thirds of these respondents that earn no income are from anambra state. furthermore, 13.5% of the respondents earn below n30, 000 per quarter, and only 8.6% earn above n131, 000 per quarter. this shows that income status of individuals within the area of study is generally low. the mean income per quarter of the respondents is analysis of research 2.2. questions the research questions posed to guide the study are analysed below. 2.3. research question i: to what extent are residents of anambra and ebonyistates knowledgeable about leprosy? the level of knowledge on leprosy by respondents was measured by their knowledge of the cause and early signs of the disease. also, their knowledge of correct place(s) of treatment, treatment duration and whether the disease is curable or not was equally relevant.to be knowledgeable about leprosy, the respondents must satisfy at least one out of 5-point criteria used for knowledge assessment. they must know that the cause of the disease is a germ, and that its early sign is patch (es) on the skin with loss of feeling. they should also know that the disease is curable over a 618 months period and that the correct places for treatment are leprosy clinics/hospitals and primary healthcare centres (phc). at such places, treatment is obtained free of charge (fmohdophc, 1997). respondents who failed to satisfy at least one of the criteria were considered as not knowledgeable about leprosy. the knowledge level /profile of respondents on leprosy, and the comparison of level of knowledge on leprosy between the two states were examined in tables 4 below. table-4.distribution of respondents by their knowledge profile on leprosy using 5-point criteria of cause, early signs, designated place of treatment, mode of treatment and curability. 5-point knowledge criteria/ profile frequency n = 1104 percentage(%) cause of leprosy (item 15) germ poison/charm witches curse/angry gods don’t know 282 168 207 399 48 25.5 15.2 18.8 36.1 4.3 early signs of leprosy (item 16) patches on the skin with loss of feeling disfigured toes and fingers itching and sweating swollen legs don’t know 254 406 133 96 215 23.01 36.8 12.0 8.7 19.5 designated place of treatment (item 20) general hospital maternity homes teaching hospitals leprosy clinics/hospitals primary health centre (phc) don’t know 576 52 155 257 60 34 52.2 4.7 14.0 23.2 5.4 3.1 mode of leprosy treatment (item 21) runs throughout life free and lasts 6-18 months to cure available only in urban areas costs between n50,000 – n100,000 don’t know 313 160 276 101 254 28.4 14.5 25.0 9.1 23.0 curability (is leprosy curable; item 19) yes no don’t know 477 573 54 43.2 51.9 4.9 source: field survey, 2010. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 89-100 96 table 4, shows that while the people of the communities sampled and by implication, the people of anambra and ebonyi states are aware of leprosy, they are not knowledgeable about its cause, early signs, place of treatment, curability and mode of treatment etc. most respondents do not have a clear knowledge of the cause of leprosy. for example, only about one-quarter or 25.5% correctly identified germ as cause of the disease. on the other hand, 36% wrongly attributed it to curse/angry gods; 18.8% to witches; 15.2% to poison /charm, while 4.3% do not know of any cause. on early signs of the disease, an aggregate 77% identified signs that were not typical of early leprosy. only 23%, representing less than one-quarter of the respondents were knowledgeable that patch (es) on the skin with loss of feeling to light touch is a sign of early leprosy. the findings in respect of respondents’ understanding or knowledge of cause and early signs of leprosy were corroborated by fgd participants who similarly attributed leprosy to other causes other than germs. they also accepted that they did not recognize the problem in its early stage and hence, did not seek medical attention on time. a female fgd participant at mile 4 hospital, abakaliki described her case thus‘i saw patches on my body and took local drugs for many years but it did not heal. i heard about this place (mile 4) through radio and came’. another fgd participant remarks that ‘i have gone to three hospitals at onueke. this place (mile 4) is my fourth place in search of cure? yet another participant said ‘it started in 2005 but it was in 2009 that i got to know it is leprosy’with respect to designated place(s) for leprosy treatment, 23.2% and 5.4% correctly identified leprosy clinic/hospital and phc centre respectively. the remaining 71.4% showed their lack of knowledge by their reference to general hospitals, teaching hospitals and maternity homes. the result is also corroborated by more than half of fgd participants per session who stated that they did not know the service outlets and had wandered to different types of hospital, prayer houses and traditional healers before they came across individuals who properly guided them. on whether leprosy is curable, 51.9% of the respondents wrongly believed that the disease is not curable. about 43.2% have accurate knowledge that the disease is curable, while 4.9% were unsure about whether the disease is curable or not. however, only slightly above one-tenth (14.5%) of the respondents were knowledgeable that leprosy treatment is free and lasts between 6-18 months for cure to be achieved. the rest (85.5%) were not well informed. 2.4. research question ii: are their differential levels of knowledge about leprosy across social demographic profile of residents of anambra and ebonyistates of southeast nigeria? to further evaluate the socio-demographic correlates of knowledge about leprosy among the respondents, their knowledge on whether leprosy is curable was cross tabulated with some sociodemographic variables. this is shown in table 5 below table-5. distribution of respondents by some socio-demographic variables, knowledge level on cure (% in parenthesis). socio-demographic variables knowledge level on curability of leprosy statistics have knowledge n=477 (43.2%) no knowledge n=573 (51.9%) unsure n=54(4. 9%) age younger respondents older respondents total 229 (50.7%) 248 (38%) 477 (43.2%) 202 (44.7%) 371 (56.9%) 573 (51.9%) 21(4.7%) 33 (5.1%) 54 (4.9%) x2=17.614,df=2,p=.000 marital status single ever married total 194 (29.8%) 283 (62.6%) 477 (43.2%) 417 (64%) 156 (34.5%) 573 (51.9%) 41 (6.3%) 13 (2.9% 54(4.9%) x2=23.319,df=2,p=.000 occupation income generating non income generating total 359 (43.5%) 118 (42.5%) 477 (43.2%) 426 (51.6%) 147 (52.9%) 573 (51.9%) 41(5.0%) 13 (4.8%) 54 (4.9%) x2=.153,df=2,p=.926 educational attainment no formal education low formal education medium formal education high formal education total 70 (48.3%) 68 (48.9%) 200 (34.4%) 139 (59.1%) 477 (43.2%) 68 (46.9%) 70 (49.3%) 342 (58.8%) 93 (39.6%) 573 (59.1%) 7 (4.3%) 4 (2.8%) 40 (6.9%) 3 (12.8%) 54 (4.9%) x2=51.183,df=6,p=.000 religion christianity islam traditional religion others total 439 (49.3%) 4 (19.1%) 34 (18%) 0 (0%) 477 (43.2%) 423 (47.5%) 11 (52.4%) 136 (72%) 3 (75%) 573 (51.9%) 28 (3.2%) 6 (28.6%) 19 (10.1%) 1 (25%) 54 (4.9%) x2=101.653,df6,p=.000 income group no income low income medium income high income total 141 (60.8%) 225 (40.2%) 71 (32.7%) 40 (42.1%) 477 (100%) 90 (3%)8.8 301 (53.75%) 129 (59.5%) 53 (55.8%) 573 (100%) 1 (0.43%) 34 (6.07%) 17 (13.8%) 2 (2.1%) 54 (4.9%) x2=50.400,df=6,p=.000 locality urban rural total 185 (49.9%) 289 (39.6%) 477 (43.2%) 162 (43.7%) 411 (56.3%) 573 (51.9%) 24 (6.4%) 30 (4.1%) 54 (4.9%) x2=30.882,df=4,p=.000 gender male female total 253 (50.1%) 224 (37.4%) 477 (43.2%) 230 (45.5%) 343 (57.3%) 573 (51.9%) 22 (4.4%) 32 (5.3%) 54 (4.9%) x2=18.026,df=2,p=.000 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 89-100 97 table 5 shows that slightly above four-tenth of the respondents (43.2%) were found to be knowledgeable that leprosy is curable. the rest (51.9%) were not knowledgeable, while about 5.7% were undecided. in terms of age groups, 50% of the younger respondents aged 18-37years and 38% of the older group aged 3868years and above were knowledgeable about cure of leprosy. also, the younger generation were significantly more knowledgeable (p< 0.05) about leprosy than the older generation. this could be accounted for by the positive effects of information, communication and technology (ict) on the younger generation. with respect to marital status, the single respondents were also significantly more knowledgeable (p < 0.05) of cure of leprosy than the ever married respondents. about 62.2% of the ever married respondents are knowledgeable whereas only 29.8% of the single respondents were also knowledgeable. this may be attributed to the fact that ever married are more exposed life .they are also more likely to explore various sources of information and may have travelled to more places through which they update their knowledge on various issues. also, in terms of occupation, 43.5% of the income generating and 42.5% of the non-income generating respondents were knowledgeable. there was no significant difference in levels of knowledge about cure of leprosy between the two groups (p < 0.05). respondents who attained tertiary education were most knowledgeable about cure of leprosy. almost six-tenth (59.1%) of those in this group was knowledgeable. there is a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the level of knowledge of respondents with different levels of education. respondents with medium education (secondary and vocational) are least knowledgeable. this could be explained by their minimal level of social contacts and education. with respect to religious affiliation, income group, locality and gender, the table shows that christians (49.3%), no income group (60.8%), urban residents (50.14%) and male gender (50.1%) were all more knowledgeable than their opposite counterparts. it was also found that there is significant difference in levels of knowledge (p < 0.05) on cure of leprosy between different religious affiliations, urban and rural areas, male and female gender, and between distinct income groups 2.5. research question iii: how does level of knowledge about leprosy in the area affect leprosy control programme? this research question was verified by asking respondents to identify major problems that confront leprosy control programme in their area. this is with a view to ascertain if low level of knowledge of leprosy will be listed by respondents. in this regard, majority of the respondents (21.9%) were of the opinion that the first major problem facing leprosy control programme is the belief system (see fig 2 below). fig-2.what do you consider as the major problem facing leprosy control progamme in your community? four other problems, mentioned in their order of importance, were inadequacy of logistics (15.9%), poor funding (14.3%), poor public awareness and knowledge about signs and symptoms of leprosy (11.8%) and lack of community participation in control effort (11.4%) etc. these problems were also emphasized by many fgd participants. an idi participant from ebonyi state identified problems of poor salary, low level of research and inability to link leprosy to national social welfare plan as additional problems. 2.6. test of research hypotheses in this section, two hypotheses raised for the study were tested separately. the chi-square statistics was employed in hypotheses testing since most of the data are categorical variables. test of hypothesis one: respondents with higher level of formal educational qualification are more likely to be knowledgeable about the cause of leprosy than those with lower educational qualification. to test this hypothesis, crosstabulations between level of education of respondents and their response about cause of leprosy was used. see table 6 below asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 89-100 98 table-6. distribution of respondents by their level of education and knowledge of the cause of leprosy level of education cause of leprosy germ poison/charm witches curse/angry gods don’t know total no education 36 (12.8%) 32 (19.1%) 28 (13.5%) 38 (9.5%) 16 (34.8%) 145 (13.1%) low education 50 (17.8%) 16 (9.5%) 21 (10.1%) 48 (12%) 7 (15.2%) 142(12.9%) medium education 108(38.3%) 98 (58.3%) 137(66.2%) 223(55.9%) 16(34.8%) 582(52.7%) high education 88 (31.2%) 22 (13.1%) 26 (12.6%) 90 (22.6%) 9 (19.6%) 235 (21.3%) total 282 (100%) 168 (100%) 207 (100%) 399 (100%) 46 (100%) 1104 (100%) x2 = 81.797, df 12, p = 0.000 the calculated value of chi-square is 81.797. the critical or table value of chi-square at 0.05 level of significance with a degree of freedom (df) of 12 is 21.026. having observed that the computed value of chi-square is greater than the table value, we therefore accepted the alternative hypothesis and concluded that there is a significant relationship between level of education and knowledge of cause of leprosy. test of hypothesis two: persons with lower level of formal education are more likely to isolate/discriminate against persons affected by leprosy than those with higher level of formal education.’ to test this hypothesis, a cross-tabulation between level of education and how one relates with persons affected by leprosy was carried out (see table 7 below) table-7. distribution of respondents according to level of education and their relationship with persons affected by leprosy (percentages in parenthesis) level of education relationship with persons affected by leprosy am afraid of them i isolate (stay away) from them. i co-operate and interact with them total no formal education 30 (10.6%) 99 (15.6%) 16 (8.6%) 145 (13.1%) primary school certificate 45 (15.8%) 74 (11.7%) 23 (12.4%) 142 (12.9%) secondary school certificate 100 (35.2%) 237 (37.4%) 77 (41.4%) 414 (37.5%) vocational /technical school certificate 36 (12.7%) 115 (18.1%) 17 (9.14%) 168 (15.2%) tertiary 73 (25.7%) 109 (17.2%) 53 (28.5%) 235 (21.2%) total 284(100%) 634(100%) 186(100%) 1104 (100%) x2 = 32.572, df = 8, p = 0.000 the computed value of chi-square is 32.572. the tabulated value of chi-square at 0.05 level of significance with a degree of freedom (df) of 8 is 15.507. since the computed value of chi-square is greater than the tabulated value, the researcher consequently accepted the alternative hypothesis. this implies that there is a significant relationship between educational attainment and relationship with persons affected by leprosy. 3. discussion of research findings from the analysis of field data, it was observed that knowledge about cause of leprosy, its early signs and symptoms, place of treatment, mode of treatment and curability has remained quite low. this is not unconnected to low levels of advocacy, health education and public enlightenment drives which as adagba (2011) disclosed, breeds misconceptions. such misconceptions generate wrong management strategies which have continued to compound the problem of leprosy in the two states. specifically, low level of knowledge about place of treatment is accountable for why only 19.5% of the respondents considered orthodox medicine as the best (appropriate) management strategy for leprosy. the remaining 80.5% of the respondents were inclined toward ritual cleansing, traditional medicine and prayer houses as preferred options for leprosy treatment. delays in prompt response to early signs of leprosy are also attributable to lack of knowledge about these early signs. the problem of low level of knowledge about leprosy was quite pronounced because less than 27% of respondents from both states were knowledgeable on 4 out of 5-points profile used for assessment. the situation calls for concerted effort by stakeholders to respond aggressively to the problem which negatively affects leprosy control. also, other socio-cultural factors were identified which may have united with limited knowledge about the disease to compound challenges experienced by the control programme. the most important of such factors is the people’s belief system about leprosy. this observation agrees with the health belief model (hbm) adopted as the theoretical thrust for this study. the hbm explains behaviour (preventive and curative health behaviour and responses) in relation to belief systems, knowledge, attitude and perceptions held by individuals that ultimately affect their actions toward problems and disease situations. given strong perceptions of susceptibility and severity of leprosy among the study population (which ordinarily should stimulate appropriate responses), hbm thus relates or explains poor performance of leprosy control, evident in the study area in the forms of low community participation, low uptake of leprosy control services and poor compliance to treatment as associated to socio-cultural beliefs and reactions that stimulate a preference to cover up the disease by victims. beliefs serve as templates that have negatively structured responses or activities of individuals in the context of leprosy control. interestingly, this type of situation has also been found to be true in both eastern and western cultures where fear of leprosy has existed from ancient times (nicholls, 2000). valsa (1999) has also observed that the belief that leprosy is a curse from gods is a global phenomenon. this study has therefore shown that the igbo group which populate the two states is not an exception in that regard. it is therefore pertinent, as kaufmaun et al. (1993) suggested that shared meanings of the group about leprosy and other cultural factors ought to be understood by leprosy control programmes. unfortunately, this is the exception rather than the rule in the control programmes of anambra and ebonyi states. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 89-100 99 4. conclusions and recommendations based on the findings from the present study, the following recommendations are made 1. in view of prevalent low level of knowledge about leprosy, government and private media houses in the two states and beyond should be involved in a comprehensive health education and public enlightenment package. the programme should preferably use local dialect to disseminate correct information about leprosy as well as reliable interventions in place for its control. this is to counter erroneous cultural and religious beliefs about the disease and to improve the ability of individuals in the community to recognise its early danger signs and take appropriate health seeking solutions. by so doing, the spread of leprosy and the development of deformity due to late detection and late commencement of treatment would be minimized 2. the use of traditional media like town criers as effective tools for sensitizing community members about leprosy should be adopted. this will complement the efforts of the western form of media and ensure a more extensive coverage of the area with appropriate leprosy related information. 3. the support of traditional and religious institutions must be sought and won. to this end, there should be extensive advocacy visits by leprosy control staff to traditional rulers, religious leaders and other opinion leaders in the communities that make-up the two states. this is to improve their understanding of issues related to leprosy and to enable them be at the fore-front of the crusade to change people’s perception about leprosy. 4. there is immense need to improve the level of knowledge through massive community involvement, ownership and participation in the programme. the involvement of community leaders is a laudable step in this direction. in addition, the role of social groups like age-grades, women groups, clubs and faith-based associations will positively affect people’s knowledge of leprosy and decisions toward dismantling challenges, beliefs and socio-cultural factors that affect leprosy control programme 5. with the support and participation of the community, socio-cultural practices and beliefs that negatively affected leprosy control should be out rightly abolished. 6. public health education and advocacy should be a major priority in a holistic leprosy control strategy. in this regard the capacity building of health workers should continuously updated for effective health education sessions. 7. there is immense need for inter-agency collaboration to meet the goals of leprosy control. the programme should liaise with national alleviation poverty eradication programme, social welfare department and ministry of education among others to address issues of poverty, welfare low public lieracy and social integration as they affect leprosy patients. 8. in view of the fact that leprosy affects principally the low income group; and that low education is often correlated to poor treatment compliance and tendency to isolate/discriminate against persons affected by leprosy; there is need for social support package to cushion the effects of poverty and improve the literacy level in the community. in this regard, interest free loans, free education and adult education classes will be very helpful. 9. there should be regular conduct of seminars for traditional healers to enable them suspect and appropriately refer leprosy cases. this seminar is important given the fact this study found that the dominant choice for anti-leprosy treatment were toward traditional healers. they thus need to be enlightened about the proper thing to do when such cases come to them. references adagba, k., 2011. interview granted to nigerian television authority (nta) to mark 50 years of tackling leprosy problem in nigeria, nta weekend file, 5th february. becker, m.h. and i.m. rosenstock, 1984. compliance with medical advice. in a. steptoe & a. mathews (eds.). health care and human behaviour. london: academic press. pp: 135-152. bryceson, a. and r.e. pfaltzgraff, 1990. leprosy. united kingdom: longman group uk limited. chukwu, j.n., 2004. towards a leprosy free society: the role of tuberculosis and leprosy supervisors (tbls). being an address presented at the quarterly meeting of anambra state tuberculosis and leprosy supervisors held at local government hall, amawbia, 5th – 7th. conner, m. and p. norman, 1996. predicting health behaviour. search and practice with social cognition models. ballmore buckingham: open university press. davey, t.f. and r.j.w. rees, 1974. the nasal discharge in leprosy: clinical and bacteriological aspects. leprosy review, 45(2): 121–134. desikan, k.v., 1977. viability of mycobacterium leprae outside the human body. leprosy review, 48: 231–235. ekiti, p., 2010. address to mark ‘2010 world leprosy day on theme – justice: fighting a just course. nigeria: world health organization. ezekpeazu, j.i., 2000. leprosy: causative organism, mode of spread, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, classification and treatment. paper presented at world leprosy day conference held at madonna university, okija, 9th – 11th feb. federal ministry of health department of public health, 2004. national tuberculosis and leprosy control programme (ntblcp) workers’ manual. 4th edn. fmohdophc, 1997. national tuberculosis and leprosy control programme (ntblcp), workers’ manual. 2nd edn. glanz, k., b.k. rimer and f.m. lewis, 2002. health behaviour and health education: theory, research and practice. 3rd edn., san fransisco: wiley & sons. green, p., 1995. prevention and control of leprosy. leprosy review, 22: 40-49. kaufmaun, a., j. neville and s.g. mariam, 1993. the social dimension of leprosy. london: talmilep. lockwood, d., 2000. consequences of leprosy and socio-economic rehabilitation. leprosy review, 71(4): 417 – 419. national population commission, 2006. 2006 population and housing census of the federal republic of nigeria. national and state population and housing tables (priority tables), 1. nicholls, p.g., 2000. guidelines for social and economic rehabilitation. leprosy review, 71(4): 422 – 465. noordeen, s.k., 1989. the epidemiology of leprosy. in hastings, r.c. 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organization, 2010. new case detection and prevalence, 2005 – 2008 for south-east zone of nigeria. who south-east zonal office enugu. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.who.int/wer asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 2, 53-57, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 53 effectiveness of encouragement training in alleviating depression among mothers of children with hearing impairment mahbobe karkhaneh 1 --guita movallali 2* --mehdi ali mohammadi 3 --zeinab salehy 4 1,2 university of social welfare & rehabilitation sciences (uswr), tehran, iran 3 kharazmi university. tehran, iran 4 national university of malaysia (ukm) abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 54 2. method ................................................................................................................................................................................. 55 3. results .................................................................................................................................................................................. 55 4. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 56 5. acknowledgment.................................................................................................................................................................. 56 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 56 mothers of children with hearing impairment are highly vulnerable to psychological problems such as anxiety and depression. this study was done to assess depression in mothers of hearing impaired children and the effectiveness of encouragement training in alleviating depression in them. this study is an experimental, pre-test and post-test design with a control group. the population of this research consists of mothers of children with hearing impairment in tehran city. using random sampling, 40 mothers of children with hearing loss who were enrolled in the centre, and scored 19 to 29 points (moderate depression to severe depression) in the beck depression inventory, were selected randomly from tehran rehabilitation centers and assigned randomly into two groups: 20 in the experimental group and 20 in the control group. the experimental group was given 10 sessions of group encouragement training (two sessions of 90 minutes a week). symptoms of depression in both groups were evaluated before (pre-test) and after (post-test) of the intervention program. research data were analyzed using covariance analysis method. findings of the study indicated that group encouragement training program reduced the symptoms of depression in the experimental group more significantly (p > .01) than in the control group. effectiveness of group encouragement training program in alleviating mother's depression needs more theoretical and practical implications. therefore, it is necessary that in rehabilitation programs for children with hearing impairment, attention needs to be given to address the emotional dimensions of the family and the maternal psychological status, besides the usual services provided. keywords: encouragement training, mothers of children with hearing impaired, depression. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 53-57 54 1. introduction one of the most superior senses of human being is hearing. the privation of hearing sense does not mean that the person is just unable to hear the sounds. however, it can lead to failures to attain beneficial and hopeful experiences in an individual’s social life (hallahan et al., 2012). hearing loss is a common injury at birth. according to the statistics from centers for diseases control and prevention in the united states of america, one to three percent of 1000 newborn infants have a hearing loss (tayebi ramin et al., 2014). early childhood years are a golden period for learning and education of children with impaired hearing. this is the time when they can learn efficacious social skills and education. any neglect in the early starting of rehabilitation and intervention program can cause irreversible damages to the future skills of children with impaired hearing (alpiner and mc carthy, 2002). if they missed the chances presented in the early years, the children will face difficulties to having a successful life (curtin et al., 2014). the mother is the greatest teacher and coach during this time. the mother plays a significant role in the success of child (dumont et al., 2012). however, the diagnosis of less hearing child has different outcomes on the family, especially on the mother. despite recent clinical advances, less hearing children face many medical and psychological aspects, an issue which seems to be a challenging one (tayebi ramin et al., 2014). the ability of the mother to adapt to a child with impaired hearing is a major cause that can change the child’s life in different ways. for the mothers of children who have higher trust and confidence in childhood compatibility and adaptive emotional years, their children have shown an improvement in their education. the less hearing children to pass the emotional childhood, their parents will need to accept them as less hearing children (hintermair, 2006). in the early years, helping the family of impaired hearing children was not in the domain of physicians. besides, access to experts to coach impaired hearing children was almost impossible. however, a major problem that faces parents of impaired hearing children was the child’s loss of hearing and ways to improve the child’s language skills (chu, 2009). depression is the main cause of disability or impotence (sinnott et al., 2014) and it is a prevalent disease throughout the world (stoyanova, 2014). international statistics shows that 121 million people have depression disorders (who, 2011). therefore, it has become an epidemic like a universal disease (murray et al., 2012). women are found experiencing from depression more than men (stoyanova, 2014). the children of depressed mothers will face a variety of problems such as retardation in language competence, social and cognitive development. therefore, especially when the children are younger, the mother is more vulnerable to depression (campbell, 2010). the parents of impaired children have a higher risk of mental health (van driessche et al., 2014). though many of the mothers are able to deal with the problem, in general, mothers who have a physical disorder, depression, stress, anxiety, and less self-confidence, may experience loneliness and may have a problem with their communication (khamis, 2007). however, the mothers of impaired hearing children may face other problems as well. studies have indicated that impaired hearing children are lower in some contexts compared with hearing children. in addition, more than 40% of hearing impaired children are accompanied with other disabilities as well marschark et al. (2011). for example, in 2010, dammeyer found that in the psycho-sociological aspects, children with impaired hearing are lower than others. this is because mothers with depression are a potential risk for their children (goodman, 2014). the mothers of impaired children will experience more depression than mothers of normal children for different reasons. first, more than 90% of hearing impaired children is born from families who are unfamiliar with such a situation and they may have never seen a child with impaired hearing in their families before. faced with these realities, parents will experience a feeling of loneliness and will need to look for a place which can help them. consequently, they understand that they need to increase their awareness, and thus, immediately they decide to find the best solution for their children to fulfill their needs, and provide support for their education. besides, hearing impaired children create difficulties for their mothers because of their deficiency in language skills (hintermair, 2006). second, their parents will be limited in their social network because of the presence of a hearing impaired child in the family environment, and hence, their social support will reduce. previous studies have reported that social support is recognized as an affective factor for mental health of mothers of hearing impaired children (pippsiegel et al., 2002). third, previous studies have shown that hearing impaired children have less mental health than normal children (fellinger et al., 2008; 2009); (kvam et al., 2007). therefore, the parents of these children should think about reducing the psychological problems of their children on top of their impaired hearing problem. all these challenges and communicative problems of hearing impaired children contribute to the cause more issues for the mothers of impaired hearing children in contrast to mothers of hearing who face less physical health condition. the promising point is that previous studies have reported that early intermediation will reduce the domain of children issues. in decade of 1970, researchers paid attention to training and counseling of parents with special children. during those times, it was important to develop intermediation programs and to study the direct effects on cognitiveemotional development of special children. several studies have revealed the efficiency of these counseling programs. parents who participated in intermediation and counseling programs had a more adaptive ability with current situations in the long term. they also had closer relationship with their children and positive attitude toward the disability of their children. furthermore, they had better emotional relationships with their children (khamis, 2007); (shechtman and gilat, 2005). to reduce the depression, many methods have been suggested, one of which is encouragement. encouragement is a diagnosis, acceptance and transformation of internal beliefs to an individual. one who is able to give encouragement and adler treatment considers it as a determiner of the aspect of development and human growth; people consider it as giving hope and encouragement to others to cooperate. nystrom (2014); bahlmann and dinter (2001) defined encouragement as a means of understanding that even though there is a negative and positive points in an individual, the perception of himor herself make an outstanding difference in his approach toward life. in other words, encouragement is not to deny or to oppress a negative aspect in life, but to pay attention to the positive and the negative; and studying the choice of positive issues and having awareness about what we do in a way that is beneficial to our life. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 53-57 55 losensi and dinkmer defined the encouragement as a process of facilitating the development of innate capacity and sense of braveness to do a positive action (nystrom, 2014). encouragement is a message such as “i have trust in you,” “i respect you,” “your effort is worthy and admirable,” and “i am with you and beside you”. witenko (2014) carried out a study to evaluate the effect of encouragement on educational improvement in a high school in southern california and found that the students who received encouragement performed higher than those who took no notice to their encouragement. nystrom (2014) conducted a study about using encouragement to help the families having a person with alzheimer in the family, and with the aim of giving hope to them. the study suggested that encouragement can have positive effect on families who have a person with alzheimer. it also helped them to attain self-concept and self-worthiness, while reducing their feeling of isolation and improving their social communication. the relationship between depression of mothers and their children’s social skills (derose et al., 2014) and issues regarding social skills of children with impaired hearing, gave importance to depression experience faced by mothers of children with impaired hearing. hence, the present study was conducted to measure the level of depression among mothers of children with hearing impairment and the role of encouragement in the remedy of depression faced by these mothers. 2. method both control group and experimental group were evaluated. the measurement was administrated by a pre-test before encouragement training and encouragement was administrated by a post-test after the encouragement training. the experimental group and control group were selected and assigned randomly into two groups: 20 in the experimental group and 20 in the control group. prior to commencing the study, ethical clearance was given to participants and they were assured that their information will be classified as secret information, and they have authority to leave research at any level. at the end of research, applicants of control group had 5 sessions of group inter-mediation. the experimental group was given 10 sessions of group encouragement training (two sessions of 90 minutes a week). content of 10 training sessions were derived from encouragement training sessions of shonaker salimi bajestani and asali talkoui (2013). in the first session, the concept of encouragement had been explained by leader and behaviors that were caused to encouragement had been taught to participants. participant had been discussed about behaviors while observed themselves and explored what they like to know about him/her, their family and their life. in the second session, goal-oriented and concept of human behavior had been taught. in the third session, members must accept that human being is incomplete creature and they never blame someone for its fault. in the fourth session, they learnt loving thought and encouragement. in the fifth session, they focused on the effect of backbite (negative talking behind the others) on relationships, unity and integrity. the sixth session was for creating positive relations and self-encouragement. the seventh session was for describing and expansion of sixth session by practicing on internal conversation and encouragement identical statement. the eighth session was a survey for our role in difficult situations. the ninth session was for review of our images and personal definition of love. tenth session was for relaxation exercise and state encouraging sentences such as if others are able to do, so you can do it, try several times, finally you attain the achievement. the failure is bridge for success. also participants practiced 10 encouraging skills from shonaker approach during the sessions. this 10 skills are include: amendable, inspiring the faith and trust, exploring strength point in individuals, emphasis on strength point of others, accepting fault, motivating responsibility, notice to special interest of others, modeling, constancy support and considering people as a unique person. 3. results the statistical method were used in this study are descriptive statistic consisting of mean, standard deviation and inferential statistic consisting paired t-test and covariance test analysis. table 1 shows the results of depression score before t-test and after t-test in impaired hearing children’s mothers that was a significant difference (p<. 001). this means that encouragement training has a significant effect on mother’s depression reduction. the hypothesis evaluation was done by analysis of covariance test. table-1. depression and posttest scores of the experimental group significance level t standard deviation mean indicator group .001** .468 4.76 11.08 pre-test 1.81 2.6 post-test **p<.001 table-2. the analysis results of covariance after posttest omitting the effect of pre-test between 2 groups significance level f ratio mean square degrees of freedom sum of squares sources of variation .001 37.95 647.15 1 647.15 groups(independent variable) 17.05 38 630.89 error variance (intragroup) 39 10309 total the results (as shown in table 2), indicate that the value of calculated f (37) with degree of freedom 1, was bigger than f in the table (7.35), so research hypothesis confirmed with 99% confidence. this means, encouragement training has positive effect on reduction of depression in mothers of impaired hearing children. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 53-57 56 4. conclusion less hearing is a condition that limits the ability of a child to oral communication. because of this reason, depression becomes a common phenomenon that occurs among parents of children with less hearing. the results of this study indicated that probability of mothers of children with impaired hearing experiencing depression is higher than that of their fathers. this problem faced by the mother leads the child to be less successful in his or her mental and linguistic skills development (prakash et al., 2013). researchers also mentioned that if the mother is appropriately supported and attention given to her as well, she will have a deeper emotional contact with her hearing impaired child (sipal and sayin, 2013). the present study was designed to determine the effect of encouragement training on reducing the depression faced by the mothers of hearing impaired children. the findings of the present study are consistent with those of prakash et al. (2013) who found the same results in their study with 50 participants. prakash and colleagues evaluated 50 mothers of cochlear implant children with high two-sided impaired hearing problem. the study aimed to determine and compare the level of stress and depression experienced by the mothers of children who used earphones. they found that the stress level and depression was high in both groups. this is in contrast to the results of other studies which found that level of stress and depression experienced by mothers of children who used earphone were higher. this finding corroborates the finding by sipal and sayin (2013) who surveyed 103 mothers of less hearing children on the aspect of the depression levels and effect of social support. they found that one of the causes of high depression is having a less hearing child. this study confirms that social support is associated with reduction of depression level. skarsater et al. (2003) studied the role of expertise encouragement and inventiveness in reducing the depression of 12 people. their findings support the idea that encouragement and inventiveness reduce patients’ mental pressure and help them recover their health condition, and thus give meaning to their life. encouragement helps people to retain their present social network or to organize a new network. although the finding of the present study supported those of previous research, a number of important limitations need to be considered. first, further tests were not conducted, and second, evaluation of long term effect of encouragement was not conducted. therefore, it is recommended that further research be undertaken in these areas. regarding advances in equipment and diagnosis programs, early diagnosis of hearing impaired children, the attention on psychological health condition of less hearing child, the essential role of parents in any kind of intermediation programs for development of disabled children, the need to conduct counseling and treatment programs (individually or in groups) for their parents should be considered. in fact, parents who participated in counseling and intermediation programs can adapt better to their condition in the long term. in addition, they have a closer relationship with their hearing impaired child. besides, they also have positive attitude toward their child’s disability (bar low et al., 2006); (berge et al., 2006). the parents’ psychological health condition has an effect on their expectation on their hearing impaired child, as well as their social vicissitude, emotions, cognitive and behavior of the children and the quality of their attachment (how, 2006); (o'neil et al., 2004). therefore, the adoption of effective and efficient treatment methods and organizing training workshops appropriately designed can avoid failures. these designs can be presented to parents, especially mothers of hearing impaired children. these programs can create awareness in the families facing similar problems and experiences, and facilitate the acceptance of disabled children and subsequently improve their mental health. finally, the findings of this study have a number of important implications that can benefit future practice in clinical, training and educational cooperators. 5. acknowledgment the authors wish to thank all mothers who participated in this study. references alpiner, j. and p. mc carthy, 2002. rehabilitative audiology. 4th edn., new yourk: williams & wilkins ltd. bahlmann, r. and l.d. dinter, 2001. encouragement self-encouragement: an effect study of the encouragement training shonaker concept. the journal of individual psychology, 57(3): 273-288. bar low, j., l. powell and m. gilehrist, 2006. the influence of the training and support programme on the selfefficacy and psychological well-being of parents of children with disabilities: a controlled trial. complementary therapies in clinical practice, 12(1): 55-63. berge, j.m., j.m. patterson and m. rueter, 2006. marital satisfaction and mental health of couples with children with chronic health conditions. families, systems and health, 24(3): 267-285. campbell, s.b., 2010. maternal depression and children’s adjustment in early childhood. encyclopedia on early childhood development. usa: university of pittsburgh. chu, j., 2009. sleep quality and psychological wellbeing in mothers of children with developmental disabilities. research development and disability, 30(6): 1512-1522. curtin, m., d. baker, a. staines and i.j. perry, 2014. are the special educational needs of children in their first year in primary school in ireland being identified: a cross-sectional study. bmc pediatrics, 14(1): 52. derose, l.m., m. shiyko, s. levey, j. helm and p.d. hastings, 2014. early maternal depression and social skills in adolescence: a marginal structural modeling approach. social development, 23(4): 753-769. dumont, h., u. trautwein, o. lüdtke, m. neumann, a. niggli and i. schnyder, 2012. does parental homework involvement mediate the relationship between family background and educational outcomes? 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(doctoral dissertation), university of california, santa barbara. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs369/en/webcite asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 4, 133-141, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 133 utilization of teaching space facilities at sunyani polytechnic in ghana joseph yaw dwamena quansah 1 1 department of social and business education, faculty of education, university for development studies, tamale, ghana abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................. 134 2. literature review .................................................................................................................................................................... 134 3. results and discussions .......................................................................................................................................................... 137 4. findings .................................................................................................................................................................................... 140 5. conclusions .............................................................................................................................................................................. 140 6. recommendations ................................................................................................................................................................... 140 references .................................................................................................................................................................................... 140 this paper investigates how teaching space facilities were being utilized at sunyani polytechnic in the brong ahafo region of ghana. the essence was to ascertain information on the factors that militate against efficient utilization of teaching space facilities at sunyani polytechnic. descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. lottery method of simple random sampling as well as purposive sampling were used in the selection of the sample size of 89 made up of 60 academic staff, 20 senior administrative staff and 9 technicians. two sets of questionnaire and an interview guide were used for the data collection. the methods used in analyzing the data were frequencies, percentages and cumulative frequencies presented in tables. the key factors identified as constraints to efficient utilization of the teaching space facilities at the polytechnic were departmentalized time tabling, inadequacy of computer laboratory and small size of instructional rooms. the major recommendations offered include the following: there should be centralized timetabling and computerization of the space allocation, provision of more general computer laboratories and provision of few large instructional rooms for very large class sizes. keywords: utilization, general-purpose classroom, specialized room, departmentalization-time tabling, tertiary and space allocation. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4):133-141 134 1. introduction education is regarded as an essential instrument through which human beings acquire skills and knowledge with a view of contributing to the development of the society. it is through education that the young ones are introduced to the belief and values of the society. considering this significant role of education as a cornerstone for national development and as the „life blood‟ of any nation, both the past and present governments of ghana have embarked on extensive educational reforms at all levels (primary, secondary and tertiary) in order to accelerate the development of the country. the massive educational reforms implemented in ghana since 1987 and subsequent reforms in 2007 have greatly expanded enrolment at the lower echelons of the educational system (basic and secondary). this has resulted in high demand for tertiary education in the country. however, the capacity of the country to make tertiary education accessible to every qualified applicant is constrained by the seeming intractable problem of inadequate educational resources. thus, the polytechnics in the country are able to absorb only a fraction of qualified applicants due to the limited physical infrastructure and other educational facilities. this scenario is virtually similar in all the other tertiary institutions in the country. the effect is that large numbers of qualified people are not able to enter the tertiary institutions in ghana. this state of affairs has made many prominent people in ghana including heads of institutions, parents and individuals to have stated that the facilities in the tertiary institutions relative to the students‟ population are woefully inadequate. hence, the only way to avert the situation is to increase the physical facilities and other educational resources of the institutions in the country. this problem of inadequate teaching facilities at the tertiary institutions has prompted government of ghana, through the ghana education trust fund (get fund), to improve and expand the academic infrastructure like lecture halls or classrooms, laboratories, workshops and other teaching and learning materials in the polytechnics and other tertiary institutions. this improvement is to facilitate access to the polytechnics and other tertiary institutions in the country. however, resources can be unnecessarily committed to providing more of educational resources (including teaching spaces) in tertiary institutions when the existing ones have not been put into maximum use. it has been suggested that one of the cost-effective ways to increase access to tertiary institutions is to promote efficiency in the utilization of the existing teaching spaces and other educational resources. according to kenny and foster (1983) the efficiency of utilization of teaching space facility is a cardinal factor of enrolment. owolabi (1993) agreed with this statement by stating that if education services are to be expanded without a corresponding expansion in resources inputs, then available resources will have to be managed more efficiently. to ensure that tertiary institutions in ghana use their facilities with a reasonable degree of efficiency, the ministry of education (1988) has established minimum utilization standards for instructional facilities. these standards are important tools that will help the institutions to manage their facilities efficiently and give government and other stakeholders important information when making funding decisions about constructing new instructional buildings. conforming to these standards may reduce the need to construct new buildings and allow scarce state resources to be devoted to other high priority needs in the country. however, since the inception of the sunyani technical institute into the tertiary education system as a polytechnic, there has not been any study to find out the utilization level of the teaching space facilities. this paper, therefore, delves into the factors that militate against efficient utilization of teaching space facilities at sunyani polytechnic and also suggests strategies to improve the utilization of the teaching space facilities at the polytechnic. 1.1. objectives of the study the main objective of this study is to investigate the factors that influence the utilization of the teaching space facilities at sunyani polytechnic and to suggest strategies to improve the utilization of such facilities. the specific objectives are to: 1. find the factors that influence utilization of the existing teaching space at sunyani polytechnic 2. suggest measures to improve utilization of the teaching space facilities at sunyani polytechnic. 1.2. research questions the study addressed the research questions: 1. what factors influence the current state of utilization of teaching space facilities at sunyani polytechnic? 2. what measures can be used to improve utilization of the teaching space facilities at sunyani polytechnic? 1.3. significance of the study the significance of this study is to contribution to the body of literature relating to facilities utilization in the tertiary educational institutions. secondly, the findings from the study would be useful to educational administrators and planners in designing admission plans for the various departments of the sunyani polytechnic so as to forestall any inefficient utilization of instructional facilities. further, the study could be used to indicate whether there is the need for new teaching spaces or not. 2. literature review the council for educational facility planners (council for education facility planners, 1976), united nations educational scientific and cultural organization (unesco, 1984; unesco, 1985) and british department of education and science (bdes) (1992) listed timetabling and space allocation, educational structure, content and methods of delivery, educational programme being offered and student enrollment as major factors that influence teaching space utilization in institutions. unesco report went further to state that educational policies on funding, provision of infrastructure like teaching space, hiring and maintenance of human resources, norm on students to lecturer ratio and accepted ergonomic standards also influence space utilization but classified these as non-academic factors. rogers (1993) argued that both academic and non-academic factors do influence time and space utilization rates, whose product is the global utilization rates. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4):133-141 135 rogers (1993) reports two main academic factors that affect time utilization rate of a teaching facility. they are timetabling and space allocation which can be done manually or with computers. the report described departmentalized and centralized timetabling as the main modes of timetabling. the allocation of teaching space facilities to year groups or programmes in a department or faculty is termed departmentalization by the report. rogers lists students‟ patriotism, retention of permanent seats, storage of school materials and reduction of movement by teachers between classrooms in order to eradicate time waste during change over as some of the advantages of departmentalization. on the other hand, he states the disadvantages of the departmentalization of timetabling as boredom, inefficient use of space resources and the need for inexhaustible financial resource for the provision of teaching space facilities for any plan extension of further and higher education. he states that continued practice of departmentalized timetabling in an institution might lead to lower time utilization rate of the teaching space facilities. he explains that the reduced time utilization associated with departmentalized timetabling and space allocation result from the limited use of available space allocated to year groups or programmes in departments or faculties. rogers (1993) therefore, recommends the use of centralized timetabling and the use of computer in order to ascertain optimum utilization of teaching space facilities. centralized timetabling as defined by the bdes (1992) is the pooling of all teaching space facilities suitable for use by a variety of course together and scheduling them for use by learning groups on hourly basis. rogers (1993) states that when centralized time tabling is used for teaching space allocation, indicators such as class size, space need by each class, content of course, method of instruction delivery and contact hours between students and lecturers should be considered and care taken so that classes do not clash unnecessarily. he concluded by attributing the increased use of centralized timetabling in higher educational institution in britain to its costs-effective use of teaching space and the accommodation of more students within the existing teaching space facilities, which increase their time utilization rates. kenny and foster (1983) support the idea of centralized timetabling as a measure of efficient use of time. owolabi (1998) explains that centralized timetabling is based on the principle of efficiency in the utilization of scarce resources. he suggests that the introduction of centralized timetabling in our higher educational instructions would result in efficiency in the utilization of teaching space facilities. according to owolabi, efficiency is the optimal relation between inputs and outputs. an activity is performed efficiently if a given quantity of inputs is used to obtain maximum quantity of outputs. peat, marwick and mclintock (1992) as cited in apori (1997) studied how educational policies could be used to increase time utilization rate of teaching spaces in britain. they discovered that educational policies dictate the extent of use of teaching space facilities in an educational institution, level of funding, number and types of programmes, permissible student enrolment, formal and informal use of teaching space facilities by the educational institutions owning them and others in a coordinated manner. they report among other things that higher educational institutions in britain had plans to increase the time utilization rate of their teaching space facilities by restricting to themselves few teaching space facilities that they owned and hiring out their unused teaching space facilities to needy organizations to make use of them. a survey carried out by united nations educational scientific and cultural organization (unesco) (1985) listed condition of teaching spaces, ergonomics and the auxiliary spaces provided alongside with teaching space facilities in an institution as the non-academic factors that influence time utilization rate for teaching space facilities. the report also identified hot environment with extreme variation in temperature, rusts, decay from corrosion prevalent in coastal areas, oxidation and erosion which accelerate deterioration rate of building as elements which give rise to high rates of depreciation to teaching space facilities. the report indicated that teaching space facilities with high rate of depreciation should be maximally utilized to reduce to a minimum, the unit cost of education, which arises from maintenance cost. the optimum utilization of the teaching space facilities leads to increased time utilization rate. according to occupational health experts reported of a reduced performance of sedentary, physical and mental tasks, as human physiological responses to heat stress outside the preferred zone of 200c to 250c. the report suggests the need to restrict working hours to periods of the day when workers (students) would not be subject to stress in the absence of environmental modifiers, which would lead to reduced time utilization rate, in respect of teaching space facilities. the survey by unesco (1985) found out that the use of environmental modifiers and acoustically designed buildings and materials were prevalent in the economically developed countries, where the public subvention for education and other stakeholders of education could pay for acquisition of modifiers, energy and maintenance costs of gadgets used to provide the congenial environment for teaching and learning purposes. in the underdeveloped countries with low per capita income, unesco (1985) reports that most of the costs of tertiary education were borne by the small public funds which cannot meet the cost of providing and maintaining environmental modifiers. the report concluded that educational administrators in the developing countries were therefore compelled to schedule lectures mainly within the day time with adequate thermal, acoustic and illumination comfort to reduce the cost of providing or maintaining those things which led to low time utilization rates for teaching facilities. with regard to acoustics, the unesco (1985) survey reports that acoustic influence time utilization rate by predetermining size and shape of a teaching space facility to ensure that sound does not hinder verbal communication. the report further stated that the size and shape of the teaching space in relation to the student flow and class size for various academic programmes determine the frequency of use of the space facility when other factors are held constant. chanduri (1973) on his part found in his studies that the optimum permissible sound level in a teaching space environment without acoustic design and materials was 60 decibels. he recommended that a student in a discussion group, student in laboratory or lecture room should not be at a distance greater than seven metres (7m) from the teacher in the absence of audio-visual teaching aid. on the use of furniture, it has been suggested that the teaching spaces should have furniture that can be moved around without difficulty. the cefp (1976) states in its report that furniture provided in teaching spaces should be asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4):133-141 136 movable to provide flexibility, so as to enable available teaching spaces to be put into multipurpose use. the report was of the view that putting teaching spaces into multipurpose use will increase their time utilization rate. unesco (1985) recommends that furniture for the teaching space should be a suitable chair, which would allow students to sit with their feet flat on the floor without any pressures on the underside of the thigh. the organization report concluded that such chairs will enable students to perform mental task better by sitting for long hours to have contact with their teacher and this will increase the time utilization rates of teaching space facilities. unesco (1985) corroborates pratt (1980) the recommendation on the use of furniture by stating that seats and tables at which students work in classrooms often result in an angle between trunk and thigh degree producing pressure on the lower back and intestines (scriven, 1975). school furniture, the report concludes should therefore be designed to produce healthier and more comfortable posture. regarding the kind of building, ukeje (1992) found out in his studies that the educational programme influenced to a large extent, the kind of school buildings available. this calls for greater attention to the planning, construction and maintenance of school buildings. he further states that in constructing school buildings, certain educational specifications ought to be considered in the plan. these include the educational philosophy, nature of various activities to be provided, class size, aims and method of teaching and learning envisaged, how broad and how valid the curriculum will be, learning laboratories and libraries needed, the possibility of using the school for adult education or for other community service. pratt (1980) also posits that flexibility of the physical facilities is an important criterion in modern school design. ideally, schools need to be designed so that they can subjectively be extended upwards or outwards and also that the interior spaces can be altered without major rebuilding. he concludes that almost any teaching environment can be modified with respect to five main elements, each of which is significant for learning. these are personal space, spatial organization, noise, illumination and aesthetic quality. halstead (1974) however, states that the design of the physical environment of the learning task is often neglected yet science has established a close correlation between the amounts of work people do and where they do it. it stands to reason that a student sitting in an unbearably hot, stuffy room listening to a lecture on cryogenics would not learn as much as he would in a cool, comfortable space. unfortunately, most college buildings have been planned to impress people from the outside, not necessarily to provide comfort of the users (p. 485). 2.1. research design the objective of this study is to investigate the time utilization rate of the teaching space facilities at sunyani polytechnic. the researcher adopted descriptive survey approach, which is primarily concerned with looking at the phenomenon under consideration in order to determine the existing state of affairs. according to best and kahn (1998) the descriptive study describes and interprets what is. it is concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are evident, or trends that are developing. fraenkel and wallen (2000) re-echo that, obtaining answers from a large group of people to a set of carefully designed and administered questionnaire lies in the heart of survey research. cohen and manion (1989) on their part, reiterate that data in descriptive survey are usually collected through the use of self-completion or postal questionnaire interviews (structured or semi-structured), standardized tests of attainment or performance, attitude scales, and observations. like all forms of research designs, certain weaknesses are associated with descriptive survey design. respondents can sometimes supply false and careless responses to some of the questionnaire items. this is especially true where the values or attitudes being measured are not approved by the society or where respondents feel that their private lives are delved into. aware of this reality, the researcher tried to avoid questions that delved into the respondent‟s private life which do not have any bearing on the study. notwithstanding these limitations, the descriptive survey design is considered the most appropriate for investigating time utilization of teaching space facilities at sunyani polytechnic. this is because taking the purpose of this study, the research questions and the magnitude of the population into consideration, the researcher found it as the best design that could lead him to draw meaningful conclusions from the study in order to achieve the purpose of the study. 2.2. population for the study the population for this study consisted of the academic staff, senior administrative personnel and technicians of sunyani polytechnic. there were at the time of the study, 138 academic staff, made up of 36 full-time lecturers, eight full-time assistant lecturers, seven principal instructors, 18 full-time senior instructors, 54 full-time instructors, five assistant instructors, four part-time lecturers, two part-time assistant lecturers and four part-time instructors. there were also 48 administrative staff (including the principal and the vice principal) and 16 technicians (sunyani polytechnic planning unit, 2006/2007). hence, the total population size for this study was 202. ideally, to enhance generalization of the outcome of the study, the researcher should have used the entire target population in the polytechnic. however, best and kahn (1998) posit that to undertake a research with a large population and arrive at generalization would be impracticable, if not impossible. hence, the researcher deemed it appropriate to make the study more manageable and practicable by using unbiased sample of the population. 2.3. sample and sampling procedure in order to establish credibility and ensure that the study was broadly representative, the data on the use of teaching spaces were collected from a sample of the academic staff in the various departments who were primarily users of the teaching space facilities under study. the researcher deemed it necessary to have representatives from all the 10 departments as the original intention of using the total population was found to be too ambitious. a sample size of 60 out of the 138 academic staff, which forms 43% of the academic staff was therefore selected. the selection of this sample size was based on the suggestion of nwana (1992) that “in selecting a sample size, if the population is asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4):133-141 137 a few hundreds, 40% or more will do”. the method used was a lottery method of simple random sampling to select six academic staff from each of the 10 departments.in the case of the administrators, a total sample size of 20 senior administrative personnel, comprising the principal, vice principal, finance officer, planning officer, polytechnic secretary, estate officer, deans, timetable committee chairman as well as heads of department were chosen. they were purposively chosen to express their candid opinions and intentions regarding the factors that influence the time utilization of teaching space facilities at sunyani polytechnic. these administrators were those who are responsible for the day-to-day administration and maintenance of the teaching space facilities and therefore their views on utilization of the teaching space facilities at sunyani polytechnic could help put in place effective mechanisms for optimal utilization of the instructional facilities at sunyani polytechnic. out of the 16 technicians, nine who are in direct contact with the specialized classrooms (laboratories, workshops) in their various departments were purposively sampled for interview in order to elicit information from them for the study. the interviewees came from the electrical/electronic engineering, building & technology, mechanical engineering, hotel, catering & institutional management (hcim), painting & decorating and furniture & joinery, commercial and liberal studies departments. the data collected centred on the working conditions prevailing at the specialized rooms, level of utilization during practical lessons and what should be done for optimal utilization of the specialized rooms at the sunyani polytechnic. altogether, 89 respondents made up of 60 academic staff, 20 senior administrators and nine technicians participated in the study. 2.4. research instruments to achieve the purpose of this study, the researcher used an integrated approach of data collection in order to reap the advantage of each method. data were gathered through primary and secondary sources. three instruments were used to collect data for the study. the instruments used for the collection of data were adapted after a careful review of time utilization studies instruments. the first instrument was questionnaire modified and administered to academic staff who use the teaching space facilities for teaching purposes at sunyani polytechnic. the aim of this questionnaire was to solicit information from the academic staff on the number of hours they put in for teaching per course, class size, availability of teaching aids and possible factors that militate against or enhance the optimal use of the teaching spaces at sunyani polytechnic. the next instrument was also questionnaire, which was administered to the senior administrative staff who were purposely selected for the study. it was meant for the administrators to express their views on academic programme, educational administration and factors that may influence the time utilization of the teaching spaces and the prioritizing of the present and future educational facility needs of the sunyani polytechnic. another instrument was an interview guide used in interviewing the nine technicians, who are closely associated with the specialized rooms (laboratories and workshops) at sunyani polytechnic. these technicians were interviewed to solicit information as regards time spent for preparation before practical lessons at the specialized rooms as well as time used to clean up after practical lessons. the interview conducted also helped the researcher to know the frequency of use of the laboratories and workshops in a week at sunyani polytechnic. the interview technique has the advantage of flexibility. the researcher had the chance to observe the subjects and clarify any misunderstanding. personal contacts made the subjects to participate and provide the desired information. for instance, the researcher was able to probe into the condition of the specialized rooms. the interview guide was structured with advance-planned questions that were slightly modified and adapted. 2.5. data analysis procedure quantitative descriptive method was used to analyse the data collected for the study. the responses to the various items in the two sets of questionnaire and the interview guide were coded, tabulated and analysed statistically with the help of a computer software programme called statistics package for social sciences. since the study adopted a descriptive survey design, the results were mainly in frequencies, percentages and cumulative frequencies presented in tables. 3. results and discussions 3.1. factors that influence time utilization of the teaching space facilities the researcher‟s casual observation of the utilization of the instructional rooms were seen to be generally high during the morning sessions than that of the afternoon and evening sessions but generally low in some of the days, especially on fridays. in order to comprehend this trend, the researcher tried to find out the view of academic staff, administrators and technicians for the factors that influence the level of utilization of the instructional rooms at sunyani polytechnic. the findings are presented in tables 1 to 9. 3.2. factors that influence time utilization of the specialized rooms at sunyani polytechnic one of the factors that influenced the time utilization of the specialized rooms is the time taken to prepare the specialized rooms for practical work and clean up after practical lessons. in order to understand this situation, the researcher tried to find out the number of hours technicians used to prepare the specialized rooms for practical lessons and hours used to clean up after practical lessons. table-1. time taken by technicians to prepare the specialized rooms for practical lessons at sunyani polytechnic time frequency percentage % cum. freq.% less than 1 hour 4 44.4 44.4 i hour 3 33.3 77.7 2 hours 2 22.2 100 3 hours total 9 100 field survey, 2008 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4):133-141 138 table-2. presents data on the time taken by technicians to clean up the specialized rooms after practical lessons. table-2. time used by technicians to clean up specialized rooms after practical lessons frequency time percentage cum. freq % 2 less than 1 hr 22.2 22.2 6 1 hours 66.7 88.9 1 2 hours 11.1 100 3 hours 9 total 100 field survey, 2008 tables 1 and 2 present information on the interview session conducted with technicians who have direct contact with the use of the specialized rooms, 77.7% (table 1) expressed the view that they usually use one hour or less to prepare the specialized rooms for practical lessons. as many as 88.9% (table 2) also expressed the opinion that they used the same time (one hour or less) to clean up the specialized rooms after practical lessons at sunyani polytechnic. the time used to prepare and clean up the specialized rooms contributed partly to the low time utilization of the laboratories. this factor support earlier reports by kenny and foster (1983) that an hour or more used for setting up a place for practical lessons and tiding up the place after practical work can be used to increase the hours (periods) used for practical lessons. it can also be said that the low time utilization recorded for specialized rooms during the study might be partly due to the building department workshop that was not in use in the second semester coupled with power outages”. sunyani polytechnic has no working standing power and so anytime, there is power outage all practical lessons that are making use of the power must come to a halt. this implies that only few hours would be used for practical lessons during days of power outage at sunyani polytechnic campus. table-3. the opinion of academic and administrative staff about the quality of general-purpose classroom at sunyani polytechnic responses frequency % cum. freq. % very good 5 6.3 6.3 good 17 21.2 27.6 satisfactory 42 52.5 80.1 poor 13 16.2 96.4 very poor 3 3.8 100 total 80 100 source: field survey, 2008 table-4. academic and administrative staff impression as to the quality of specialized rooms responses frequency % cum. freq. % very good 3 3.8 3.8 good 18 22.5 26.3 satisfactory 34 42.5 68.8 poor 19 23.8 92.5 very poor 6 7.5 100 total 80 100 causal observation of the instructional rooms shows overcrowdings during instructional period. this is in contrast with the popular opinion of the respondents that the quality of instructional rooms at the institution was satisfactory. as shown in table 3 and 4, as high as 52.5% of academic staff and administrators indicated that the general-purpose classrooms were satisfactory and 42.5% of the academic staff and administrators also indicated that the specialized rooms were satisfactory. the observation revealed a contrary scenario of overcrowding in the instructional rooms. however, majority of the respondents might not be aware of the poor nature of some of the instructional rooms. this is evidenced by the fact that only 20% and 31.3% of the respondents indicated that the general-purpose classrooms and specialized rooms respectively were poor and very poor. this supports halstead (1974) who opined that most college buildings have been planned to impress people from the outside, not necessarily to provide comfort of the users (p. 485). he further states that, the design of the physical environment of the learning task is often neglected yet science has established a close correlation between the amounts of work people do and where they do it. it stands to reason that a student sitting in an unbearably hot, stuffy room listening to a lecture on cryogenics would not learn as much as he would in a cool, comfortable space. concerning the kind of educational facilities to be expanded for increased students‟ enrolment, table 7 provides useful information to support the low time utilization rates obtained during the observation. table-5. academic staff and administrators ranking of educational facilities to be expanded for increased students‟ enrolment at sunyani polytechnic facilities mean score rank order personnel (academic staff) 2.65 1 teaching/learning materials/equipment 2.91 2 workshops/laboratories 2.94 3 general-purpose classrooms 2.95 4 halls of residence 3.18 5 source: field survey asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4):133-141 139 as shown in table 5, the facility with the lowest mean score is the first priority area to be considered for increase in students‟ intake. this makes the academic staff as the first priority area and general-purpose classrooms as the fourth priority area to be considered for increase in students‟ intake. general purpose classrooms were not a high priority area to be expanded for increase student intake because of the low time utilization in those rooms. this is in support of midjaas (1982) opinion that planners of the 1980s and beyond should be more concerned with making efficient use of existing educational resources. this is because instructional rooms cannot be provided immediately when there is the need to increase student intake due to financial constraint (russel and doi, 1957; unesco, 1992). the view that personnel (academic staff) are the first priority area to be considered for increase in students‟ intake can be inferred that there is inadequate academic staff at the institution. with regard to academic staff„s view on preferred days for teaching in the week at sunyani polytechnic, table 8 presents useful information to buttressed the low utilization recorded during the observation on fridays. table-6. the views of academic staff on preferred days for teaching at sunyani polytechnic days of week frequency percentage (%) cum. frequency mondays 13 21.7 21.7 tuesdays 22 36.7 58.4 wednesdays 17 28.3 86.4 thursdays 6 10.0 96.4 fridays 2 3.3 100.0 total 60 100 source: field survey as shown in table 6, as many as 96.4% academic staff chose teaching from mondays to thursdays as their preferred days compared to teaching on fridays. the remaining 3.3% of the academic staff chose fridays as their preferred days. this implies that most academic staff do not prefer to teach on fridays. this was because of the fact that excursions or educational trips, project work or long essay supervisions and other co-curriculum activities usually take place on fridays. this explains the reason for low utilization recorded on fridays during the observation. this study confirms earlier studies carried out in other polytechnics by akomaning (2001) on utilization of teaching space facilities at takoradi polytechnic and turkson (2006) on utilization of teaching space facilities at cape coast polytechnic that lecturers prefer to lecture from mondays to thursdays. hence, in all the studies including the current study, utilization were low on fridays. academic staff preferred time of teaching is another factor that influences utilization of the instructional rooms. table 7 presents useful information on academic staffs‟ preferred time of teaching at sunyani polytechnic which supports the high in the morning sessions and low utilization recorded in the evening session during the observation. table-7. academic staff‟s preferred time of teaching at sunyani polytechnic time frequency % cum. freq % 7:00am-9:00am 17 28.3 28.3 9:00am-12:00noon 33 55.0 83.3 12:00noon-3:00pm 7 11.7 95.0 3:00pm-6:00pm 2 3.3 98.3 6:00pm-8:00pm 1 1.7 100 total 60 100 source: field survey according to the polytechnic principle, the non-hnd programmes are supposed to be held after 2:00pm in the afternoon as cited in akomaning (2001). unfortunately, this is not strictly adhered to in sunyani polytechnic because some academic staff whose teaching times fall after 2:00pm rescheduled their meeting times with their students to the morning session creating clashes in the instructional rooms. it is obvious, therefore, that academic staff‟s preference for teaching in the morning session contributed to the congestion or over-crowding in the morning sessions. table 7 shows as high as 83.3% of the academic staff indicated their preference for lecturing in the morning sessions (7:00am-12:00non), and only 16.7% of the academic staff, indicated hours after 12:00noon (12:00noon8:00pm) as their preferred time for teaching. the high percentage of respondents presented in table 9 choosing morning session is in line with high rates for the morning sessions during the observation. this confirms earlier studies by owolabi (1993) on space management in some tertiary educational institutions in ghana as well as the ministry of education (1988) on utilization of instructional facilities that teachers preferred to teach in the morning sessions to teaching in the afternoon sessions. also studies by apori (1997); akomaning (2001) and turkson (2006) show that lecturers prefer to lecture in the mornings to afternoon and evening sessions. hence, in all cases including the current study, utilization were higher in morning sessions than in the afternoon and the evening sessions. table-8. problems faced by academic staff in the use of the specialized rooms at sunyani polytechnic responses frequency percent (%) cum. freq. % inadequate/obsolete equipment and materials 18 46.2 46.2 inadequate qualified technicians 10 25.6 71.8 inadequate / unsuitable furniture 2 5.1 76.9 limited space 9 23.1 100 total 39 100 table 8 presents the various problems faced by academic staff who use the specialized rooms at sunyani polytechnic. a high percentage of 46.2% of the respondents indicated inadequate or obsolete equipment /materials asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4):133-141 140 as the main problem. approximately 23% of the respondents also stated limited space as their major problem in the use of the specialized rooms. these might have contributed to the high utilization during the observation. hence, it can be inferred that in a situation where modern equipment /materials and more space are provided the utilization level of the specialized rooms especially the laboratories would be improved. with regard to academic staff‟s views on problems they face in the use of the instructional rooms which affects the utilization of the specialized room, table 11 provides useful information to support the high utilization rates obtained during the observation at the general-purpose classrooms. table-9. problems faced by academic staff in the use of the general-purpose classrooms for effective teaching at sunyani polytechnic problems frequency % cum. freq. % inadequate/unsuitable furniture 11 18.3 18.3 lack of public address system 9 15 33.3 limited space 16 26.7 60.0 poor lighting system 10 16.7 76.7 poor ventilation 14 23.3 100 total 60 100 table 9 presents the various challenges that academic staff face in the use of the general-purpose classrooms for effective teaching. out of the 60 respondents 15% especially those teaching large number of students at a time stated lack of public address system as a problem. as much as 23.3% of the respondents indicated poor ventilation as the problem, they faced in the use of the general-purpose classrooms especially during the afternoon periods. this might partly contributes to the academic staff preference for teaching in the morning periods. as high as 26.7% of the respondents indicated limited space as a problem they faced in the use of the instructional rooms. 4. findings the low frequency of use of the teaching space facilities might be partly due to departmentalization of the teaching space facilities during the period of study and organization of classes under unapproved teaching spaces, excursions, outside practical work among others. the large class sizes as a result of inadequate academic staff had also contributed to the low time utilization rates in the instructional rooms. there were generally low utilization rates for all the instructional rooms on fridays. this was mainly because such days are mostly used by both academic staff and students for excursions, field trips, sports, writing of long essays/project and travelling among others. 5. conclusions based on the findings of the study, a number of conclusions were made. one obvious conclusion is that the general-purpose classrooms were generally under-utilized contrary to the speculation by both students and the polytechnic authority that the general-purpose classrooms are being overstretched. this means the polytechnic agitation for more general-purpose classrooms cannot be justified. this does not however preclude the need to construct a few large general-purpose classrooms for very large classes to save teaching time and costs. however, the laboratories were grossly over-utilized due to their small sizes especially, the general computer laboratory which can accommodate only 18 students at a time (according to the urc report norm for laboratory) but the place was accessible to almost all the students at the polytechnic. this means the agitations from the polytechnic for more laboratories are justifiable. finally, it could also be concluded that the low utilization rates on fridays and the low utilization rates during the evening hours of the day recorded in all the instructional rooms are clear evidence of inefficient use of the teaching space facilities at sunyani polytechnic. 6. recommendations in the case of the small sizes of instructional rooms which often times create over-crowding in the instructional rooms which led to over-utilized laboratories especially the general computer laboratory, it is recommended that more of such facilities should be provided to cater for the large number of students who use them. it is recommended that few large classrooms should be provided to cater for the very large class sizes to ease congestions and also save teaching time and costs. however, very large classrooms could be partitioned instead of permanent walls for it to serve dual-purposes. the rooms could be utilized by small class sizes when partitioned and be used by large class sizes if the partition is removed. allocation of teaching spaces for classes should be based on class size, course requirements in respect of teaching materials, equipment and furniture needs. this will make the instructional rooms to be used more often by different groups of learners based on their needs. this means rigid definition of teaching facilities within the confines of individual departments should be avoided with the exception of the specialized rooms. the low utilization on fridays and during the evening sessions for the instructional rooms could be reduced by even spreading teaching load throughout days of the week and the periods of the day. this means academic staff must be implored to stick to the dictates of the timetable so as to avoid congestions in the mornings. there must be a policy to prevent academic staff from preferring certain specific times of the day and days of the week. thus, academic staff should be made to strictly adhere to time 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and iv. division of educational policy and planning. paris: unesco. unesco, 1992. needs of education facilities: teaching materials in education planning and administration module i, ii and iii. division of educational policy and planning. paris: unesco. united nations educational scientific and cultural organization (unesco), 1985. norms and standards of educational facilities, training materials in educational planning, administration and facilities. modules i, ii and iii division of educational policy and planning. paris: unesco. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 2, 145-149, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 145 lecturers’ perception on the effectiveness of formative assessment on evaluating grammar skills among undergraduates thilip kumar moorthy1 yogerisham panir silvam2 jayanthi vijaya3 shandini sundiran4 1,2,3,4 universiti putra malaysia (upm), serdang, selangor darul ehsan, malaysia ( corresponding author) abstract grammar can be classified as the most prominent element in the context of english language. however, grammar has always been a problem among undergraduates. although they are given the right amount of input on grammar during schooling days, they still have problems in using it because the process of learning grammar does not continue during their tertiary education. many lecturers find it difficult in making sure undergraduates are able to utilize grammar in a proper manner as english subjects in tertiary education will only last till the end of the first year in many tertiary institutions. it is proposed that formative assessment should be conducted throughout their duration of study in their tertiary institution. this paper highlights the findings from a questionnaire to 20 english lecturers who are currently serving in two private institutions, namely management & science university and kolej masa. ten of them are senior lecturers with lecturing experience of more than 5 years and the remaining lecturers with below 5 years. the categories for the questions were built based on lecturers’ understanding on the formative assessment and the needs in understanding grammar in using english. the findings indicate that junior lecturers are keener compare to senior lecturers in terms of using formative assessment in evaluating grammar skills among undergraduates. keywords: grammar, formative assessment, undergraduates, senior lecturers, junior lecturers, perception contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 146 2. methodology....................................................................................................................................................................... 147 3. findings and discussion .................................................................................................................................................... 147 4. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 148 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 148 appendix a ............................................................................................................................................................................ 149 citation | thilip kumar moorthy; yogerisham panir silvam; jayanthi vijaya; shandini sundiran (2016). lecturers’ perception on the effectiveness of formative assessment on evaluating grammar skills among undergraduates. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(2): 145-149. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.145.149 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. firstly, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our advisor assoc. prof dr. arshad abd samad for his continuous support of our journal article, for his patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. his guidance helped us in all the time of research and writing of this article. besides our advisor, we would like to thank the rest of our reviewing committee for their insightful comments and encouragement, but also for the hard question which incented us to widen our article accordingly. we also like to thank our fellow course mates for the stimulating discussions, for the sleepless nights we were working together before deadlines, and for all the fun upon completing our respective journal articles. last but not the least; we would like to thank our respective families who supported us spiritually throughout writing this journal article. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 12 august 2015/ revised: 5 january 2016/ accepted: 19 january 2016/ published: 25 january 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.145.149 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 145-149 146 1. introduction assessment can be classified as the most important procedure in determining students’ performance throughout their learning process. according to black and wiliam (1998) assessment includes all the activities that the educator and students undertake to get information that can be used as an asset in further altering their teaching and learning so that students are able to cope with planned lessons. besides that, assessment encompasses teacher observation, classroom activities and discussion, analysis on students which includes their assignment and many more. in general, formative assessment is known as using various methods in evaluating students throughout a particular learning period to achieve learning goals. chappuis and stiggins (2002) stated that formative assessment is assessment designed to monitor students’ progress during the learning process. this particular assessment promotes progressive learning as students are assessed throughout to determine period so that they do not forget the components which they have acquired from the very beginning of the teaching and learning process. therefore, formative assessment should be conducted in evaluating the grammar skills of undergraduate’s students. according to michael swan, a popular freelance writer, grammar is not just sentence building, it is the “device” which designs the entire english language. without grammar, a person is not able to understand the fundamental concepts of the language. thus, formative assessment can be used in making sure they are able to have the knowledge till they finish their tertiary education. in malaysia, students are only exposed to grammar during their primary and secondary school. if we look at the school syllabus, students in school are only exposed to grammar once a week or sometimes once a month just to fulfill the basic requirements of the curriculum. this becomes worse when grammar is not given any importance in their tertiary education. according to din (2007) more than forty thousand malaysian graduates could not get jobs in the working sector because they were not proficient in english. this contributes to the drop of the country’s economic growth due to high number of jobless individuals. lecturers in tertiary institutions are having difficulty with undergraduates as they are not able to understand the basic concepts in grammar which they are supposed to have common knowledge during their schooling days. this eventually makes the students lose interest in learning english and become unable to participate in their lesson’s activities. the current situation in the tertiary environment is students come to class without the correct use of grammar. most tertiary and private institutions only practice two or three subjects that focus on grammar. for instance, a tertiary institution in selangor, students would be attending preparatory classes for english which serves the purpose of reviewing basic grammar components. this is not a continual process because it eventually stops in the midst of their undergraduate program. thus, this leaves a negative impact because students take it for granted and only learn it for the purpose of passing. formative assessment should therefore be conducted during their learning period in their respective tertiary institution. this is because formative assessment focuses on achieving goals rather than determining what the goals are. moreover, the lecturer’s belief and attitude towards the assessment will definitely show an impact towards the undergraduate student’s progression in their grammar. with the efficient execution of this assessment towards grammar, lecturer will be able to provide sustainable feedback to students about their progress that point out their strengths and weaknesses which needs their attention so that they are able to progress further. this will surely help them keep on track of their grammar and improve their grammar proficiency. studies have shown that the beliefs held by teachers or lecturers can influence their teaching of grammar according to various factors such as the years of teaching experience and the location of the school (arshad and nurusus, 2015; nurusus et al., 2015). however, it is still unclear whether the beliefs regarding the use of formative assessment in teaching and learning grammar is influenced by factors such as teaching experience. thus, this present study seeks to identify the perception of lecturer’s on the effectiveness of formative assessment in evaluating grammar skills among undergraduates. it is hoped that when the perception is identified, the assessment is able to be conducted for all the undergraduates so that they are well prepared when they are to face the real world individually. the aim of this study is therefore to identify the perception of lecturers on the effectiveness of formative assessment in evaluating grammar skills among undergraduates which is the most prominent way in ensuring students are given the necessary input on grammar so that they will excel in that particular language. the study aims to address the following questions: 1. what is the difference in perception between junior and senior lecturer’s on the importance of understanding grammar throughout learning process especially during tertiary education? 2. what is the difference in perception between junior and senior lecturer’s on the implementation of formative assessment in improving grammar among undergraduates? 1.1. studies on formative assessment and grammar skills among undergraduates in view of the relationship between formative assessment and grammar skills, it is indeed important to have the formative assessment as an ongoing assessment in terms of evaluating and providing input on grammar skills among undergraduates. grammar teaches us how to build sentences, about the types of words that we use and when we should use them. besides that, it is also shown that having frequent formative assessment in a particular classroom will help to accelerate the student learning process (good et al., 1983; slavin and steven, 1995). it is important for students to learn grammar properly and it is believed that the implementation of formative assessment on learning grammar will aid students in understanding the skills well. on another research on timing of formative assessment, feedback have shown that students will be able to learn a particular skill if there is immediate error correction and if that particular assessment is on task acquisition (kulik and kulik, 1988; clariana et al., 2000). the implementation of formative assessment will surely provide students asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 145-149 147 with sufficient knowledge because they are given an opportunity to practice the language that they are currently learning. grammar involves the properties and processes that trigger the use of language. the association of this is that the students need to be aware of the rules and the knowledge they have stored within their brain. this will help them to analyse and the language and be able to use it with proficiency. nevertheless, in terms of viewing grammar as a process that triggers the use of language, it also clearly suggests that grammar is not a question of competence but is a question of performance. this statement reflects to the statement stated by drach (1981) which he stated that learners can use the language creatively if they perform well in grammar. that merely refers to the ability of a person to effectively use his internalized knowledge to achieve the desired communicative impact which can be achieved through formative assessment. looking at all the studies and statement depicted above, it is essential to identify the perception of lecturers on the importance of integrating grammar and formative assessment which will improve their proficiency in english language. 2. methodology in this study, a qualitative method has been used. a likert scale questionnaire is used as the data collection tool (see appendix a). this questionnaire will be distributed to 20 lecturers who work in two private institutions; 10 senior lecturers with working experience of more than 5 years and 10 junior lecturers with less than 5 years of working experience. the questionnaire contains 10 items related to the major constructs of this research which are formative assessment and grammar at tertiary level education. the study examines how formative assessment can provide immediate feedback for the teacher in evaluating student’s level of understanding. therefore, the respondents are chosen according to their understanding towards formative assessment. the data collected from participants will illustrated to show the percentage of likeliness or unlikeliness of using this approach among lecturers. a comparison between the two groups of lecturers according to their years and experiences will be done to determine which group favors formative assessment. 3. findings and discussion this section explains the findings of our research. two tables are tabulated according to lecturer’s response on the questionnaire given. table-4.1. comparison of perception on grammar between senior and junior lecturers. source: depicted from the data collected from the questionnaire (grammar) table (4.1) shows the perception of senior lecturers versus junior lecturers regarding evaluating grammar as a formative assessment among undergraduate students. the table only focuses on the strongly agree and agree scale from the questionnaire. for statement one, both senior and junior lecturers agreed that grammatical competence is very less among students. both parties agreed to the absence of grammar in the studies at tertiary level due to the ignorance of syllabus. besides that, both senior and the junior lecturers agreed that most of the students preferred to translate from the first language so they tend to do a lot of grammatical mistakes which is indicated on statement 2. besides, both senior and junior lecturers have the perception that students are demotivated in performing well in the lesson taught in english due to the incompetence of grammar in the statement 3.this means students are afraid to use english because they are nervous that their grammar might go wrong in terms of speaking or writing skills. based on the statement 4, there are blend of views from the senior and junior lecturers. it shows that students are not participating well in delivering idea while lesson due to grammar incompetence. the senior lecturers strongly agreed that most of the courses are not assessing language in terms of grammar at the tertiary level. apart from that, they agree with the statement 5 which is the important part has ignored. the experience of teaching would be differing in terms of views of both parties. this is because the course outline might not include on assessing grammar so it is not accessible by lecturers. according to corder (1975) he believes that an educator needs to be certain of their capability to do a good job in measuring learner’s knowledge of the language which hangs on the learner’s asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 145-149 148 knowledge of the language be determined by the competence of educators’ theories about the language, educators understanding of what is meant by the knowledge of language. table-4.2. comparison of perception on formative assessment between senior and junior lecturers. source: depicted from the data collected from the questionnaire (formative assessment) table (4.2) shows the perception of senior lecturers versus the perception of junior lecturers on the implementation of formative assessment in assessing grammar at the tertiary level. based on statement 6, it shows that both the senior lecturers and junior lecturers are aware of the formative assessment and the process to be used in the lesson. besides that, senior lecturers shows the high number in practicing of conducting formative assessment in assessing students’ performance with the use of correct grammar compare to junior lecturers. this means the lecturers are using formative assessment to assess grammar at the tertiary level but did not utilise in depth among the lecturers and students. on the other hand, statement 8 indicate on the number of lecturers are aware of the benefits in implementing formative assessment. as a result, senior lecturers realize that implementing formative assessment is effective in assessing students’ performance compare to junior lecturers. the gap of differences might be on the behavioral of lecturers and the ways of assessing would be vary depend on the experiences of teaching. hence, formative assessment helps the lecturers to identify the grammatical problems among the students at an earlier stage which is mentioned in statement 9. the graph shows that the senior lecturers agree on the benefits of evaluating students through formative assessment where it helps them to identify the grammar incompetence of a student at an earlier stage. the last statement is on allowing lecturers to scaffold students individually or in groups according to their needs. the graph shows the junior lecturers are agreeing on the statement compared to senior lecturers. overall, it can be concluded that junior lecturers have more passion in conducting formative assessment compared to senior lecturers in tertiary institution. 4. conclusion formative assessment is an efficient technique that can be used in assessing students to improve their understanding on the matters that they are learning. if assessing grammar becomes an on-going evaluation, educators could be able to achieve the goal of standardized examination at the end of semester or course. it helps the students to know and recognize the standards that they aiming for in the end of a course. therefore, all educators should take account of the importance of using formative assessment in their english classroom. references arshad, a.s. and e. nurusus, 2015. the influence of teaching experience, school location and academic background on teachers beliefs in teaching grammar. asian social science, 11(15): 257-266. black, p. and d. wiliam, 1998. assessment and classroom learning. assessment in education, 5(1): 7-74. chappuis, s. and r.j. stiggins, 2002. classroom assessment for learning. educational leadership, 60(1): 40-43. clariana, r.b., d. wagner and m.l.c. roher, 2000. applying a connectionist description of feedback timing. educational technology research and development, 48(3): 5-21. corder, s.p., 1975. error analysis, interlanguage and second language acquisition. language teaching, 8(4): 201-218. din, m., 2007. english proficiency in malaysia: time for urgent action. available from https://dinmerican.wordpress.com/2014/01/07/englishproficiency-in-malaysia-time-for-urgent-action/. drach, m., 1981. the creative aspect of chomsky's use of the notion of creativity. philosophical review, 90(1): 44-65. good, t.l., s.a. grouws and h. ebmeier, 1983. active mathematics teaching. new york: longman. kulik, j.a. and c.c. kulik, 1988. timing of feedback and verbal learning. review of educational research, 58(1): 79-97. nurusus, e., a.s. arshad and z.s.a.r. sharifah, 2015. exploring teachers beliefs in teaching grammar. english teacher, 44(1): 23-32. slavin, r.e. and r.j. steven, 1995. the cooperation elementary school: effects on students’ achievement, attitudes and social relations. american educational research journal, 32(2): 321-351. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 145-149 149 appendix a name of institution: ______________________________________________________________ years of working experience (choose one): below 5 years more than 5 years this questionnaire is distributed as to study the perception of lecturers on the effectiveness of using formative assessment in evaluating grammar skills among undergraduates. personal particulars of participants will not be disclosed as to maintain privacy and ethical policy. consent declaration. i am aware about the objective of this study. i hereby give my consent to be part of this study. ____________________. please read the statements carefully and circle your votes wisely. use the likert scale determiners as a guide in responding to the following statements. 1: strongly disagree 2: disagree 3: neutral 4: agree 5: strongly agree statement (s) 1 2 3 4 5 students still have lack of grammatical competence at tertiary level. 1 2 3 4 5 many students still depend on their first language and make direct translation to english, causing them to make many grammatical mistakes. 1 2 3 4 5 grammatical incompetence causes students to have weaker grasp of lessons taught in english. 1 2 3 4 5 students often find it difficult to express their ideas in class due to the need of using proper grammar. 1 2 3 4 5 assessing language in terms of grammar is not really a focus at tertiary level for many courses. 1 2 3 4 5 i am aware of formative assessment. 1 2 3 4 5 i practice conducting formative assessment in assessing my students’ performance especially with the use of correct grammar. 1 2 3 4 5 i realize that conducting formative assessment gives more effective result in assessing students’ performance. 1 2 3 4 5 formative assessment helps me to trace students’ grammatical problems at an earlier stage. 1 2 3 4 5 formative assessment allows me to scaffold students individually or by group according to their needs. 1 2 3 4 5 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 2, 140-144, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 140 the economic and financial crimes commission and corruption management in nigeria: a perceptual assessment of its legal framework hassan said umar1 kasim umar2 1,2 department of public administration, faculty of management sciences, university of abuja, permanent site, airport road, abuja-fct, nigeria ( corresponding author) abstract the menace of corruption and the fight against it the world wide has been a major preoccupation amongst pundits and administrators, especially amongst the third world countries. the existence of anticorruption agencies virtually in all countries of the world justifies this assertion. while some of these agencies in their countries of operations succeed others are still grabbling with the dynamics and complexities of the scourge thus looking for a durable methodology to curtail it spread. this paper assessed the perception of nigerian on the strength of the efcc against its functional responsibilities to determine the adequacy and appropriateness of the powers. the research is a survey type that explored both primary and secondary sources. the primary data were gathered through administration of questionnaire with a content analysis for the secondary data. relying on structural functional theory, the study reveals among other things that, efcc lacks adequate prosecutorial powers; it also cannot effectively ensure and monitor compliance to the limit of foreign currency transfer ($10000) and the local cash transaction limit; the court system in nigeria has also frustrated the efforts of the commission in addition to the unruly behavior of some senior legal counsels who often connive with some judges to subvert justice. the paper therefore submits that the efcc operate within unfavorable legal space that hinders to a large extent its operational success. it is therefore recommended inter alia: a specialized and separate court with specialized judges to handle financial crimes, streamlining the areas of responsibilities to just financial crimes for the efcc. keywords: corruption, efcc, function, legal framework. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 141 2. theoretical issues............................................................................................................................................................... 141 3. theoretical framework ..................................................................................................................................................... 142 4. methodology....................................................................................................................................................................... 143 5. research findings .............................................................................................................................................................. 143 6. conclusion and recommendations ................................................................................................................................... 144 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 144 bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................................... 144 citation | hassan said umar; kasim umar (2016). the economic and financial crimes commission and corruption management in nigeria: a perceptual assessment of its legal framework. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(2): 140-144. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.140.144 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 12 july 2015/ revised: 4 january 2016/ accepted: 13 january 2016/ published: 20 january 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.140.144 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 140-144 141 1. introduction public organizations the world over operate within the confines of the enabling laws establishing them. the operational impact and or success of such organizations definitely will be weighed within the latitude and space accorded them under the law. the fight against corruption in nigeria has widely been perceived as not effective because the ugly incidence remains continuously unabated. the apparent failure to rid the country of corruption through the anti-corruption agencies (acas) has over the years been attributed to so many a factor amongst which is the financial base of the agencies, leadership and the political atmosphere within which they operate. but, of greater concern to governance analysts, administration pundits and academics is the legal framework within which the anti-corruption agencies (acas) are allowed to operate in nigeria. amongst the anti-graft agencies in nigeria, most prominent of them on the lips of contemporary nigerians is the economic and financial crimes commission (efcc). the efcc has been in an active fight against corruption for more than a decade now but the effectiveness and/ or success is considered to have fallen below expectations. some researchers, most especially said (2014) attributed the ineffectiveness to the earlier factors mentioned as finance, leadership, political atmosphere and ethical factors such as corruption within the operatives. beyond these factors is the legal framework within which this all important anti-corruption agency (efcc) operates. since it has been argued that operational success of such organisations is to a large extent connected to the legal space they enjoy, it is therefore imperative to evaluate the legal framework within which the efcc performs its functions. this will no doubt expose the scope and limit of its operations and therefore provides an avenue for intellectual assessment of its success against the available powers. this research is concerned with the operational powers and/ legal frame of the efcc; this is to allow for a more articulate opinion as to whether the commission is properly positioned with the necessary and adequate powers to be effective. to do this therefore, there is need to ask among other specific questions as whether the efcc has adequate powers of prosecution. secondly, does the commission has the capacity to control or monitor transfer of foreign currencies across nigerian boarders? thirdly, how effective is the commission on the fight against drugs and narcotics? fourthly, can efcc regulate and control daily cash limit transactions as required by the law establishing it. fifthly, do the proceedings in the regular courts frustrate the efforts of the efcc? the last is to what extents does corruption amongst the lead counsels affect the functions of the efcc? these are some of its functional responsibilities as provided by the prohibition act, 2006 as amended. it is therefore against these outlined functions that the commission’s effectiveness can be objectively assessed. the research therefore seeks to assess the operations of the efcc along these areas of responsibilities against the enabling space of powers. 2. theoretical issues the concept of corruption has been greatly overstretched in the academic circle and so the assessment of the anti-corruption agencies. the scourge has been viewed with different phases and extents depending on the context, the society and time. the common ground however in all conceptions and contexts has been that corruption and/or any act perceived to be corruption is an evil inclination which diametrically negates human and societal development. andvig et al. (2001) sees corruption as largely a clandestine or concealed practice with strong normative undertones similar to other phenomenon like large scale and petty crime, parallel to black market activities and drug marketing. when making a house-cleaning, one will have to start from the upper stories and shove the trash towards the ground floor. likewise, the fight against corruption will have to start at the highest levels of the start (andvig et al., 2001). an anti-corruption agency on the other hand is a publicly funded body of a lasting nature with a specific mission to fight corruption and reduce opportunities for corruption by means of prevention and repression strategies (meagher and voland, 2006). although, arguments abound that democratization will nevertheless have to be supported by strengthening the democratic institutions in order to work against corruption. this implies efficient mechanisms of control, detection and punishment (what has been called watchdog bodies). except for the few instances in which efficient control is based on authoritarian (totalitarian) rule, the different watchdog bodies will have to be independent institutions that can survey, report, arbitrate, judge, and enforce. besides, democratization will in addition to the establishment and independence of these institutions and practices, also imply a prior democratic institutionalization of a larger set of relatively balanced social forces, of politically countervailing powers. 2.1.b. determinants of an effective anti-corruption agency how well aca’s actually carry out their tasks and what impact this has on corrupt activities according to heilbrunn (2004) depends on many factors. these include the political mandate of the aca, the scope of its power and jurisdiction, its resource base and management, its structural setting and safeguards and external factors such as general governance quality and macroeconomic stability. an aca’s main contributions should be synergy, coordination, concentrated power and autonomy. thus, the policy rationale for establishing an aca would be that, unlike existing agencies of oversight and enforcement, the aca:  will not itself be tainted by corruption or political intrusion;  will resolve coordination problems among multiple agencies; and  will centralize all necessary information and intelligence about corruption and assert leadership in the anticorruption effort. this suggests that the main expected outcome of an aca should be an overall improvement in the performance of the range of existing anti-corruption functions within already established government institutions, not the addition of new activities or use of the aca to substitute for functions that should be performed by other parts of government asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 140-144 142 2.2.c. general principles and characteristics of aca anti-corruption agencies are different from other bodies with which they share competences due to the following general principles and characteristics: a. independence independence is a key issue in the design of this type of public body. most discussions on acas revolve around this problem. independence must be regarded not as irresponsibility or absence of reporting or external control but as the capacity to carry out its mission without political interference. as bodies responsible for implementing a national anti-corruption policy or strategy, acas are not completely “independent”. the concept is therefore linked to other guiding principles such as impartiality, objectivity, fairness, accountability, a clear, legally defined remit and, above all, structural or operational autonomy. b. specialization the fight against corruption today requires an articulated, multidisciplinary, informed strategy. it is no longer a question of corruption as an exchange between two individuals (passive and active). the growing complexity of the phenomenon can be seen in the nature of the players, the types of exchange, the settings in which they occur and the sophistication of transaction mechanisms. this therefore calls for a more deliberate and specialized set of efforts that may include a special court and judges for corruption cases. this is because the nature and activities of the regular courts especially in nigeria will hinder considerably the smooth and fast prosecution of offenders. the delays and technicalities inherent in the nigerian regular courts have been points of reference for the failure of the efcc. this has also been confirmed by the immediate past chairman of the commission when he lamented (daily post, 2012) that amongst other problems associated with courts in nigeria that “we have example of a case we charged to court in 2006; for this very case, we have gone to the supreme court twice on just interlocutory applications. they will file this, the judge will overrule them, they will go to court of appeal and lose there, but they will still go to the supreme court. at supreme court when they lose, they will be asked to go to the trial judge for the case to continue”. c. wide competences and special powers the remit of these specialized agencies is usually broader that of conventional bodies (police, public prosecutors, judges), both in terms of strategy (as they have a mixture of preventive and repressive competences) and in terms of their universe of action. the operational definition of corruption should not be limited to one or two types of crime in the criminal code. the agency’s mission requires the fight against corruption to go beyond the legal and criminal provisions in force. the agency should also target practices and behaviors that, while not actually against the law, are ethically reprehensible. an aca should also suggest that the legislators update the criminal code to keep up with the social evolution of the phenomenon. corruption as a social phenomenon is always more dynamic than its penalization. although this sounds well but practical experience has shown that a more concise and focused aca will do better that a multifunctional one. this is supported by the averment attributed to the again, the immediate past chairman that says “this year alone we recorded over two hundred convictions in various courts across the country but they are mostly advance fee fraud, we have the yahoo yahoo, we have the commercial cases, we have the executives of financial institutions that are involved in currency trafficking. the cases that most people are interested in its conclusion are those before the supreme court (daily post, 2012). d. long-term sustainability the sustainability of anti-corruption agencies is another of their defining traits. few of them in fact have viability and their durability over time is merely the result of the capacity that the institutions demonstrate in resisting their inevitable collapse. without an existence proven over time, the definition of an anticorruption agency is no more than a legal euphemism. 3. theoretical framework this study is conducted within the context of structural functional theory attributed to the work of gabriel almond, a theory that became so popular in the 60s. this theory suggests functional specification of a designate structure established for a particular set of activities. this goes to mean that a set of roles prescribed for an agency as justifications for its existence. the operational powers of such structure therefore flow from these very purposes. the efcc is an agency (structure) of government established to fight a specific form of corruption derived from it name, the economic and financial crimes commission. this is to say that the commission is saddled with the function of fighting financial crimes and related offences. the legal space and powers of its operations should be adequate to allow operational success in that direction .this structural functional theory provides a theoretical clue for an assessment of efcc to determine the latitude of legal wherewithal it enjoys for its operations. for structural functionalism, the question is what a structure does within the political system. this is to understand what is expected of the structure to do and the actual. in the same token, efcc is a structure established on the expectations to address the menace of financial crimes within certain legal space. the actual performance and empirical results achieved is to be viewed against the expected while paying attention to the powers defining its operations. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 140-144 143 4. methodology this is a survey research that seeks to determine the appropriateness and the legal space allow for the efcc to operate for optimal results. the research is conducted in nigeria covering the six geopolitical zones and the federal capital territory. the researcher utilized optimally the primary data sourced through administration of a set of structured questionnaire patterned along the likert scale system which contain questions drew from the research questions. this is in addition to a critical content analysis of documented information from the nigerian dailies and relevant documents regarding the operations of the efcc. only the literate adult population was considered to be the target of study, this is due to the complexity and sensitivity of the subject of research. no doubt the subject of consideration here requires an informed mind to be able to provide insightful and policy related information. of the over 160 million population (national population commission, 2006) only 738 were sampled for the study after careful selection processes were used across the six geopolitical zones in nigeria. the data were also analyzed with the aid of tables and percentage for easy understanding. this was thereafter followed with an inferential statistical technique for precision and clearer direction of results. 5. research findings discussion on the research findings will be guided by the research questions defined in the introductory section. the research question is stated as: how appropriate and adequate is the legal framework within which the efcc operates? to answer this question, the mean response to the questions on section two i.e. legal frameworks, was subjected to a cross tabulation analysis and is presented in tables 1.1.1a below. the decision rule for testing the data in this section is given as; 5 = very appropriate, 4 = appropriate, 3 = undecided, 2 = inappropriate, 1 = very inappropriate table-1.1a. how appropriate and adequate is the legal framework within which the efcc operates? items statement responses total fx mean score x (5) sa (4) a (3) u (2) d (1) sd 1. the law establishing the efcc has not provided it with adequate powers of prosecution in fighting financial crimes 279 37.8% 180 24.4% 103 14.0% 157 21.3% 19 2.6% 738 100% 2757 3.74 2. the law on the limit of foreign currencies to be transferred cannot be sufficiently enforced/ monitored by the efcc 196 26.6% 314 42.5% 116 15.7% 93 12.6% 19 2.6% 738 100% 2789 3.78 3. the legal instrument against drugs and narcotics as provided for by the act is operationally not strong to ensure the effectiveness of the efcc 129 17.5% 289 39.2% 165 22.4% 127 17.2% 28 3.8% 738 100% 2574 3.49 4. the efcc cannot adequately ensure compliance of the daily cash limit to be received or paid as provided for by the prohibition act, 2006 194 26.3% 239 32.4% 139 18.8% 124 16.8% 42 5.7% 738 100% 2632 3.57 5. the areas of crime covered by the efcc as provided for by the law is much for the efcc that some crimes are not monitored 215 29.1% 253 34.3% 135 18.3% 84 11.4% 51 6.9% 738 100% 2706 3.67 6. efcc should focus more on financial crimes, fraud and advance fee fraud only 320 43.4% 238 32.2% 74 10% 91 12.3% 15 2% 738 100% 2968 4.03 7. the nigerian court system has frustrated the efforts of the efcc through delays and incessant injunctions 270 36.6% 307 41.6% 85 11.5% 54 7.3% 22 3% 738 100% 2960 4.01 8. the senior legal counsels usually connive with the judges to subvert/manipulate judgements in favour of their client 225 30.5% 253 34.3% 146 19.8% 80 108% 34 4.6% 738 100% 2767 3.75 grand mean = 3.76 source: field work, sept., 2015 5.1. result interpretation from the result presented in table 5.3.3a above, it is observed that the mean scores of items 1 to 8 i.e., the law establishing the efcc has not provided it with adequate powers of prosecution in fighting financial crimes (3.74).the law on the limit of foreign currencies to be transferred cannot be sufficiently enforced /monitored by the efcc (3.78).the legal instrument against drugs and narcotics as provided for by the act is operationally not strong to ensure the effectiveness of the efcc (3.49).the efcc cannot adequately ensure compliance of the daily cash limit to be received or paid as provided for by the prohibition act (2006), the areas of crime covered by the efcc as provided for by the law is much for the efcc that some crimes like in the casino operations, drugs and narcotics, use of supernatural powers, etc. received less attention (3.67).efcc should focus more on financial crimes, fraud and advance fee fraud only (4.03). the nigerian court system has frustrated the efforts of the efcc through delays and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 140-144 144 incessant injunctions (4.01). the senior legal counsel usually connive with the judges to subvert/manipulate judgements in favour of their clients (3.75) are; 3.74, 3.78, 3.49, 3.57, 3.67, 4.03, 4.01 and 3.75 respectively. the grand mean score across the eight items was computed as 3.76, which are approximately 4.0. this means that the overall response to the questions on this section is not appropriate and adequate. this implies that the legal framework within which the efcc operates is not adequate and appropriate. 6. conclusion and recommendations the relevance and importance of anti –corruption agency in the management and liberation of human society from the shackles of corruption and it evil repercussion can never be over stretched. it can be argued on sustainable instance that corruption is the mother of all evils and social problems; in fact it fuels the underdevelopment of many third world countries. the nigerian case is to an extent even more worrisome as all efforts to rid the country of this ugly monster during and after military regimes seem fruitless. it is even more heartbreaking if attention is paid on the expectations placed on the efcc given the apparent vigor and impression it has attracted from the general public and the international community. it is believed that the efcc is well positioned amongst all other sister ant graft agencies, especially drawing from the failure of the past efforts by previous government. this no doubt attracted research attentions from inside and outside academia to understand why efcc cannot do more than it has achieved. this paper is one of such concerns. it is observed therefore that it is not just enough to have resources of both human and financial base but a clear mandate with precise target accompanied with adequate powers and space will do more good for a government and its people rather than having an agency with a bogus set of objectives and multi faceted mandates. by virtue of recommendation therefore, it is a mandatory requirement to streamline the functions of the efcc to financial crimes and redefine its powers to fit into these functions. secondly, there is need for a separate and specialized court or tribunal to handle financial crimes to avoid the incessant delays associated with the regular courts. thirdly, the agency needs more powers that will enable it prosecute an accused person effectively. fourthly, the nigerian judicial council should put a check on continuous basis the activities of the counsels and judges with a view to ensuring compliance to their professional ethics and punish defaulters with tendentious corruption traits. references andvig, j.c., f. odd-helge, t. amudsen and t. soreid, 2001. corruption: a review of contemporary research. norway: michelson institute. daily post, 2012. nigerian banks sabotaging anti-corruption war, says efcc chief. available from http//www.dailypost.com.ng/2012/18/12 [accessed 9th september, 2012]. heilbrunn, j.r., 2004. anti-corruption commissions: panacea or real medicine to fight corruption. washington: the world bank. meagher, p. and c. voland, 2006. anti-corruption agencies, united states agency for international development. university of maryland-irs centre. national population commission, 2006. population and housing census, priority tables. lagos: federal government press. said, h.u., 2014. an assessment of the perception of effectiveness of the economic and financial crimes commission (efcc) in nigeria. a doctorial thesis submitted to the school of post graduate studies, university of abuja. bibliography almond gabriel (nd), n.d. structural functionalism. available from www.politicalsciencenotes.com [accessed 20th november, 2015]. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.dailypost.com.ng/2012/18/12 http://www.politicalsciencenotes.com/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 4, 163-169, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 163 urban planning in ibadan, nigeria 1960 to 2010: a historical analytical study with special reference to islamic connections ibraheem mikail abiola 1 * --hassan ahmed ibrahim 2 1 doctorate degree candidate of history and civilization at the department of history and civilization, international islamic university malaysia 2 the deputy dean for research and publication, kuliyyah of islamic revealed knowledge and human sciences, international islamic university malaysia abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. background .............................................................................................................................................................................. 164 references .................................................................................................................................................................................... 169 ibadan is located in southwestern nigeria, in the southeastern part of oyo state about 120km east of the border to republic of benin. the city’s total area is 1,190 sq miles (3,080km2). the city isnaturally drained by four rivers which have many tributaries: ona river in the north and west, ogbere river towards the east, ogunpa flowing through the city and kudeti river in the centralpart of ibadan metropolis. ogunpa river the third stream has a channel length of 12.76km and a catchment area of 54.92km2. 1 keywords: ibadan, nigeria, river, city, stream. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 163-169 164 1. background in 1931, less than 7% of nigerians lived in urban planned centres. over a period of 30 years (1952-1982), the population in major nigerian towns has increased, for example in the city of ibadan, it rose from 625,000 in 1963 to 2.82 million in 1982. 1 the people are scattered all over ibadan in areas that are not properly planned or structured accordingly. more easily observable is the lack of islamic principle in rapid urban growth in ibadan. this study is thus a historical analysis of urban planning in ibadan, nigeria, from 1960 to 2010, with special emphasis on its presumed islamic connection. the discourse will explore factors that have contributed in shaping the land planning of urban settlement, in addition to the influence of local topography, and morphological features of pre-existing cities such as ibadan. the possible influence of the islamic connection on the socio-cultural, economic, and political structure of urban planning will also be investigated. in general, it includes the following: natural law, designed principles, religious and cultural beliefs and social principles. it is hoped that the study would help to develop a theoretical framework in looking at the conditions of the survival, birth and growth rates in the city of ibadan from the year 1960 to 2010. the rise of population in ibadan has caused the city to maintain more power and importance. sjoberg writes: we must, if we are to explain the urban planning, growth, spread and decline of cities, comment upon a city as a mechanism by which the society’s rule can consolidate and maintain their power, and more important, the essentiality of a well developed power structure for the formation and perpetuation of urban centres. 2 in developing countries, a substantial and growing proportion of the population live in and around metropolitan areas and urban cities, where their livelihood depends to some extent on natural resources such as land to cultivate food, fuel, water and space for living and shelter. 3 the population pressure means that resources in such zones are often over-exploited, and the urban planning constitutes the habitat of a diverse population, including lower income groups who are particularly vulnerable to negative externalities of both rural and urban planning systems. the pressure includes also factors such as risks to health, physical and life hazards related to the occupation of unsuitable urban planning, poor housing conditions and lack of access to clean water and basic sanitation. according to a well-known muslim intellectual, ibn khaldun, apart from defense purposes and environmental factors, there are other matters that judiciously deal with the importation of the necessities and conveniences in cities. such matters are water, pastures, and fields for cultivation, forests and the sea. ibn khaldun, in his al-muqaddimah, devoted the subject at hand as “requirements for the planning of towns and the consequences of neglecting those requirements.’’ 4 ibadan has been experiencing a great transition from rural to urban oriented economy, which has been accompanied by the increasing mobility of production methods, such as capital, labour, information and technology to this city and others such as lagos, benin, abuja, jos, kano, ilorin and ekiti. notwithstanding the popular belief in urban literature that urban planning may affect the fashionable area in one way or another, most especially in developed countries, empirical studies have revealed a contrary view regarding the fate of cities in developed countries. 5 the united nations’ habitat report in 2005 has indicated that by the year 2025, 61% of the then 8.2 billion world population will be urban and most mega-cities will stand in what we call ‘south clusters’. about 85% of these developments will occur at the urban planned hinterland, best referred to as metropolitan shadow, suburbs, city edge, urban fringe, among others. there are some factors that shape the urban planning landscape. the prominent feature in nigeria, particularly in ibadan, is the informal sector activity and its attendant problems on urban planning economy, which constitutes about 65% of the economy. the informal sector response to the failure of urban governance has various dimensions. to this end, this research will explore and analyze the motives and factors that may have played in the forming and planning of urban settlement in ibadan since 1960. it will also critically analyze the islamic connection on the general, socio-cultural, economic, and political structures of urban planning in the city. 1.2. problem statement the problems of urban planning in ibadan are immense, more easily observable and perhaps very frightening are the general human and environmental poverty, the declining quality of life in ibadan, the under utilized as well as the untapped wealth of human resources, poor housing and poor health services while infrastructural facilities such as water, electricity, waste disposal are grossly inadequate. ibadan is 100 largest cities in the world which translates into pressure on land and thus has high urban dynamics. moreover, intra-city mobility in ibadan is greatly hampered by poor planning of urban city and inefficient land use, which are among the problems this research is going to examine. urban planning is often defined as the political and technical process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment including water, air and the infrastructural passing into and out of urban areas, such as distribution of networks and transformation. 6 the purpose of this study, therefore, is to identify urban planning in ibadan and examine its characteristics with a view to provide explanation on the housing quality of the residential buildings in the urban area as measured by the physical, environmental and socio-economic conditions of the city. it will also study the population growth and density, the number of house density with a specific reference to muslims living in the city, the land use, economic activities and educational facilities, both secular and islamic, 7 industrial development, market development, health sector, mosques, recreation facilities and tourism sites in the city. 8 urban planning in nigeria, most especially in ibadan, has long attracted keen interest within the spheres of sociology, journalism, architecture and history. key issues until now have been events, personalities and dates. however, the concern of this study is in analyzing the intermingling of socio-cultural elements of the islamic connection in ibadan despite the long advent of islam. it will 1centre for african settlement studies and development (1994). 2sjoberg (1960). 3adeshina (2007). 4 see ibn (2001). 5gilbertson, green, ormandy and thompson (2008). 6unchs (1996). 7oladiti (n.d). 8gbadamosi (1978). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 163-169 165 explain and examine the problem of unstable conditions of survival, birth and growth in urban cities in nigeria, most especially in ibadan. several scholars have addressed the issue of unstable conditions in urban planned cities from different perspectives and presented divergent viewpoints. 9 moreover, mbiti observes that: africans especially yorubas are major in the management of two perspective such as environmental (urban planning) and health effect. the yoruba has its own planning system and set of beliefs and practices. architectural planning and all the department of life so fully that it is not easy or possible to isolate it. a study of these urban systems is, therefore ultimately a study of the people themselves in all the complexities of both traditional and modern life… this urban planning is the strongest influence upon the thinking and living of the people concerned. 10 in addition, during the 1970s and 1980s, and even in recent times, the world bank’s urban projects in different parts of the world, particularly in nigeria, show that the living situation of urban residents, including the less privileged and the poor, could be improved significantly, including cost effectively. this study will also help to solve the problems of urban housing quality and urban fringe. social, economical, historical and cultural characteristics as well as environmental issues associated with people living in ibadan are to be examined so as to garner knowledge that can transform the city of ibadan. it has been observed that little is known about the islamic principles to urban planning and those that have worked on urban planning in ibadan and in nigeria as a whole have not done anything related on islamic and historical dimensions of urban planning, only on environmental issues. 1.3. research questions this study aims at answering the following questions: 1. what is the ideology of islamic principles in the urban planning of ibadan land? 2. what are the factors and mechanisms that lead to the unsustainable urban development in ibadan? 3. what are the islamic historical entities concerning urban planning in ibadan? 4. base on the complementary nature of planning, what are the problems and challenges that exist in urban planning in ibadan? 5. are there any similarities and differences between urban planning of ibadan and lagos? 6. what is the impact of islamic art and architecture on the urban planning in ibadan, nigeria? 1.4. objectives of the study the study would allow the views of islam in ibadan to be understood from historical perspective and further show the development of islamic architecture in the city. thus the objectives are as follows: 1. to understand what is the ideology of islamic principles in the urban planning of ibadan with special review on selected prominent islamic city books. 2. to appraise the factors and mechanisms that lead to unsustainable urban planning and development within ibadan metropolis. 3. to critically examine the islamic historical entities that concern urban planning in ibadan. 4. to critically analyze the strategies to address the challenges and problems that exist in urban planning in ibadan. 5. to compare the similarities and differences between urban planning of ibadan and lagos. 6. to identify the impact of islamic art and architecture on urban planning in ibadan. 1.5. significance of the study the significance of this research could be seen in its attempt to uncover the true picture of urban planning in ibadan nigeria. it will also help in understanding how the historical architectural plan of ibadan as a metropolitan city contributes in its principles with muslims, and the major difficulties which the early muslims had to face. with regard to the principle of islam on urban planning in ibadan, general contributory factors will be pointed out. one of the factors that this study will analyze is the urban management information, knowledge of the number of property units across the city, places of worship like mosques and schools in tangible areas and recreation centres across the city as well as the size, location, ownership, value, occupancy and characteristics of places of worship. 11 urban planning is an autonomous phenomenon; the exploration of these historical, cultural, political and economic ramifications is not only intellectually exciting but it also contributes immensely to our understanding of the larger society. just as there have been great empires in history, there have also been great cities in the past and present reflecting various flourishing civilizations and islamic connections. louis wirth has rightly stated as far back as 1938 that: different as the cities of earlier epochs may have been by virtue of their development in a preindustrial and pre-capitalistic order from the great cities of today, they were nevertheless cities. 12 moreover, this study will explore whether ibadan city plan is in accordance with islamic tenets in which an islamic city must have the following features: mosques with madrassa providing religious and scientific teachings, suqs (markets) that provide economic activities to the city, the citadel representing the government house, residential quarters, street networks, the exteriors including cemeteries, and a wall surrounding the city with a number of gates. meanwhile, there is a need for this research to bring something new to the discipline especially in the aspect of islamic principles in urban planning in ibadan. thus the urban renewal of ibadan, the local governance system to urban planning and development of ibadan metropolitan area will also be explore. this study will also contribute 9 so, when islam came it fitted the philosophy, religious, historical beliefs and practices of the yoruba people and because of this they easily adopted the religious beliefs and practices. for more views see, a.r.i. doi, islam in nigeria, 107-110; dada and jeje (1972), 4042; kennedy (1978). 5-7; babalola (1982). 70-72; pickthall (1995). (india:1981), 1-2, parrinder geoffrey (1981). 9-10; parrinder geoffrey (1978). 7-9; mbiti (1967). 1-2, mbiti (1975). 10-13; trimingham (1991). 129-130; wahabat, 30-33; ilorin (1979). 11-13; zuglool (1987). 63-65. ilorin (1991). 30-33; idowu (1973). 11-13; ray (1976). 1-3; clearke (1982). 17-19; hiskett (1984). 21-23; and dopemu (2003). 1-3. 10 see mobogunje (1992). 117. 11parrinder (1959). 12 see loius (1980). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 163-169 166 significantly by providing understanding on the methods of evaluating the physical and neighbourhood characteristics in housing quality in urban planning. this can be used to generate a housing quality index (hqi) that policy makers and governments can use in providing sustainable urban planning policies. the above features have cultural, political, historical, social and economic implications in terms of physical fabric, layout and uses which may provide lessons for planning and design practices. a muslim city can be easily adapted to meet modern functionality and living standards, and still maintain its high congruence with the natural, religious and social-cultural environment. in this case, it is still very relevant and viable to today’s urban planning and requirement of our society, a view supported by the words of some scholars such as abu-lughod and hassan fathi’s vernacular architecture project in egypt. 13 1.6. theoretical framework the topic of urban planning, the motives behind its appearance, including its definition are quiet complex and debatable. one of the foremost difficulties associated with urban planning is the non-consideration of relevant socioeconomical parameters by governments and agents responsible for urban planning provision. from ibn khaldun’s standpoint, that there are many changes to traditional urban planning principles and values so residents must be happy with the facilities and their well-being, good governance and maqasid al-shari’ah and all these have been the major reasons for urban planning inadequacies and poor infrastructural amenities in ibadan as proportions of existing urban housing stock are dilapidated. with reference to industrialization and civilization, there are pull factors for the rural-urban migrants as well as cross-national migrants. in recent times, most nigerian cities especially lagos, ibadan and kano, have experienced tremendous planned and unplanned growth due to population explosion, which in turn has led to congestion, urban social-spatial upheavals and environmental degradation. planners and other urban keepers manage urban space and residents for the purpose of efficient functioning and performance of urban systems. they, however, require the understanding of changed process in urban land use and the interactions with the change to discharge their functions in urban space. this study will examine the causes and problems of urban planning and its characteristics in the assessment of housing quality and other critical factors that affect urban and city planning like poverty, rapid urbanization and influx of people into urban areas, natural disasters, such as flood and erosion which lead to massive movement of people to places of opportunity and safety, housing shortage, inappropriate planning and inadequate land administration tools. in essence, managing and planning for towns require the understanding of the forces and processes operating in them, and the factors that naturally sort out people of different social economic status in place. information on the existing land use land cover pattern, its spatial distribution and changed process is the prerequisite for planning, utilization and formulation of policies and programmes making any micro and macro level developments in urban planning. 14 urban planning in ibadan will be reviewed based on historical evidence to reaffirm the ideological and methodological similarities in accordance with islamic perspective; theoretically, it will examine the process of change of ibadan from a well-known historical war camp of yoruba people to its present state and its capacity to become one of the mega and well-planned cities in nigeria. the theory to the study at hand will help to explain the forces that drive urban infrastructural development. in this approach, urban planning and infrastructure are linked to the spatial and usage patterns that impact human historical and ecological processes. these processes influence more micro level phenomenon, such as human behaviour and activities which serve as feedback into the landscape and social patterns in the urban area. 1.7. research methodology data collection for this research relies heavily on the main sources of non-survey data viz. archive and library research of archive documents and books. in conducting this research, reliance will be placed on primary sources; these include materials from archives in ibadan, nigeria particularly unpublished manuscripts on urban planning and other materials prepared by the ministry of urban and regional planning in ibadan, nigeria for proper understanding of their roles, thoughts, career and impacts in the planning of ibadan in accordance with islamic principles. moreover, efforts will be made to acquire books produced by ibn khaldun on urban planning from the islamic principles, and other primary sources produced by muslims as well as western scholars in the field. moreover, experts in this field at the ministry of urban and regional planning and the lecturers at university of ibadan’s urban planning department will also be interviewed in order to obtain remarks and constructive criticisms concerning the urban planning of ibadan. these are the questions to be asked during the interviews:  how does the islamic principle motivate towards the urban planning of ibadan?  how do you evaluate the activities of the government in the development of urban planning in ibadan?  what major challenges has urban planning of ibadan faced since 1960?  to what extent do islamic art and architecture influence the urban planning of ibadan? the essence of data to be collected is to objectively and critically analyze the working mechanisms, motives and characteristic features of urban planning in ibadan with special emphasis the islamic principle. the data collected will be interpreted by applying analytical methods. in addition, secondary data will also be collected from books, journals, periodicals, conference proceedings, dissertations, theses, seminar and electronic materials. data will also be gathered by meeting workers of the ministry of urban and regional planning and the public in market places, recreation sites and other important places. the purpose of data to be collection is to objectively and critically analyze the working mechanisms, motives and characteristic features in the urban planning of ibadan whereby the data will be interpreted by applying analytical and comparative methods. 13see, abu lughod (1987). hassan (1972). 14 see adeniyi (1981). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 163-169 167 1.8. literature review the review of the used literature in this study is critical evaluation of the major works that have been conducted previously on the topic of the research, indicating strengths and weaknesses and pointing the gap in the field. this can be classified into two methods: firstly, according to the form of literature, and secondly, the themes discussed therein. under the first classification, the relevant literature could be divided into six types: firstly, archive materials, secondly, periodicals, newspapers, journals and magazines: thirdly, conference materials; fourthly, dictionaries and encyclopedias: fifthly, books, research works and dissertations; and finally, interviews and correspondences of the author with some leading scholars in the historical field. the first category consists of number scholarly journals, newspapers and magazines issued in some nigeria states. in addition, periodicals and newspapers such as vanguard, daily trust, nigeria tribune, daily independent, and sahara reporters have issued several articles on urban cities and planning in nigeria and africa as a whole. 15 the second category consists of conference materials and proceedings. for instance, an international conference was held in ibadan on governance and urban settlement in 1994 16 in ibadan during the military rule of general, sani abacha. the next category of sources consist of dictionaries and encyclopedias, which are useful in presenting short a history of ibadan, biographical information about personalities and some other brief terminological details. the fourth category includes research works and dissertations on islamic literacy and cultural influence in ibadan, 17 as well as discussion on historical and political thoughts in ibadan. however, as a matter of convenience, the sources could be divided into three thematic groups: the first consists of literature on the planning of cities in lines with islamic civilization, struggle for shelter in an urbanizing world etc. the second group deals with the growth of ibadan, phenomenon urbanization in ibadan, ibadan history and physical development, housing and building of an environment. the last group describes religions, rituals and community where the islamic thoughts and ideas are largely accepted. indeed, a few works have been written to understand urban planning in ibadan, nigeria. generally, those studies have significantly marginalized, even underestimated, the role of the religious factor as they have focused on explaining the society and politics from the perception of urban and regional planning. islamic principles in urban planning in ibadan, nigeria from 1960 to 2010: a historical analytical study is hoping to fill this gap that is to connect the urban planning of ibadan with religious considerations. however, the works that address the topic on the urban planning will be reviewed below. hisham ja’it’s nazrah ibn khaldun li al-madinahwa mushkilah al-tamdin discusses 18 ibn khaldun’s, idea of the city which must be viewed along the lines of his understanding of civilization, royal authority and dynasty. jait states that urban planning is a natural consequence in the progression of civilization from desert life to sedentary culture. no sooner do several human beings start to cooperate with each other, no matter on how limited a scale to form a sort of social organization owing to their god-given power of thinking as well as propensity to socialization than the first and, as a rule, rudimentary elements of civilization result. henceforth, the growth and wealth of civilization always correspond to the growth in numbers of people’s collaboration and productivity. ibn khaldun argues that since human beings must, by nature, cooperate and are at the same time hostile to each other, their social organizations must be governed by someone who is superior over others. 19 the same person(s) shall act as a restraining influence and mediator. the existence of cities with their monuments, vast constructions and large buildings, is perceived by ibn khaldun as lying outside the category of necessary matters of general concern to human beings and city planning, in the sense that they all desire them or feel compelled to have them. at the same time, however, united effort and much cooperation are needed on the part of the masses for building and maintaining cities, even though cities are established for them and not for the few. therefore, to build cities, people must be either forced by the stick of royal authority or induced by promise of reward and compensation. 20 my own expectation about the issue, as a student of history, is to critically examine and analyze the historical analytical study of urban planning of ibadan according to islamic perception. though ibadan is not an islamic state but i vow to mention some features of islamic cities and islamic civilization in ibadan shall be mentioned through this research work. c. abrams’ man’s struggle for shelter in an urbanizing world 21 discusses the stance of shelter and congested urban settlement around the world. it notes that governments’ emphasis on urbanization helps directly or indirectly, and that the state of shelter repeatedly urges and warns the people in most congested cities of hygienic environment. 22 this literature introduces the need to maintain the planning structure of cities, most especially in africa and the rest of the world; hence this book’s views would be beneficial and useful. the author sufficiently analyzes how shelter is used in an urbanized world in the area of social change. this research is going to implement the views of abrams to state the struggle of people living in ibadan for shelter in an urbanizing zone. o. areola’s the spatial growth of ibadan and its impact on the rural hinterland 23 discusses the growth and development of population in ibadan and the rural communities close to ibadan metropolis. the increased growth of population in nigeria, especially in ibadan, and the factors that facilitate its growth are also discussed. the work also look at the major role played by the imperialists in the history of ibadan, the nationalists’ support to such efforts and the zeal showed by indigene of the ibadan council. meanwhile, the significant interest of this work to the research is the section where the author discusses the effects of the nature of ibadan and the population in south-western nigeria. the work is useful, in that it sheds more light on some circumstances surrounding the development of urban 15 for example, see “urban slums in lagos (2014). 16centre for african settlement studies and development (1994). 17see oladiti ( n.d). 18hisham (1982). 19ibn (2001). 20 sati’ sati (1961). 21abrams (1964). 22ibid., 207. 23see areola (1994). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 163-169 168 planning and growth in nigeria, mostly in ibadan. this book will help this research work due to it degree of authenticity and objectivity. several chapters authored by in labinjo in his article ibadan and the phenomenon of urbanization: a historical cultural and social economic study of an african city 24 take a comprehensive look at the introduction, effects and impacts of urban planning in the city of ibadan in particular. it is of a very significant relevance to this study as it traces the genesis and manifestations of syncretism of architectural art and plan in ibadan land; in particular, its focuses on urban planning in ibadan and the islamic principle. the author of the book dedicated a whole chapter in this book to explaining the historical and cultural phenomenon of urbanization in ibadan. meanwhile, this research work will tackle the historical and social economic features of the people living in urban city of ibadan in accordance with islamic principle. another well-known yoruba scholar, m. a. tomori, in his ibadan omo ajorosun: a new perspective of ibadan history and physical development 25 discusses the penetration of religious beliefs in ibadan, the religions practised by the yorubas living in the city, and its physical and urban management. the book discusses the contributions of historical architectural planning of ibadan over some other cities surrounded by ibadan. it will contribute more to this study as it expresses the term ibadan omo ajorosun and explains some of the practices of the late warriors of ibadan towards the progress and planning of this city. though not that elaborate the book would be very useful to this study in the areas of historical study and urban planning of the city because the author analyzes every detail concerning the history of ibadan until colonial era and beyond. this research is expected to elaborate the urban planning of ibadan according to islamic perspective from 1960 until 2010. b. hakim’s magnum opus, arabic islamic cities: buildings and planning principles 26 is a classical book on islamic cities, and it is still relevant in contemporary times. it is one of the most understandable and comprehensive texts relevant to this work as it gives clues to the different aspects on the planning of a city from the islamic perspective as well as the factors that help in facilitating urban planning. the work will be useful to this research because it gives some background information about the resurgence of islamic cities. it is written by a well-known scholar and historian, and is considered a major source of information about urban planning in modern times, especially as a reference to islamic principle and perspective, and the development and challenges that normally face the growth of a city. however, even though the work is historical in nature, it does not discuss the encounter between muslims and non-muslims living in an islamic state. the author skilfully analyzes the components of islamic cities while this research will use the logic to this research work on urban planning of ibadan with special reference to islamic connection. another prominent work is by m. cemea micheal, entitled the urban environment and population relocation 27 . it highlights the views of west african people to urban environmental planning from ancient time till the 20 th century. it explores the making of the west africa communities over a period of time of some 1,200 years from a relative slow start in the first 1,100 years to a quicker time in the 20 th century. it also explains the factors that make urban planning grow. in this book micheal, asserts that urban environmental planning in west africa is not a mere appendage. he argues that a substantial ‘minority’ or an overwhelming ‘majority’ of the inhabitants of a number of west african states are very much attracted to their physical environments, even when they travel or relocate from one city to another. this book also highlights the traces of architectural and environmental problems in some west african states, and how they were dealt with. though it does not discuss the implication of the islamic principle, this work will be useful to this research, especially in the area of architectural and environmental problems of some western african cities. r. hamdan’s islam and urbanization in the arab world 28 provides some information relating to the islamic religion and urbanization in the arab land, especially from the outsiders, the non-arabs who came to arab nations to seek greener pasture or for adventure. the writer explains how muslims and non-muslims of other faiths came to those cities and pursued the policy of neutrality and friendship with many muslims and people of other religions. 29 the information illustrates that islam and muslims have not caused hazards; rather they lived in accordance with peace and harmony based on islamic teachings, and easily connected with other faiths’ believers, especially when they share the same environment. this work will tactically analyze the methods in which decision makers and the government can help to make ibadan a better urban planned city like some cities under islamic rule. a.i. adelemo in his small urban centres in nigeria’s development strategy; the role of rural market centres 30 portrays small urban centres in the nigerian context. in this book, he discusses the development strategies of urban planning and market places, and pointes to the role of the building environment. the chapter entitled, ‘the urbanization in politics’ attempts to elaborate on the role played by prominent politicians all over nigeria in urban planning in this modern era. however, the writer does not depict the thoughts and contributions of local governments in ibadan towards its planning principles, which this study is going to address. the work of p. onibukun and a. faniran entitled urban research in nigeria 31 contains some factual information relating to the urban architectural planning in nigeria. the authors argue that urban and architectural influence will enable people of different tribes to interact with one another without any chaos and misunderstanding. the book restricts itself to presenting speeches in international forums in lieu of this perception on regional and urban planning. the speeches are categorized according to themes, but the absence of the authors’ commentaries makes them stand on their own 32 . the book leaves room for researchers to make their own conclusions on the historical, cultural and architectural planners in ibadan in particular and nigeria as a whole. the authors do not cite and view all the phenomenon components of urban planning in nigerian cities in chronological order which this research is going 24labinjo (2002). 25tomoro (2004). 26hakim (1986). 27cemea micheal (1993). 28hamdan (1976). 29 ibid. 30adelemo (1979). 31onibukun and faniran (2005). 32ibid., 67-70. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 163-169 169 to address. a book of j.f.c. turner, entitled housing by people: towards autonomy in building environments a literature on autonomy and environmental building. it argues that the causes of conversion always stem from wideranging and complex set of factors that evolve from within a changing autonomy and environmental context. therefore, it should not be surprising that many urban planning scholars in yoruba land argue that the relatively recent arrival of autonomy has instigated disruptive change. although it is not possible to win back the process of modernity and re-establish traditional cultures, environmental planning suggests that autonomy provides a means to counter their disillusionment and reestablish a more just and stable social order. such views represent a new form of urban planning and environmental competitions. 33 this book examines the intellectual welfare of people in building a conducive environment and planning for a better urban city. meanwhile, this research is going to enumerate some important factors that will help people to live in a better urban planned settlement according to islamic principle. the dominant paradigm in several of these sources is their extensive nature their treatment towards urban planning as written by muslims and non-muslims in nigeria and beyond. various methodologies employed in these literatures can inspire the researcher in undertaking the objective of a historical research on islamic principle in the urban planning of ibadan. all these literature can be significant and concrete foundation upon which this study will construct. consequently, from the existing literature, it is clear that the researcher’s concerns in finding the formative literary elements of islamic principles in urban planning literature in ibadan have not been categorically studied. in fact, this gap needs to be fulfilled in the current research. references abrams, c., 1964. man’s struggle for shelter in an urbanizing world. lilongwe: gateway press. abu lughod, j., 1987. the islamic city: history myth, islamic essence, and contemporary relevance. international journal of middle east studies, 19(1): 155176. adelemo, a.i., 1979. small urban centres in nigeria’s development strategy; the role of rural market centres, small urban centres in rural development in africa. abuja: africa study. pp: 128-130. adeniyi, p.o., 1981. application of aerial photography to the estimation of the characteristics of residential buildings. the nigeria geographical journal, 19(1): 189-200. adeshina, a., 2007. social-spatial transformations and the urban fringe landscape in developing countries. munich, germany: united nations university institute for environmental and human security (unuuhs). summer academy on social vulnerability and resilience building in mega city. pp: 117-141. areola, o., 1994. the spatial growth of ibadan and its impact on the rural hinterland. london: macmilan press. pp: 70-72. babalola, e.o., 1982. islam in west africa. ado ekiti: bamgboye and co press. cemea micheal, m., 1993. the urban environment and population relocation. washington d.c: the world bank. centre for african settlement studies and development, 1994. governance and urban poverty in anglophone westafrica: conference proceedings. cassad: ibadan. clearke, p.b., 1982. west africa and islam; a study of religious development from the 8th to the 20th century. london: edward arnold. dada and jeje, 1972. awon asaati orisaile yoruba. ibadan: spectrum books. dopemu, p.a., 2003. african culture, modern science and religious thought. ilorin: african centre for religious and the science. gbadamosi, t.g.o., 1978. the growth of islam among the yoruba 1804 – 1908. longman: press. gilbertson, j., g. green, d. ormandy and h. thompson, 2008. good housing and good health: a review and recommendations for housing and health practitioners. uk: a sector study of housing corporation. hakim, b., 1986. arabic islamic cities: buildings and planning principles. london: kegan paul. hamdan, r., 1976. islam and urbanization in the arab world in geography. vienna: kenwood press. hassan, f., 1972. the pattern of medieval urbanism in the arab world. in geography. vienna: kenwood press, 1976. hisham, j.i., 1982. nazrah ibn khaldun li al-madinah wa mushkilah al-tamdin, in ibn khaldun wa al-fikr al-‘arabi al-mu’asir. cairo: al-dar al-‘arabiyyah li al-kitab. hiskett, m., 1984. the development in west africa history. london: longman. ibn, k., 2001. the muqaddimah. usa: princeton university press. idowu, e.b., 1973. african traditional religion. london: scm press. ilorin, a.a., 1979. alislam wataqalid al-jahiliyyah asshai’ ah fi ifriqiyyah. cairo: madani press. ilorin, a.a., 1991. nasim assabah fi akhbar alislam wa ‘ulama’ bilad yoruba. cairo: maktabat wahabat. kennedy, j., 1978. nubian ceremony life; studies in islamic syncretism and cultural change. new york: university of california press. labinjo, j., 2002. ibadan and the phenomenon of urbanization in ibadan: a historical culture and social economic study of an african city. ibadan: pent publications. loius, w., 1980. virtue of cities. london: longman press. mbiti, j.s., 1967. african religions and philosophy. london: heinnemann educational. mbiti, j.s., 1975. introduction to african religion. london: heinemann. mobogunje, 1992. perspective on urban land and urban management policies in sub-saharan africa. world bank technical paper no.196. africa technical department series. washington d.c: the world bank. oladiti, a.a., n.d. islamic literacy and cultural influence in ibadan: c. 1945 -1995. unpublished ph.d.thesis, university of ibadan. onibukun, p. and faniran, 2005. urban research in nigeria. lagos: african literature. parrinder, e.g., 1959. islam and west african indigenous religion. numen, 6: 130-141. parrinder geoffrey, e.g., 1978. west africa religion. london: epworth press. parrinder geoffrey, e.g., 1981. west african religion. 3rd edn., london: sheldon press. pickthall, m.m., 1995. the cultural side of islam. india: nusrat ali nasri kitab bhavan. ray, b.c., 1976. african religions; symbols, ritual, and community. new jersey: prentice-hall. sati, a., 1961. dirasat ‘an muqaddimah ibn khaldun. lilongwe: pickt hall pres. sjoberg, g., 1960. the preindustrial city. new york: free press. tomoro, m.a., 2004. ibadan omo ajorosun: a new perspective of ibadan history and physical development. ibadan: pent house publications. trimingham, j.s., 1991. islam in a muslim society. cambridge university press. unchs, 1996. an urbanizing world: global report on human settlement. oxford: oxford university press. urban slums in lagos, 2014. mega city vanguard news, thursday may, 7th 2014. zuglool, m.s., 1987. azharar-rubah fi akhbar bilad yoruba. lagos: dardawat wal-irshad. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. 33ibid., 72. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 1, 47-55, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 47 exploring the effects of training and development practices on organization performance: a case study of pakistan telecommunication authority muhammad waqas chughtai 1* --zulfiqar ali nadeem 2 1 assistant professor, nti school of management sciences 2 research scholar, nti school of management sciences abstract contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 48 2. literature review ...................................................................................................................................................................... 48 3. research methodology .............................................................................................................................................................. 49 4. results & discussion ................................................................................................................................................................. 49 5. conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................................. 54 6. suggestions ................................................................................................................................................................................. 55 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 55 citation | muhammad waqas chughtai; zulfiqar ali nadeem (2016). exploring the effects of training and development practices on organization performance: a case study of pakistan telecommunication authority. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(1): 47-55. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.47.55 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: author(s) contribution: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 31 august 2015/ revised: 29 september 2015/ accepted: 14 october 2015/ published: 20 october 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group training and development (t&d) is important for survival of every organization. it plays a strategic role to achieve the current as well as future goals of the organization. the core objective of the research was to explore the impact of training and development on organizational effectiveness. the research was based on a case study of pakistan telecommunication authority. the study consists of the data gathered through a structured questionnaire from the employees and management of pakistan telecommunication authority in islamabad and rawalpindi region. the results have disclosed the importance of training and development practices and its impact on individuals as well as on organization. furthermore, it is suggested that t&d programs should be carefully assessed, designed, implemented and evaluated in order to fill the gap between existing and required skills, abilities and knowledge of the employees; in addition to enhance the organizational effectiveness. keywords: organization performance, training, employees development, pakistan. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.47.55 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1):47-55 48 1. introduction human resource is considered as an important asset of organization. every organization needs to sustain adequate numbers of human capital. this is the age of competition and every organization has to face its rivals and market challenges. an organization cannot compete in the market without having skilled and competent employees. training and development program is an important activity in the organization because it enhances employee’s skills and competences and helps the organization to get competitive advantage (batool and batool, 2012). the managers should focus staff training and development according to organization needs because an effective team can perform well to achieve the desired objectives. training and development program needed to be a continual exercise in organization for its growth and competitiveness. well trained staff perform efficiently and effectively to achieve the intended milestones of organization. productive organization provides more benefits for its employees, that enhance the level of job satisfaction and consequently employee’s turnover reduces and retain for a long time (jehanzeb and bashir, 2013). human resource management is about recruiting, hiring and managing employees. however, an effective human resource system entails many more aspects of the organization, including organizational culture and ensuring health and safety. with an understanding of these components of an hr management system, business owners and managers can effectively structure their business processes. training and development programs are essential for every organization for its long term planning and strategy. these programs help organization to achieve its objectives in time and enhance the skills and competencies of workforce (khan et al., 2012). several organizations think that staff training simply increases the cost of organization, because the organization has to allocate staff training budget every year. but this concept has been changed now, because of cost of non training is always higher than the cost of training. training and development programs enable the employees to get necessary skills to use new technologies (imran et al., 2014). effective employees training minimize the gap between actual required skill to do the job and existing skills in new employees (simons and richardson, 2012). proactive, motivated and well trained staff makes the organization productive and prosperous. training and development enhances the organization towards its strategic goals and objectives (niazi, 2011). human resource is a source like any other natural resource. the management can get and use the skill, knowledge, ability, etc. through the development of skills, tapping and utilizing them again and again. human resource is that part of the process of management which manages and develops the human beings of an enterprise. it is not only the administration of skills, abilities but also the attitudes and aspirations of people. when individuals join an organization, they come with not only technical skills, knowledge, experience etc. but also with their personal feelings, perception, desires, motives, attitude, values etc. an important part of human resource management is the ‘humane approach’ while managing people. this approach assists a manager to consider his people as an important resource. it is a benevolent approach to develop and effectively utilize the manpower not only for the benefit of the organization but for the growth, development and self satisfaction of the concerned people. thus, human resource management is a system that focuses on human resource development, on the one hand, and effective management of people on the other. hrm approach is a fundamental change in the philosophy and perspective stemmed from reckoning with the resourcefulness of the people at work, which can be developed by appropriate programs. it emphasizes the human aspect of individual workers and their aspirations and needs. 1.1. objectives of the research 1. to explore the effects of training and development on organizational effectiveness. 2. to give fruitful suggestions for the improvement of employees training and development techniques in the organizations. 2. literature review ahmed et al. (2014) examined the impact of training and development on employee performance while focusing a case study from different banking sector of north punjab. the results disclosed that all the three factors namely training and development, on the job training and its delivery style has positive impact on employee’s performance. they further concluded that employee’s training need assessment should be conducted in every organization in order to make the employees more productive after delivering necessary training to them.al-kassem (2014) concluded that training must be designed to fill gap between actual performance and what was needed. new employees were not usually aware with the environment of the new organization. initially new employees had to understand the organizational culture and working environment, for the purpose they needed basic training to accommodate them in new organization. training helped the organization to reduce that gap; however it could not be completely eliminated. effective training reduced the employee’s turnovers and enhanced the employee’s commitment in the organization. imran et al. (2014) explored, every organization has to face the technological change. technology change was considered as one of the key challenges for organizations. organizations needed to be updated with the latest technology. in the competitive environment technological change might become a threat for organization. organizations needed to aware of the technological change from time to time and needed to assess training need for the workforce. whenever organization provided the required training, the workforce could easily handle the competitive environment. effective training of employees could enable the organization to meet such kind of challenges. obi-anike and ekwe (2014) focused the impact of training and development on organizational effectiveness. for this purpose they gathered evidence from selected public sector organization in nigeria via a structured questionnaire. the study concluded that training and development enhanced the motivation level and job satisfaction among the employees which caused to reduce the employee’s turnover in the organization. furthermore the findings have revealed that training and development has positive relationship with organizational effectiveness. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1):47-55 49 raza (2014) elaborated training and development impact on organizational performance while collecting evidence from oil and gas sector of pakistan. the study analyzed learning organization and its strategic training and development alignment, training need analysis and line manager’s involvements in training and developments programs and training formalization including implementation and its evaluation. the findings showed that organizational performance has been enhanced by the strategic training and development alignment, manager’s active participation as well as due to effective design, implementation and evaluation of training and development programs. alyahya et al. (2013) stated that human resource development was required by every organization to meet the challenges. therefore effective training and development programs were needed by the organization to ensure well trained workforce in the organization. training intervention has been an important function to increase the effectiveness of human resource development in organization. the training outcome would be more productive and effective when the numbers of participation of workforce would be attentive and present regularly. amin et al. (2013) explored the impact of employees training on the job performance in education sector of pakistan. training and development improved current and future performance of employees in organization. training need assessment was essential process to identify training need, to improve behavior of employees and to gain organizational goals. jehanzeb and bashir (2013) explained that employee job satisfaction should be vital in the organization. workforce always switched the organization whenever their level of satisfaction was lower than expected or required to meet their basic needs. satisfied employees always showed loyalty to the organization and focused the job assignments. shaheen et al. (2013) concluded the relationship between training and employees, for this purpose school teacher of kotli azad jamun kashmir has brought in the study. it is indicated that employee performance played as mediating role between employees training and organizational performance. effective training produced positive outcome in the organization. the performance and methodology of the teachers improved due to proper training. batool and batool (2012) concluded that organization could get competitive advantage by staff training and development. training and development of employees was the basic requirement of the organization. without having efficient and trained workforce in the organization, it would be difficult for organization to meet market challenges. singh and mohanty (2012) emphasized that the organizations should expand in training of its employees, because training enhanced the employee productivity as a result the revenue of organization increased. without training the performance of employees went down and de-motivated. productive employee could better contribute for achievement of the organization objectives. 3. research methodology this research is based on primary data that have been collected from selected respondents of pakistan telecommunication authority islamabad head office; a well structured questionnaire has been designed to gather the relevant information from respondents by using convenient sampling technique. a simple descriptive statistics has been applied to interpret the data. 4. results & discussion table-1.frequency of training in pta category respondents percentage monthly 14 8 % quarterly 86 50% annually 56 33% training once 10 6% no training 6 3% total 172 100 % the table no.1 shows the frequency of training practices in pta. when the frequency of training in the organization was investigated, 8% of the total respondents mentioned that they are offered training on monthly basis. they said their department heads lecture them every month and let them know about the monthly targets. they are given proper instruction to achieve these targets in time. while 50% of the total respondents indicated that they are provided training quarterly either by their department head or by any expert to accomplish their goals. their performances are evaluated after four months and it helps them to overcome their deficiencies. likewise 33% of the total respondents answered that they are provided training annually in the organization. an annual review is conducted and the employees are provided opportunity for further training to achieve next year goals. the employees are either given training in organization or send them to other professional institutions to learn new things. and 6% of the total respondents believe that they have given only one time training when they joined the organization. most of such employees are new inductees in the organization. rests of the 3% of the total respondents believe that they have been offered no any training by the organization. the results disclose that maximum numbers of the respondents are gaining training either by on the job training or off the job training method. this indicates that pta is very much concerned with staff training and development programs, that’s the reason why maximum respondents were satisfied with the training and development programs in the organization. they believe these training and development programs helped them to boost their knowledge, skills and competencies as well as benefited for their career development and enhanced the organizational effectiveness. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1):47-55 50 4.1. impact and significance of training and development on employees table-2.impact and significance of training and development to the employees impact and significance of t&d to the employees category strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree no comments total % % % % % t&d is beneficial for motivation 87 51% 80 47% 2 1% 2 1% 1 1% 172 training is helpful for promotion 57 33% 104 60% 4 2% 1 1% 6 3% 172 labor laws are taught during training 48 28% 96 56% 13 8% 10 6% 5 3% 172 organization conducts orientation 41 24% 102 59% 13 8% 9 5% 7 4% 172 new employees gets formal training 54 31% 111 65% 3 2% 2 1% 2 1% 172 training enhances encouragement &performance 67 39% 93 54% 5 3% 5 3% 2 1% 172 t&d enhance competencies 64 37% 87 51% 12 7% 4 2% 5 3% 172 t&d enhance skills and knowledge 69 40% 97 56% 3 2% 3 2% 0 0% 172 training improves communication skills 58 34% 97 56% 9 5% 6 3% 2 1% 172 t&d impact on career development 50 29% 99 58% 11 6% 6 3% 6 3% 172 performance increases due to t&d 81 47% 87 51% 2 1% 1 1% 1 1% 172 t&d brings positive impact in attitude 48 28% 102 59% 9 5% 7 4% 6 3% 172 awareness with current job responsibilities 79 46% 88 51% 2 1% 3 2% 0 0% 172 t&d reduce work stress 45 26% 98 57% 13 8% 11 6% 5 3% 172 skills employees perform more than unskilled 91 53% 74 43% 3 2% 2 1% 2 1% 172 the table no. 2 indicates the impact and significance of training and development to the employees. several questions were asked to investigate the impact of training and development on employee performance. when the employees were asked about the benefits of training on development on employee’s motivation, 51% of total respondents strongly consider training and development is beneficial for employee’s motivation whilst 47% also agree with it. they think that without proper training and development the employees cannot be motivated. training and development enhances employees’ knowledge and skills, which provide them chances of career development in the organization. so level of motivation of such employees are more and they perform well in the organization. on the other hand 1% of the total respondents disagree similarly 1% strongly disagrees. they do not consider training and development as beneficial for employee motivation. they believe employee motivation level changes from time to time. sometimes more training and development programs increase their stress level. because of the training they are given more tasks to perform, which they usually could not complete, so more work cause de-motivation among the employees. the remaining 1 % of the total respondents set this query aside and given no any answer. training is helpful for promotion of the employees, when the participants were asked, 33 % of the total respondents strongly agree while 60% agree. they consider training is one of the key strategies for employee promotion, because training increases the employee’s skills, knowledge and competencies. training enables the employees to perform their job easily and in professional manner. they think employee promotion is mostly associated with the employees training and learning. however 2% of the total respondents disagree and 1% strongly disagrees with it. they feel promotion needs strong references instead of training. they think, if you have strong references in the organization, you can get easy chances for promotion. however, 3 % of the total respondents were found silent to reply this question. usually employees are not aware about the labor laws and its implementation in the organization. they simply look only rules and regulation of the organization and unaware of local labor laws and policies. when this query was raised, 28% to the total respondents answered that they are taught about the labor laws during training programs in organization. and 56% to the total respondents have also shows agreement to this query and replied that they have been taught about the labor laws in their training programs. on the other hand 8 % of the total respondents disagree and 6 % strongly disagree. they believe that they are usually not told about the labor laws during their training programs. and they are not aware of the local labor laws and its proper implementation in the organization. however 3 % has given no reply. it is important for every organization to conduct orientation for every newcomer in the organization, so that they could easily socialize and perform their duties. when this query was investigated in pta, 24 % of the total respondents have shows their strong agreement and 59 % also agree. they think that orientation program is conducted for every new employee. they are introduced with their coworkers, subordinates, seniors as well as with the staff on other department. they are informed and helped to perform their job responsibilities. they are given all necessary assistance. however 8 % of total respondents disagree and 5% strongly disagree. they replied, they did not go through with any orientation programs when they joined the organization. the remaining 4% of the total respondents kept them aside and given no reply. formal job training is important for employees to justify their basic tasks. when the employees were asked about the basic training if provided by the organization, 31% of the total respondents strongly agree and 65% agree. they consider that the new employees are given basic training to perform their job. new employees have to go through with an initial training before performing their assignments. usually they are trained by their supervisors, and let them perform with another staff members to avoid complains and to get familiar with the job. on the other hand 2% of the total respondents disagree and 1 % strongly disagrees. they believe that basic training is not given in the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1):47-55 51 organization. they think that they were given no any kind of initial training when they were inducted in the organization. rest of the 1% has given no any response. these results reveals that pta is very much concerned with employees training, they provide initial training to maximum staff those are new hired. these new hired employees have given initial training to perform their job in effective way. when it was investigated, whether training programs encourage employees for efficient performance, 39 % of the total respondents strongly agree and 54% of the total respondents has also shown their agreement. they think training and development programs are instrument to encourage employees towards better performance. when employees get more skills they are encouraged to perform difficult task. ultimately they contribute exceptionally to achieve the overall organizational goal. however, 3 % of the total respondents disagree and 3% strongly disagree. they believe training do not encourage the employee to perform more task because more tasks are always treated as work burden by the employees. remaining 1% of the total respondents provided no comment to this query. as for as employees competences are concerned, 37% of the total respondents consider that training and development programs enhance employee’s work competences at a great extent, while 51% respondents have also agree that employees competences are directly associated with effective training. on the other hand 7% of total respondents disagree and 2% strongly disagree with it. however, 3% of the respondents have given no answer to the question. without skill and knowledge no any task can be performed. both are essential for all employees of any organization. when the association of training and development with knowledge and skill were investigated at pta, 40% of the total respondents strongly believe that training and development is the key factor to enhance employee’s knowledge and skill. while 56% of the total respondents also believe that without effective training programs employees knowledge and skills cannot be enhanced. they think that the employees can only be beneficial for the organization when they are more skillful and knowledgeable. conversely 2% of the total respondents disagree and 2 % strongly disagree. better communication in an organization is as important as blood circulation is important in our body. timely and effective communication helps to handle all tasks timely with proper understanding. when importance of communication with respect to training program was investigated, 34% of the total respondents strongly agree and 56 % agree and believe that training helps to boost the communication in organization. training enhances the communication skill of employees and provides opportunity to complete their tasks with understanding and timely. however 5% disagree and 3 % strongly disagree, they think training is not essential to increase communication skills. they believe communication skill is improved by more socialization instead of formal training programs. rest of the 1% of the total respondents has given no comment. career development is usually associated with employees training and development, because effective training enhances knowledge, skills and competences of employees that enable employees to accomplish their tasks timely and provide them opportunities for career development. when this fact was explored in pta, 29% of the total respondents strongly agree and 58% also depicted their agreement. they consider training and development as important key for career development. on the other hand 6% of the total respondents disagree and 3% strongly disagree. they believe, for employee’s career development you should have strong association with your seniors. the remaining 3% of the total respondents have given no any reply. training and development increase employee performance, 47% of the total respondents believe at the great extent while 51% respondents also agree. they consider training and development important for employee performance, and due to training and development programs their performance adequately enhanced. on the contrary 1% of the respondents have shown their disagreement and 1 % has indicated strongly disagreement. they think performance required motivation, if you are motivated your performance will be high, usually training and development puts overburden so employees are not motivated. rest of the 1 % has given no answer to this query. among the total respondents 28% strongly feel that training and development has put positively impact on their attitude while 59% of the total respondents also think as well. they consider training and development as one of the key factors in building personal behavior and attitude, which ultimately cause to enhance the organizational culture. whilst 5% of the total respondents disagree and 4% strongly disagree, saying that attitude has no direct concern with training and development. they believe the organizational environment plays so much major role while affecting employee’s attitude instead of training and development. if the organization has pleasant and stress free environment then worker’s attitude will be affected positively otherwise it will be changed according to the situation. however 3% has given no reply to the question. when the respondents were asked about the job responsibilities, the 46% of the total respondents strongly believe that training and development helped them to understand their job responsibilities at high extent and 51 % respondents also agree. they feel training and development has not only increased their knowledge and skills but also enhance awareness about their job responsibilities and importance of the tasks and assignments. due to training and development; now they completely understand the importance of their job and always do their best to accomplish the tasks in scheduled time period. while 1% has shows disagreement and 2% strongly disagree. they think the candidates must already have knowledge of their job responsibilities, before inducting in the organization, so no any training is usually required to improve the job responsibilities. when the respondents were asked whether training and development if reduce work stress; 26% of the total respondents strongly agree while 57% of the respondents have shown their agreement on this point. they accept as true that training and development plays vital role in reducing stress level in working condition because well trained staff are competent and confidence to do their job effectively and efficiently while less trained employees are with low confidence and usually unable to perform their job actively so the complain ratio goes high and creates lots of work stress. however 8% of the total respondents disagree and 6% strongly disagree. they think that work stress is usually associated with working condition. some time the client wants and needs are beyond the standard services, in such situations the client impose his point of view and creates work stress. so they think formal training has no association with work stress. while 3% has given no reply. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1):47-55 52 when they respondents were asked about the performance difference of skilled and unskilled employees, 53% of respondents strongly believe that skilled employees are far better than unskilled. skilled employee has the potential to do the job timely and with good understanding. similarly, 43% of the total respondents also agree and they believe skilled employees are capable to manage their time, tasks, communication within department and accomplish their job in the required timeframe. conversely 2% of the total respondents disagree and 1% strongly disagrees. these respondents were from lower ranked usually working as watchman and office boy. they believe there is no skill required to perform their job. however, 1% of the total respondents have passed no comments. the findings reveal that training and development has significant impact on individual effectiveness. the respondents consider that training and development has enhanced their performance, skills, knowledge, competences and awareness about their job responsibilities. as the results indicates, maximum respondents believe that they are getting required training in the organization and they give credit to training programs for their career development and professional attitude. 4.2. impact and significance of training and development to the organization table-3.impact and significance of training and development to the organization impact and significance of t&d to the organization category strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree no comments total % % % % % t&d is helpful for success of organization 89 52% 76 44% 4 2% 2 1% 1 1% 172 training increases the financial status of organization 79 46% 84 49% 5 3% 2 1% 2 1% 172 t&d programs are practices in pta 69 40% 93 54% 3 2% 5 3% 2 1% 172 training develops morality of organizational culture 50 29% 102 59% 9 5% 7 4% 4 2% 172 training increases the market share 70 41% 95 55% 3 2% 3 2% 1 1% 172 training enhance the retention of employees 65 38% 95 55% 5 3% 4 2% 3 2% 172 training programs provided to employee are best fit with pta corporate strategy 76 44% 86 50% 4 2% 3 2% 3 2% 172 t&d is an essential activity in pta 70 41% 95 55% 4 2% 2 1% 1 1% 172 table no. 3 shows the responses of sample respondents against the several questions asked to know the impact and significance of training and development to the organization. when the respondents were asked to find out the impact of training and development on organization success, 52 % of the total respondents state that training and development is helpful for organization success, because it enhances the employees relevant skills, knowledge and abilities, which ultimately increase their work efficiency that may lead the organization towards its growth. similarly 44% of the total respondents replied that training and development is important for organizational growth because they believe training and development not only enhances employee’s skills, chances for career development but it also provide opportunities for organization to achieve its goals efficiently. however, 2% of the total respondents consider training and development is not helpful for organizational growth because it is waste of time and money. similarly 1 % strongly disagrees, and remaining 1 % has given no comment to this inquiry. when the respondents were asked to see impact of training and development on the financial status of the organization, 46% of the total respondents strongly agree while 49% of the total respondents agree that training and development has improved the financial status of the organization. they assume, training and development enhance skills and competences of the employees, which helped the organization to achieve its objectives timely. when the organization achieves its objective in the specified time it causes to increase its revenue. in return this benefits for organization as well as for the employee. they believe their salaries and other allowances have been increased as on adequate level due to their performance and due to better financial status of the organization. however 3% has shown disagreement while 1% strongly disagrees. they think training and development are time consuming activities which are cost for the organization. so training and development do not cause to increase the financial status of the organization. the remaining 1% of the total respondents has given no reply. the respondents were asked about the frequency of the training and development programs in pta, 40% of the total respondents strongly believe that training and development is a regular practice in their organization. they are given opportunity to participate in these training and development programs. these training programs are scheduled monthly, quarterly semi annually and annually as per their requirements. likewise 54% of the respondents also agree that training and development programs are focused in the organization and almost every employees are provide opportunity to participate in these programs. they believe these programs are usually associated with the overall organizational strategy and objectives. on the other hand 2% of the total respondent disagrees and 3% strongly disagree. they replied that they have given no any opportunity to attend any kind of training in the organization. other 1% of the respondents have given no any answer to the question asked. whenever the respondents were asked about the training and development impact on morality of the organizational culture, 29% of the total respondents agree at high extent. they think culture of the organization can be changed by effective training and development programs and 59% of the total respondents also agree with this statement. they believe organizational culture is always formed by the level of training in the organization. it can be improved by better training of the employees in the organization. however 5% disagree and 4% strongly disagree, they think organizational culture has no linked with the training of employees. rest of the 2% has given no answer to the inquiry. training and development increase the market share of the organization. when this query was asked to the respondents, 41% of the total respondents strongly agree and 55% of the total respondents also believe on it. they asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1):47-55 53 feel training and development enhance the market knowledge of the employees and the employees can implement better marketing strategies for the goods and services which could cause increase market share of the organization. on the other hand 2% of the total respondents have indicated their disagreement and similarly 2% has shown strongly disagreement. the remaining 1% has given no comment to this query. training helps the organization to retain its employees, 38% of total respondents strongly agree with it and 55% also agree. they think that training and development programs provide career development opportunity for employees because training increases their skills and knowledge. when the employees get chances for promotion usually they try to stay in the organization. however 3% of the total respondents disagree while 2% strongly disagree. they believe employees retention is directly associated with the benefits, when the salary and benefits of the employees are high, they stay in the organization. because the organization has to bear huge training cost, therefore usually the salary and benefits are increased at minimum level. other 2% of respondents have given no comment. training and development programs should be linked with overall corporate strategy. when the respondents were asked about this point 45% of the total respondents believe strongly that the training programs offered to them are best fit with organization corporate strategy. likewise 50% also agree and they are confident that they are aware with the organizational strategy and they perform accordingly to complete their tasks. however 2% disagree and 2% strongly disagree. they replied they have given no any training to work as per corporate strategy of the organization. the remaining 2 % of the total respondents have not given any reply to this question. training and development is an essential activity in pta; when this query was raised 41% of the total respondents reply at the level of high extent. the staff gets regularly training in the organization, as per schedules. everyone gets chances to participate in these training and development programs. similarly 55% of the respondents also agree and they believe that their organization is very focused for the training and development of the employees. but on the other hand 2% of the total respondents disagree and 1% strongly disagrees. they feel the organization is not so much concerned with the training and development of the employees. they replied that they have given no any chance to participate in training programs. while 1% has given no any answer to this inquiry. the findings reveal that pakistan telecommunication authority is very much concerned with training and development of its employees. these training and development pogroms have not only enhanced the skills, knowledge and abilities of its employees but also put positive impact on the organizational effectiveness. training and development has enabled the organization to improve its public image as well as morality of its culture. it has benefited the organization to improve its financial status and market share. due to effective training and development programs the turnover of the employees is almost zero. most of the respondents believe that their organization performs as market leader, so they enjoy working in this organization and they feel proud to be part its team member. 4.3. methods of employees training in the organization table-4.on the job training on the job training category strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree no comments total % % % % % your organization follows apprenticeship style of training 75 44% 88 51% 4 2% 3 2% 2 1% 172 your organization follows job rotation style of training 66 38% 93 54% 6 3% 4 2% 3 2% 172 your organization follows coaching style of training 72 42% 90 52% 4 2% 3 2% 3 2% 172 table no. 4 shows the method of on the job training in pta. on the job training should be regular practice in every organization so that employees the job knowledge and skills of employees could be enhanced. and they could perform effectively. on the job training is cost effective and easy to arrange for the management. few questions were asked about styles of on the job training in the organization and further investigated its effect on employees and on organization. when apprenticeship style of training was explored, 44 % of the total respondents strongly agree that the organization provides this style of training. they believe that they have been given tasks to perform under the supervision of their seniors. they believe it is very effective, it minimize the chances of mistakes because the trainer recheck all the tasks performed by the trainee. furthermore the trainee gets more chances to learn without any hesitation. likewise 51% agree with this style of training. they replied their organization follows apprenticeship style of training. they believe that this kind of training has strengthened their confidence level and made them more effective to execute any task assigned to them. on the other hand 2% of the total respondents disagree similarly 2% strongly disagree. they noticed no any apprenticeship style of training has given to them in their department. the remaining 1% has given no any response to this inquiry. when the respondents were asked about the job rotation style of training, 38 % of total respondents believe at the great extent that pta follows this kind of training. it helped them to boost their knowledge; skills and abilities. they believe that rotation style of training is also very beneficial for the employees because the employees get experience about different tasks and departments. similarly 54% respondents also agree that their organization follows rotation style of training and its staff members are given chances to perform in different departments and assigns different tasks. they think it enhanced their multi tasking skills and competences. however 3 % of the total respondents disagree whilst 2 % strongly disagree; they replied that they have never been rotated for any job other than the tasks assigned on day one. rest of the 2 % of the respondents did not reply to this question. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1):47-55 54 likewise when the respondents were questioned to know the coaching style of training, 42% of the total respondents strongly agree that they were trained by their supervisors and managers while coaching them about new things, job assignments and any change in the organizational strategies and 52% respondents also agree that they are usually coached by their manager. they think this kind of training has not only helped them to enhance their skills but also helped the organization to achieve its objectives timely. on the contrary 2% of the total respondents disagree and 2% strongly disagree. they believe that they have never been coached by their seniors. they think this kind of training has never been offered to them yet in the origination. other 2% of the total respondents have given no comments. the results indicate that pakistan telecommunication authority regularly follows on the job training in the organization. the respondents believe that on the job training has enhanced their skills, knowledge, abilities, competences, and motivation level. they think the organization is very much concerned with the employees’ career development and job enrichment. the employees get chances for promotion and job rotation in the organization. most of the respondents consider on the job training as effective tool for their success. it not only has significant impact while increasing effectiveness of the employees but also helps the organization to execute its strategy and to gain its long term goals. table-5. off the job training off the job training category strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree no comments total % % % % % role playing style of training 67 39% 93 54% 5 3% 4 2% 3 2% 172 simulation style of training 58 34% 97 56% 12 7% 3 2% 2 1% 172 case study style of training 76 44% 83 48% 6 3% 5 3% 2 1% 172 video tape/ video conferencing style of training 70 41% 87 51% 8 5% 4 2% 3 2% 172 internet base training 80 47% 80 47% 5 3% 4 2% 3 2% 172 table no. 5 indicates the styles of off the job training in pta. just like on the job training, off the job training is also important for the employees. by conducting off the job training, the employees get new knowledge about the external environment, technologies and pattern of management. when the respondents were asked about the role playing style of training, there are 39 % of total respondents strongly agree whilst 54% agree that they have participated in such kind of training. however 3% of the total respondents disagree and 2% strongly disagree. they replied that they have never provided such environment of training by the organization. and 2% of the total respondents have given no comment. similarly when the respondents were asked about the simulation style of training 34% strongly agree and 56% agree. they think that the organization follows simulation style of training. on the contrary 7% disagree while 2% strongly disagree. they feel that they are not given any kind of such training opportunity. rest of the 1% of the total respondents has not given any answer. case study is an effective style of off the job training, the employees learn effectively while solving practice issues occur in organization in different situations. there are 44% of the total respondents who strongly agree and believe that the organization use this style of training. they are given case studies to resolve different problems. likewise 48 % of total respondents also agree that they have been trained while following case study style of training. on the other hand 3% respondents disagree and similarly 3% strongly disagree. they believe that they have given no any case study for learning purpose. other 1% of the respondents have provided no comment. video conferencing is one of the most effective medium of off the job training as 41% of the total respondents strongly agree while 51% agree. video tape/ video conferencing style of training has been provided to the employees in pta. they respondent consider it as one of the interactive and effective mean of training. on the other hand 5% disagree and 2% strongly disagree. they have given no such kind of training in the organization. the remaining 2% of the respondents have given no answer to this kind of training. as far as internet based training is concerned, 47% of the respondents strongly agree similarly 47% agree that they are given internet based training. they knew how to use internet as a mean of training and how to get successfully their lesson. they feel internet base training as one of the time saving training style. but 3% of the respondents disagree while 2% strongly disagree. they feel internet is not available for every employee at home therefore they have got no any kind of such training. rest of the 2% of the respondents has given no any comment. the results disclose that off the job training opportunity is also given to the employees in pta. maximum staffs are satisfied with the training provided to them from professional organization. the finds showed that the respondents got more awareness about the new technology and technical skills due to off the job training offered to them by the organization. this kind of training not only increased skills of employees but also enhanced the effectiveness of the organization while achieving its objectives within targeted timeframe. 5. conclusion training and development is considered as one of the core strategies of the organization for its effectiveness. training and development program make the organization result oriented and enable it to face technological, political and environmental changes. the basic aim of the study was to explore the impact of training and development on organizational effectiveness while taking training and development as a strategy of the organization; for this purpose a case study of pakistan telecommunication authority was taken to examine its effectiveness. the study has revealed that maximum numbers of respondents are regularly participating in training and development programs conducted in organization. they believe, training and development programs have not only enhanced their skills and competences but also improved the organizational effectiveness. few employees got only one time training and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1):47-55 55 minor numbers of employees responded that they have given no any training from their appointment. overall the study showed that pakistan telecommunication authority is very much focused for training and development of its employees; which is healthy activity for both employees and for the organization. most of the employees are motivated and experienced in this organization. therefore the organization has gained exceptional public image. 6. suggestions  training need assessment is always important, so it should be carefully planned.  training and development should be a regular practice in organization.  it is necessary for all employees for better understanding of the organizational policy and to improve its effectiveness.  training should be conducted for both existing and new employees in order to meet external challenges and to gain the core objectives of the organization.  it should be executed in such a way that it should benefit for both individual and organization.  training and development 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mediation by employees performance. interdisciplinary journal of contemporary research business, 5(4): 490-503. simons, n. and j. richardson, 2012. new roles, new responsibilities: examining needs of repository staff. journal of librarianship and scholarly communication, 1(2): 1051 -1060. singh, r. and m. mohanty, 2012. impact of training practices on employee productivity: a comparative study. inter-science management review, 2(2): 87-92. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 105 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 3, 105-113, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.105.113 social safety net programs: contribution to socio-economic resilience of vulnerable group irteja hasan1 israt sultana2 ali adnan3 md. delwar hossain4 md. abdur rouf talukder5 md. tareq jubayer6 md. mostafizur rahman7 md. sagirul islam majumder8  ( corresponding author) 1,2bangladesh coastal development foundation, bangladesh 3department of emergency management, patuakhali science and technology university, dumki, patuakhali, bangladesh 4,5department of civil service, people’s republic of bangladesh, dhaka, bangladesh 6department of bangladesh police, people’s republic of bangladesh, dhaka, bangladesh 7institute of education and research, university of dhaka, dhaka, bangladesh. 8the united graduate school of agricultural science, kagoshima university, japan abstract bangladesh is a disaster affected country due to its geographical location and anthropogenic causes. every year thousands of people are impacted by different kinds of climate induced environmental stressed. social safety nets (ssns) are non-contributory programmes that helps the poor and vulnerable community and also to reduce poverty and inequality to cope with disasters. bangladesh government has taken initiative to alleviate poverty including the most vulnerable segment and poor people under different safety net programmes. this study has been undertaken to assess the impacts of these allowance programs for increasing social and economic resiliency in household level. both primary and secondary data were used to conduct this study. primary data were collected through questionnaire survey, focus group discussions, and case study. secondary data were collected from different sources including books, journals and websites related to the study. this study has also investigated how the allowance allocated to extreme poor widows, elders and disabled people can facilitate their disaster resiliency. it compares the situation of allowance receivers to the situation when they were not getting the allowance. the study found that the program has a positive impact on the basic needs like food, cloth, medicine accessibility of the beneficiaries which make them economically resilient. it also founds that although the allowance amount is relatively small and insufficient to significantly contribute to household’s graduation, it often enables recipients to stabilize their earnings. the study has suggested the need to develop a number of strategies especially for the local government to facilitate successful ssn program including increasing the amount of allowance, distributing money through mobile banking system, proper monitoring in selection process are most urgent in the study area. keywords: social safety net program, vulnerable group, resiliency, bangladesh. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.105.113&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=irteja hasan https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=israt sultana https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ali adnan https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=md. delwar hossain https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=md. abdur rouf talukder https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=md. tareq jubayer https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=md. mostafizur rahman https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2311-7589 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 105-113 106 citation | irteja hasan; israt sultana; ali adnan; md. delwar hossain; md. abdur rouf talukder; md. tareq jubayer; md. mostafizur rahman; md. sagirul islam majumder (2018). social safety net programs: contribution to socio-economic resilience of vulnerable group. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(3): 105-113. history: received: 19 february 2018 revised: 1 june 2018 accepted: 5 june 2018 published: 8 june 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 106 2. study area ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 106 3. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 106 4. results and discussions ................................................................................................................................................................ 107 5. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 113 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 113 1. introduction social safety net programmes (ssnps) are such kind of public measures, which government of private organization provides for its members to protect them from various types of economic and social needs (khuda, 2011). social safety net programmes are considered to be an effective measure for reducing poverty for a developing country like bangladesh (begum and akter, 2014); (khan, 2012). it is found that around 15 percent of the government expenditure in bangladesh in 2010 (barkat et al., 2011). the extreme poor households are often considered a challenging target group for mainstreaming to development interventions. these households are often characterized by low education levels, low levels of land ownership, social exclusion and disempowerment (world bank, 2008). their subsistence generally relies on their daily labour and fluctuating earnings more than on revenues from assets (ahmed, 2005); (hies, 2010). the group under study experiences multiple hazards which increase their vulnerability and threatens their well-being. cyclone, for example, significantly pushes extreme poor people under lower poverty line (uddin, 2013); (ahrc, 2010). program for old, widow and disable are the most important programmes dealing with the most vulnerable, marginalized section of the population (khan, 2012); (mazmanian and sabatier, 1981). considering the realities and sufferings of these groups with the intention to reduce their vulnerability, the government of bangladesh took initiative for their social protection and security under the ministry of social welfare. the major objectives of this program are to strengthen the mental force of these vulnerable persons, increase their status in the family and society and bring back their sense of security in the society through unconditional cash transfer (maniruzzaman, 2009). there have an ample scope to conduct research on the impact of these allowance schemes in bangladesh (mannan and ahmed, 2012). therefore, this study concentrates on to assess the impact for the old, widow and disable allowance program for selected beneficiaries in the study area. this qualitative study also investigates whether social safety net contribute to building resilience of vulnerable extreme poor beneficiaries 2. study area in this study, at first laokhati union of patuakhali district was selected purposively on the basis of economic condition and vulnerability. as the allowance program was aimed to bring welfare and improvement of quality of life of the vulnerable elderly persons. this union is poor area what is typically agriculture based backward union. the communication system is also very poor. most of the people live with disaster risks where this initiative can play a vital role in aspect of increasing resiliency. 3. methodology the study relied upon both quantitative and qualitative methods for conducting the research. the study has generally depended on interviews, surveys and case study methods. fgds were also conducted with relevant stakeholders. the study has included interviewing some of the government officials, local representatives and key informants to have in depth idea of the area under study. the questions were both open and close ended. closed ended questions were used to save time and open ended questions were used to have in-depth knowledge and insight of the respondents. questionnaire survey method was used to gather primary data directly from the beneficiaries and those officials who were directly related with implementation process and this helped to get information which was very much helpful in the study. case study method was used in this study to explore some important issues. this analysis include collecting related information and data from all relevant government documents, important office documents, circulars, books, published and unpublished research works available, online articles etc. focus group discussion (fgd) method was used to have in-depth understanding of the selection process. lots of interesting and important findings came out in the discussion. the facts that came out helped to validate information of other methods. among the respondents the 120 beneficiaries were selected on a http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 105-113 107 purposive basis who got support from government or different ngo/ingo. the data has been processed by placing into various diagrams or charts. for statistical tests and analysis ms excel has been applied. finally, results with summary and conclusion have been presented. 4. results and discussions 4.1. allowance months and seasonal income variation allowance distribution months and seasonal variation analyzes that the month of ashar (jun-july) is the starting month of the monsoon period which is regarded as the unproductive season. in this month they buy daily needs on credit with the hope of repaying after receiving an allowance. so they use the allowance money to repay the credit amount and buy mostly rice for the current and following month of bhadro. a beneficiary of old age allowance living with his wife and granddaughter said, “in rainy season there is always scarcity of work. with this allowance, i will repay the last month’s credit of bdt 400 for buying rice and will buy rice with bdt 400 for the next month.” as a result, the allowance money is supporting to cope with the income crisis of the monsoon season. it was found that the third quarter of the year was also regarded as lean period as there are limited income opportunities in the agricultural fields. during the later month of this quarter, production starts which will be harvested in the first quarter of the year. besides managing consumption needs, other few uses of allowance were found in these two quarters buying medicine, children’s books etc. the fourth quarter was found to earn from other income sources as stated earlier in the livelihood section. besides repaying credit or maintaining regular expenditure, they are able to invest the money to repair their house or support their daughter’s family or buy more assets. one of the independent old age allowance recipients who used to beg in the surrounding village to maintain his family expenses said, “i started receiving allowance about a year ago. before receiving allowance, my house was totally damaged and was unable to stay there. after receiving the allowance in the month of magh, i planned to repair the shed. with the first two installments of allowances, i rebuilt the roof after last boishak.” figure-1. relation between allowance months and seasonal income variation (source: field survey, 2018). 4.2. food intake by the respondents 4.2.1. daily food intake pattern the program has positive impact on daily food intake pattern. the study found that that maximum respondent’s intake three times food daily after receiving the allowance specially the disables (figure 2). it indicates that now the vulnerable communities are able to meet their basic need by this program. figure-2. daily food intake pattern of various respondents (source: field survey, 2018). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 105-113 108 4.2.2. intake other foods than rice before receiving the allowance, very few respondents have the ability to take any other foods (like biscuit, cake) than rice. now by this allowance, they are being able to buy various household goods which help to improve their social status in the community. so this percentage has improved up after receiving the allowance (figure 3). figure-3. intake other food then rice of the respondents (source: field survey, 2018). 4.2.3. rice borrowing before receiving the allowance the economic condition of these beneficiaries was so poor. they have to borrow rice or other foods once or twice in a month from near shops or neighbors. even 68 percent of old needed to borrow rice (figure 4) to fulfill their family demand. but after receiving the allowance the most of the respondents have no need to borrow rice. so, now they are being self-resilient and ultimately this program uplifts their socioeconomic condition. figure-4. rice borrowing status of the respondents (source: field survey, 2018). 4.2.4. programme effectiveness on food items before intervention the program it was quite tough for the poor people to manage three times meal in a day where quality and quantity are. but now they consider these issues also. from the figure 5 it is observed that both the quality and quantity of food of the respondents has improved due to program intervention. so, of course it has positive impacts on the community in aspects of poverty to solvency. figure-5. program effectiveness on food items of the old respondents (source: field survey, 2018). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 105-113 109 4.3. access to health facilities 4.3.1. purchase of medicine before receiving the allowance the beneficiaries met their necessary medicine with the help of others. in case of after receiving the allowance, most of the respondents have purchased their necessary medicine by own cost specially the old (figure 6) where the percentage was 30 before receiving the allowance. the number of beneficiaries who took financial support from family members also has been reduced which indicate that now they became self-dependent. even now they no need to borrow from kith and kin. figure-6. purchase of medicine status of the old respondents (source: field survey, 2018) 4.3.2. sources of money from the figure it is understood that most of the beneficiaries can meet their necessary medicine by their own cost by the program. before intervention the programme it was a matter of worry that who will serve the money for their medical treatment. maximum times they didn’t get proper service and as a result they had to suffer for this. but now this little amount makes them a little bit happy. figure-7. source of money for medical treatment status of the respondents (source: field survey, 2018). 4.4. affordability of clothes 4.4.1. purchase of clothes before getting the grant the recipients get there cloth with the help of others like zakat and sometimes by owns those who have ability to buying and the amount was very few. but after engaging the program, number has been increased. the number of recipient who took provision from other sources has been reduced. figure-8. purchase of cloth status of the old respondents (source: field survey, 2018). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 105-113 110 4.4.2. sources of money it is realized that most of the beneficiaries have met their necessary cloth by their own charge. from the figure 9 it is seen that most of the respondents rely of allowance for buying cloth. through the percentage was no so high but it is positive sign for any community. figure-9. source of money for buying cloth (source: field survey, 2018). 4.5. allowance and social resilience through the grant is not enough to contribute to remove the extreme poverty level in terms of average monthly income. by this process, allowance may contribute to make a strong relationship among the risky poor beneficiaries in the society. through this process now they become socially resilient. 4.5.1. beneficiary selection and social relation the union parishad (up) is responsible for the selection of beneficiaries based on criteria. it was found that for over 4 years no new allowance cards were issued. every year the up authority is sending a waiting list to the upazila authority. with the death of a recipient, a new beneficiary is entering the final list. so, there is always a deficit of cards which insist the extreme poor to use social relationships and lobby with the local government. i found most beneficiaries did not need to spend money, but rather their social relationships played a key role of being selected. one independent elderly recipient said: “when i used to work as a labourer at the up member’s house, he was a child. all the family members always supported me in times of crisis. after becoming a member, i directly lobbied to the up member. finally he issued an old allowance card because of my persistence.” there are many examples like this which also play an important role in building a relationship with the social elites. 4.5.2. intra-household relationships the elder beneficiaries uphold their state that if they earn enough, it is not necessary for them to relay much upon their children. they also narrate that their children are not able to take proper care of them when they are not able to earn. many of them also think that their son’s income is poor to maintain their own family. therefore, it is not possible for them to bear their parents expenses. here in the context, all beneficiaries explained that this allowance money which they receive plays an important role in the improvement of their relationship & importance amongst their family members. most of them noticed that their dignity has been increased by this program (figure 10). before getting the allowance they were no treated well. they were considered as burden & valueless person among the family for not contribution. but nowadays the view has changed. at least one of the family members needs their allowance & they didn’t have to depend on others. on the contrary, they now can actively participate in decision-making process in the family (figure 11). so, their importance has been increased in family as well as community. figure-10. increasing of dignity status of the respondents (source: field survey, 2018). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 105-113 111 one of the old allowance recipients said: “i have been receiving this allowance for 17 months (sixth time). before receiving this allowance i had to ask for money from my sons for my personal expenses, like going to my daughter’s house, buying sweets even for buying medicine. but now i can spend it myself to buy medicines for my wife, to visit my daughter, to buy food for my grandchildren and for other personal expenses. this has lessened the burden of my sons which makes their wives happier”. figure-11. increasing of dignity status of the old respondents (source: field survey, 2018). hospitality for their daughters’ families in any occasion is very important to them. but they cannot do it when they become older and are unable to earn. as a result, the daughters may be humiliated at their in-laws’ houses. so when they get the money, they can fulfill their wish and favour their daughter. a widow allowance receiver said, “after last eid, my daughter came with her son at my place. i eat at the houses of my three sons in a cyclic order. i observed that none of them cooked meat for them. when my daughter goes back, if her in-laws find out that they had not been served meat, they would humiliate her. so, to protect my daughter’s dignity, i bought poultry bird on credit. i told the shopkeeper that i will pay the amount after getting the allowance”. the example shows how a widow protected his daughter’s dignity by getting meat with the allowance money. 4.5.3. horizontal relationships among the recipients although the village people have a good effective relationship based on the social activeness and on their geographical location, they have raised their social identity as recipient of allowance. as beneficiaries recipient they are now able to participate in allowance giving event every three months which strengthens relationships amongst them. so, this relationship could be considered a coping strategy to contribute to the resiliency of the recipients’ households. a widow beneficiary explained that “i come to the bank several times with my neighbor and we share our life style. now we had a good relation with them. and even now i am introduced with a lot of people who were unknown to me because of this allowance.” 4.5.4. vertical relationships among recipients the villagers who live on below on the poverty line have to live on khas land by migrating from other areas. usually khas land is a large unit of land that covers a number of households. so, the khas land people become a sub group in the community. on the contrary, although living in the same community, the local elites and extreme poor are in a relationship gap. i found that the strategy of repeated direct lobbying led to an allowance card. the beneficiaries uphold a connection to the local government through different ways which is the strongest vertical relationship. one of the disability allowance recipients said, “once i am enlisted in the register book of the government, i will get different support till death. look, why did the people come to me? just because i am enlisted in the government register book.” after receiving disability allowance the recipients were found to be members of the disabled association at district level. this district level platform makes them more aware and informs on their rights and access to other go-ngo initiatives. as a result the relationship between the upper class people contributing to building the resilience of the extreme poor recipients. nowadays they are able to cope with any type of crisis as if through social inclusion and more support during hardship, thus, influencing horizontal relationships as well. the above discussion emphasis that the beneficiaries allowance builds the ability of the extreme poor recipients to create the space for better intra-household, horizontal and vertical relationships which contribute to integrating the poor into social structures and thus, build their resilience. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 105-113 112 figure-12. relationship among the beneficiaries due to the program (source: field survey, 2018). social safety net plays an important role making strong social relation among the community people. as a result the relationship becomes strong among them which help to maintain the disaster risk management. for example, on 2008 maksuda begum was selected as old age allowance beneficiaries by upazilla parishad. in spite of being illiterate & above 70, she was quite active and able communicated with chairman, member & tno to discuss about their problems. so, she was used to get invited by upazilla chairman to give speech as the representative of beneficiaries in varies programmes. her cousin naznin was a widow and it was not possible for her to maintain her family. naznin had two school going children. afterwards maksuda begum requested upazilla chairman to select naznin as widow allowance beneficiaries & chairman approved it. maksuda begum’s very close neighbor ummat ali came and requisted to help him to get any government allowance from union parishad. on 2011 he was also got selected as old allowance beneficiary because of maksuda begum. maksuda begum’s younger brother babul is a disable. for which he was not able to contribute economically in his family. to decrease his burden maksuda begum help him out to get selected as a vgf beneficiary. as all of their houses are close together & all of their socio economic condition is similar, a good relationship has been formed among them. they share each other problems and even help each other economically. even on last cyclone mohsin when babul’s house was destroyed, other helped him by lending him money. nowadays all of them are playing an important role on solving many of their social problems. 4.5.5. problems in obtaining ssn supports the fgd beneficiary participants identified some problems in obtaining the supports as shown in table 1. about 58 percent of beneficiary participants informed that there was no problem in obtaining ssn supports (table 1). however, other fgd participants identified some problems in obtaining ssn supports. maximum beneficiaries highlight distance fact as their main problem. as example, who lived in village has to go town for receiving the allowance where his traveling cost is near about 100 taka. who are disable or old they need one person extra for helping. then the cost has been 200 taka. corruption is a common problem in such program. the very small amount of money is also a major problem. table-1. problems in obtaining ssn supports identified by the fgd participants problems percent ranking do not get money timely 14 4 corruption 20 2 small amount of money 18 3 go to distant bank for drawing 42 1 distribution system is very poor 4 5 opening bank account 2 6 source: field survey, 2018 4.5.6. suggestions to improve effectiveness of the existing ssnps the fgd participants put some suggestions to improve effectiveness of the existing ssnps which are presented in table 2. table-2. fgd participants’ suggestions to improve effectiveness of the existing ssnps suggestions percent ranking distribution system should be easier 6 5 the eligible family should be included 2 6 to increase the number of beneficiary 2 6 drawing bank should be nearest 24 2 giving ssnps support timely 10 4 to reduce corruption 18 3 to increase the amount of ssnp support 38 1 source: field survey, 2018 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 105-113 113 5. conclusion one of the main agenda of the government of bangladesh is reduction of poverty. as in other developing countries, social safety net programmes (ssnps) in bangladesh can play a vital role in reducing poverty. during the last several decades many countries in the world have implemented a variety of such programmes to serve the vulnerable and underserved people as means of protection as well as promotion. it also helps to make them resilient socially and economically. the main success of this program lies in the fact that the beneficiaries have been able to improve their socio-economic condition with positive impact on income, food consumption and other basic needs. in addition, there have been positive changes in the quality of life of the members compared to the situation before joining the program. their social relationship also has been increased due to the programe. such social bonding is really helpful to cope up any natural disaster. finally ssns program really contribute to make these vulnerable community to turn resiliency. references ahmed, s.s., 2005. delivery mechanisms of cash transfer programs to the poor in bangladesh. washington dc: human development network, world bank. ahrc, 2010. corruption promotes food and health insecurity for elderly widows in northern bangladesh. asian human rights commission report, asian legal resource centre (alrc). barkat, a., a. karim and a.a. hussain, 2011. social protection measures in bangladesh: as means to improve child well-being. dhaka: pathak samabesh. begum, i. and s. akter, 2014. social safety nets and productive outcomes: evidence and implications for bangladesh. mymensingh: faculty of agricultural economics and rural sociolog, bangladesh agricultural university. hies, 2010. report on household income and expenditure survey, bangladesh bureau of statistics, ministry of planning, the government of the peoples republic, bangladesh. khan, n., 2012. an assessment of widow allowance programme in bangladesh –the supply side perspectives. bangladesh: department of general and continuing education north south university. khuda, b., 2011. social safety net programmes in bangladesh: a review. bangladesh development studies, 34(2): 87-108. view at google scholar maniruzzaman, m., 2009. management of selected social safety net programmes in the vulnerable charlands of bangladesh. center for agriresearch and sustainable environment & entrepreneurship development (caseed) and cinishpur dipsikha mohila somiti (cdms). retrieved from http://fpmu.gov.bd/agridrupal/sites/default/files/cf_1_of_07_final_report-_approved_2.pdf. mannan, m.a. and b. ahmed, 2012. impact evaluation of vulnerable group development (vgd) program in bangladesh. bangladesh institute of development studies. mazmanian, d.a. and p.a. sabatier, 1981. effective policy implementation. lexington, ma: lexington books. uddin, a., 2013. social safety nets in bangladesh: an analysis of impact of old age allowance program. dhaka, bangladesh: institute of governance studies (igs) brac university. world bank, 2008. poverty assessment for bangladesh: creating opportunities and bridging the east-west divide. world bank bangladesh development series, paper no. 2. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=social%20safety%20net%20programmes%20in%20bangladesh:%20a%20review http://fpmu.gov.bd/agridrupal/sites/default/files/cf_1_of_07_final_report-_approved_2.pdf asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 2, 150-162, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 150 a review: customer perceived value and its dimension septa akbar aulia1  inda sukati2 zuraidah sulaiman3 1,2,3 faculty of management, universiti teknologi malaysia, skudai, johor, malaysia ( corresponding author) abstract customer perceived value has become the most extensive used concept in marketing literature in recent years. it is considered as the main key to sustain the business especially in high market competition. consequently, understanding its dimensions and the influences on customer attitude and behavior becomes crucial for all marketers. this paper reviews the related literatures and categorized dimension of perceived value of durable product into three categories namely product-related value, social-related value, and personal-related value. keywords: customer perceived value, value dimension, customer satisfaction, customer repurchase intention, loyalty contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 151 2. concept of perceived value ............................................................................................................................................... 151 3. dimension of perceived value ........................................................................................................................................... 151 4. value dimension category ................................................................................................................................................ 153 5. previous studies on perceived value ................................................................................................................................ 159 6. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 159 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 159 bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................................... 162 citation | septa akbar aulia; inda sukati; zuraidah sulaiman (2016). a review: customer perceived value and its dimension. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(2): 150-162. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.150.162 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. the author would like to thank school of graduate studies (sps) utm and research management centre (rmc) utm for assisting this study financially. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 28 december 2015/ revised: 14 january 2016/ accepted: 26 january 2016/ published: 2 february 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.150.162 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 150-162 151 1. introduction the use of the concept of perceived value has been regarded as imperative prerequisite for business sustainability especially in fierce market competition and has been considered as the key of success for all companies (huber et al., 2001). it has become an interested topic since decades ago, yet the consensus regarding its definition and the concept has not been obtained and remains unclear (sanchez-fernandez and iniesta-bonillo, 2007). it has been proven that the used of the concept of customer perceived value does not only result in creating more satisfied customer, but more importantly it is also found to have direct effect on customer repurchase intention and loyalty (lin et al., 2005). in simple words, the more benefits the product or the service offer, the more satisfied the customer, thus the higher chances that lead to positive behavior. unfortunately, with the nature of product characteristic, there are various types of value dimensions that can be found or created for one type of product or service. consequently, it may be difficult to identify what type of value that company can deliver or offer to the customer through their product. this leads to the need for the better perspective of perceived value in order to help identifying its dimensions. this study focuses on the generic dimensions of perceive value especially in product or non-service related context. 2. concept of perceived value the lack of agreement related to the definition and conceptualization of perceived value among the scholars have indicated that perceived value can be described as the complex construct (lapierre, 2000). the differences of opinions can be seen from two major perspective or view of perceived value; those are as unidimensional construct and multi-dimensional construct (sanchez-fernandez and iniesta-bonillo, 2007). although the majority of the researchers agree that perceived value should be considered as multi-dimensional construct. sanchez-fernandez and iniesta-bonillo (2007) concluded that the critics among the researchers have contended that multidimensional construct are conceptually ambiguous, the dimensions explained are less variance and the relationships between the dimensions and other construct somehow are confound. however this lack of agreement does not mean to have no consensus at all in conceptualizing perceived value. the general concept that can be understood is that perceived value involves the relationship between customer and the product (holbrook, 1996) which is strongly related to the utility or benefits the customer get in return for the money or any other cost they spend (zeithaml, 1988) including both cognitive and affective aspect holbrook and hirschman (1982). as defined by zeithaml (1988) that perceived value is “... the consumer‟s overall assessment of the utility of a product based on perceptions of what is received and what is given”. the receive components can be referred to the benefits get from using the product while the given component can be referred to the customer sacrifice in acquiring the product including monetary and non-monetary aspect. in this regard, zeithaml (1988) described value in four different ways: (1) value as low price, (2) value as whatever the consumer wants in a product, (3) value as the quality get from the price the customer pay, and (4) value as what is get for what is given. 3. dimension of perceived value since the concept of perceived value is related to product benefits, thus it is important to understand how this value is seen or viewed by the customer and what type of value or dimensions that can be created by the company. in this regard, several authors have identified and proposed several dimensions of value based on their own theory. among those are: 3.1. value hierarchy model the value hierarchy model conceptualize value into three hierarchy levels which are desired attributes, desired consequences, and desired end-states or goal and purposes, in which the lower levels are the means by which the higher level ends are achieved. in this model, woodruff (1997) defined perceived value as “customer‟s perceived preference for an evaluation of those product attributes, attribute performances, and consequences arising from use that facilitate (or block) achieving the customer‟s goals and purpose in use situations. figure-1. customer value hierarchy model (source: woodruff (1997)) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 150-162 152 he suggests that the customer may either use their goal to attach and evaluate the preference attribute and attribute performance (moving down hierarchy), or think the product as a bundle of attributes then form the certain attribute based on their ability to facilitate the desired consequences that help them to achieve their goals and purposes. woodruff argues that this hierarchy model helps manager to specify exactly what managers should learn about their customer. he argues that this model looks beyond the attribute-based key buying criteria, in which it involves the consequences in use situation that the seller should learn and the goals to which those consequences lead. the dynamic concept of perceived value proposed by woodruff (1997) is commendable in explaining the complexity of perceived value as well as has successfully helped to explain why customer attach different weights to various benefits in evaluating alternative product / service (khalifa, 2004). however this model fails to explain the various components or elements of value (sanchez-fernandez and iniesta-bonillo, 2007). besides that, it is difficult to identify what preference attribute that contribute to customer value, and what consequences they want. since every customer has different taste or preference of attribute on the same product, the manager would find difficulty in finding such specific attribute. as stated by griffin and hauser (1993) that the customers may have hundreds of preference attributes and consequences value dimensions, whereby the organization cannot work with so many different values at the same time. moreover, this model has been considered to neglect the most fundamental concept of perceived value that is the trade-off between benefits and sacrifices. in which it fails to pay sufficient attention on the customer‟s sacrifices either in pre-purchase stage, in-use stage, or post-use stage (parasuraman, 1997). based on the above arguments, it can be said that value should be viewed in more specific way rather than viewing it as the process of evaluation of preference attribute to achieve desired goal or purposes. thus there is a need for better conceptualization of value that can enable the researchers or the organizations to delve the specific component or dimension of value, or a framework that enables them to identify their position which can help them to form a better strategic based on the component or dimension of value that they feel their product has not yet fulfilled or lacking of. 3.2. utilitarian and hedonic model holbrook and hirschman (1982) had a notion that value should not only viewed from utilitarian perspective in which the product is valued based on its performance or functions, but also include the experiential perspective in which the product is valued based on the experience or the feeling arouse from consumption, including the symbolic and hedonic aspect. consequently, the utilitarian and hedonic model was proposed and has given big contribution on perceived value concept. by dichotomizing value into utilitarian and hedonic value, it will help the other researchers to view value in better perspective. this dichotomization of value has been considered as the basis conceptualization of value in multi-dimensional approach (sanchez-fernandez and iniesta-bonillo, 2007) in which many other dimensions of value have been proposed based on this perspective. however, this model is still too general in depicting the complexity of customer perceived value. it might give confusion of the dimensions of value that can be from other source of value. for instance, the emotional value can be derived either from the product-related source that is through consumption experience or from the personal-related sources through connection between product and personal characteristic. thus, it is difficult to differentiate these dimensions of value if it is viewed from this perspective, as they are both are part of hedonic value. moreover, the subsequent study of babin et al. (1994) and richins (1994) who included the utilitarian and hedonic component in developing the scale to measure the value of shopping experience were related to the possessions people already own, which is in contrast with the study that concerned measuring the perception of value in durable goods in order to understand the process of customer choice behavior (sweeney and soutar, 2001). it means, the component of hedonic value used in shopping experience is different from the component used in durable goods as what is focused in this study. therefore, there will be more different components of hedonic value that can be separated and grouped into different single dimensions of value rather than describe it as “hedonic value” to explain all the feeling arouse when using the product. 3.3. consumption value theory underlying from the utilitarian and hedonic perspective, the broader theoretical framework of perceived value has been developed by sheth et al. (1991a; 1991b) in their theory of consumption value which is based on the customer decision or choice whether to buy or not to buy, to choose between two products or to choose one particular brand over another. they suggested five dimensions of value namely functional value which is related to the utilitarian or functional purpose of the product, social value which is related to the image obtained from the society, emotional value which is related to the feeling arouse from using the product, epistemic value which is related to the curiosity or desire for knowledge or novelty seeking, and conditional value which is derived due to specific situation or circumstances that faced by the consumers. this model surely helps to understand the value in much easier than other concepts proposed as the organization can easily delve the component of value by referring to its source or dimensions. compared to the utilitarian and hedonic value, the dimension suggested in consumption value theory was more complex which include the variety of fields such as social, economic, and clinical aspect (sweeney and soutar, 2001). sanchez-fernandez and iniestabonillo (2007) stated that this model is the most important contribution to the study of perceived value, however it ignores some sources of value such as ethic value and spiritual value (holbrook, 1996). regarding to this matter, sanchez-fernandez and iniesta-bonillo (2007) suggested that holbrook‟s typology of consumer value has been considered as the most comprehensive model to date compared to other models due to it includes more components such as social, economic, hedonic, and altruistic aspect. 3.4. holbrook typology of consumer value according to holbrook (1996) perceived value can be defined as “an interactive relativistic preference asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 150-162 153 experience.” by interactive he meant that value entails the relationship between the customer and the product, it is comparative, subjective, and specific to the context. he claimed that the customer perceived the value not in the purchase stage however during the consumption stage. he developed a framework that produces the dimension of value based on three dichotomies or three key dimension of value which are 1) extrinsic versus intrinsic, 2) self-oriented versus other-oriented and 3) active versus reactive. based on these dichotomization he proposed eight dimensions of consumer value namely efficiency value, play value, excellence value, aesthetic value, status value, ethics value, esteem value, and spirituality value. he argued that each dimensions are interrelated to each other. despite the model has been perceived as comprehensive and more complex than others, however, sanchezfernandez and iniesta-bonillo (2007) stated that some critics from other researchers have been addressed for its complexity in which the operationalization for certain dimension of value is difficult (e.g. ethical value and spiritual value) which are relatively neglected in the literature (brown, 1999; holbrook, 1999; wagner, 1999) for its distinction between the dimensions such as status and esteem which is ambiguous (solomon, 1999) and for the difficulty to recognize between the active and reactive of source of value (richins, 1999). based on several concept discussed at the above, it can be said that the compartmentation of value into several dimensions or sources is the best way to explain the various types of consumption utilities. it is much simpler model to be adopted or applied for other researchers in conducting their related studies or for the marketers in developing and forming a better strategy for their business, and it is also comprehensive enough in depicting the complexity of value. as stated by sanchez-fernandez and iniesta-bonillo (2007) that this model can be considered to be very helpful as well as interesting, yet challenging. in attempts to improve the previous proposed models, it may help the task easier to identify the dimension of value that has clear distinction from one to another if the value is viewed from the perspective of customer needs. through observation on the multi-dimensional research stream models discussed earlier, defining perceived value only from one type of need is insufficient to describe the complex nature of value. for example, several authors have argued that viewing perceived value as the trade-off between only quality and price (product related need) is too simple concept in depicting the comprehensiveness of value (mathwick et al., 2001). regarding to this matter, some authors suggest that value should be viewed with broader concept rather than merely based on product performance and price. the appearance of new perspective of value has brought to the consideration of affective components of value (e.g. (sheth et al., 1991a; babin et al., 1994; holbrook, 1996;1999)). in relations to that, several authors have also proposed the broader definition of benefits and costs involved in acquiring the product (khalifa, 2004). while others suggest that personal –related component plays an important role as well as has major contribution on customer perceived value (e.g. (zeithaml, 1988; woodruff, 1997)). concerning this gap, the present study attempts to propose the generic dimension of consumption value by dividing value according to customer needs. as stated by park et al. (1986) that customer perceptions of value are influenced by their needs. since there are many components of value that have been found or proposed in previous studies, thus viewing customer perceived value from this perspective (through the needs) will help to better understand about the value offered to the customer. the researcher and the marketing strategist therefore will be able to delve the component of value by referring to the needs or wants of the customers. in this study, the dimension of value can be categorized into three groups which are product-related value, socialrelated value, and personal-related value. it is predicted that the customer is likely to be highly satisfied if these three types of dimensions of value are fulfilled. 4. value dimension category 4.1. product-related value in this study, product-related value is referred to the customer perspective that product is the source of value. by source, it means the product is viewed as a bundle of benefits rather than viewing it as bundle of attributes (peter and olson, 1990). since the product is the main focus in purchase activities, where the customers spend their money for, thus they expect some benefits from it. these benefits or value can be seen from two fundamental perspectives of customer needs which are the need for product function and the need for the pleasure of using the product. in the first perspective, the customer sees the product as the tool that has function either to solve the problem of the customer or to make the task of the customer easier. in this perspective, the product is solely valued based on its ability to perform its function. this need can be considered as the very basic need that every product should meet these criteria before the customer evaluate anything else about the product. kano‟s model refer this need as “must be” need in which the product function is taken for granted whereby it will drive the customer defection and attrition if this need is not met (joiner, 1994; thompson, 1998). since there are many attributes in the product, some attributes may contribute to the function of the product while other attributes may contribute to the other dimension of value. thus knowing the type of elements or attribute of the product is crucial. in this regards, zeithaml (1988) dichotomized the product attribute into two cues: intrinsic cues which comprises the physical attributes of the product such as the design, color, and flavor in which they are consumed along with the product, and the extrinsic cues which comprises the non-physical attributes of the product but they are part of the product such as the name of the product/brand, the price, and the product advertisement. similarly, the dichotomy of product attribute can also be referred as tangible (physical attribute) and intangible (nonphysical) attribute (e.g. (monroe, 1990; gale, 1994)). based on the above dichotomization, the product‟s elements which are not related to the customer need for product function will be eliminated from the definition of product-related value and will be considered as part of other value dimension such as social-related value or personal related value. for example, the color and design attribute in this study will be put in the personal-related value dimension since the value derived is depending or based on the characteristic of the customer, as well as the brand image attribute that will be put in the social-related asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 150-162 154 value dimension since the effect or the benefits is more related to the society. in relation to that, several authors have proposed the dimension of value related to the need for product function in different terms such as utilitarian value holbrook and hirschman (1982) functional value (sheth et al., 1991a) practical value (mattsson, 1991) and efficiency and excellence value (holbrook, 1999). while in particular, the subsequent study of sweeney and soutar (2001) developed the scale related to this dimension of value and referred it as functional value that comprises two components which are the performance (speed) and the quality of the product. however, several studies have found that the customers do not only consider the product performance or its quality when evaluate the function of the product, but also consider about how the product can be used easily without any difficulty or confusing while using it. in this regard, the study of pura (2005) use the term “convenience value” instead of functional value and included ease of use as one of the scale to measure it. while the other study of creusen and schoormans (2005) separated the perceived of “ease of use” as another dimension of value namely “ergonomic value”. it was found that perceived “ease of use” has positive and direct effect on customer satisfaction (e.g. (tung, 2010)). in relation to the customer need for product function, several authors had a notion that price attribute is part of functional value besides the reliability and durability which is often referred as product quality (sheth et al., 1991b). however, sweeney and soutar (2001) argued that the price attribute should be separated from the other attribute such as quality in measuring perceived functional value as price and quality have different influence on perceived value; price has negative effect and quality has positive effect on perceived value (e.g., (dodds et al., 1991)). thus they suggest that quality and price are sub factors of functional value. in relation to that, several authors argue that the cost involves in acquiring the product should not only include the monetary related cost such as the actual price of the product, but also the non-monetary related cost such as the effort and the time spent (zeithaml, 1988; treacy and wiersima, 1995). in addition, huber et al. (2001) argue that the customers do not only encounter cost when purchasing the product, however they also encounter the risks related to the uncertainty or any negative consequences when consuming the product. they suggest that the risk that the customer encounter from activities such as acquisition, consumption, and maintenance include the financial risk, social risk and psychological risks are part of the functional value as well. regarding to this matter, several authors have suggested that the term “sacrifices value” is more suitable to be used to describe all the cost (monetary, nonmonetary, and risk) involved in acquiring and using the product (e.g. (wang et al., 2004)). on the other hand, the value of the product can also be seen from the perspective of how the product can give a pleasure to the customers. from this perspective, the customer often considers that the experience in using the product is also part of their basic need when using the product. as the product is used or consumed, the good experience such as enjoyment from using the product will also influence the customer perception of product value. in this regard, jordan (1998) defined this product pleasure as “the emotional and hedonic benefits associated with product use.” previous studies have proposed the dimension of value related to the need for pleasure in different terms such as hedonic value (e.g. holbrook and hirschman (1982); babin et al. (1994)) affective value (e.g. (lai, 1995)) emotional value (e.g. (mattsson, 1991; sheth et al., 1991b) and play (fun) value (e.g. (holbrook, 1999)). while in particular, the subsequent study of sweeney and soutar (2001) developed the scale related to this dimension of value that includes enjoyment, relax, feeling good, and pleasure and referred it as emotional value, while pura and gummerus (2007) identified fun and teasing as part of emotional value in mobile service context. although several authors argue that emotional value has greater effect than the functional value (e.g. (hartman, 1973; sweeney and soutar, 2001) however both functional and emotional benefits of the product are important aspect in customer perceived value, and have positive affect on satisfaction and loyalty (e.g.(lim et al., 2006)). based on the discussion above, it can be said that there are two types of customer needs that need to be considered when evaluating the value related to the product which are the need for product function to solve customer‟s problem, and the need for a pleasure when using the product. thus the model can be developed as below: figure-2. customer needs in product-related value 4.2. social-related value in this category, social-related value is referred to the customer perspective that society is the source of value. by asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 150-162 155 source it means the customers view society as the place where they can obtain some benefits through the interaction with other people. these benefits can be seen from two fundamental perspectives of needs which are the need for acceptance and the need for compliment. in the first, the product is evaluated based on the perspective of how well it can help the customer to be accepted in the society. since the customer himself is part of society either in small scale such as family or friends, or in big scale such as community, thus they need to interact with other people in which the consequences from using the product is more important than the function of the product itself (cova, 1997). in other words, the value can be obtained when the customer feels that they are connected to other people (sheth et al., 1991a). several findings from previous studies have indicated that being accepted in the society is part of basic need that affects customer satisfaction and loyalty (e.g. (gallarza and gil, 2006)). as explained by maslow (1943) being accepted in the society is part of deficit needs (basic need) in which the failure of the product to fulfil this need will cause uncomfortable feeling which leads to unfavorable attitude and unfavorable behavior towards particular product. since the people in the society are governed by the norms or the values, thus they need to follow this rule in order to be accepted in the society. conversely, the violation of the rules or the norms in society will cause the customer for being uncomfortable. for example, considering playboy is very famous and successful magazine in western countries, but not in another country such as malaysia (even it is banned) due to it against the norm of malaysia people as muslims which can harm or destruct their beliefs. thus the people who live in this society will have to obey or to respect the norms by not selling or purchasing the “playboy” magazine otherwise they will face the issue related to the society such as gain bad reputation, being isolated, or even can be regarded as the national issue in which they will get punishment or fine. in relation to that, the involvement of the culture or the norms in the society will not only cause the social pressure to perform the behavior in question (fishbein and ajzen, 1975) but also influences the customer perception of value since the customer is viewed as individual who is actualizing the cultural characteristic which depends on social shared values and norms (yang and jolly, 2009). as stated by sweeney and soutar (2001) the customer perceived value may vary based upon the culture. in other words, the customer perception of product value is subject or associated with the characteristic of the social environment such as the culture or the norm in the place where they live in harris et al. (2005). this difference perspective of value not only can be found across the country due to national culture differences (e.g. (nakata and sivakumar, 2001; yang and jolly, 2009)) however it might be found even within the same country which has many variety of cultures such as malaysia , indonesia, and many other countries. concerning with this matter, the cross-cultural researches have consistently recommended by not applying the same strategies for all the countries due to different country or society has different culture thus the people who live in that society may have different perspective of value towards particular product (lee et al., 2002; henten et al., 2003). the finding of previous studies also indicates that the need for acceptance or being accepted in the society is strongly related to the common perception or the common behavior held by the majority of the people who live in that particular area or society (e.g. (pavlou and chai, 2002; yang and jolly, 2009)). it can be said that in order to be accepted, the customer tend to follow or to accept the other perception and tend to behave as other behave. in other words, particularly in society context, the customer may value certain product based on how other value that product (how the other people will response or react to it). as explained in the theory of reason action (fishbein and ajzen, 1975) the customers tend to perform the behavior according to what is expected by the people who are close or important to them such as family or friends, more specifically if the personality of the customer is weak (ha, 1998). this influence can be referred to the subjective norm whereby the customer is under larger of social pressure in which it will cause a cognitive conflict (mental discomfort) if the customer is too conservative or too liberal compared to the society (ha, 1998). this can be explained with the example of the group of people who believe that japan is the best country in producing product-based technology, thus when it comes to purchase an electronic product, the customer as an individual who live in that society will have or use the same perception as others in which they evaluate the product not only based on the quality, however it also based on the country of origin where the product is made. this social perception influences the customer‟s perception on perceived value in which it will give them comfortable and confidence feeling when they accept or follow other‟s perception. conversely, purchasing the other product which has low reputation in society will cause the uncomfortable feeling. for instance, instead of purchasing the japan product, the customer purchase the product made in china whereby the common perception held by the society is that china product has poor or bad quality. thus the customer will perceive a negative image and thus makes them uncomfortable. however, not all of the perceptions in the society will be entirely adopted by its member (customer) in order for them to be accepted, in which some perceptions may be accepted by small group of people, while other perception may accepted by most of people in that society (lai, 1995). it can be said that the adoption of the perception or behavior in society might depends on the personal values such as the beliefs, goals, or principles that held by every individuals. thus they may accept and adopt this perception as long as it does not against their personal values yet they also have to follow the norms or culture in the society particularly if it is strongly related to the beliefs of majority people in that society. on the other hand, the value of the product can also be seen from the perspective of how the product can help to make good impression on others. in this perspective the customer sees the society as the place where they can get compliment or appreciation from other people through the interaction. this need for compliment can be considered as one of the basic need that naturally exists in every person‟s life, in which it can make the customer feel admired and feel better about their self. the psychologist william james noted that “the deepest principle in human nature is to be appreciated”. it indicates that compliments address the basic human need for recognition and being appreciated or respected. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 150-162 156 in order for the customer to gain recognition or being respected in the society, thus they tend to seek the product that can help to enhance their social self-concept (sweeney and soutar, 2001). as it is conceptualized/argued by park et al. (1986) that enhancement the self-concept or self-identity in society environment is part of the customer basic need in which the failure of the product to fulfil this need will cause the uncomfortable feeling which leads to the less satisfaction. park et al. (1986) suggested that this need underlies the customer perception of value. in this regard, maslow describes the need for being appreciated or being respected as the higher level of customer basic need in which the failure to fulfil this need will make the individual feel anxious and tense. according to maslow, the customer‟s need for respect can be seen from two types of needs which are the need to have self-esteem and the need for self-respect. the customers need to have self-esteem as they want to be recognized in the society, thus they tend to seek the fame or glory. in this perspective, the customer with low self-esteem often need respect from other people which includes the need for status, need for prestige, need for attention, need for recognition, etc. all of these needs can be said are reflecting or leading to the desire for product that can help them look good and make a good impression on others. the compliments and positive feedbacks given to them regarding the product they use are very important to them as it can boost their self-esteem. in this perspective, the customer tend to focus on how to impress others by purchasing the product that is seen as unusual in the society or environment such as high class product in which the majority of the people in the society cannot afford to purchase, or something that is scare to have so that people in that society will give attention to them, or something which is famous or popular in the society so that they can gain popularity. as stated by mason (1981) this type of customer (conspicuous customer) are likely to be inspired by the society rather than the economic or psychological utility, whereby in order to impress others, they tend to show their ability to pay particularly high prices for product prestige. this finding indicates that the need for good impression or to impress other is motivated by desire to be known or to be respected. thus, all of these efforts can be said reflects the perception of impression value. while on the other hand, the need for self-respect is considered as the higher version of self-esteem need in which the customer need to respect for himself rather than to gain respect from other people (not concern with other‟s think). this includes the need for strength, need for freedom, need for self-confidence or independence and others. this need is strongly related to customer‟s own achievement (inner competence) as unique individual whereby the purpose of purchasing the product is aimed for the sake of satisfying own-self (self-respect). in other words, those with self-respect do not concern with other people think (langer, 1999). since this need is more related to the personal-related purpose rather than social-related purpose, thus it will be considered as part of personalrelated value that will be explained in the next sub topic. several previous studies have indicated that having a good impression in the society can help to increase customer‟s self-confidence thus boost the self-esteem, in which it affects their perception of value towards a product that reflects value dimensions such as social value (e.g. (sheth et al., 1991a; sweeney and soutar, 2001)) status value (holbrook, 1999) esteem value (holbrook, 1999) or reputation value (petrick, 2002) etc. based on the discussion above, it can be said that there are two types of customer needs that need to be considered when evaluating the value related to the society which are the need for acceptance and the need for compliment. thus the model can be developed as below: figure-3. customer needs in social-related value 4.3. personal-related value some authors have suggested that the need for distinguish between “value” (singular) and “values” (plural) in the value study as many literature often misused the terms and treated them as interchangeable terms (e.g. (khalifa, 2004); (ledden et al., 2007)) whereas they are discrete constructs. in which the former as a preference judgement and the latter as the criteria by which the people make such preference judgement (e.g. (holbrook, 1996)). thus in this study, personal-related value can be referred to the consumption benefits (value) that are strongly related to the values hold by the customer as a person enduring beliefs that guide the way the people behave in daily life activities (e.g. (rokeach, 1968; kahle, 1989)). since every person (customer) has values, thus it influences their perception of value towards a product (oliver, 1996; huber et al., 2001). this can be seen from the rational example of the customer who has strong concern about health, thus they usually expect the product (e.g. food) that contains more nutrient or less additive ingredient. thus their perception of value towards food differs from the person who has less concern about the health in which they asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 150-162 157 may value the food based on its taste or the portion, etc. in other words, the consumption value can be obtained when the customer feels that the product can enhance their beliefs or in line with their characteristic, goal, philosophy, principles, or anything that they think is important for their life (e.g. (khalifa, 2004)). in relation to that, maslow postulated that the customers must first have fulfilled the most basic need before they are going to have desire to fulfil the higher level of needs. since the basic purpose of purchasing the product is due to its functional value, thus the customers should first meet this need before they are going to consider the higher level of needs which are the personal-related value. given the example at the above, in this case suppose the customer is hungry, then the first thing they are going to evaluate about the food is the taste and the portion of the foods. once the foods have fulfilled these criteria, then the customer is going to have a high level of desire which is related to their personal criteria such as the less fat food or organic food. although in this case it might be possible for the customer will neglect the basic need (portion or taste) in order for them to achieve the highest level of needs (e.g. most of healthy food is tasteless), thus it can be argued that fulfilling the higher level of needs which is personalrelated value is the most priority as long as the basic need is at acceptable level. in other words, it can be said that when the customer feels that the product is in line with their characteristic or beliefs (fulfil personal-related value), the increase of chances of a favorable response on lower level of need such as social and functional-related value are likely to be higher, thus they are likely to accept that value given at the minimum acceptable level due to the higher needs are fulfilled (e.g. (sweeney and soutar, 2001)). personal-related value is strongly related to the self-concept held by the customer. as explained earlier in the social-related value context, the customer needs to have self-esteem in order to be respected in which they tend to seek the product that can help them to enhance their self-concept. in other words, it can be said that the self-concept presented in the society is merely aimed to seek respect from others or known as social self-concept – how a person presents himself to others or how others perceived the customer (burns, 1979). in which the purpose of purchasing the product may not purely based on personal preference otherwise it may be inspired by society (e.g. (mason, 1981)). however, the self-concept in personal-related value is a higher level than the self-concept in social-related value, whereby the customer does not concern on getting respect from other people, but more importantly is how they respect their self as a person. maslow explained this as the higher version of self-esteem whereby the customers need to be their self as what they are, not because they want to be respected by others, but because they want to respect their self (self-respect). in other words, it is about how the customers perceived their self as a person (actual selfconcept) (burns, 1979). although the essence of society lies on its beliefs, behavior, norms and values that are commonly shared by individuals (leung et al., 2005) which permits social expectation and understanding of the good, beautiful, and others, however the personal values held by every customer may not solely in agreement with the values commonly shared by society. the customer may have different perspective about what is good and what is bad or what is important and not important with the society. as argued by lai (1995) that some of social values might be followed by small portion of people, while other values might be accepted widely. thus it can be said that the value derived in personal-related context is very subjective in which it is strongly related to their unique characteristic and their goal in life. several authors have argued that personal values play a center role in decision making process (zeithaml, 1988) while others argue that it is a goal or the purpose of purchasing a product (woodruff, 1997). it has been found that personal values significantly affect the customer perceived value in several field of studies such as service (ladhari et al., 2011) education (ledden et al., 2007) and apparel product (jai-ok et al., 2002). thus involving personal values in measuring customer perceived value is crucial since customer perception of value is very subjective (e.g. (holbrook, 1996)). in this study, personal-related value can be seen from two fundamental perspectives of needs related to their selves which are the needs for being own-self and the needs for doing good things in life. in the first perspective, the customers value the product based on how fits it is with their characteristic. since the customer is an individual who is unique by nature, thus they tend to accept anything that they think is in line with their characteristic and reject anything that is not in line with their characteristic. as conceptualized by holbrook (1996) that value is self-oriented in which the customer always think about their selves whenever they purchase the product including how they will react to it or how it has effect on them. it can be said the value can be obtained when the customer feels that the product characteristic matches with the customer characteristic. in relation to that, several authors have argued that the need for being own-self is the highest level of needs which controls the needs of anything else. as stated by zeithaml (1988) in her means-ends theory, this personal characteristic plays as a center in defining value that helps to identify the desired product attribute. this perspective implies that the customer has different goal or reason in purchasing a product, thus has different perception of value. the matching characteristic between the product and the customer can be seen from two aspects. at first, the customer may value the product based on its physical attribute such as the design, color, taste, function, etc. as for some customer may perceive higher satisfaction when the color of the product is red, but other may don‟t like red color thus makes them less satisfied. it is purely based on the customer characteristic thus it gives them more value when it is matching with their own characteristic. secondly, the customer may value the product based on the image it represents. in this perspective, the value can be derived when the customer perceived their self-image matches with the product brand image. as postulated in the self-congruity theory (sirgy, 1986) the self-assessment or self-evaluation lies in the central of customer belief system thus play a greater role in person‟s life. as the evaluation process involves the comparison between the self-image outcome (e.g. compliment from other) and self-expectancy (customer perception about himself), thus the positive correlation results in increasing the customer‟s self-esteem, while the negative correlation results in decreasing the customer‟s self-esteem. it can be said that the greater the matches (between self-image outcome and selfexpectancy), the more valuable the product to the customers, and vice versa. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 150-162 158 according to sirgy (1985) this personality image can be described in term of “a set of attribute such as friendly, modern, youthful and traditional”, in which it is different from the functional attribute of the product such as the quality and price and not only determined by the physical characteristic of the product, however the marketing and psychology also play important role and strongly associated with this personality image. thus it can be said that in this perspective the value of the product is strongly related to the customer actual self-concept rather than influenced by other people or society (social/ideal social self-concept), in which it affects the customer‟s product preference thus influence their perception of value. as the product brand serves as expressive devices, thus the customer prefer the brand that has closest image to their own (de chernatony and mcdonald, 1997). consequently, the perception of functional and social related value may be influenced by this personality concern depending on the strength of actual self-concept that the customer has. in this regard the study of pascale et al. (2000) examined the effect of actual self-concept (how customer perceived himself, also known as self-perception) and ideal self-concept (how the customer would like to perceive herself) on product evaluation. the findings reveal that the customer actual self-concept is more associated with product-related value such as product functionality, while the ideal self-concept is more associated with social-related value such as social status. the study also found that the product evaluation of both functional and status-related product differs between the customers from different culture (in this case between malaysian customer and australian customer). the finding of this study indicates that the customer who has low self-esteem is likely to seek for social-related value (e.g. status value) while for those who have high self-esteem the customers are likely to focus on the product-related value (e.g. functional value). thus it can be said that in customer perceived value context, the personal related value does have effect on social and product related value. on the other hand, as human being, the customer also sees value of the product through the goodness or virtue that can be shared with other people. this value is strongly related to the customer goal in life. in this context of value, maslow described this need as the highest level of consumer needs whereby the customers think beyond their selves. he described this need as transcendence needs which only small amount of people who can really achieve this need. this aspect has been conceptualized in various termed such as meaning value (khalifa, 2004) ethic and spiritual value (holbrook, 1999) and personal meaning (brock and mark, 2007). however several authors have argued that this type of value is complicated for its operationalization (e.g. ethic value and spiritual value), thus it is relatively neglected in the literature (sanchez-fernandez and iniesta-bonillo, 2007). although it may seem difficult to analyze, however at least in some point it can be explained that this need exists. this can be seen from the finding of previous studies such as the study of mirvis (1994) which found that the customers are willing to pay up to 10% more for the product which are environmentally safe and the investors are found to have favor on companies which have good record in environmental. this finding indicates that the customer is likely to not only care about their self when purchasing the product, however they also care about the others thus try to show this feeling by purchasing the product that can help and support others or in some point at least does not harm others. another study of wall and heslop (1986) found that the customers are found to be willing to purchase their own country product rather than foreign product even though the quality is poorer than that of imports. this finding indicates that the customer is willing to sacrifice a certain benefit that they could have or willing to take a risk in order to support their own country. these forms of virtue or support either related to environment, country, society, or anything else other than their self are considered as true value that has power to disregard any other value dimensions. thus the value can be obtained when the customers feel that they are doing good things from purchasing the product. based on the discussion above, it can be said that there are two types of customer needs that need to be considered when evaluating personal-related value which are the need for being their selves and the need for doing good thing in life. thus the model can be developed as below: figure-4. customer needs in personal-related value asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 150-162 159 5. previous studies on perceived value table-1. previous studies on perceived value product related value need for product function need for pleasure 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17 ,18,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,29,30,31,32, 33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,41,43,44,45, 46,47,48,49 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,12,14,16,18,19,20,23,25,2 7,32,33,36,37,39,41,42,43,44,45,46,49 social-related value need for acceptance need for compliment / appreciation 2,4,12,18,20,23,24,31,33,36,37,38,41,42, 43,44,45,46 18,20,23,24,25,31,32,33,36,39,42,43,45 ,46,47,48 personal-related value need for being own-self need for doing good deeds 1,2,4,7,8,10,11,12,16,18,19,31,34,43,44, 49 39,28 note: highlighted number for durable goods or non-service related 1. mathwick et al. (2001) 6. musa et al. (2005) 11. creusen et al. (2010) 2. andrews et al. (2012) 7. tsaur et al. (2015) 12. škudienė et al. (2012) 3. babin et al. (1994) 8. wang et al. (2000) 13. jen and hu (2003) 4. gallarza and saura (2006) 9. lapierre (2000) 14. lin et al. (2005) 5. sweeney et al. (1999) 10. snoj et al. (2004) 15. tam (2004) 16. yajing et al. (2007) 21. caruana and fenech (2005) 26. tung (2013) 17. yang and peterson (2004) 22. yu et al. (2014) 27. ringle et al. (2011) 18. lee et al. (2011) 23. ariff et al. (2012) 28. chen and chang (2012) 19. mayr and zins (2012) 24. lim et al. (2006) 29. razavi et al. (2012) 20. yang and jolly (2009) 25. petrick (2002) 30. koshki et al. (2014) 31. bakon and hassan (2013) 36. hennigs et al. (2015) 41. akinci et al. (2015) 32. wiedmann et al. (2014) 37. chen (2013) 42. cocosila and igonor (2015) 33. chi (2013) 38. dumitrescu et al. (2013) 43. wongsuchat and ngamyan (2014) 34. wang (2013) 39. coutelle-brillet et al. (2014) 44. el-adly and eid (2015) 35. chang and wang (2011) 40. vera (2015) 45. callarisa et al. (2011) 46. sun et al. (2013) 47. parente et al. (2015) 48. songailiene et al. (2011) 49. chahal and kumari (2012) 6. conclusion the present study has attempted to extend the knowledge of perceived value by providing a review related to the dimensions of perceived value. the review of the literature reveals that the dimension of perceived value in the context of durable product (non-service related) can be categorized into three groups which are product-related value, social-related value, and personal-related value. in addition, there are six types of customer needs that need to be considered when measuring perceived value which are the need for product function (need to solve the problem of the customer), the need for pleasure, the need for acceptance, the need for compliment, the need for being own self, and the need for doing good thing. by seeing value from this perspective, this study may help the organization as well as the researchers in creating or identifying the dimension of consumption value. the present study reveals that majority of the study focus 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liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 4, 125-132, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 125 the impact of the land reform programme in matabeleland north province: a case of woodlands resettlement area in hwange, zimbabwe zanele dube 1 --wisdom moyo 2* 1 department of peace studies, zimbabwe open university, hwange, zimbabwe 2 department of development studies, zimbabwe open university, hwange, zimbabwe abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................. 126 2. review of related literature ................................................................................................................................................. 127 3. research methodology ............................................................................................................................................................ 127 4. data presentation and analysis ............................................................................................................................................. 127 5. discussion ................................................................................................................................................................................. 130 references .................................................................................................................................................................................... 132 land reform has always been a contentious issue in zimbabwe mainly because of the methods used to acquire land. the land reform process began in 1979 after the signing of the lancaster house agreement in an effort to equitably distribute land between the black and minority whites. the market based approach was used in the early phases of land reform and later on, the government led compulsory land acquisition called the fast track land reform programme. this study was aimed at investigating the impact of the fast track land reform programme at woodlands resettlement in hwange, matabeleland north province. the researcher assumed that resettlement was carried out on what was formerly a game reserve. the geography of the area does not favour crop farming. soils are deficient in plant nutrients and rainfall is below 650mm and yet zimbabwe land reform emphasized poverty alleviation. the study was conducted using the qualitative research approach. a case study was chosen as a research design. questionnaires were developed and distributed to 30 respondents drawn from woodlands resettlement using simple random sampling technique. the findings revealed that people were resettled in what was formerly a game reserve and this has resulted in humanwildlife conflict. there are mixed feelings about the impact of land reform on livelihoods at woodlands. it is recommended that the government should step in and prioritise infrastructure development in the area. the absence of a clinic, secondary school serviced road and other social services need urgent attention as these factors are important in poverty alleviation. keywords: land reform, livelihoods, poverty, resettlement, farming. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 125-132 126 1. introduction land is one of the most valuable natural resources of a country. it represents the principal form of wealth and the main source of economic and political power (zarin and bujang, 1994). land reform has always been a contentious issue in zimbabwe. it all started with the signing of the lancaster house agreement in1979 as a way of equally distributing land between the historically disenfranchised blacks and minority whites. at the attainment of independence in 1980, most of the productive land was in the hands of white minority group while the black peasants were relegated to mostly inferior land in the drier and drought ridden parts of the country. between 1979 and 2000 the market based approach was the main mechanism of land transfer. the principle of the willing buyer, willing seller was applied with economic help from great britain (moyo, 2005). from these transactions, it is evidently clear that the sellers were willing to let go of only less productive land. these negotiated „sunset clauses‟ protected the white commercial farmers from government land acquisitions for the first ten years after independence (chitsike, 2003). the fast track land reform programme was a redistributive land reform that entailed compulsory acquisition of land largely from the commercial farmers who held land under private tenure (zikhali, 2008). according to moyo (2005) a fast track, state driven approach was introduced during 1997 in zimbabwe culminating in extensive land transfers by 2004. fast track land reform was considered as a way of redressing the colonial imbalances in land holding at the same time serving as a barometer for empowering blacks to fight poverty and underdevelopment. the main objective of the land reform process was to alleviate population pressure in the communal areas and mainly to improve the standard of living of the largest and poorest sector of the population of zimbabwe (chitsike, 2003). matunhu (2011) says that land reform in zimbabwe served as a barometer for empowering blacks to fight poverty and underdevelopment. the objectives of land reform in zimbabwe were largely political and placed great emphasis on welfare and poverty alleviation (ayuk, 2007). woodlands is a resettlement area in matabeleland north province. it is in the matetsi ranch under hwange west constituency. the resettlement area has 109 households resettled under model d or the three tier scheme. this model was intended for low rainfall areas. ranches were taken up to be used for grazing by the communal communities. the main objective of the model was to reduce pressure on communal grazing areas by increasing the amount of grazing land to communities. matetsi ranch was initially owned by a white farmer who practised game ranching. the initial idea behind resettling people in woodlands area was for pasture. the resettled farmers practice crop growing and livestock rearing as well as game ranching under the communal areas management programme for indigenous resources (campfire). one of the objectives of the fast track land reform programme was to improve the standards of living of the largest and poorest section of the community. this objective would seem to be almost impossible to achieve at this resettlement area due to the distribution of rainfall in this area. rainfall is very low and unreliable, ranging between 450 and 650mm annually. the kalahari sands are the common type of soil at this resettlement area. these sands are deficient in plant nutrients and cannot support crop growth without the addition of artificial fertilisers. use of fertilisers is also limited by the persistent dry weather. the fact that the resettled farmers have to co-habit with wildlife poses another dilemma of who should come first, the wildlife or human population? farmers at woodlands resettlement area have expressed concern over the idea of co-existing with wildlife as the later poses a risk to their security, crops and livestock. the issue of wildlife and its problems to the community needed to be understood whether the community benefits from it or not. this indicates the importance of establishing land use before resettling people to avoid conflicts. 1.1. statement of the problem woodlands is the only resettlement area in hwange district in matabeleland north province. farmers were resettled on land formally used for game ranching. the soils in this part of the country are mostly kalahari sands that are deficient in plant nutrients thus rendering them unsuitable for crop growing. rainfall is very unreliable in this region reaching annual lows of between 450 and 650mm yet land reform was instituted in order to reduce poverty. the question is how these farmers will cope in such conditions also worsened by the presence of wildlife. the success of the land reform process at woodlands resettlement area is still not clear. the study therefore sought to highlight the impact of the land reform programme in matabeleland north province which falls under the agroecological region 1v. agro-ecological region iv is characterised by severe dry spells during the rainy season. annual rainfall averages between 450 and 650mm. investigations were made to attain crucial data needed to achieve the aims of the study which were: 1. to investigate the extent to which the land reform has benefited the resettled farmers. 2. to determine the farming activities being carried out by the resettled farmers. 3. to assess how the resettled farmers are coping with wildlife at their new resettlement site. 4. to explain the challenges facing the newly resettled farmers at woodlands. 5. to determine the criterion used to resettle people at woodlands. 1.2. research questions 1. to what extent has the land reform process benefitted the resettled farmers at woodlands? 2. what are the farming activities that were carried out by the previous owner of the ranch? 3. what are the current farming activities being carried out by the resettled farmers? 4. since the farm was for game ranching, what measures have been put in place to enable the resettled people to practice crop growing and livestock farming? 5. what are the problems facing the resettled people at woodlands resettlement area? asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 125-132 127 2. review of related literature 2.1. theory of land reform the neoclassical school treats land like any factor of production. the theory looks at land reform as an integral part of the strategy and policy of economic development. according to zarin and bujang (1994) the neoclassical school holds a view that there is a direct relationship between land reform and economic development. neoclassical theory on the other hand notes that whilst land reform is essential for providing a stable base for a country‟s future economic development, it does not follow that reform will guarantee development. the neoclassical school of thought predicts that the way the market allocates resources such as land is efficient while government administered reallocations of land from landowners to cultivators would likely reduce agrarian output. they further predict that rent ceilings and transfer restrictions on agricultural land will reduce investment in land improvement and encourage conversion to non-agricultural land. the first prediction opposes the claim that land reform would lead to a more efficient allocation of land while the second prediction hypothesises that agricultural land productivity and supply of agricultural land would decline under land reform (zarin and bujang, 1994). the land reform programme in zimbabwe was established to address the imbalances in land distribution which was in favour of white minority settler farmers. the main objective of the land reform programme was to alleviate poverty mainly in the rural areas. however, there is little evidence of success of the reform programme in country. the neo classical school of thought is relevant in the zimbabwean context because most of its predictions are true. there has been a severe reduction of agricultural output in the country and this has resulted in zimbabwe importing food crops like maize from neighbouring countries to avert food shortages. the theory also predicts a reduction of investment on land improvements leading to conversion of agricultural land to nonagricultural land. the method of land acquisition has implications for poverty reduction. the neoclassical school of thought predicts that government administered reallocations of land from land owners to cultivators would likely reduce agricultural output. this prediction has come true in zimbabwe where state led land reforms transferred land to black peasants who did not have the means and expertise to run the farms productively hence the reduction in agricultural output country wide. 3. research methodology 3.1. research design the study was conducted using a mixed approach research design. the strength of the qualitative paradigm is that it studies people in terms of their own insider perspectives rather than the outsider perspective the quantitative paradigm was used to design questionnaires. edmonds and kenedy (2012) define quantitative research as “a type of educational research in which the researcher decides what to study, asks narrow specific questions, collects quantifiable data from participants and analyses these numbers using statistics.” the idea behind using the quantitative research design was to enable the researcher to obtain the demographic composition, gender distribution, age and marital status and household size at woodlands resettlement area. these demographic characteristics are important in determining the success of the resettlement programme in terms of poverty alleviation. for example, quisumbing (2003) observes that the entire well-being of a household can be better achieved by giving women greater access to economic development. woodlands resettlement area in hwange rural was chosen as a case study. it may be noted that in this research, a case study was chosen due to its following advantages which are; in depth study and production of detailed descriptions of the phenomenon; development of possible explanations of the phenomenon and evaluation of the phenomenon (gall et al., 1996). research instruments that were used to collect data are the questionnaire, interview guide and document analysis 3.2. population and sampling the population at woodlands resettlement area is 2 784 people. the target population in this study were 30 resettled farmers amongst which were the ward councillor, the headman, the agricultural extension officer and parks and wildlife officers. the involvement of the resettled farmers was of paramount importance in measuring the impact of land reform programmes in the drier regions of the country that were initially set aside for game ranching. simple random sampling was used to obtain the sample of resettled farmers. simple random sampling was applicable because the population under study was homogenous with respect to characteristics understudy. purposive sampling is a sampling method in which elements are chosen based on the purpose of the study. purposive sampling was used to choose the sample of parks and wildlife officers. the purpose of involving the parks and wildlife officers was to obtain information on the wildlife and how the resettled farmers are managing to co-habit with the wildlife. 4. data presentation and analysis the key informants constituted mainly of the resettled farmers who participated in the completion of questionnaires. some of the information was collected through focused group discussions coded fgd1 and fgd2. 4.1. demographic composition of respondents for the purpose of this study, four democratic characteristics were examined for the woodlands community, namely age gender, marital status and household size. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 125-132 128 table-1. age distribution of the population sample age group frequency percentage 20-24 0 0 25-29 1 3,3 30-34 2 6,6 35-39 5 16,6 40-44 6 20 45-49 8 26,6 50-54 6 20 55+ 2 6,6 total 30 100 all the 30 respondents indicated the age category to which they belong representing a hundred per cent response. over 70% of the sample is over 40 years of age. while this may not be representative of the entire woodlands community, it shows that the community is composed of a mature population which is likely to drive the resettlement programme towards attainment of its nationwide intended goal of poverty alleviation in rural areas. the study also revealed that 26.5% of the population were youths who fall in the 24-39 age categories. this is important in the economic recovery of the country. 4.2. gender distribution table-2. gender distribution among the woodland community frequency percentage male 11 36 female 18 60 no response 1 3,3 total 30 100 table 2 shows that there are more women at woodlands resettlement area than men. in terms of poverty alleviation, such a distribution is in line with the recognition of the view that the economic well-being of the entire household can be better achieved by giving women greater access to land for economic development (quisumbing, 2003). 4.2.1. marital status rural economies revolve around the family unit. the structure of the family is often a pivot around which rural development programmes are planned. table 3 shows the distribution of the population sample in terms of marital status. table-3. distribution of woodlands community according to marital status frequency percentage married 12 40 divorced 2 6,66 widowed 8 26,66 single 6 20 no response 2 6,66 total 30 100 a 93% respondent rate was obtained for this question. 40% of the woodlands community is married while approximately 26.66 % of the respondents are widowed. 4.2.2. size of household the household is generally considered as the functional unit of the economy. table 4 shows the distribution of the woodlands community by size of the household table-4. distribution of woodlands community by size of household number of people excluding respondent frequency percentage 2 2 6,66 3 6 20 4 8 26,6 5 3 10 6 4 13,3 7 2 6,6 8 1 3,3 9 1 3,3 10 0 0 no response 4 13,3 total 30 100 a response rate of 86% for this question was obtained. the response indicates that the average household at woodlands resettlement area is approximately 6 people including the respondent. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 125-132 129 4.3 expectations of the respondents the respondents were asked what they intended to do with the land they had been allocated. table 5 shows their response. table-5. distribution of woodlands community by land use frequency percentage 1. crop farming 17 56,6 2. livestock farming 8 26,6 3. build a home 5 16,6 total 30 100 in order to ascertain the occupational status of respondents, two questions were asked about their previous occupations and their intentions once they were resettled. 56% of the respondents wanted land for crop farming while 26% of the respondents wanted land for livestock ranching. 16% of the respondents wanted land for the purpose of building their homes. 4.4 responses from focus group discussions this group was made up of 7 males and 5 females residing at woodlands resettlement area. from the discussion, 10 out of 12 participants indicated that they had been successful in practising crop farming while 7 out of 12 indicated that they had been fairly successful in livestock farming. all the participants indicated that they had been fairly successful in building a home and none wished to lease out their land. on the question on how the land had helped the tenants increase their income from farm activities, 10 out of 12 participants indicated that owning land had increased their income from farming activities to a large extent. all the participants indicated that the land reform programme had aided them to be able to provide food for people in their households. all the participants felt that the land reform process had failed to provide employment for other members in their households. from the discussions with fgd1, the soil at woodlands resettlement area is predominantly clay which favour the growing of maize and other drought resistant crops like sorghum, rapoko and millet. the better crop yield can also be attributed to the clay soil. lack of irrigation equipment is impacting negatively on their farming needs and as such crop growing is only seasonal. participants expressed a need to grow vegetables and other winter cops but could not do so in the absence of irrigation facilities. participants from fgd1 and fgd2 both indicated that they had access to inputs like seeds and extension services and this enabled them to have a better crop yield. to improve the crop yield, participants indicated that before planting, they dig holes and add manure to each hole before the seeds could be planted. the participants indicated that this type of planting ensured that the soil remained fertile for the crops to thrive well. from the discussions, it emerged that this method of planting maize was very labour intensive and tiresome hence it was not favoured by most of the participants. the participants however stated the need for more training in order to attain better farming skills. participants from both fgd1 and fgd2 indicated that the government had been supportive in achieving the aims of the beneficiaries through availing of the agritex extension workers and provision of seeds. the participants however noted that the resettlement area does not have a secondary school and a clinic. those requiring medical care have to access it from the town of victoria falls which is 29km away from woodlands resettlement area. participants from both fgds 1 and 2 felt that the government had given them the chance to take part in decision making pertaining to the resettlement area. the beneficiaries from the onset were responsible for allocating land to those who wish to be resettled. however some of the beneficiaries felt that the government should also have played a role in allocating the land to the beneficiaries instead of leaving it to the farmers. the resettled farmers at woodlands run hunting activities during winter where professional hunters are engaged to guide tourists who visit the area for trophy hunting at a fee. each household receives an average of $200 per month from the hunting proceeds. on the question on poverty, 8 out of 12 participants from fgd1 indicated that the land reform had reduced poverty to a moderate extent while 6 out of 7 participantsfrom fgd2 felt the process had reduced poverty for them and their households to a large extent. this was attributed to the fact that participants from fgd2 are in formal employment and so ownership of an asset like land would work favourably for them. interviews were carried out with the ward councillor at woodlands to establish the size of the land allocated to each beneficiary at woodlands resettlement area. the first people to occupy matetsi ranch were war veterans in 2001. according to some of the respondents during focus group discussions the owner was given 7 hours to vacate the land which had been previously used for game ranching. thereafter a committee was formed by some of the beneficiaries and these were tasked with resettling those who wished to be resettled. no set criterion was ever followed to resettle the beneficiaries at woodlands. however most of these beneficiaries had been victims of the 2005 operation murambatsvina, an urban clean-up exercise that saw multitudes of people being forcibly evicted from slum settlements in victoria falls urban. each beneficiary was allocated an average of 4 hectares of land including land for building a homestead. another interview was carried out with parks and wildlife officer to establish the challenges of co-habiting with wildlife. it was established that wildlife poses a real challenge to the beneficiaries of the land reform programme at woodlands resettlement area. lions create challenges on the resettled farmers. they kill livestock and endanger the lives of the resettled farmers. elephants are a big problem to the beneficiaries as they destroy crops and vegetation. from the interviews it became clear that the farmers would not give up their land just because of the wildlife and have come up with ways of co-habiting with them. farmers harvest their crops early to prevent them from being destroyed by the elephants as there is no enclosure that separates the farmers from the wildlife. poaching was highlighted as a major cause of concern at woodlands resettlement area and the wildlife official expressed fear that if nothing is done to curb this, some species would be extinct in the future. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 125-132 130 5. discussion 5.1. lessons learnt from the zimbabwean land reform process the majority of the beneficiaries at woodlands resettlement area are females. women and children are often the most affected by poverty world over. rural poverty is caused primarily by a limited access to resources. this limitation may result from an imbalance between population and available resources. in terms of poverty alleviation, such a distribution at woodlands resettlement area is in line with the recognition of the fact that the economic wellbeing of the entire household in general and the women and children in particular, can be best achieved by giving women greater access for economic development (quisumbing, 2003). the study established that most of the respondents have undergone basic primary education which indicates that they can read or write. chamunorwa (2010) observes that there is need by agritex extension workers to compliment this education by reaching out to these new farmers who have less experience in farming techniques. before receiving land through the fast track land reform programme, the majority of the woodlands community were either unemployed or employed in the non-agricultural sectors. approximately 26% of the beneficiaries of the land reform programme had been previously employed in the agricultural sector as labourers. this indicates the extent of an agricultural knowledge base within the woodlands community. this is important in establishing the training needs of this community in farming techniques as a tool for fighting poverty. for most of these beneficiaries, this was their first time to gain direct access to land. for most beneficiaries this was a positive transformation which meant that these people would be able to produce staple food crops for subsistence purposes as well as transfer to urban areas for household consumption with urban based families. some of the beneficiaries at woodlands resettlement area sell their surplus in victoria falls urban thereby raising income for other household necessities. moyo (2005) noted that the fast track land reform programme created a new socio economic group of urban based semi absentee land lords. the survey at woodlands resettlement area actually concurs with moyo (2005)‟s observation. a number of respondents reside in victoria falls town and the majority of them are in formal employment. during the planting, weeding and harvesting season, family members travel to their resettled areas to undertake the required work. those respondents, who indicated dual residence, hire unemployed young men and women to act as caretakers in their absence. these caretakers are paid cash ranging between $60 and $100 and at times an assortment of goods. the researcher also established that there is a campfire programme which operates game hunting during winter. beneficiaries to the resettlement programme at woodlands indicated that each household received $200 from the hunting proceeds as well as game meat. the study revealed that farmers practice dry farming where the land is tilled and the seeds are planted just before the onset of the rains. government extension workers encourage farmers to dig holes up to fifteen centimetres in depth and then apply manure to that hole instead of spreading it over a wide area. maize seeds are then planted in each hole and farmers are encouraged to water the planted areas. according to the respondents in this study, crop yields using this farming technique are much higher compared to normal way of growing crops. the respondents however indicated that although this technique results in higher yields, it tends to be labour intensive because the extension workers encourage that lines need to be drawn and the holes spread out evenly. use of fertilisers is very low in this resettlement area in the absence of irrigation facilities. the extreme temperatures discourage the use of fertilisers. moisture deficiencies in these drier parts of the country could mean that the application of fertiliser may cause crops to wither and die because of the high temperatures. the absence of irrigation facilities at woodlands resettlement area means that the farmers are relying on rain fed cultivation. crop production becomes seasonal and farmers cannot grow winter crops which could have improved their livelihoods after selling their products. the use of drought resistant varieties of seeds has helped the farmers to attain sufficient yields for family consumption. yields are even higher from millet, rapoko and sorghum. the problems with these crops are birds that always threaten the size of the yield. woodlands is a resettlement scheme that occupied a game reserve. co-habiting with wildlife is a factor against a good harvest and is a source of conflict between conservationists and the settlers. since this resettlement occupied a game reserve, wild animals including those that form the big five, that is the elephants, buffalo, lions, leopards and the rhinos, roam the area. when the first occupants invaded the ranch, the fences separating the game animals were cut-up and removed and now there is no boundary that controls the movement of the animals. elephants often wreak havoc destroying crops as they move about in what used to be a game reserve. as a coping mechanism the farmers have devised a system of harvesting their crops prematurely before the herds of elephants destroy them. according to the respondents of this study elephants usually pass through an area yearly at the same time as last. this knowledge of elephant behaviour has made it possible for farmers to know when to harvest their crops. besides elephants, lions have also proved to be a menace to the farmers. cattle, goats and even the farmers themselves are at risk from these predators. herding of cattle and goats has to be done to ensure their safety. when the first beneficiaries came to the game reserve, the first thing that they did was to cut the fence separating the reserve from human settlements and as such the beneficiaries of the land reform and the wildlife are now both on the losing end. extreme poaching is likely to result in some animal species becoming extinct. while the speedy re-allocation of land was a noble idea, the manner in which it the whole process was conducted created a lot of serious environmental challenges. the fast track land reform programme in zimbabwe completely ignored the importance of the environment. matabeleland north province lies in the agro-ecological region iv where rainfall is erratic and low. the soils are deficient in plant nutrients making the region more suitable for extensive cattle ranching and wildlife sanctuaries. instead of cattle ranching and safaris, the land has been turned into maize production zones. this is against the geography of this area as the soils are being exposed to erosion through tilling. when the war veterans invaded the game reserve, trees were cut indiscriminately to clear land for the establishment of fields and homesteads. clearing of the bushes involved the use of fires. this disturbed the whole ecosystem as trees and grass which serve as habitat for wildlife was destroyed. the fast track land reform programme in zimbabwe ignored the co-existence of people and wildlife. the resettled farmers feel threatened by the animals asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 125-132 131 and the people are also a threat to the existence of these animals. wildlife is being destroyed through illegal hunting. some poachers even go to the extent of poisoning water sources to kill animals for example elephants for their ivory. those resettled farmers who have found it difficult to produce on their farms are now resorting to wood carving, a practice which is seeing forests slowly disappearing. what is worrying is that not much is being done by the government to curb such practices. the state led fast track land reform in zimbabwe however ignored the importance of the environment. in comparison, the early phase of the land reform programme was well co-ordinated hence there was minimal damage to the environment. shumba et al. (2011) hold the notion that poverty and environmental degradation are closely linked. he states that a degraded environment produces less worsening the vulnerability of these communities that are directly dependant on natural resources. the extent of environmental degradation at woodlands will make it impossible for future generations to survive on it. the fact that these zones were initially meant for extensive rearing of animals means that the current usage is in conflict with the geography of the area. besides environmental challenges facing resettled farmers at woodlands, the accessibility of the area is also a cause for concern. woodlands resettlement area is located some 29km from victoria falls town. the train is the only means of transport for the majority of the resettled farmers. shumba et al. (2011) observes that a rural road network has a significant effect on the distribution of facilities in the rural areas and has a potential of reducing the level of poverty of rural people. poor road infrastructure cuts off the resettled people from accessing inputs and other essential information necessary for rural development. a poor road network means that the capacity to fight poverty is limited. another challenge facing the resettled farmers at woodlands is the lack of health facilities. shumba et al. (2011) states that access to health facilities is one of the social components of sustainable developments. he further observes that sustainable development can be attained in the absence of disease. the lack of a health facility at woodlands means that the people can only access health services in the town of victoria falls which is some 29km away. coupled with the poor road network, the resettled farmers are very much disadvantaged. health facilities should be within acceptable distance that is accessible to people. poor and inadequate water and sanitation facilities are among the many issues being faced by the woodlands community. good sanitation enables people to enjoy better health and this enables them to channel their time, money and energy on activities that will improve their livelihoods. at woodlands, boreholes are the only sources of water and these are scattered in order to serve all the resettled farmers. the challenge is that these boreholes often breakdown and the farmers do not have the skills to repair them. during the dry season the water levels also become low and drawing water from the borehole for livestock and domestics purposes becomes a challenge to the farmers. at woodlands resettlement scheme there is one primary school but there is no secondary school to enrol those who would have completed their primary education. a number of respondents indicated that some of these children attain secondary education in victoria falls town where they stay with relatives. some children drop out of school after completing grade seven because they do not have relatives to stay with in victoria falls in order to continue their education. education is a critical component of sustainable development. one of the key ways of moving and staying out of poverty is through investing in education. education is vital for development purposes. knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to shape a sustainable future can be transmitted through the right education.education is also a key component in averting any forms of conflict that may crop up between farmers and their environment. with the right education farmers can tackle environmental issues that may arise. 5.2. conclusions land reform in zimbabwe has always emphasised poverty alleviation. given that zimbabwe still has one of the highest poverty levels in sub-saharan africa, the land reform needs to be implemented in a manner that will generate sustainable livlihoods. the implementation of zimbabwe‟s land reform was seen as a rural development strategy. however, the method of land acquisition has implications for poverty reduction. the speedy allocation of land through the fast track land reform programme was a noble idea at first but the manner in which the whole process was conducted resulted in acute food shortages and irreversible environmental challenges in the country. the early phase of the resettlement programme was well conducted hence there was minimal damage to the environment. evidence is showing that disorder is prevalent on farms. people were put on land without essential support services and this has affected the objectives of the land reform programme. the study revealed that the success of the land reform at woodlands resettlement area is still to be tested by time. although most of the respondents felt that the land reform was a success for them, there is the issue of environmental sustainability. the geography of the area makes the area unsuited for crop growing. the unreliable rainfall coupled with the infertile soils and the presence of wildlife is a cause for concern. despite these challenges, beneficiaries to the land reform grow a variety of drought resistant crops enough for family consumption. this research revealed that at woodlands resettlement area, the beneficiaries are co-habiting with wildlife and this is causing a lot of challenges for the farmers. this study also revealed that the fast track land reform programme created a new socio-economic group of urban based land lords. during the planting, weeding and harvesting season family members undertake the required tasks. when they are in the city, they hire unemployed young men as caretakers in their absence. the research also established that these new type of land lords are better placed when it comes to issues of poverty as they are also in formal employment and thus they can afford to buy the required inputs for their lands. the future of most beneficiaries is uncertain at woodlands resettlement area. this is compounded by the geography of the area which is not favourable for crop growing. the responsible authority needs to ensure that these farmers get the necessary assistance if the goals of land reform are to be realised and poverty eradicated. 5.3. recommendations the study draws the following recommendations: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 125-132 132 i. if the fast track land reform programme is to bring sustainable development at woodlands resettlement area, the government should step in and prioritise infrastructure development. the absence of a clinic, a secondary school and a serviced road network need urgent attention if the initial goals of land reform are to be realised. a functional road network will increase the capacity of all stakeholders to fight poverty. ii. environmental degradation is another cause for concern at woodlands resettlement area. a degraded environment produces less, making the resettled farmers more vulnerable to poverty. community based programmes through the environmental management agency (ema) should be used to empower the community on the conservation of the environment. iii. stiffer penalties should be enforced by the state when dealing with poachers in order to curb poaching activities. more game wardens also need to be deployed to protect the wildlife. the government also needs to consider putting up fences at woodlands resettlement area to separate the resettled farmers from the game as both feel threatened by the presence of the other. iv. the settling of people at woodlands which was a game reserve needs to serve as a lesson to the government of zimbabwe of the importance of establishing land use before resettling people. co-habiting of humans and a non-human community is a source of conflict as the two fight for control of the area. v. the government also needs to invest heavily on irrigation facilities to enable the farmers to practise winter cropping instead of relying on rain fed agriculture. references ayuk, p.t., 2007. the role of land reform in the alleviation of rural poverty: a study of uitkyk community of north west province. available from https://ujdigispace.uj.ac.za/ [accessed 12/10/14]. chamunorwa, a., 2010. livelihoods after land reform in zimbabwe working paper, no. 8 comparative analysis of agricultural productivity between newly resettled farmers and communal farmers in mashonaland east province. chitsike, f., 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m. masuka, 2011. community level production and utilization of jatropa feedstock in malawi, zambia and zimbabwe. harare: world wide fund for nature. zarin, h.a. and a.a. bujang, 1994. theory on land reform: an overview. buletin ukrur, 5(1): 9-14. zikhali, p., 2008. fast track land reform, tenure security and investments in zimbabwe. available from http://www.csae.ox.ac.uk/conferences/2008-edia/papers/293-zikhali.pdf [accessed 12/12/14]. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.academia.edu/9214925/emperical_study_of_fastrack_land_reforms_and_household_food_security_in_zimbabwe http://www.csae.ox.ac.uk/conferences/2008-edia/papers/293-zikhali.pdf asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 4, 234-240, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 234 marital satisfaction of iranian deaf women: the role of a life skills training program arezoo abedi1 asghar dadkhah2 mohammad rostami3 poriya reza soltani4 guita movallali5 zeinab salehy6  1,2,3,4 university of social welfare and rehabilitation sciences, tehran, iran 5 pediatric neurorehabiliation research center, university of social welfare and rehabilitation sciences (uswr), tehran, iran 6 phd. private office, tehran, iran ( corresponding author) abstract given that marital satisfaction and the factors influencing it are of high importance among deaf women, the present study aimed to examine the impact of life skills training on the marital satisfaction of deaf women in the iranian deaf association (ida). a multiple-baseline, single-case experimental design was conducted. the statistical population consisted of all deaf women in the ida during 2014-2015. a total of 3 deaf women who met the inclusion criteria were selected using a purposeful sampling method. they participated in a 9-session life skills training program for 45 minutes a week. the instrument used in the present study was the 47-item version of the enrich marital satisfaction scale (ems). the data from repeated measures was processed using the trend comparison charts, and the clinical significance of the data was determined using the recovery rate formula. the results from the trend comparison charts, recovery rate formula, and visual analysis showed that the life skills training improved the marital satisfaction of the samples. according to the study findings, it can be concluded that life skills training improves the marital satisfaction among deaf women. therefore, the method used in the present study can be recognized as an appropriate method in psycho-educational interventions for strengthening family foundation and improving marriage durability of deaf couples at the beginning of marriage. keywords: marital satisfaction, deaf women, life skills. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 235 2. methods .............................................................................................................................................................................. 235 3. findings .............................................................................................................................................................................. 237 4. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................... 238 5. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 239 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 239 citation | arezoo abedi; asghar dadkhah; mohammad rostami; poriya reza soltani; guita movallali; zeinab salehy (2016). marital satisfaction of iranian deaf women: the role of a life skills training program. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(4): 234-240. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. we would like to sincerely thank the officials of the ida and also the participant women who helped us with this study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 11 april 2016/ revised: 10 may 2016/ accepted: 27 may 2016/ published: 10 june 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=arezoo abedi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=asghar dadkhah https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mohammad rostami https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=poriya reza soltani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=guita movallali https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zeinab salehy http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=arezoo abedi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=asghar dadkhah https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mohammad rostami https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=poriya reza soltani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=guita movallali https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zeinab salehy http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=arezoo abedi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=asghar dadkhah https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mohammad rostami https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=poriya reza soltani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=guita movallali https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zeinab salehy http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=arezoo abedi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=asghar dadkhah https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mohammad rostami https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=poriya reza soltani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=guita movallali https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zeinab salehy http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=arezoo abedi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=asghar dadkhah https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mohammad rostami https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=poriya reza soltani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=guita movallali https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zeinab salehy http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=arezoo abedi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=asghar dadkhah https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mohammad rostami https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=poriya reza soltani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=guita movallali https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zeinab salehy http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=arezoo abedi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=asghar dadkhah https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mohammad rostami https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=poriya reza soltani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=guita movallali https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zeinab salehy http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=arezoo abedi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=asghar dadkhah https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mohammad rostami https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=poriya reza soltani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=guita movallali https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zeinab salehy http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.234.240 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 234-240 235 1. introduction according to the national association of the deaf (nad), the term “deaf” refers to an individual with a hearing disability who is not capable of information processing (patel, 2010). deafness is an abnormal condition with extensive impacts on cognitive, emotional, and social development (fellinger et al., 2012). this condition may lead to psychological disorders among deaf people because of their inability to have appropriate communication (arlinger, 2003). some research has indicated that mental-health problems are high among deaf people, and some other research has reported a prevalence rate of 40% mental-health disorders among deaf people (hindley et al., 1994). deafness can have unpleasant developmental outcomes in relational, cognitive, emotional, and social areas (kral and o'donoghue, 2010). in other words, an impairment in understanding and using language may lead to relational problems, and this, at the same time, can lead to frustration and other problems, such as aggressive behavior, anxiety, and social isolation, resulting in a decrease in opportunities for development of language and communication skills, such as having relationship with peers and adults (edwards et al., 2008). in addition to relational problems, deaf people may have problems with social competence and life skills (movallali et al., 2012). hearing loss can have negative impacts on marital relationship, and endanger a couple’s relationship, therefore, it is necessary to increase the level of awareness in this group, and provide education and consultation for them (kooser, 2011). one of the most important aspects of a marital system is the satisfaction experienced by a couple. marital satisfaction is a positive and enjoyable attitude in a couple that is formed based on different aspects of marital life, such as relationship, personality, conflict resolution, financial situations, sexual relationship, and children (pourheydari et al., 2013). numerous factors affect marital satisfaction, including the level of knowing each other before marriage, cultural and financial similarities, healthy personality and mood, common values, attitudes, interests, preferences, and goals; similarities between couple’s families, level of interference in others work, level of family management, level of family happiness, level of problems, and stresses (abbasi et al., 2011). previous research has shown that many factors have a role in marital satisfaction, and among these factors is seeking a companion (aida and falbo (1991); karney and frye (2002)) being good-tempered (blum and mehrabian, 1999) trustfulness, love, and faithfulness (roizblatt et al., 1999) intimacy and avoidance of aggressive control (goodman, 1999) interactions and showing interest (love and affection), empathy, sexual satisfaction, cooperation with each other, an accurate knowledge of feelings, understanding feelings and their origin, and an appropriate management of feelings (kaveh, 2011). human beings are social creatures, and tend to have close and intimate relationships with each other. a good relationship provides the greatest marital satisfaction for a couple (kooser, 2011). relationship is usually considered as an important factor in the level of marital satisfaction that a couple may feel. therefore, relationship skills training is a main focus in many marriage enrichment programs hosseinkhanzadeh and yeganeh (2013b); kooser (2011). deafness affects a couple’s relationship, and may lead to a reduction in affective and physical intimacy, therefore, hearing loss brings negative outcomes to marital satisfaction (kooser, 2011). the common communicational problems among deaf couples, when one or both are deaf, include wrong and incongruent interpretation of issues and problems, lack of education, and weak and limited skills regarding the management and handling of life conflicts and problems (thew, 2011). according to global statistics, the rate of divorce among couples with partial hearing loss is the same as normal couples, but it is four times more prevalent among deaf people (kooser, 2011). some of the methods applied to reduce a couple’s relationship problems are providing educational programs, teaching appropriate relationship techniques, and providing trained deaf teachers (thew, 2011). among these, life skill training is an educational program useful for improving the quality of relationship and marital satisfaction (hosseinkhanzadeh and yeganeh, 2013b). life skills training in couples, not only have an impact on the improvement of relationship quality, but also has a significant role in the improvement of mental and general health, reduction of family stress, increase of social acceptance, and even, preventing suicide (khadivi et al., 2005; abbasi et al., 2011). although few studies have directly addressed the impact of life skills training on the improvement of marital satisfaction among deaf couples, the effectiveness of this method has been shown by some similar studies on hearing people. for example, hosseinkhanzadeh and yeganeh (2013b) conducted a study on marital satisfaction of women. they concluded that life skills’ training improves marital satisfaction. pourheydari et al. (2013) found that life skills training leads to sexual and marital satisfaction among young couples. also pourheydari et al. (2013) in line with abbasi et al. (2011) showed that life skills training increases marital satisfaction. other studies confirmed the effectiveness of relationship skills in the improvement of marital satisfaction, but most of the studies have been conducted on hearing couples. given that not only is deafness a sensory inability, but also it is an impairment that leads to difficulties in interpersonal relationships and problems in mental health alexander et al. (2012); fellinger et al. (2012) mental health care is essential for deaf people. however, it is estimated that only 2% of deaf adults have ever received mental health care (rostami et al., 2014). moreover, since deaf couples experience problems in their lives and relationships which can potentially have negative effects on their relationship and level of marital satisfaction, it is necessary to take steps in order to reduce their problems and mental and relationship difficulties. studies conducted on deaf women are limited and their marital satisfaction is neglected. therefore, the present study aimed to examine the effectiveness of life skills training in marital satisfaction of deaf women. 2. methods in the present study, a multiple-baseline, single-case experimental design was used. the reason for selecting this method is that it is difficult to have group training with deaf people, and they need a face to face relationship in order to better learn and understand the materials; therefore, the training was conducted individually. the statistical population included all deaf women in iranian deaf association (ida), in 2014-2015. a total of 3 deaf women who met the inclusion criteria were selected using a purposeful sampling method. the instrument used in the present study was the enrich marital satisfaction scale (ems), developed by olson et al. (1987). the purpose of this questionnaire is to examine relationship strengths and work on areas of marital life. it is also used for diagnosis of the couples who need consultation and strengthening of relationship. the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 234-240 236 ems has also been used as a valid instrument in numerous studies to assess marital satisfaction. there are 115-item and 125-item versions of the ems. in iran, a 47-item version of the ems has been standardized. in the present study, the 47-item version of the questionnaire is used which includes 9 subscales namely marital relationship (items 6, 13, 23, 32, and 41), personality issues (items 2, 4, 12, 22, and 40), conflict resolution (items 7, 14, 24, 33, and 42), financial management (items 8, 15, 16, 25, and 34), leisure activities (items 9, 17, 26, 35, and 43), sexual relationship (items 10, 18, 27, 36, and 44), children and parenting (items 11, 19, 28, 37, and 45), family and friends (items 20, 29, 31, 38, and 46), and religious orientation (items 5, 21, 30, 39, and 47). the items are rated on a 5-point likert scale ranging from 1 (totally agree) to 5 (totally disagree). the total score of a person shows their level of marital satisfaction. in addition, some items are reverse-scored (motadyn et al., 2012). 2.1. validity and reliability olson et al. (1987) reported a cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.92 for the ems. in the farsi version of this questionnaire, cronbach's alpha was obtained at 0.82 for women and 0.92 for men that shows high internal consistency of this questionnaire. correlation coefficient between the scores of subjects on two occasions with three weeks interval was 0.88 for all the subjects (hosseinkhanzadeh and yeganeh, 2013a). 2.2. procedure first of all, a list of the women who met the inclusion criteria was obtained with the help of the head of the ida, and then, participants were invited to the study. participants were informed about the goals and procedures of the study, and they completed a consent form. the first baseline was measured 20 days before the intervention (a1), the second baseline was measured 10 days before the intervention (a2), and the third baseline was measured in the preliminary session, using the ems (a3). the participants who had a low mean score on the ems (lower than 150) were selected for intervention. deaf women, who met the requirements, received the life skills training in 9 sessions (45 minutes per session). given that the deaf people have many problems in reading and writing, and specially in understanding the meaning of words, we tried to present the materials in a simple way. we also used pictures in order to help them better understand the materials. because of the importance of a mutual understanding between the participants and researchers, experts in sign language helped the researcher have communication with deaf women. during the 9 intervention sessions, the sample group were measured at the start of the third session (b1), at the start of the sixth session (b2), and at the end of the ninth session (b3), using the ems. after the end of the interventions, a 4-week follow-up measurement was conducted (f1). it is worth to say that the life skills training was conducted individually. the data from repeated measures was processed using the trend comparison charts and visual analysis, and the clinical significance of the data was calculated using the recovery rate formula (hamidpour et al., 2011). recovery rate = 100 × pre-test score post-test score pre-test score if the recovery rate is at least 50, the results can be regarded as significant (hamidpour et al., 2011). the inclusion criteria were as follows: 1being a deaf woman, 2at least four years of marital life, 3being able to read and write, and 4a score on the ems lower than 150 (which indicate marital dissatisfaction). the exclusion criteria were as follows: 1using any other form of psychotherapy or consultation services during the time of study, 2being absent for three sessions, 3withdrawal or unwillingness to continue the study, 4having another disability beside deafness, and 5being divorced. the ethical issues considered in this study were as follows: deaf women took part in the life skills training sessions voluntarily, their informed consent for participation in the study was obtained, the sessions were free of charge, all information about the participants remained confidential, the participants were allowed to leave the study at any time, the topic, goals, and procedure of the study were explained to the ida’s officials and study participants, and the officials were reassured that they would be informed about the study results, in a group manner, and in a way that the participants remain anonymous (their real name was not mentioned in the study, and they were given pseudonyms), and putting pressure on deaf women or putting them at mental or physical risks were avoided. 2.3. the content of training sessions the present treatment design is derived from the studies by khajeddin et al. (2010) and books written by mckay and kleinke (1991) and (kleinke, 1991; mckay et al., 2006; khajeddin et al., 2010; kaveh, 2011). given that the study participants were deaf women, we used pictures, role play, and understandable sentences in presenting the training. we also got help from an expert in sign language in order to facilitate the communications. the pictures were taken from two books by glickman (2008); glickman and gulati (2003). the structure of sessions is as follows: session number content session first session introduction and making rapport, introduction of the researcher as a teacher, introduction of the members and goals, introduction of the training workshop, participants’ commitments in the sessions; and a review of the necessity of learning life skills training and its impact on marital life second session a review of the previous session’s materials, self-awareness skill training, mentioning the characteristics of self-aware people, mentioning the benefits of selfawareness, a summary of the materials, giving feedbacks, giving assignments. continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 234-240 237 third session a review of the previous session’s materials, evaluating the previous assignment, empathy skills training, making the couples familiar with the empathy-related concepts and impact of empathy on marital life and relationship, giving assignments. fourth session a review of the previous session’s materials, evaluating the previous assignments; teaching relationship skills, relationship with satisfaction, marital adjustment, and the ways of having a good relationship. fifth session a review of the previous session’s materials, evaluating the previous assignments, teaching anger management skills, negative effects of anger on health, negative effects of anger on marital satisfaction and couples’ relationship, teaching angercontrol skill, giving assignments. sixth session a review of the previous session’s materials, evaluating the previous assignments, teaching decision-making skills, the outcomes of appropriate and inappropriate decision-making for marital life, a summary of materials, giving feedbacks, giving assignments. seventh session a review of the previous session’s materials, evaluating the previous assignments, teaching critical thinking skills and decisiveness, the stages of these skills, the important role of critical thinking skills and decisiveness in marital relationship. eighth session a review of the previous session’s materials, evaluating the previous assignments, teaching problem-solving skills, the stages of this skill, the role of problemsolving skills in resolving marital conflicts, the important role of this skill in overcoming marital life problems. ninth session a summary of materials discussed in the previous sessions, thanking and acknowledging the participants, receiving feedbacks for future works. 3. findings in this section, the data is analyzed in a case study such as this research. charting method is the most useful and acceptable method for the interpretation of the results (vakil et al., 2011). furthermore, demographic characteristics of participants and percentage of recovery were shown and the continuation of marital satisfaction scores in deaf women was measured 7 times including three baseline in twenty days which is ten days before the intervention and in the meeting session before the start of the training, in the process of intervention the third, sixth, ninth sessions and finally measuring a follow-up after four-weeks and in the form of tables and graphs as presented below. table-1. demographic characteristics of participants participants age during marriage number of children level of education participants jobs husband first 40 years old 12 years two children associate degree housewife deaf second 38 years old 10 years a child diploma housewife deaf third 35 years old 9 years a child diploma housewife deaf source: olson et al. (1987). table-2. recovery percentage of marital satisfaction for participants in life skills training sessions marital satisfaction first participant second participant third participant baseline 138 119 120 final score 212 189 186 recovery percentage 54% 59% 56% source: olson et al. (1987). table 2 shows the recovery rate of marital satisfaction among deaf women. the highest recovery rate is for the second participant (59%) and the lowest recovery rate is for the first participant (54%). chart-1. recovery trend in the scores of the first participant on marital satisfaction source: olson et al. (1987) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 234-240 238 chart-2. recovery trend in the scores of the second participant on marital satisfaction source: olson et al. (1987) chart-3. recovery trend in the scores of the third participant on marital satisfaction source: olson et al. (1987) charts 1, 2, and 3 show that the score of participants on marital satisfaction increased significantly under the life skills training intervention. as it is illustrated, the scores on marital life satisfaction in the first, second and third baselines indicate a low total score on the ems. the first change is seen after three sessions of life skills training. therefore, in the third, sixth, and ninth sessions, there was an increasing trend in the scores of all participants on marital satisfaction. this increase is also noticeable in the follow-up session. 4. discussion the goal of the present study was to examine the effectiveness of life skills training on marital satisfaction of deaf women. after conducting the life skills training intervention for deaf women during 9 sessions, and administrating the ems for 7 times, in 3 baselines before intervention, 3 measurements during the process of training, and in a 1-month follow-up after the training, the results indicated that the life skills training was effective in the improvement of marital satisfaction among deaf women. given that the scores of participants on marital satisfaction were low or constant in the 3 baselines, and there was an increase in the scores after the intervention, it can be concluded that this increase resulted from the intervention. the results of this study are consistent with the results of a previous study by hosseinkhanzadeh and yeganeh (2013a) and abbasi et al. (2011) that showed the effectiveness of life skills training in the improvement of marital satisfaction (abbasi et al., 2011; hosseinkhanzadeh and yeganeh, 2013a). the study results are also in line with the studies by field and lipkin (2004) and ronan et al. (2004). field et al conducted trainings on effective inter-personal relationship, problem-solving, and decision making skills with women and men who had problems in their marital life, for 3 months. the results showed an increase in marital satisfaction. in addition, ronan et al. (2004) in their study, taught a program consisting of angermanagement, anger reduction, problem-solving, and skills for coping with severe conflicts. the results indicated the positive impact of training and a reduction in marital conflicts (field and lipkin, 2004; ronan et al., 2004). in order to explain this result, it can be pointed out that through an increase of self-awareness, life skills can lead to an awareness of personal needs, expectations, and desires. this awareness, in turn, is presented to the partner through asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 234-240 239 relationship skills resulting in a mutual understanding. this, in turn, can lead to the improvement of marital satisfaction. moreover, acquiring such skills as empathy, anger-control, and problem solving, help a couple to understand the deficits and problems of each other, and by avoiding anger, giving empathy, and consultation, look for right solutions and increase their marital satisfaction. it can be argued that if a person learns to express their feelings decisively, this helps them to express their feelings toward their partner, and in this way, improve their own mental illness expressing feelings in a positive way and without aggression and confrontation gradually helps couples get closer to each other and have a more intimate relationship. in addition, by acquisition of decision-making and problem-solving skills, a couple will be able to use more appropriate strategies when facing problems in marital life, or needing to take very important decisions; and this leads to an increase in marital satisfaction. people, who have learned the problem-solving skills, face problems instead of withdrawal or running away from them. many research studies such as baron et al. (2007) have shown that an increase in aggression and anger decreases marital adjustment and satisfaction, and causes people to feel less satisfied with their lives. regarding the importance of this skill, it can be suggested that aggressive responses of a couple have negative effects on their relationship, lead to shortcomings in the relationship, reduce marital adjustment and satisfaction, and prevent the couple from expressing their feelings decisively. this, in turn, leads to a decrease in the honesty between them. another important life skill that has much impact on marital adjustment and satisfaction is empathy. waldinger et al. (2004) believed that happy and compatible couples show more empathy than incompatible couples. this skill helps a couple to feel that their partner understands them, and this leads to a feeling of happiness and satisfaction with marital life. therefore, we can argue that when a couple masters the essential life skills, this keeps the balanced function of the family in face of unpleasant situations, and helps the family to reach its goals which improves marital satisfaction and adjustment (waldinger et al., 2004); (marioles and allen, 1996). stated that if a couple trust each other, have similar internal desires, discuss calmly, and change their attitudes, they will experience the highest marital satisfaction. according to the results of an interview with participant couples, the creative thinking skills training had helped them to go further than common and stereotypical methods, and create explanations or solutions specific to them in the face of life problems. they also learned not to conform easily to the environment around them, and live consciously and independently by using critical thinking skills. in addition, other behavioral strategies of life skills training invoked cognitive responses that influenced marital satisfaction of couples through the subsequent interactive behavior. the scores on the ems and clinical observations indicated a low marital satisfaction among deaf women. they complained about relationship problems with their partner during sessions, and stated that they were not able to agree on a solution. therefore, the life skills training (self-awareness, empathy, relationship, anger-management, decision-making, problem-solving, and creative and critical thinking) improved the marital satisfaction of participants. in fact, self-awareness helped them to realize their own and their partner’s needs, expectations, and desires, and expresses these to their partner. decision-making, empathy, problem-solving, and anger management skills helped them to solve problems by consulting with each other. moreover, creative and critical thinking skills helped them to think about issues and problems, and not easily conform to the people around them. therefore, the overall learning of these skills had a significant impact on the marital satisfaction of deaf women. 5. conclusion the findings of the present study confirmed the impact of life skills training on the improvement of marital satisfaction among deaf women. therefore, the methods in this study can be regarded as appropriate methods in psycho-educational interventions for consolidating family foundation and improving marriage durability at the beginning of marriage for deaf couples. the study results can also be used by family consultants, psychologists, and experts who work with women and deaf couples to solve marital problems resulting from a lack of life skills. the findings can also be useful in family consultation centers and centers for the deaf. one limitation of this study was the small sampling group. in fact, since it is difficult to have group training with deaf people, and they need a face to face relationship in order to better learn and understand, the training was done individually and with a small sampling group. beside their advantages, these kinds of studies have some limitations such as generalizability. moreover, the present study was conducted on deaf women, therefore, it is suggested that the study be replicated with deaf men. references abbasi, a., n. jalilpour, a. kamkar, g. zadehbaghri and f. mohamed, 2011. the effects of life skills training on maritalsatisfaction of married women: a case studyin dogonbadan, iran. armaghane-danesh, yasuj university of original article. medical sciences journal yumsj, 6(16): 587-594. aida, y. and t. falbo, 1991. relationships between marital satisfaction, resources, and power strategies. sex roles, 24(1-2): 43-56. alexander, a., p. ladd and s. powell, 2012. deafness might damage your health. lancet, 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article. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.643 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 1, 75-81, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 75 analysis of joint hours of work function of currently married working couples: a case study of pakistan amtul hafeez 1* --eatzaz ahmad 2 1 assistant professor of economics, national university of modern languages, islamabad, pakistan 2 professor and ex-vice chancellor, quaid-e-azam university, islamabad, pakistan abstract contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 76 2. review of literature ................................................................................................................................................................. 76 3. data ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 77 4. methodology .............................................................................................................................................................................. 77 5. estimation results ..................................................................................................................................................................... 79 6. conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................................. 81 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 81 citation | amtul hafeez; eatzaz ahmad (2016). analysis of joint hours of work function of currently married working couples: a case study of pakistan. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(1): 75-81. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.75.81 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/ acknowledgment: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 7 september 2015/ revised: 19 october 2015/ accepted: 28 october 2015/ published: 4 november 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group this study highlights various socio-economic and demographic factors, which influence the hours of work of currently married couples in pakistan. the study is based on pakistan labor force survey data 2007-08. we have employed ordinary least square (ols) technique in order to empirically investigate the effect of different factors on combined hours of work of couples. the study finds that education level has strong and positive impact on work hours of couples. moreover, couples in the households belonging to urban areas work more hours than those in rural areas. among demographic factors, age, family set up and small children (0-5years) have important effect on hours of work of couples. keywords: labor supply, currently married couples, hours of work, husbands, wives, pakistan. jel classification: 22. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.75.81 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 75-81 76 1. introduction decision of labor supply can be devised as the decision whether to work at all and, if so, how long to work. labor supply is an important factor in socio-economic development of a country. it has strong bearing on income generation and its distribution, and thus helps to alleviate poverty. in the past few decades, labor force participation (lfp), labor supply and, therefore, the time allocation by individuals and households have been important issues of concern among economists. almost, 57.2 million of entire population is observed as currently active, termed as labor force in 2010-11 (government of pakistan, 2011-12). early literature focused almost entirely on allocation of time to market work in order to generate knowledge on the household labor force behavior. there is an extensive body of empirical work that explains individual’s lfp decisions – whether to work, how intensively, at what minimum wage, and in which sector of the economy. 1 in addition, analysis of labor supply and earnings provides important information concerning the relative economic returns to physical capital and human capital in different sectors of the economy. this information is useful to examine income distribution and poverty issues. an understanding of differences in the wage rate and labor market participation rates, which results from productivity endowments such as education, experience, household characteristics and labor market conditions; is critical to achieving both the objectives of income generation and income distribution. typically two types of factors can cause individuals to engage in extensive labor market work. the first one is known as push factors like financial pressure, which can push individuals to the labor market. those belonging to the poorest families are pushed into the labor market due to strict economic needs (kazi and raza, 1986). however, in the view of oreffice (2011) there are many other demographic factors like age, number of children and family set-up, which cause individuals to participate in labor market. the other kind of factors is termed as pull factors like education, training and experience, which can pull individuals to the labor market. human capital investment in the form of education and on-the-job training improve productivity level, which as a result leads to high labor earnings. neoclassical economists (becker, 1965) believe education to be one of the key determinants of the labor market work. verbakel (2008) find that education has strong relationship with labor market work of couples. the study also find that there is positive association between education and labor market work. examines how relative education levels influence labor market participation within marriage. the study finds that when wives have higher education level relative to their husbands, they are more likely to participate in labor market. furthermore, wives with higher education supply more hours in the labor market than the wives who have acquired less or same education as their husbands. this paper analyzes the combined hours of market work of heads and their wives (aged 15 years and above) in relation to the various socio-economic and demographic factors in pakistan. at yet few studies have analyzed combined hours allocated by couples to the market work at international level. no study is conducted on this issue in pakistan at yet. the study is based on federal bureau of statistics (2007-08). therefore, we estimate regression model in which hours of work is a function of a number of explanatory variables. since hours of work are a continuous variable, we can adopt ordinary linear regression model. we follow the studies by hill (1988) to estimate the labor supply equations .1 . 2. review of literature this section reviews some selected articles on labor supply of husbands and wives. kaufman and hotchkiss (2003) formulated a household labor supply model. according to the study, the husband and wife do not take independent lfp decisions; rather they plan a mutual labor supply decision in order to maximize utility of the whole family. thus, the labor/leisure model is developed in a manner to expand to take into account the possible effects that wage rate and income of one family member may have on the labor supply decisions of other members in the family. according to life cycle labor supply model, couples have tradeoff between present and future leisure and consumption, considering leisure as a normal commodity. that is, during early years they consume less leisure by working more number of hours, enabling them selves to consume more leisure and work less hours during older years of their lives. among the married couples more creative and competent member at market activities is supposed to supply more hours in the labor market whereas less capable member either chooses less hours of labor market work or stays at home to take care of children and other household chores. chau (2007) presented a household labor supply model base on the assumption that a household comprises of two decision makers: (husband and wife). the study assumes that husband and wife do not make their labor supply decisions independently. they undertake joint decisions regarding consumption, leisure and market work, so that the whole family can attain maximum utility. household labor supply decision can be taken as two steps procedure. at first step, the husband and wife communally decide how much non-labor income one of them can obtain or how much money one spouse can relocate to the other one. at second step, each person decides about his/her labor supply and consumption of goods and leisure. bar and leukhina (2011) presented a model for heterogeneous couples in which the potential market earnings of husbands and wives are mutually and log-normally distributed. husbands and wives mutually decide on their time allocation between market activities, non-market work and leisure. the study assumes that consumption goods are produced by combining market purchased home appliances and male’s and female’s time inputs. couple’s potential earnings and prices of home appliances are assumed to be given exogenously. the model assumes that hours of market work are more or less fixed at different levels for men and women. the direct effect of changes in earnings and prices of home appliances on time allocation choices of household members are analyzed. that is, a decline in the prices of home appliances causes a substantial increase in 1see, for example, kozel and alderman (1990). ibid. and malik (1994). 1both of these studies use total number of annual hours of work as the dependent variable. however, we use hours of work per week as the dependent variable in our labor supply equations. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 75-81 77 the leisure time of non-working wives rather than working wives. an increase in the wage rate would bring a decline in the time spent on non-market activities and an increase in labor market work by working husbands and wives because time would become relatively more expensive. 3. data the data is based on fbs (2007-08) which is a nation-wide survey conducted by federal bureau of statistics (hereafter fbs) and provides widespread information on different dimensions of the country's civilian labor force. the lfs of pakistan collects data at individual as well as at household levels using a multipurpose household questionnaire. the lfs covers all urban and rural areas of the four provinces of pakistan defined as such by 1998 population census, excluding federally administered tribal areas (fata) and military restricted areas. this study focus on currently married heads and their wives who belong to 15-64 years of age and are currently living together in four provinces of pakistan. our sample size comprises of 2870 households in urban areas and 4677 households in rural areas. we exclude the households where one member of couples is missing or a male head has more than one wife or wife is the head of household. we also exclude the observations where we have missed information of households. 4. methodology our labor supply model uses combined hours worked per week (for working husbands and wives jointly) as the dependent variables. we divide the independent variables into seven categories. these are 1) hourly wages of couples; 2) wife’s characteristics; 3) husband’s characteristics; 4) wife’s occupations 2 ; 5) husband’s occupations; 6) household characteristics; and 7) residential characteristics. the complete list of dependent and explanatory variables is provided in table 1. 4.1. hourly wage rate of couples the first set of independent variables include log of combined average wage rate per hour of couples.couple’s wage rate is expected to bring positive change in the labor supply of couples. higher wage rates increase the opportunity cost of couples to engage in non-productive activities outside the labor market. therefore, they have a tendency to work for longer hours and forgo rest hours if substitution effect dominates. if income effect dominates, husbands and wives either continue to work similar hours or work for fewer hours. 4.2. characteristics of wives andhusbands wife’s characteristics comprises of, dummy variables of wife’s primary and secondary or higher education level, wife’s age and wife’s age square. husband’scharacteristics includes dummy variables for husband’s primary and secondary or higher education level, husband’s age and husband’s age square. age: independent variables like age and age square are important to determine the combined labor supply of couples. age is expected to have positive relationship whereas age square has negative relationship with labor supply. younger husbands and wives are expected to exert less hours of work due to lack of required qualification and experience during early years of their lives as compared to those at older ages. wives may have different appointments at home regarding child bearing and raising during their early years. labor supply of couples with husbands and wives belonging to peak productive age is expected to be higher than the labor supply of those comprising of relatively younger husbands and wives. this could be because husbands and wives gain experience with age, though at diminishing rate and are consequently expected to earn high wage rates. the quadratic term may indicate that labor supply of husbands and wives would decline at older ages due to low working potential of husbands and wives during older years of their lives. hence, the age-labor supply relationship is expected to be a concave function. table-1. description of dependent and independent variables notations description measurement of variable dependent variables hour_coupl couple’s total hours of work number of combined hours of work supplied by couple to the labour market in a week 3 explanatory variables lawag_c couple’s average wage rate per hour log of wage rate per hour of couple computed from total weekly average wages divided by total weekly hours of work of working couple wife’s characteristics prim_wif education category of wife = 1 if wife’s highest level of completed education is primary, = 0 otherwise sechighr_wif education category of wife = 1 if wife’s highest level of completed education is higher than primary i.e. secondary, intermediate, b.a/b.sc, m.a/m.sc and m.phil/ph.d , = 0 otherwise age_wif age of wife completed years age 2 _wif age square of wife completed years squared husband’s characteristics prim_hus education category of husband = 1 if husband’s highest level of completed education is primary, = 0 otherwise continue 2 these are standard occupational categories used by pakistan lfs. since occupation is a choice variable it can be used as separate dependent variable. however in our analysis we use it as right hand side variable to determine the hours of work of husbands and wives. 3combined hours of work are aggregate of total hours of work supplied by couple to the labour market in a week. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 75-81 78 sechighr_hus education category of husband = 1 if husband’s highest level of completed education is higher than primary i.e. secondary, intermediate, b.a/b.sc, m.a/m.sc or m.phil/ph.d, = 0 otherwise age_hus age of husband completed years age 2 _hus age square of husband completed years squared wife’s occupations scpa_wif occupation category of wife = 1 if wife is service worker, crafts worker, machine operator, and skilled agriculture worker, = 0 otherwise tclrk_wif occupation category of wife = 1 if wife is technician, associate professional and clerk, = 0 otherwise pleg_wif occupation category of wife = 1 if wife is professional, senior official, manager and legislator, = 0 otherwise husband’s occupations scpa_hus occupation category of husband = 1 if husband is service worker, crafts worker, machine operator, and skilled agriculture worker, = 0 otherwise tclrk_hus occupation category of husband = 1 if husband is technician, associate professional and clerk, = 0 otherwise pleg_hus occupation category of husband = 1 if husband is professional, senior official, manager and legislator, = 0 otherwise household characteristics hhs household size number of family members joint family type = 1 if individual lives in a joint family, = 0 otherwise nchild_0-5 number of small children number of children in the age group (0-5 years) in the household residential characteristics punjab residential province category = 1 if currently residing in the province of punjab, = 0 otherwise sindh residential province category = 1 if currently residing in the province sindh, = 0 otherwise balochistan residential province category = =if currently residing in the province of balochistan, = 0 otherwise educational characteristics: the educational characteristics of husbands and wives, as presented in the table 1, are carefully selected after going through preliminary estimation rounds. in both sets of independent variables, the base category for education level is chosen as no formal education (that is 0-4 years of schooling). education indicates a number of factors. first, education is a human capital indicator. it improves the productive efficiency of husbands and wives by polishing their skills. second, it also creates awareness among husbands and wives and guides them to undertake important decisions regarding household labor supply. third, education makes better job opportunities available to both husband and wife. fourth, education brings change in husbands’ attitude so that they allow their wives to work in productive activities outside the home. all these factors are expected to positively influence the labor supply of couples. couples comprising of more educated husbands and wives are expected to supply longer hours as compared to those with less educated ones. therefore, combined labor supply of couples with more educated husbands and wives tends to be higher than that of the couples with less educated husbands and wives. 4.3. occupational characteristics the fourth and fifth sets of independent variables include occupations categories. it is expected that occupation of husband and wife has an important effect on their labour supply behaviour. we have constructed four dummy variables of occupation keeping unskilled workers as the base category. 4.4. household characteristics the household characteristics include household size, joint family system and the number of small children (0-5 years of age). household size: it is hypothesized that household size has considerable contribution in determining labour supply behaviour of husband and wife. since large households face excess financial burden, couples living in the large household are expected to work longer hours in the labor market as compared to those living in small household. joint families: the husbands and wives belonging to the joint families tend to supply more hours in the labor market as compared to those living in nuclear family set up. this is so because the presence of many persons in the joint family increases the financial pressure on households’ resources. also joint families can more effectively exploit the economies of scale through the division of labor. small children: it is hypotheses that the number of small (0-5 years old) children has significant effect on the pattern of household labor supply. since the presence of small children increases pressure on family resources and may cause parents to work for longer hours in order to earn livings for their families. on the other hand, small children increase the mothers’ responsibilities at home and therefore, may inversely influence their labor supply. 4.5. residential characteristics to capture the effect of various attributes of residential province we consider three provincial dummies for punjab, sindh and balochistan using khyber pakhtunkhwa as the base category. we have applied hausman endogenity test to determine the possible presence of endogenity between hour of work decision (the dependent variable) and suspected endogenous variables namely the joint family set up, small (0asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 75-81 79 5 years old) children and household size. 4 however, all the three suspected endogenous variables namely the joint family set up, the presence of small children and household size are found to be exogenous for combined hours of work function for couples under hausman test. therefore, we use ols method to estimate these two models. the analysis is conducted for urban and rural samples separately. our sample is reduced to 518 households in urban areas and 477households in rural areas due to the problem that wages are not properly reported in the lfs. in order to analyze the hours of work of couples in pakistan, we construct a model following the basic structure of the model presented by brick et al. (2005).the proposed function is as follows. combined weekly hours of work function for couples 5 hour_coupl=γ0 + γ1lawag_coupl + γ2 prim_wif + γ3sechighr_wif +γ4age_wif + γ5age 2 _wif + γ6scpa_wif + γ7tclrk_wif + γ8pleg_wif + γ9prim_hus + γ10sechighr_hus+ γ11age_hus + γ12age 2 _hus + γ13scpa_hus+ γ14tclrk_hus + γ15pleg_hus + γ16hhs + γ17 joint + γ18nchild_0-5+ γ19punjab + γ20 sindh + γ21 balochistan + ℮ 5. estimation results in this section, parameter estimates of weekly hours of work for couples are presented in table 2. the analysis is conducted for rural and urban samples separately. it is observed that the dummy variable representing balochistan appears to be redundant variable which indicates that there is no statistical difference in labor supply of couples across balochistan and khyber pakhtunkhwa. this implies that re-estimating the regression equation excluding this variable would not have much effect on the parameters estimates. analyzing the contribution of individual variables, we find that increase in average wage rate of couple has positive effect on couple’s labor supply in the urban and rural areas. an increase in the couple’s hourly wage rate by one rupee results in about four additional hours of work per week and about sixteen additional hours per month in the urban area. 6. if wage rate of this couple increases by rupees four hundred per month, it will tend to work extra 10 hours per week or 40 hours per month. in the rural sample, increase in couple’s hourly wage rate by one rupee results in about 1.5 additional hours of work per week and about six additional hours per month. based on the information used for urban sample we find that increase in wage rate by rupees four hundred per month, will make this couple to work about four more hours in a week or about 15 more hours in a month. the regression coefficients are found to be statistically significant. table-2. ols estimates of hours of work function for working couples explanatory variables urban rural coefficients t values coefficients t values constant -1.557 (-1.13) 60.148 (6.55)* lawag_c 3.862 (1.73)*** 1.456 (2.21)* wife’s characteristics prim_wif 2.283 (1.12) 2.608 (1.31) sechighr_wif 5.649 (1.68)*** 3.852 (2.02)* age_wif 0.555 (1.73)*** 0.734 (2.56)* age 2 _wif -0.003 (-1.52) -0.006 (-1.77)*** wife’s occupation scpa_wif 1.620 (2.73)* 1.557 (1.98)** tclrk_wif 4.020 (1.72)*** 3.794 (2.08)* pleg_wif 7.356 (2.56)* 6.114 (1.65)*** husband’s characteristics prim_hus 5.492 (1.71)*** 1.893 (1.47) sechighr_hus 7.243 (2.08)* 3.647 (3.10)* age_hus 0.874 (1.88)*** 0.595 (1.74)*** age 2 _hus -0.005 (-2.21)* -0.002 (-1.37) husband’s occupation scpa_hus 4.726 (1.99)** 2.656 (3.49)* tclrk_hus 7.750 (2.46)* 7.019 (3.36)* pleg_hus 9.001 (2.42)* 8.020 (3.75)* household characteristics hhs 3.128 (2.14)* 2.947 (1.75)*** joint 7.128 (2.90)* 6.226 (2.41)* nchild_0-5 -2.136 (-1.66)*** -2.338 (-2.20)* residential characteristics punjab 13.014 (2.83)* 9.695 (1.90)*** sindh 12.903 (2.69)* 10.912 (1.59) balochistan 0.963 (0.41) 0.663 (0.18) n 518 477 r-squared 0.367 0.370 note: the dependent variable is set equal to total weekly working hours of working husbands. the statistics significant at 10%, 5% and 1% levels are indicated by*** , ** and * respectively. the sample size has been reduced due to missing observations on wage rate. 4 see, for, example, greene (1992). 5many studies have estimated combined hours of work for husbands and wives, see for example, brick, garvey and cuddy (2005). 6average hours of work per week for a couple are eighty seven hours. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 75-81 80 wives’ primary education appear to be an insignificant variable, indicating that couples with wives having primary education display almost similar hours per week as those with wives having no formal education. it is observed that couples with wives having secondary and above education undertake more work hardship than those with wives having no formal education and the regression coefficient is statistically significant at 10% level in urban areas and at 5% level in rural areas. couples with wives having secondary or higher education level tend to supply about six more hours in the urban areas and about four more hours in the rural areas as compared to those with no formal education. since education improves the productive capabilities of wives and hence, that of the couples, they spend more hours in market for cash income. the result is similar to michaud and vermeulen (2011) who found that couples with wives having college degree tend to increase the collective labor supply of husband and wife than wives having less than this degree in the usa. the data is based on the health and retirement study during 1992-2008. we see from regression coefficients of wives’ age and age-square that couple’ labor supply would increase with age at diminishing rates both in urban and rural areas and form an overall concave and possibly inverted ushaped relationship between labor supply of couples and wives’ age. the result shows that couple’s labor supply would increase by 0.31 hours per week or by 1.25 hours per month in urban areas, for average wives’ age of thirty eight years, for each additional year of age. couple’s labor supply tends to increase with wife’s age by 0.3 hours per week and by 1.12 hours per month in rural areas. the result indicates that wife’s occupation has quite important effect on couple’s hours of market work. we observe that couples with wives belonging to the first occupational category (machine operators, service workers, skilled agriculture workers and craft workers) supply about two more hours per week than unskilled (elementary) workers (base category) in urban and rural areas. similarly, couples with wives belonging to the second occupational category (technician, associate professionals and clerks) work about four more hours per week than unskilled workers in urban and rural areas. similarly, the couples with wives belonging to the third occupational category (professionals and legislators) work for even longer hours. the differences in hours of work across the specified occupational categories are statistically significant in both the urban and rural samples. couples with husbands having primary education appear to be significant variable in urban sample but insignificant in rural sample. the empirical results indicate that couples with husbands having primary level education work five extra hours per week in urban areas and about two extra hours per week in rural area than the couples with husbands having no formal education. couples comprising of husbands having secondary or higher education level are found to supply more labor market hours and the regression coefficients are statistically significant at 1 percent level in both the urban and rural samples. we observe that such couples tend to supply seven more hours in the urban labor market and about four more hours in the rural labor market. since, productive efficiency of husbands improves with the increase in education level, couples comprising of such husbands tend to involve in productive market activities for longer hours by sacrificing their hours of rest. this result is in conformity with michaud and vermeulen (2011) who find that couples with husbands having college degree tend to work for more hours than those with husbands having less than this degree in the usa. discussing the role of the husbands’ age in the determination of labor supply of couples, we notice from coefficients of husbands’ age and age-square that couples’ labor supply increases with age at diminishing rates both in urban and rural areas of the country and the relationship is statistically significant. the result shows that average husband’s age would increase couple’s labor supply by 0.44 hours per week or by 1.78 hours per month in urban areas or by about 0.42 hours per week and by 1.69 hours per month in rural areas. 7 this indicates that age tends to increase experience level of husbands. the signs of regression coefficients indicate an overall concave relationship of couples’ labor supply with husband’s age. husbands’ occupation is found to have quite considerable and statistically significant effect on couples’ hours of work. the results show that couples with husbands belonging to various occupations tend to display similar labor supply behavior across urban and rural areas. however, couples with husbands’ belonging to different occupations tend to supply more hours in urban labor market than in rural labor market. it is observed that couples with husbands who are machine operators, service workers, skilled agriculture workers and craft workers rather than unskilled (elementary) workers (the base category) supply about five more hours in urban areas and about three more hours per week in rural areas. the couples with husbands who are technician, associate professionals and clerks work even longer hours per week. couples with husbands who are professionals, legislators, managers and high officials work for even longer hours as compared to the other three categories. according to the estimates provided in equations with correction for selectivity bias, couples in which husbands are professionals and legislators supply about nine more hours per week in urban areas and eight more hours per week in rural areas as compared to couples with unskilled husbands. this is so because professional and legislator husbands are engaged in such jobs that require longer hours of work as compared to those belonging to other occupations. belonging to a larger household has positive relationship with labor supply of couples. the estimate reveals that couples belonging to a larger household size work for longer hours in both the urban and rural areas as compared to those belonging to smaller households. presence of one additional person in the households would cause couples to work for three more hours per week in both the urban and rural areas and the regression coefficients are found to be statistically significant. the larger households being comprised of more persons exploit the economics of scale through division of labor. they facilitate relatively more productive household members to more labor market work and cause relatively less productive ones to stay in the household domain to take care of household responsibilities. the results indicate that couples living in joint family work seven more hours per week as compared to those living in nuclear family set up in urban areas and about six more hours per week in rural areas and the difference is statistically significant in both the cases. since other relatives are expected to be present in joint families rather than in nuclear families, joint families exploit the economics of scale through division of labor. they facilitate relatively 7 we calculate these values at mean husbands’ age of forty three years. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 75-81 81 more productive household members to work longer hours in the labor market and cause comparatively less productive ones to perform household responsibilities. we find that the presence of small (0-5 years old) children in the household significantly results in reduced labor supply of couples. presence of one additional small child in the family causes couples to work two hours less per week in urban as well as rural areas. this is so because; presence of small children in the family increases the burden of households’ chores. therefore, it is difficult for both husband and wife to work for longer hours in the labor market at the same time. verbakel (2008) finds that both husband and wife in a couple having no children tend to get full time work. among couples with small children, both marriage partners do not acquire full time job. that is, one of two spouses acquires full time while the other one gets part time job in the netherlands. the regression results show that in punjab and sindh, labor supply of couples tends to be greater than the ones in khyber pakhtunkhwa and the regression coefficients are mostly statistically significant. we find that couples belonging to punjab would work for 13 more hours per week in urban areas and about 10 more hours in rural areas. couples belonging to sindh would supply about 13more hours per week in urban areas and about 11 more hours in rural areas as compared to those living in khyber pakhtunkhwa. this is so because punjab and sindh are considered more prosperous than khyber pakhtunkhwa where more formal job opportunities are better available. the regression results further show that labor supply behavior of couples does not differ significantly between balochistan and khyber pakhtunkhwa. 6. conclusion a number of demographic and socio-economic factors explain variations in labor supply behavior of couples. labor supply behavior of couples is induced by higher wage rates. substitution effect of wage increase dominates the income effect. increase in average wage rate of couples induces them to work for more hours in the labor market. couples’ hours of work increases at diminishing rate with their ages both in urban and rural areas. education plays an imperative role in shaping the labor supply performance of couples. couples with more educated husbands and wives supply more hours in the labor market as compared to couples with less educated ones. however, couples with wives having primary education display almost similar hours per week as the couples with wives having no formal education. it is observed that professionals and legislators display extra combined labor market hours as compared to ones belonging to other occupations. husbands and wives living in larger households work for more combined hours than those in smaller households. the joint family set up exploits economies of scale through division of labor and facilitate more productive household couples to work longer hours as compared to nuclear family set up. presence of small (0-5 years old) children negatively affects the labor supply behavior of couples. combined labor supply of couples is higher in the larger provinces punjab and sindh than labor supply of those in khyber pakhtunkhwa. labor supply pattern of couples is found to be more or less similar in smaller provinces. references bar, m. and o. leukhina, 2011. on the time allocation of married couples since 1960. journal of macroeconomics, 33(4): 491-510. becker, g.s., 1965. a theoryof the allocation of time. economic journal, 75(299): 493–517. brick, garvey and cuddy, 2005. the off-farm labor force participation of mayo farm households.department of economics, national university of ireland, working paper no. 100. chau, 2007. testing the collective model of household labor supply: evidence from china. china economics review, 18(4): 389-402. federal bureau of statistics, 2007-08. pakistan labor force survey (lfs). islamabad: government of pakistan, ministry of education, islamabad, pakistan. government of pakistan, 2011-12. economic survey of pakistan, finance division, economic advisor’s wing, islamabad, pakistan. greene, w.h., 1992. econometric analyses. 5th edn., new jersey: macmillan publishing company. hill, m.a., 1988. female labor supply in japan: implication of the informal sector for lfp and hours of work. journal of human resources, 24(1): 143–161. kaufman, b.e. and j.l. hotchkiss, 2003. the economics of labor markets. 6th edn., canada: thomson south-western. kazi, s. and b. raza, 1986. household headed by women: income employment and household organization. pakistan development review, 27(4): 781–790. kozel, v. and h. alderman, 1990. factors determining work participation and labor supply decisions in pakistan’s urban areas. pakistan development review, 29(1): 1–18. malik, 1994. determinants of female time allocation in selected districts of rural pakistan. pakistan development review, 33(4): 1141-1153. michaud, p. and f. vermeulen, 2011. a collective labor supply model with complementarities in leisure: identification and estimation by means of panel data. journal of labor economics, 18(3): 159-167. oreffice, s., 2011. sexual orientation and household decision making, same sex couples’ balance of power and labor supply choice. labor economics, 18(2): 145-158. verbakel, 2008. the association between husbands’ and wives’ labor market positions in the netherlands. research in social stratification and mobility, 26(3): 257-276. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 3, 198-204, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 198 achieving performance targets and reducing staff turnover in a not-for-profit organisation kati mckeon1 1 university of liverpool, united kingdom abstract despite being in a sector that traditionally attracts intrinsically motivated staff, company x experiences a high turnover of staff. this is due to poor performance which has a significant impact on morale. the targets set by management are strictly enforced and there appears to be a mismatch between a strategic and operational approach. there is also no consistency in the way that poor performance is addressed. this paper presents a proposal for improving performance and introducing incentives to motivate employees. in addition it recommends a management support system that will help employees achieve targets and the company to meet its organisational goals. this would ensure that everyone within the company worked together and supported each other as lack of support was found to be one of the main reasons why employees left the company. although company x offers initial orientation training, this was another major source of dissatisfaction leading to employee resignations. this paper proposes a more systematic and structured approach to training that should benefit both employees and the company, and ensure that the high staff turnover is reduced. keywords: performance targets, achieving goals, staff turnover, management support. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 199 2. professional development.................................................................................................................................................. 200 3. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 202 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 202 citation | kati mckeon (2016). achieving performance targets and reducing staff turnover in a not-for-profit organisation. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(3): 198-204. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.198.204 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 25 february 2016/ revised: 7 march 2016/ accepted: 21 march 2016/ published: 26 march 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.198.204 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=kati mckeon http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.198.204 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.198.204 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=kati mckeon http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.198.204 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.198.204 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=kati mckeon http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.198.204 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):198-204 199 1. introduction company x is a not-for-profit organisation that is based in western australia. it has approximately 400 employees across different service industries, such as family day care, employment services, and community outreach programmes. employment service providers receive government funding to assist job seekers back into the workplace. there are targets in place that individual case managers and employment brokers need to reach on a monthly basis to generate revenue to support ancillary services. due to government funding there are also strict requirements regarding the documentation and recording of appointments, job search activities, work trials and job placements. the current performance management system is carried out on a monthly basis, and while parry (50 lessons, 2004) advocates that performance criteria is set against mutually agreed targets; this is not the case with company x where the targets are set and strictly enforced by management. in theory having regular reviews should ensure that targets are being met, and that any difficulties are addressed in a timely fashion. however, company x experiences a high turnover of staff in the employment services section due to poor performance and low morale. there has been no change or review of the current performance system over the past 5 years and the organisational culture in terms of ‘the way we do things around here’ (deal and kennedy, 1982) could be a major factor. one of the biggest challenges within company x is how employees are failing to meet their performance targets on a regular basis. however, it seems that while performance review systems that are based on a purely strategic approach are favoured by senior management, line managers are more focused on the operational perspective (nankervis et al., 2012) which may not match when it comes to measuring employee performance, especially in a customer service facing role. the second challenge would follow in how management could facilitate employees to meet the set targets. it may be that additional training is required, but this is only likely to be successful if it is designed to address specific gaps (kroll and moynihan, 2015). this can also apply to management in how they tackle poor performing employees as goodhew et al. (2008) noted that even experienced managers were inconsistent in their approach despite similar backgrounds within the same company. company x experiences a high turnover of staff and the lack of support may be a crucial factor. the proposed plans will look at how company x can address the issue of poor employee performance through training and the use of motivation and rewards. employees and management completed an online questionnaire which can be found in appendix a. any reduction in turnover would mean more job stability and experience within each site, leading to better employee performance and competitive advantage through organisational know-how. 1.1. challenge one – why are employees not meeting monthly targets? despite company x offering orientation training and carrying out monthly performance reviews, employees are failing to meet their monthly targets on a regular basis. from an organisational perspective it is important to have some formalized key performance indicators (kpi) to measure employee performance to benchmark against others. the targets set by management have been put in place in order to generate a desired level of revenue, however there is no transparency in terms of why those targets have been set, nor how employees are able to achieve them on a regular basis. 1.2. orientation training one way of resolving this may be orientation training which has been found to significantly impact the performance of employees. according to tabyuma et al. (2015) orientation training contributes towards job satisfaction by reducing uncertainty in employee roles; and improved employee performance due to a better understanding of the requirements and challenges in that particular role. the current company orientation training provided by company x is held at head office before employees are sent to their respective sites in the afternoon to start on the online modules. however, from the questionnaire survey results, 80% of respondents disagreed that the orientation training they received was relevant to their role, with 50% stating that the additional modules were not relevant to their role either. these results indicate that new employees are not adequately prepared for their specific role when they start work, and so they have no real knowledge or training in how to meet their targets. this was also reinforced by a manager who cited the lack of support and initial training as a major factor why employees were struggling with their performance. both employees and a manager who were interviewed felt that orientation training provided by an experienced employee in the role would benefit new employees. it is also worth noting that 80% of respondents felt under pressure to complete their orientation modules as quickly as possible, even though there was no timeframe in place to complete them. if employees were given a reasonable timeframe they could then plan their modules alongside induction training with an experienced employee, making the induction process less stressful. as such, company x needs to consider what information and support is given to new employees to reduce uncertainty in their role and help them get up to the required performance levels. the table below (table 1) proposes targeted and timed outcomes for the implementation of recommendations concerning orientation training (e.g. start date, stop date, follow up, etc.); the roles and responsibilities within the organization to carry out these recommendations; and the measurement methods to determine the success of these suggested recommendations. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):198-204 200 table-1. orientation training recommendations when who timeframe follow up 1.company orientation training start date of new employee hr department morning short questionnaire following induction training to check learning and understanding of main corporate functions and responsibilities 2.industry orientation training (online modules) first week of new employee starting line manager to oversee progress one week line manager to check progress midweek and end of week should have print out confirmation of all completed modules to send to hr 3.role specific orientation training first week of new employee starting line manager to oversee progress and allocate experienced staff member for new employee to shadow one week line manager to get feedback from experienced employee and new employee on progress at end of the week. new employee to start own case load on second week with support from rest of team. monthly performance review to follow. source: author 1.3. challenge two how can management facilitate employees to meet targets? with less than a third of employees believing that their performance management review process helps them improve their performance (gruman and saks, 2011) company x and its line managers need to increase engagement as a driver to lead to improved performance. this could be achieved through different motivation strategies such as offering professional development and / or relevant rewards. management need to increase facilitation for employees to be more productive due to the dynamic and multi-faceted nature of work, rather than focus on the transaction functions of management (gruman and saks, 2011). 1.4. motivation employees who choose to work in a not for profit environment have been found to have higher intrinsic motivational levels as they feel the work they do is important and they want to make a difference within the community (deckop and cirka, 2000). this is reflected in the questionnaire results which show how the desire to make a difference, as well as company x’s job advert were the main motivation factors to work for the company. gruman and saks (2011) state how factors such as employee engagement can improve performance and lead to competitive advantage, so it is important to consider the best ways to achieve this within a nonprofit organisation, as management cannot rely on the intrinsic motivation of employees alone (deckop and cirka, 2000). torrington et al. (2014) also propose that goal setting should be realistic and in collaboration with employees to achieve employee engagement. interestingly, while 80% of those surveyed understood why targets were set, only 20% agreed that they were achievable, with just 10% agreeing that targets were achievable on a consistent basis. in terms of motivation, 80% respondents were motivated by their team and manager to achieve their targets, which show how important ‘pulling together’ can be. 2. professional development one way that management can assist employees is to identify the areas of weakness through a performance review and then communicate and discuss those weaknesses in a constructive manner. any additional training that is offered to an employee to help improve performance is only likely to be successful if the training provided is designed specifically to address those skills gaps (kroll and moynihan, 2015). current training provided by company x is generic in nature and delivered by the hr personnel who are not experienced or qualified trainers. while written feedback on formal documentation may state the benefits of receiving such training, employees may express a different opinion verbally away from management and hr. in this case it is more of going through the motions rather than taking away valuable knowledge. this can also apply to management in how they tackle poor performing employees as goodhew et al. (2008) noted that even experienced managers were inconsistent. professional development training is currently not available within company x and it is hard to see how management and employees can improve their performance if they are not sufficiently trained nor given the appropriate tools to do so. in interviews with both management and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):198-204 201 staff at company x, training and lack of support were cited as the main reasons that staff leave the company. it is important to note that even though management may have differing personalities, it is their capabilities that ultimately drive team performance. kroll and moynihan (2015) propose that companies are reluctant to implement such training programmes due to limited resources and with a not for profit company such as company x, resources for training and development may be diverted elsewhere due to organisational requirements and goals. 2.1. reward systems another way to incentivise employees and increase motivation is the use of a rewards system. as a charity and not for profit organisation, company x has limited resources. torrington et al. (2014) propose that there are a variety of ways that organisations can pay employees that are based on results that contribute towards organisational goals, although this statement may be firmly based on profit organisations that require more robust reward schemes in order to motivate employees. deckop and cirka (2000) investigated the use of merit pay to maximise the allocation of financial resources within a not for profit environment and found that justice related factors had an effect on the intrinsic motivation of employees. if there is any perception that the system is unfair then motivation levels will drop. again the use of benchmarking and subjective managerial reviews would cause resentment, particularly in this working environment. some individuals may easily reach their targets compared to others due to their client caseload, which may have more employable jobseekers, but this wouldn’t be on a consistent basis. other areas to consider are how well certain barriers to employment were being addressed for those job seekers who are deemed not job ready, as these are not part of the current appraisal measurements but are still part of the employee’s role. 2.2. non-monetary incentives when surveyed about non-monetary incentives that would motivate company x employees, the most popular response with 80% agreement was a day off outside of annual leave for the achievement of a certain task. this would be in line with the theory from tabyuma et al. (2015) that public sector companies are more likely to adopt certain policies to encourage work / life balance. even though company x has not done so at this stage, there is an expectation from employees that this type of reward should be in place. having a strong team dynamic and good organisational skills should compensate for any operational concerns for this particular reward. companies are more likely to experience increased absenteeism and sickness when motivational levels are low (nankervis et al., 2012) so it would follow that increased motivational levels would result in fewer days off, meaning that the company could operationally afford to offer days off as a reward. the next most popular answers from the questionnaire regarding non-monetary rewards were a simple thank you and recognition from senior management, as well as flexible working arrangements. this would imply that company x can achieve greater employee engagement and increase employee motivation in a cost-effective manner. company x needs to consider how it can support and motivate employees to facilitate them achieving targets on a regular basis and contributing towards the overall strategic goals of the organisation. the table below (table 2) proposes targeted and timed outcomes for recommendations concerning facilitating employee performance (e.g. start date, stop date, follow up, etc.); roles and responsibilities within the organisation; and measurement methods to determine the success of stated recommendations. table-2. support & motivation of employee recommendations when who timeframe follow up 1.employee skills training whenever required after a skills gap has been identified at the monthly performance review delivered by internal or external training specialist e.g. sales, customer service, etc. specialist to be sourced by hr one month to complete skills training and put knowledge to practical use in role monthly review of performance with feedback from employee on effectiveness of training 2.management skills training quarterly combination of specialist training (internal / external) as well as sharing best practice to increase in-house knowledge one day training management feedback on training given immediately after each quarterly training session employee feedback to hr on manager performance on support and guidance given on monthly basis 3.non-monetary reward system to be introduced with immediate effect and rewards to be given on a monthly basis line managers to be given discretion over types of rewards based on collaboration with employees reward system to be implemented over the next 3 months employee feedback on motivation towards performance after 3 months line manager feedback on employee performance after 3 months hr feedback on staff turnover after 3 months source: author asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):198-204 202 3. conclusion deckop and cirka (2000) found that employees working in not for profit organisations had naturally higher intrinsic motivation levels which were actively fostered by emphasising the organisation’s mission and values. this was highlighted in the responses from company x employees which showed that motivation to make a difference was a main reason for applying for a role with the company, as well as having previous experience in the industry. with 70% of respondents agreeing that company x’s orientation training provides information about the company, the company should also look at providing specific role training to new employees to give them practical advice and tips from experienced team members with similar roles. when it comes to addressing specific capacity gaps, kroll and moynihan (2015) found that training matters, but how training matters within an organisational setting remained elusive. from this is seems that direct measurement is not always possible, but the knock-on effects of increased staff morale and engagement may still benefit the company. by implementing additional training company x would be able to address the issues of current systems not meeting operational requirements. in turn, by improving operational performance, the organisation can start to address organisational strategies. although company x employees may have a higher intrinsic motivation to carry out their role, the company should not take that for granted. the implementation of an effective reward system within company x is far more complex and perhaps the reason why a set system has not been introduced to date. employees working in employment services sector are dealing with clients who have additional non-work related challenges that affect their employability, and yet high employability targets are set by management. toulson (2014) notes that there are still aspects within hr and employee performance that simply cannot be measured. effective customer service cannot be objectively measured and shown to contribute to overall performance due to the variety and subtlety of the work involved (gruman and saks, 2011). this is a challenge for company x to decide whether to factor in other work responsibilities and customer service by its employees when it comes to performance management. the recommendations provided show line managers taking on more hr related responsibilities, which could allow hr to take on a more strategic role. the downside to this could be that the line managers in question may not have the required skills, time or motivation to carry out these activities (torrington et al., 2014). with this in mind, company x would need to ensure that current systems are streamlined where possible so that managers can manage their employees more effectively by providing the necessary coaching and mentoring (douglas and freeman, 2014). another limitation is that even though company x employees may be more pro-social due to higher intrinsic motivations (grant and berry, 2011) it is important to ensure that employees are given perspective training to promote mindfulness of organisational needs so that both parties goals are aligned (o’donohue et al., 2015). the proposed recommendations with specific timeframes and outcome measurements should determine whether the change in approach has a positive effect on employee motivation and engagement, and therefore positively impact on employee performance. the current performance management system is not effective and this is obvious from the high level of staff turnover and the inability for employees to meet targets on a consistent basis. by implementing these recommendations is it hoped that company x can maximise existing resources and provide motivational incentives in a cost-effective manner in order to achieve organisational strategic goals. references 50 lessons, 2004. organisational structure and accountability: interview with robert parry. united states: skillsoft. deal, t.e. and a.a. kennedy, 1982. corporate cultures: the rites and rituals of corporate life. new york: addison-wesley. deckop, j.r. and c.c. cirka, 2000. the risk and reward of a double-edged sword: effects of a merit pay program on intrinsic motivation. nonprofit & voluntary sector quarterly, 29(3): 400-418. douglas, g. and c. freeman, 2014. wary hr professionals wonder if technology might make them obsolete. hr focus, 91(6): 1-3. goodhew, g., p. cammock and r. hamilton, 2008. the management of poor performance by front-line managers. journal of management development, 27(9): 951-962. grant, a.m. and j.w. berry, 2011. the necessity of others is the mother of invention: intrinsic and prosocial motivations, perspective taking, and creativity. academy of management journal, 54(1): 73-96. gruman, j. and a. saks, 2011. performance management and employee engagement. human resource management review, 21(2): 123-136. kroll, a. and d.p. moynihan, 2015. does training matter? evidence from performance management reviews. public administration review, 75(3): 411-420. nankervis, a.r., p. stanton and p. foley, 2012. exploring the rhetoric and reality of performance management systems and organisational effectiveness – evidence from australia. research and practice in human resource management, 20(1): 40-56. o’donohue, w., a. martin and n. torugsa, 2015. understanding individual responses to failure by the organisation to fulfil its obligations: examining the influence of psychological capital and psychological contract type. human resource management journal, 25(1): 131-147. tabyuma, v., y. georgellis and t. lange, 2015. orientation training and job satisfaction: a sector and gender analysis. human resource management, 54(2): 303-321. torrington, d., l. hall, s. taylor and c. atkinson, 2014. human resource management. 9th european edn., harlow: pearson education limited. toulson, p., 2014. hr metrics and measurement mission impossible? human resources magazine, 18(6): 31. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):198-204 203 appendix a questionnaire 1. what is your current role within the organisation? case manager business development / broker reception / concierge team leader site manager 2. have you held any other roles within the company prior to your current role? no, this is my first / only role case manager business development / broker reception / concierge team leader site manager 3. prior to joining this company, have you worked in this sector before? yes no 4. prior to joining this company, have you worked for a not for profit organisation before? yes no 5. what was your main motivation to join this organisation? role looked interesting on job advert wanted to make a difference in the community heard good things about the company other: change in career (2) wanted case management experience (1) 6. in total, how long have you worked at this company? less than a year 1 – 2 years 2 – 5 years 5 + years 7. please rate the following statements on your orientation training (ot) with this organisation strongly disagree slightly disagree neither disagree nor agree slightly agree strongly agree i felt the ot delivered at hq was informative about the company i felt the ot delivered at hq was relevant to my role i felt i was prepared to start work on my arrival to my allocated site i felt the ot modules were helpful and informative about the industry i felt the ot modules were relevant to my role i felt pressure to complete my ot modules as quickly as possible 8. please rate the following statements on the current performance review process within this organisation strongly disagree slightly disagree neither disagree nor agree slightly agree strongly agree i feel my work performance is accurately recorded in each review i feel that additional aspects of my role should be included in each review my manager gives me a fair performance review my manager provides support and guidance if i fail to achieve targets i think the current system could be improved asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):198-204 204 9. please rate the following statements regarding the achievement of monthly targets strongly disagree slightly disagree neither disagree nor agree slightly agree strongly agree i understand why the targets have been set i have been consulted regarding the setting of targets the set targets are achievable the set targets are achievable on a consistent basis i am able to control the achievement of set targets i am motivated by my team to achieve targets i am motivated by my manager to achieve targets i am rewarded appropriately for achieving my targets 10. non-profit organisations are not always able to offer monetary incentives to employees. as such, which of the following rewards / benefits would motivate you to perform better? (may choose more than one) a thank you and recognition from senior management an opportunity to move into other roles within the company flexible working arrangements accredited courses and vocational training a day off (outside of annual leave) for achieving certain targets job security something based on personal interest e.g. gym membership other appendix b – employee interview questions how do you think the current orientation training (ot) given to staff can be improved? what do you think is the biggest reason why staff leave the company? with monthly performance management reviews and targets, do you find the experience stressful? what would you do to improve the performance management review process? do you think the company will ever change the process? why / why not? asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 1, 17-22, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 17 cognitive distortions in thinking in connection with positive and negative emotions of employed and unemployed ľubica zibrínová 1 --zuzana birknerová 2 --miroslav frankovský 3 --lucia zbihlejová 4 --daniel lajčin 5 1,2,3,4 department of managerial psychology, faculty of management, university of prešov in prešov, slovakia 5 dubnica technological institute in dubnica nad váhom, slovakia abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group 1. introduction investigation of the inclination to error-making implicitly presupposes existence of differences between predictions of normative approaches (how we should make decisions within the intentions of logic or the quantitative disciplines such as mathematics and statistics) and descriptive approaches (how we actually make decisions). intuitive judgments of people in a large number of decision-making and reasoning tasks deviate from the appropriate norms of rationality (samuels et al., 2004). baláž (2006) distinguishes the tendencies to make errors into cognitive and emotional tendencies. while cognitive tendencies originate in an incorrect collection of analysis and the information use, emotional tendencies originate in feelings, intuitive attitudes and inherent preferences. newell and simon (1972) point at the fact that thinking abilities of a person to formulate and solve complex problems are very little comparing to the amount of these problems. that is why when people try to make a decision about a certain problem, they do not meet the criteria of objective rationality and often they are not even close to meeting them. the idea of imperfection of the human intellect in the form of cognitive errors or distortions was already considered by aristotle. nevertheless, people in an effort to overcome their limitations construct not only tools but also modern computers and they elaborate heuristic principles of creative thinking. the research in deductive reasoning places in focus the use of logic systems to characterize abstract structures and it deals with the whole range of tasks from syllogistic thinking, through reasoning with spatial conjunctions, to reasoning with propositional connectives, e.g. “when”, “or”, “and”. the theory of abstract rules regards the logical concept of validity as a normative model of reasoning. according to this theory, individuals arrive at valid conclusions by applying an abstract content-independent inferential rule by the means similar to deriving proofs in logic. in order to derive conclusions from premises, individuals use mental logic. during this process they may make errors because certain inferences are more complex than others or because they misunderstood the premises of the given deductive problem (o’brien et al., 1994). the theory of mental models also regards logical interpretation of validity as its normative model (johnson-laird, 1999). it assumes that when reasoning, individuals manipulate with mental models of the set of premises by the means similar to the semantic method of proving in logic. they create mental models for themselves which represent possible states of the world and then they describe and verify these models in order to arrive at valid conclusions. a conclusion is valid when there is no counterpart to it. individuals make errors when they must represent a large number of models which exceed the range of their working memory (johnson-laird and byrne, 1991). the research presents an analysis of links between the occurrence of cognitive distortions specified by means of 10 categories of cognitive distortions based on the beck's cognitive theory and the positive and negative emotions of the employed and unemployed as two separate categories. the research sample consisted of 336 respondents (183 employed and 153 unemployed). cognitive distortions were identified by means of daily records containing 10 pages per diary. spearman rank correlation coefficient revealed the differences in relations among cognitive distortions within the observed groups in connection to the positive and negative emotions. occurrence of positive and negative emotions was observed with the help of sehp. keywords: cognitive distortions, thinking, errors, emotions, employed, unemployed. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 17-22 18 beck (1998) elaborated a famous cognitive depression theory highlighting the cognitive structures as an essential part of the emergence, maintenance and return of depression. the cognitive structures are a source of information not only about the environment but also about the own self and the activity programs which make it possible to achieve the given goals. thanks to them individuals are aware of their own identity and are able to orientate themselves in the outside world. without this experience they would not understand their actual status and potential and would not be able to act actively in a real environment. in accordance with beck (1990), cognitive processes are hierarchically structured. he distinguishes three levels of cognitive processes: 1. cognitive events: thoughts or ideas, certain units of cognitive processes. these thoughts or ideas may be volitional, automatic, cold and hot. 2. cognitive processes: a more complex action in which the individual cognitive events are mutually interconnected, compared, evaluated and placed into the context of past experience. the processes of inductive thinking, deductive thinking, understanding of meaning, evaluation of meaning, etc. belong to this category. 3. cognitive schemas: the theory of cognitive schemas of personality disorders. they are programs in which various personality types in combination with the influence of environment may reflect the maladaptive behavioral, cognitive and emotional strategies. beck created three categories of schemas: performance, acceptance, power. the specific thinking schemas are stable cognitive formulas by which people interpret their experience. they are basic „silent” attitudes in the center of our cognitive system which people use to understand the reality. thinking schemas create the base for interpretation of a certain event. if a cognitive schema is maladaptive, the created interpretation will lead to stress and maladaptive behavior. thinking schemas are probably most significantly fixed by learning through experience during early childhood (beck, 1979). cognitive distortions are systematic errors in thinking and perception, repeated automatic incorrect judgments or assessments which lead to the persistence of negative schemas – despite the opposite fact. because of cognitive distortions, individuals maintain their negative thinking schemas and claim them particularly in stressful situations. people are usually not aware of their cognitive distortions (errors in logic). they are aware only of their final decisions. the typical cognitive distortions enabling assimilation according to the cognitive schemas are, in accordance with beck (1979), as follows: 1. unsubstantiated conclusions (arbitrary deductions) – the person arrives to a certain opinion on the basis of an insufficient amount of information; it is a conclusion-drawing by making „a leap”. 2. distorted selection of facts (selective abstractions) – the person notices only what verifies their conclusion and ignores the facts which prove the opposite. 3. over-generalization – the person draws a far-reaching conclusion from a particular situation. 4. exaggeration and downplaying – a tendency to attach an excessive importance to certain actions and understate others. 5. touchiness (personalization) – a tendency to relate to oneself random events and take responsibility for something which a person cannot really influence. 6. black-and-white thinking (dichotomous thinking) – thinking in absolute categories “all or nothing”. 7. thought-reading – judgments about what others think on the basis of some completely vague signals. 8. negative prophecies – hasty catastrophic conclusions when the worst consequences are expected in advance. 9. disqualifications of the positive – neutral or positive phenomena are changed into negative ones. 10. argumentation through emotions (catathymic thinking) – tendencies to adjust the assessment of the surrounding events to one's own emotional state regardless of the reality. 11. marking – assessment in which a complex phenomenon is simplified into one, often negative attribute (praško, 2003). emotions are an important factor which influences the cognitive functions. they are a reflection of the biological quantity of stimuli from the viewpoint of their significance for the subject (höschl, 2002). the contemporary neuropsychological view regards the relationship between emotions and the cognitive functions as crucial. under normal circumstances, our emotional reactions and cognitive processes are connected in a way that makes the whole processing of information as effective as possible. emotions and cognitive processes are closely interconnected. emotional stimuli are preferred according to our cognitive experience. on the other hand, emotions closely affect the processing of cognitive information. on the basis of a cognitive process, the emotional reaction may be developed or suppressed. influence of the mood facilitates the recollection of the emotionally equally colored material. another important aspect is the information attribute of emotions, when negative emotions direct the organism to deal with its surroundings more, and contrarily, positive emotions cause the organism to relax. negative emotions, such as fear or anxiety, narrow the focus of attention. emotions influence the storage of information into memory. strong emotions may lead to distortion of the long-term or short-term memory. feelings play a crucial role in how our memory actively perceives the world, which is reflected into thinking and behaving. good mood invokes positive information (memory of a happy childhood invokes good feelings). contrarily, negative mood selects negative information. there is a relationship between emotions and other aspects of cognition. feelings affect all other aspects of cognitive functions, including memory, attention and decision-making (adolphs et al., 2001). feelings and cognition are, in accordance with forgas (2001), not separated, individual abilities, as it is often suggested. there is dependence between feelings and thinking in human social life. our emotional experience is connected to how the information about the world is stored and represented. on the other hand, experience and mood strongly affect memory, information, warning and the way by which we react to social situations. feelings and emotions may also influence the thinking process (how we solve social information), the contents of thinking, opinions and behavior (what we think and do), and the process of cognition. positive feelings produce such thinking which gives way to our inner asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 17-22 19 thoughts, ideas and dispositions. contrarily, negative feelings produce the more outward-oriented way of thinking which perceives the requirements of the outside world and gives priority to them over the inner thoughts (bless, 2000). the social part is represented by social intelligence which is described in various studies by several different authors (orosová, 2004; makovská and kentoš, 2006; štefko and butoracová šindleryová, 2008). 2. research the research was carried out on the sample of 336 people applying for a psychodiagnostic testing at the center of clinical and psychological care, ltd. in prešov, slovakia. the respondents agreed to write a diary by applying psychodiagnostic methods and using the data for the research purposes. when writing a diary, the respondents followed one common instruction. writing the report in one 25-page diary differed among the respondents from 1 to 3 months before the submission deadline. collecting the diaries from all 336 respondents took approximately 5 years. the diaries were divided into two categories: the diaries of the employed respondents and the diaries of the unemployed respondents. identification of the cognitive distortions was carried out by a single reviewer (one of the authors of this report) who mastered the cognitive-behavioral therapy training and has a ten-year experience with the method of cognitive restructuralization. 2.1. research sample the research sample is a set of 336 individuals (166 men, 170 women) of the age between 18 and 67 years, the average age being 35.18 years. the number of the employed respondents is 183, 153 are unemployed. 2.2. research methods the presented research is supported by beck's theory of cognitive schemas and cognitive distortions. for the purposes of this research, ten following categories were selected: unsubstantiated conclusions, distorted selection of facts, over-generalization, exaggeration and downplaying, touchiness, black-and-white thinking, thought-reading, argumentation through emotions, marking, and “i should, i must” in thinking. cognitive distortions were identified with the help of the diaries. into their diaries the individuals wrote their thoughts in the situations which were emotionally significant to them. the instruction was: “at the moment when you realize any emotion significant to you (positive or negative), observe the situation you are in and the thoughts that run through your head at that moment. write down the thoughts exactly the way they produce themselves.” the diaries were collected from 336 respondents and in each diary of 25-page length; the ten categories of cognitive distortions were identified. positive and negative emotions were mapped by means of the sehp questionnaire (english translation: ehsw – emotional habitual subjective well-being questionnaire; (džuka and dalbert, 2002). it is a brief tool for measuring the emotional habitual subjective well-being which distinguishes the positive and the negative side of experiencing and simultaneously integrates physical feelings. it does not measure the intensity of the current experienced emotions but detects the frequency of experiencing the individual conditions within a longer time interval, which were divided by the authors of the questionnaire into the positive conditions and the negative conditions. the positive conditions consist of: joy, happiness, pleasure, physical vigor. the negative conditions contain: fear, guilt, sadness, pain, anger, and shame. the questionnaire consists of 10 items and the respondents express their answers in relation to the frequency of experiencing a particular emotion on a 6-point scale (almost never, rarely, sometimes, often, very often, almost always). the non-standardized scale of the sehp contains, according to nábělková and diškán (2009), two dimensions: 4 items saturating the dimension of positive emotional condition (cronbach's alpha: 0.77; n=97) and 6 items saturating the dimension of negative emotional condition (cronbach's alpha: 0.74; n=97). the higher the scores in the sehp dimensions, the higher the degree of the positive or negative condition. 3. results interconnections among the individual categories of cognitive distortions in thinking, gender, age and the positive and negative emotions in the group of employed and unemployed individuals was determined by means of spearman's rank correlation coefficient. table-1. illustrates the statistically significant interconnections amongst the 10 categories of cognitive distortions in thinking and the positive and negative emotions of the employed individuals. the results demonstrate that distorted selection of facts correlates negatively with pleasure, physical vigor and happiness. black-and-white thinking correlates positively with pain as well as argumentation through emotions. marking correlates positively with sadness and “i should, i must” in thinking correlates negatively with joy of the employed persons. table-1. correlations among the cognitive errors and the sehp methodology of the employed persons unsubstantiate d conclusions distorted selection of facts overgeneralization exaggeration, downplaying touchiness pleasure -.249** physical vigor -.166* happiness -.194* black-andwhite thinking thoughtreading argumentation through emotions marking “i should, i must” in thinking pain .223** .223** joy -.243** sadness .283** ** p < 0.01 * p < 0.05 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 17-22 20 table 2 represents the statistically significant links amongst the 10 categories of cognitive distortions in thinking and the positive and negative emotions of the unemployed persons. it was demonstrated that distorted selection of facts correlates positively with fear and negatively with happiness. over-generalization correlates positively with anger and negatively with pleasure. exaggeration and downplaying and touchiness correlate positively with happiness. thought-reading correlates positively with sadness. black-and-white thinking correlates positively with joy. argumentation through emotions correlates negatively with pain, “i should, i must” in thinking correlates positively with pleasure as well as shame of the unemployed persons. table-2. correlations among the cognitive errors and the sehp methodology of the unemployed persons unsubstantiate d conclusions distorted selection of facts overgeneralization exaggeration, downplaying touchiness anger .166* pleasure -.170* fear .237** happiness -.211* .175* .175* black-and-white thinking thoughtreading argumentation through emotions marking “i should, i must” in thinking feelings of guilt .180* shame .192* pain -.171* joy .167* sadness .176* the values of the calculated correlation coefficients between the individual factors are considerable. the extracted factors of cognitive distortions mutually correlate or, in other words, they are on the borderline of the statistically significant correlation. this is documented by the fact that these factors are interconnected. the statistically significant values of these correlations are, however, not very high, which means they describe different although interconnected areas. black-and-white thinking, unsubstantiated conclusions, distorted selection of facts, argumentation through emotions and “i should, i must” in thinking inter-correlate negatively. negative interconnections were detected also between the distorted selection of facts and exaggeration, downplaying. positive correlation was found between touchiness and unsubstantiated conclusions as well as between distorted selection of facts and “i should, i must” in thinking. 4. discussion as macháč et al. (1985) state, an emotion may be weakened or dissolved by means of a rational analysis, but a strong emotion may, contrarily, deform the degree of a rational analysis. thinking is usually significantly influenced by emotions. for instance, it was found out that emotional reactions reduce the flexibility of problem-solving (ruisel, 1999). chronic frustration reduces the fluency of verbal demonstration. for this reason individuals who undergo strong emotional reactions often use their knowledge insufficiently and they transfer it into their working memory only in a limited degree (heppner and krauskopf, 1987). emotions are used also in acquiring declarative and procedural knowledge. identification of a notion with strong accompanying emotions leads to placing also the emotional reaction into the working memory along with the given notion. for example, a person with ophidiophobia (fear of snakes) may, in an unexpected encounter with this animal, decode “the snake” in company with a highly emotional reaction regardless of the actual danger in a particular situation. sternberg (1985) accentuated the importance of the hidden knowledge for practical intelligence. in various areas of practice the experts differ from the newcomers exactly in this hidden ability or skill which usually does not correlate with the traditional degrees of verbal intelligence. fedáková (2004) found out that the differences between the employed and the unemployed of the selected age categories and components of the attitude to work were, in certain post-hoc comparisons, confirmed to be statistically significant. the comparisons demonstrate that between the employed and the unemployed of the same age categories there are no statistically significant differences in assessing the cognitive component of the attitude to work, and they were also not confirmed between the age categories within the group of the employed and the unemployed. furthermore, she detected the differences in assessing the emotional component of the attitude to work. while among all the employed in all age categories this component was evaluated in the same manner, the group of the unemployed in their young and middle adulthood reflected a statistically significant difference (p<0.021) in assessing the emotional component of the attitude to work. fedáková (2004) further stated that the employed of all age categories as compared to the unemployed evaluated the cognitive component of the attitude to work more positively, while the emotional and behavioral component of the attitude to work were more positively evaluated by the unemployed. ivanovičová and gropel (2009) clarified the relationship between irrational opinions and satisfaction with life. the research partly confirmed the existence of this relationship and in accordance with the given hypothesis also its negative character. this means that people who referred about a higher degree of satisfaction with life also demonstrated a lower degree of irrational opinions, and people with a higher degree of irrationality seemed to be less satisfied with their own life. they claimed that despite the fact that both variables create a cognitive component of evaluation of their own life's events, the mutual interconnection seems to be transferred more to the level of overall subjective well-being. as the detected correlations prove, there exists a stronger relationship of irrationality and the overall subjective well-being, which means not only the cognitive but asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 17-22 21 also the affective component of well-being. they, therefore, recommended studying the connections of irrational opinions and both components of the subjective well-being – affective and cognitive. the results of this research confirmed the differences in relationships between the cognitive distortions in thinking in connection to the positive and negative emotions in the group of employed and unemployed individuals. in the category of unsubstantiated conclusions, relationship was confirmed neither among the employed nor the unemployed in connection to emotions. distorted selection of facts of the employed correlates negatively with pleasure, physical vigor and happiness. it can be noticed that this category identically negatively correlates with the positive emotions. in the group of employed individuals the occurrence of a distorted selection of facts worsens pleasure, physical vigor and happiness. in the group of unemployed individuals, distorted selection of facts correlates positively with fear and negatively with happiness. distorted selection of facts and its occurrence in thinking supports among the unemployed the presence of fear and worsens the feeling of happiness. overgeneralization in the group of the employed does not correlate with any emotion. however, in the group of the unemployed it correlates positively with anger, negatively with pleasure. the presence of over-generalization in thinking of the unemployed supports the presence of anger and worsens pleasure as a positive emotion. exaggeration and downplaying in the group of employed individuals does not correlate with any emotion. in the group of unemployed individuals it correlates positively with happiness. the presence of the cognitive distortion of exaggeration and downplaying thus supports the feeling of happiness. we presume that the downplaying of a situation plays the major role here. considering the presence of a positive emotion, there is an assumption that this emotion will fix the presence of a cognitive distortion in the sense of positive reinforcement. touchiness in the group of the employed does not correlate with any emotion. in the group of the unemployed it correlates positively with happiness. the presence of blaming others, transferring responsibilities to others and distrust cause in the group of the unemployed a support of the feeling of happiness. in this case it may also be assumed that a cognitive distortion will be reinforced by a positive emotion. black-and-white thinking in the group of the employed correlates positively with the emotion of pain but in the group of the unemployed it correlates positively with the positive emotion of joy. in this case there is also a relationship between a cognitive distortion and a positive emotion in the group of the unemployed and there is a possibility of positive reinforcement. thought-reading in the group of employed individuals does not correlate with any emotion. in the group of the unemployed it correlates positively with the emotion of sadness. the presence of this distortion in thinking supports the presence of sadness among the unemployed individuals. argumentation through emotions correlates positively with pain in the group of the employed – its presence therefore supports this emotion. it is contrary to the group of the unemployed, where argumentation through emotions correlates negatively with the same emotion. the method of argumentation through emotions helps the unemployed ease the presence of pain which makes this category of cognitive distortions in this group stronger and more fixed. in the group of employed individuals, marking correlates positively with sadness. in the group of the unemployed, marking is in no relationship with any of the observed emotions. “i should, i must” in thinking in the group of employed individuals correlates negatively with joy and in the group of the unemployed it correlates positively with feelings of guilt and shame. comparison of the results in the groups of employed and unemployed persons clearly demonstrates that in the group of employed individuals the occurrence of cognitive distortions is not connected to the positive emotions and if so then in their negative form. according to the theories of teaching and operant conditioning, this group reflects positive enfeeblement. positive enfeeblement is a process in which the probability of certain behavior – in this case the presence of cognitive distortions – decreases because it leads to undesirable and unpleasant consequences. in the group of the unemployed, a positive reinforcement takes place through the relationship with positive emotions in four categories of cognitive distortions, namely exaggeration and downplaying, touchiness, black-and-white thinking and argumentation through emotions. a positive emotion may in all cases strengthen and fix the wrong way of thinking among the unemployed individuals. positive reinforcement is a process during which a certain kind of behavior leads to the consequences which increase the probability of occurrence of certain behavior. it means that the probability of maintaining cognitive distortions is higher in the group of the unemployed than among the employed. contrarily to prokopčáková (2010), who studied the influence of counterfactual thinking and negative emotions and arrived at the conclusion that individuals with a higher degree of negative emotions are hampered by the counterfactual thinking which does not help them, our findings indicate the negative influence of positive emotions in relation to the observed cognitive distortions in thinking in the group of unemployed respondents. when comparing the average values of the frequency of the occurrence of cognitive distortions in the group of employed and unemployed persons no great differences between the groups were detected. a significant difference was found only in the category of distorted selection of facts which is significantly more present in the group of the unemployed. these respondents notice only what verifies their opinion and they overlook the facts which prove the opposite. 5. conclusion for number of scientific disciplines, unemployment is a challenge to elaborate own research activities. coping with unemployment, as various authors indicate, places greater demands on an individual in several ways. the 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sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.saske.sk/svu/downloads/publikacie/psychologia_prace_2004.pdf asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 3, 116-124, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 116 facebook marketing by private design schools in the higher education industry in sri lanka alex quah ban thong 1* --md gapar md johar 2 --nalin abeysekera 3 1 phd student, management & science university 2 management & science university, university drive, off persiaran olahraga, shah alam, selangor, malaysia 3 the open university of sri lanka, nawala, nugegoda, sri lanka abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................. 117 2. materials and methods ........................................................................................................................................................... 119 3. results and findings ............................................................................................................................................................... 124 4. acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................................................... 124 references .................................................................................................................................................................................... 124 the swift growth and revolution in the social media globally catapulted by easy access to internet supported by technological advancements and availability of mobile devices for the public, social media marketing has become an unlimited way to reach the high school students (hss) in si lanka. the growth of social media is phenomenal supported by technological advancement by globally multinational companies specialised in making better and stronger phones with faster and superior software and applications. the usage of facebook as the main tool to reach the target audience is phenomenal in sri lanka. despite the fact that the growth and development of social media especially the usage of facebook in sri lanka which is assisted by the factors that support the growth and usage of mobile devices and development of ict, many private design schools (pds) in sri lanka are not realizing the full potential. many contributing factors such as the know-how, the speed the social media is growing, the disadvantages of having a very open marketing and many reasons of not using social media for marketing. information of the result on the investment, the effectiveness of facebook to gain the required results will be encouraging to all pds that this may be a good channel to pay more attention to. understanding the reasons of such gap and the factors affecting the growth and development of social media would be very useful for the marketing arms of the pds to make use of facebook to reach the high school students at the relatively lower cost ratio. keywords: higher education, social media marketing, high school student, design schools, roi, facebook, culture, sri lanka. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 116-124 117 1. introduction facebook is defined in cambridge dictionary as “a website where you can show information about yourself and communicate with groups of friends”. facebook users can customize and create their own profiles with videos, photos and personal information of themselves. friends can browse the profiles of other friends and write messages on their pages. it is a known fact that facebook is the largest social media in the world and far reach the target audience faster and more cost effective in compare to the traditional way of marketing. it is commonly used globally but is facebook really used openly and effectively in sri lanka for the promotion of private design school. there are none or very little research done in sri lanka pertaining to the use of facebook marketing relating directly to private design school (pds) in the higher education sector. i would like to find out how facebook is being used by the pds in promoting design programs. in all revenue generating business including pds, effective and efficient marketing channels need to be established and tap onto to increase sales and this applies to pds as enrolment of students are the blood line of the school. sri lanka is growing relatively fast in the development of usage of facebook and this is a good time for pds to set the platform right to grow in tandem. the key supporting infrastructure had started growing in the recent years after almost 3 decades of civil war which ended in 2009. basing on statistics of internet development in sri lanka in both land and mobile, the usage of internet in sri lanka which is the mother of social media namely facebook as one of them has much room to grow. the definition of higher education is stated as “education provided by college or university” (www.merriamwebster.com). the definition of higher education institutes in sri lanka as quoted by university grants committee; “higher educational institution” means a university, campus, open university, university college, or centre for higher learning established or deemed to be established under the university act” (www.ugc.ac.lk). the target market is students who had graduated from high school who are from grade 12 to 13 from high schools as the minimum requirement for enrolment into the private higher education. design as defined by farlex, „the art or practice of designing or making designs‟. it is highly influenced by cultural and social perception of the society and differs over time and place. facebook facebook is currently the world largest social network with over 1.4 billion users which is as big as the world‟s most populous country-china as shown in figure 1. by comparison to other social media network, twitter (646 million and instagram (152 million). it has come a long way from being founded by a group of students in a harvard dorm room. today, the social media giant is worth usd210 billion and still growing. more than 1.3 billion people use facebook on a mobile device on a monthly basis, that‟s like 1/7 of the people on planet earth (edward, 2014). it‟s currently the fastest way to reach your target audience. figure-1. facebook population (source: madden (2014)) survey had shown for an advertiser to reach at least 50 million users that it takes 38 years with radio medium, 13 years for a tv medium and just 4 years with internet. there are over 7 billion populations in the world with china 1.4 billion, india 1.2 billion, usa 300 million and indonesia 240 million populations. the number of users of the biggest social media facebook is in comparison with the top 3 to 4 countries with the biggest populations in the world (bilgil, 2014). efficient marketing of a product or services is to be able to reach and bring the information required to the right target market for them to take action as to come forward and purchase or sample our products. the market that used to be reachable by many marketing channels has now linked and registered with many social media around the world which make it easier to reach as well as with more focus. there are many various methods to measure roi for facebook marketing. it is very important to understand the various measurement tools for the purpose of the survey to be able to analyze the results for the pds for enrolment. in a study by business insider (heggesteun, 2013), there are 4 metrics used to measure roi for facebook namely the 1) level of activity on fan page, 2) the impact on results, 3) how far the campaign on the facebook reach in the target market and 4) the level of brand awareness in the market. in another study done in the us by business insider as shown in figure 2, the main concern is exposure to the market followed by the number of people who get to know the products/services. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 116-124 118 figure-2. engagement, reach and roi (source:business insider (2013)) sri lanka the tropical paradise of sri lanka has captivated travelers from around the world for hundreds of years. as shown in figure 3, located in the indian ocean off the southern tip of india, sri lanka is an island covering a land area of just 65,610 square kilometers. white sandy beaches to the scenic hill country, wildlife sanctuaries and the historic sites of the cultural triangle, sri lanka offers a wide variety of attractions. sri lanka has the ever-smiling and extremely hospitable people – the very reason why it‟s called the „land of smiles‟. sri lanka is also a hub for the international apparel/garment industry. the apparel/garment industry is one of the biggest industries in sri lanka and a vital driving force in the country‟s socio-economic growth. the industry employs 15% of sri lanka‟s workforce and accounts for nearly half of the country‟s total exports. in fact relative to its population, sri lanka is one of the top apparel producing countries in the world. the apparels produced in sri lanka are of the highest quality, fashionable and manufactured through a 100% ethical process. figure-3. location of sri lanka (source: map of world, 2013) sri lanka 2 main exports are tea products and apparels/garments among other products shown in figure 4. sri lanka‟s apparel export industry is the most significant and dynamic contributor for sri lanka‟s economy. it has enjoyed epic growth over the past 4 decades and it is today sri lanka‟s primary foreign exchange earner accounting to 40% of the total exports and 52% of industrial products exports as shown in the government statistics 2013. this industry is entirely privately owned has successfully exploited the opportunities in the international market. a supermodel shows off victoria's secret's latest line backed by design excellence; an olympic swimmer swims through the water, his well-designed speedo swimwear taking him closer to gold and glory. sri lanka clothes the world, redefines industry frontiers, and connects international super brands such as gap, victoria's secret, next, liz claiborne, nike, jones new york, pink, tommy hilfiger, triumph, abercrombie & fitch, ann taylor, speedo, marks & spencer and land's end. there are over 220 exporters in this industry with a few relatively big exporters for international famous brands such as mas, brandix, aitken spence, odel, hirdaramani, etc. the demand for good and creative designers is overwhelmingly high due to the global expectations of what sri lanka is producing. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 116-124 119 figure-4. sri lanka export year 2012 (source: the atlas of economic complexity (2013)) 2. materials and methods 2.1. private higher education providers in design program the study was designed in 2 parts. the first one is a direct observation study on the extent of the use by pds on how facebook is used to promote their design program. the variables used for the measurement was gathered from a few literature reviews on common roi used for measuring social media effectiveness. the second study was a survey done by a consultant company called (loop solution). research found that there are 5 notable pds registered in sri lanka that offers design programs from certificate, diploma, advanced diploma and degree level as shown on table 1. besides these 5 psd, there is also other private higher education that provides such programs but they are not specialized on design program as these pds core programs are more business related rather than design related. notable there is also a well-known government funded university called university of moratuwa delivering bachelor of design in fashion design which is also not included in this research as it is not a private school. table-1. list of the 5 private higher education providers that provides fashion design program in sri lanka no school that offers design program website facebook 1 academy of design (aod) http://www.aod.lk/degrees/ba-hons-fashiondesign/ https://www.facebook.com/aodsrilan ka 2 raffles design institute (rdi) http://www.raffles.edu.lk/bachelor-fashiondesign https://www.facebook.com/rafflescol ombo 3 lanka institute of fashion technology (lift) http://lift.lk/advanced-diploma-fashiondesign https://www.facebook.com/lift.lk 4 brandix college of clothing technology (bcct) http://www.brandix.com/brandix/brandix_co llege.php http://www.brandix.com/brandix/brand ix_college.php 5 academy of multimedia design and technology (amdt) http://amdt.lk/portfolio_courses/fashiondesign-marketing https://www.facebook.com/amdtsril anka to measure the use of social media by these phe, there are 4 key areas used for benchmark comparisons (heggesteun, 2013). a survey was conducted by direct observation on all 5 pds‟s facebook and their website and the detailed findings in appendix 1 with a sample of their official website showing the social media and facebook icons and their official facebook page as shown in appendix 2. the summary of the findings as below: 1. average likes per day since inception of facebook account (table 2 and table 3): even though bcct, amdt and rdi were the first 3 pds which started the facebook account but aod and lift had shown that they had consciously used facebook actively by increasing their average likes as they started using facebook since april 2011 and june 2012 respectively. aod and lift has the highest average likes per day. both have about 44 and 46 likes per day respectively since inception of using facebook for marketing. 2. total likes from inception till dec 2014 (table 4): from the observation of the total number of likes, other than rdi which has a relatively low ‘likes” of 7,000 since inception, the 4 other pds has around 40,000 ‘likes’ with aod trending almost 60,000 ‘likes’. 3. the frequency between updates (table 5): this is an important indicator showing the activeness of pds of using facebook for marketing. all communication of news sharing will be relevant if they are done timely. http://www.raffles.edu.lk/bachelor-fashion-design http://www.raffles.edu.lk/bachelor-fashion-design https://www.facebook.com/rafflescolombo https://www.facebook.com/rafflescolombo http://www.brandix.com/brandix/brandix_college.php http://www.brandix.com/brandix/brandix_college.php http://amdt.lk/portfolio_courses/fashion-design-marketing http://amdt.lk/portfolio_courses/fashion-design-marketing asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 116-124 120 the same result, rdi has the longest period between news updates up to 5 days as compare to the other 4 pds which is 3 days and below. 4. visibility of facebook icon on website: only bcct doesn’t show the facebook icon in their website. facebook icon on aod, rdi and lift is positioned quite prominently on the top right hand of their official website but the icon was placed not so prominent at the bottom on the official website of amdt (appendix 1). table-2. average likes/year table-3. inception of facebook account and when the pds was founded no pds started facebook founded on 1 brandix college of clothing technology (bcct) sep-08 1969 2 academy of multimedia design and technology (amdt) mar-09 2005 3 raffles design institute (rdi) may-10 2011 4 academy of design (aod) apr-11 2001 5 lanka institute of fashion technology (lift) jun-12 2000 table-4. total likes from inception till dec 2014 table-5. frequency of number of days between updates asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 116-124 121 one of the key limitation of this method is that the results are very dynamic and ever changing which may change in an instance by the administrator of the facebook account. the consistency of the usage of facebook may change in an instance due to change in the online administrator of the pds and many unforeseeable reasons. the measurements may also not reflect the true picture of the particular pds as some of the data can be manipulated for example facebook likes can be manipulated and bought by creating many different accounts to increase the likes. there is not much or almost no research that has been done on social media usage among high school students in sri lanka. statistics on the government website is also outdated being the most updated was on 2002. loops solutions (2014) had conducted a survey on the usage of facebook and related questionnaire and the results are listed in appendix 3. their survey focused on 7 key areas pertaining to facebook as below: 1. what is the demographic of the total registered facebook users in sri lanka 2. how does facebook marketing compare to traditional media in sri lanka? 3. are company facebook pages effective among the facebook users? 4. are websites obsolete? 5. do ads works? 6. how do people keep themselves updated on events? 7. what is the chatting behavior of people? the summary of the findings as below: 1. there are approximately 2,300,000 facebook users in sri lanka a. 1,420,000 male and 720,000 female b. 25 to 34 years old make up 33% of the facebook users c. 1,300,000 mobile phone users uses facebook (58% of total mobile users) d. 400,000 use androids and 100,000 use apple 1,420,000 720,000 male female 500,000 1,000,000 1,500,000 gender 33% 67% 25 to 34 years old others 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% age 58% 42% uses facebook non facebook user 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% mobile users using facebook 400,000 100,000 androids apples 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 types of mobile phone users asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 116-124 122 2. how does facebook compare to traditional media a. 49% of the base watch less than 1 hour of tv per day b. 38% check their facebook account more than 8 times per day d. 42% of users communicate online using 2 languages 3. is company facebook page effective? a. 85% of users follow local brand online b. 35% of user follow more than 15 brands online d. 78% of users have been influenced through facebook to make a purchase 49% 51% less than 1 hour more than 1 hour 48% 49% 50% 51% 52% facebook users tv time 38% 62% > 8 times/day < 8 times/day 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% frequency with facebook 42% 58% 2 languages 1 language 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% language used on fb 85% 15% follow local brand don’t follow 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% follow local brand 35% 65% > 15 brands < 15 brands 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% follow brands online 78% 22% influence to purchase no influence 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% influence to purchase asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 116-124 123 4. are websites obsolete? a. 45% of users don‟t visit a brand‟s website and are happy getting information from their facebook page b. 25% have their parents on facebook too d. 71% believe facebook ads are more effective than traditional advertising 5. does ads works? a. 15% of fans have seen the page‟s url printed somewhere and liked it 6. how do people keep updated on the latest events? 7. chatting on social media 45% 55% don’t visit website visit 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% website effectiveness 25% 75% on fb not on fb 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% parents on fb 45% 55% don’t visit website visit 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% website effectiveness 15% 85% found and liked url not relevant 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% found and like 84% 16% updated via fb others 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% update of event via fb 37% 63% chated on fb others 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% chat on fb asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 116-124 124 3. results and findings sri lanka is a country of traditional background of religion and conservative way of life. there are 3 main factors that affect the use of social media among the high school students and pds in sri lanka namely ict, governance and culture. this trend is evolving with the younger generations due to the education process which exposes them to a different perspective in life out of sri lanka. the youths at the high schools are now adopting relatively more open views in the way of socializing. social media is one of the in-thing to make friends and socialize. the growth of social media is encouraged by the growth of ict and catapult by aggressive service providers such as etisalat, dialog and others service providers on the internet services to all the corners of sri lanka. all these trend and directions are showing the same characteristics that once a developing nation is going towards. for pds not to use this platform will be a lost to them. the time will come when the people will be living social media for example in the developed places such as taiwan, singapore and hong kong where social media is a way of life for friends to keep in touch of each other in addition to socializing face to face. these trends are seen in many of the developed countries where friends socialize and communicate face to face with each other over public cafes and still keeping in touch with others using social media at the same time. the cyber socializing happening in our daily life example travelling from one place to another, dining in a restaurant, in the toilets while checking out facebook, etc. it is very much visible observable evidence for example just by taking a trip in a public transport in sri lanka compare to a public transport in singapore. you will observe that most or not all are engross with their smart phones in a public transport such as in the trains and on a bus ride and similar from colombo city center to say down south during rush hours. sri lanka has not yet reached the peak in the usage of social media relative to the other developed countries. understanding the variables of the equation will help very much for the pds to be able to use this platform to the fullest to reap maximum rewards. these findings and trend of social media will be useful for policies makers, private sectors and businesses for more effective decision making in the policy making. 4. acknowledgement we would like to thank the head of high schools namely but not exhaustive; madam elizabeth moir, dr. egerton senanayake, mdm. anitra perera and madam goolbai gunasekera for their valuable feedbacks and support. references bilgil, 2014. the history of internet [online]. available from http://www.lonja.de/the-history-of-the-internet/ [accessed 1st feb 2014]. business insider, 2013. the death of social roi – companies are starting to drop the idea that they can track social media‟s dollar value [online]. available from http://www.businessinsider.com/the-myth-of-social-roi-2013-10 [accessed 1st feb 2014]. edward, 2014. business insider „facebook inc‟. actually has 2.2 billion users now – roughly third of the entire population of earth [online]. available from http://www.businessinsider.com/facebook-inc-has-22-billion-users-2014-7 [accessed 1st feb 2014]. heggesteun, 2013. business insider measuring facebook isn‟t the point here are the metrics that should really matters to brands [online]. available from http://www.businessinsider.com/new-social-media-metrics-2013-10 [accessed 11st feb 2015]. loop solution, social media statistics sri lanka 2013-14 [online]. available from http://loops.lk/ [accessed 1st feb 2014]. madden, 2014. social media highlight 2014 [online]. available from http://mccrindle.com.au/the-mccrindle-blog/social-media-highlights2014 [accessed 11st feb 2015]. the atlas of economic complexity, 2013. what did sri lanka net import in 2012? [online]. available from http://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/explore/tree_map/net_import/lka/all/show/2012/?prod_class=hs4&details_treemap=2&disable_widgets=f alse&disable_search=false&node_size=none&queryactivated=true&cat_id=&cont_id=&highlight= [accessed 11st feb 2015]. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.lonja.de/the-history-of-the-internet/ http://www.businessinsider.com/the-myth-of-social-roi-2013-10 http://www.businessinsider.com/facebook-inc-has-22-billion-users-2014-7 http://www.businessinsider.com/new-social-media-metrics-2013-10 http://loops.lk/ http://mccrindle.com.au/the-mccrindle-blog/social-media-highlights-2014 http://mccrindle.com.au/the-mccrindle-blog/social-media-highlights-2014 http://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/explore/tree_map/net_import/lka/all/show/2012/?prod_class=hs4&details_treemap=2&disable_widgets=false&disable_search=false&node_size=none&queryactivated=true&cat_id=&cont_id=&highlight= http://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/explore/tree_map/net_import/lka/all/show/2012/?prod_class=hs4&details_treemap=2&disable_widgets=false&disable_search=false&node_size=none&queryactivated=true&cat_id=&cont_id=&highlight= asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 1, 23-28, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 23 awareness of various forms of child abuse: pupils’ attributions – a case study of gomadoda cluster thembinkosi tshabalala 1 --mufunani tungu khosa 2 1 lecturer and national programme leader for the master of education in educational management in the faculty of arts and education at the zimbabwe open university 2 senior lecturer and national programme leader for the bachelor of education in educational foundations in the faculty of arts and education at the zimbabwe open university abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group 1. introduction our children today face challenges that prior generations never had to deal with in addition to traditional peer pressure that comes with being a child (melton, 2008). as doyle (2009) states, students today need to be educated and empowered about abuse not only from strangers but from their parents, relatives as well as their teachers. almost on a weekly basis, newspapers in zimbabwe carry stories of child abuse of one kind or the other. some of these stories are so inhuman as to be believed, but this is the reality we have to face and deal with. as choga (2013) observed, fathers are raping their own children, teachers abusing their pupils, women abusing boys, employers engaging young people below the age of eighteen and many such abuses. some cases of child abuse have gone unreported or have been deliberately swept under the carpet by adults and in some cases swept under the carpet by until quite recently, children had very few rights with regards to protection from abuse by adults and still continue to do so in many parts of the world. child abuse can take many forms. the four main types are physical, sexual, and psychological and neglect. child abuse is a complex phenomenon with multiple causes. child abuse is an international phenomenon. many children who have been abused in any form develop some sort of psychological issues. these issues may include anxiety, depression, eating disorders, co-dependency or even a lack of human connections. there is also a slight tendency for children who have been abused to become child abusers themselves. in western countries, preventing child abuse is considered a high priority and detailed laws and policies exist to address this issue. in zimbabwe, laws on children are meant to protect the safety and welfare of the child in every household. apparently, at national level, zimbabwe has progressive child-protection instruments, the main one being the children’s protection and adoption act (children’s act). other subsidiary instruments including the national plan (1999) and the orphan care policy (1999) promote the overall protection of the rights of children. the new constitution of zimbabwe provides and guarantees an expanded bill of rights to children (0 – 18 years) and youths (15 – 18 years). chapters 2, 19, 20, 25 and 27) and recognises the existence and role of child-centred non-governmental organisation (ngos) and networks through memorandums of understanding with parent ministries of the government of zimbabwe. however, the crisis that enveloped zimbabwe over the past few years, have compromised the extent to which children can enjoy basic rights. in view of the above, this study set out to investigate the awareness levels of school children about the various forms of child abuses perpetrated against them. the population consisted of all the pupils of gomadoda cluster in nkayi district. the sample consisted of 30 pupils selected using random sampling. data were generated by means of semi-structured interviews using an interview guide. the study revealed that pupils were not aware of all the form of child abuse and that most of them had experienced one form of abuse or the other. the study recommends that more mechanisms should be put in place to help children access information related to child abuse. the curriculum should be modified so as to contain information that will conscientise children about cases of child abuse. keywords: abuse, pupils, cluster, awareness, child, causes. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 23-28 24 adults who claim to be child rights watchdogs, (taylor and steward, 2011). it is on account of this information that this study set out to investigate the level of awareness among pupils about cases of child abuse perpetrated against children. 2. literature review child abuse is any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm (wolfe, 2011). this implies that there are four main types of child abuse namely, physical, sexual, psychological and neglect. according to hosin (2007), physical abuse involves physical aggression directed at a child by an adult. most nations with child abuse laws consider the deliberate infliction of serious injury or death, to be illegal (ross, 2006). on the other hand, fontana (2004) says that bruises, scratches, burns, broken bones, lacerations, as well as repeated “mishaps,” and rough treatment that could cause physical injury, can be physical abuse. multiple injuries or factures at different stages of healing can raise suspicion of abuse (wolfe, 2011). physical abuse can come in many forms, although as hoyano and keenan (2007) posit, the distinction between child discipline and abuse is often poorly defined. however, the human rights committee of the united nations has stated that the prohibition of degrading treatment or punishment extends to corporal punishment (ross, 2006). child sexual abuse (csa) is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual stimulation (gorcy and leslie, 2007). sexual abuse refers to the participation of a child in a sexual act aimed toward the physical gratification or the financial profit of the person committing the act (hosin, 2007). gorcy and leslie (2007) go on to state that forms of child sexual abuse include asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual activities (regardless of the outcome), indecent exposure of the genitals to a child, displaying pornography to a child, actual sexual contact with a child, physical contact with the child’s genitals, viewing of the child’s genitalia without physical contact, or using a child to produce child pornography. effects of child sexual abuse on the victim(s) according to theokliton et al. (2011) include guilt and self-blame, flashbacks, nightmares, insomnia, fear of things associated with the abuse (including objects, smells, places, doctors’ visits and many others), self-esteem issues, sexual dysfunction, chronic pain, addition, self-injury, suicidal ideation, somatic complaints, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, other mental illnesses including borderline personality disorder and dissociative identity disorder, propensity to re-victimisation in adulthood, bulimia nervosa and physical injury to the child among other problems. according to gorcy and leslie (2007) in the united states of america, approximately 15% to 25% of women and 5% to 15% of men were sexually abused when they were children and most sexual abuse offenders are acquitted with their victims, approximately 30% are relatives of the child, most often brothers, fathers, mothers, uncles or cousins; around 60% are other acquaintances such as friends of the family, babysitters or neighbours, strangers are the offenders in approximately 10% of child abuse cases and in one-third of the cases, the perpetrator is also a minor. in 1999 news story, the british, broadcasting corporation (bbc) on the rahi foundation’s survey of sexual abuse in india, reported that 76% of the respondents admitted that they had been abused as children and 40% of those stated that the perpetrator was a family member (noh, 1994). psychological or emotional abuse, according to finkelman (2010) is the production of psychological and social defects in the growth of a child as a result of behaviour such as loud yelling, coarse and rude attitude, inattention, harsh criticism and denigration of the child’s personality. other examples include name-calling, ridicule, degradation, destruction of personal belongings, (torture) or killing of a pet, excessive criticism, inappropriate or excessive demands, withholding communication and routing labeling or humiliation (cohn, 2011). hosin (2007) states that victims of emotional abuse may react by distancing themselves from the abuser, internalizing the abusive words or fighting back by insulting the abuser and emotional abuse can result in abnormal or disrupted attachment development, a tendency for victims to blame themselves (self-blame) for the abuse, learned helplessness and overly passive behaviour. the other type of child abuse is neglect. shumba and abosi (2011) state that child neglect is the failure of a parent or other person with responsibility for the child to provide needed food, clothing, shelter, medical care or supervision to the degree that the child’s health, safety and well-being are threatened with harm. neglect is also viewed by krason (2007) as lack of attention from the people surrounding a child and the non-provision of the relevant and adequate necessities for the child’s survival, which would be a lacking in attention, love and nurture. some of the observable sighs in a neglected child include frequent absenteeism from schools, begs or steals food or money, lacks needed medical and dental care, is consistently dirty or lack of sufficient clothing for the weather. molina (2006) posits that neglected children may experience delays in physical and psychosocial development possibly resulting in psychopathology and impaired neuropsychological functions including executive function, attention, processing speed, language memory and social skills. other types of child labour include child labour, child trafficking, female genital mutilation, child marriages, and violence against children’s accused of witchcraft (molina, 2006). according to becker-weidman (2011), child labour refers to the employment of children in any work that deprives them of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school or is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful. child asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 23-28 25 trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, labouring or receipt of children for the purpose of exploitation. as bussien (2011) observes, children are trafficked for purposes such as of commercial sexual exploitation, bonded labour, child domestic labour, drug couriering, child soldiering, illegal adoptions and/or begging. female genital mutilation (fgm) is defined by the world health orgnaisation (who) as “all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons (gorcy and leslie, 2007). female genital mutilation is most often carried out on young girls aged between infancy and 15 years. the consequences of fgm include physical, emotional and sexual problems and include serious risks during child birth. child marriage, according to krason (2007) is a marriage whereby minors are given in matrimony often before puberty. child marriages are common in many parts of the world especially in parts of asia and africa (noh, 1994). these marriages, according noh (1994) are typically arranged and often forced as young children are generally not capable of giving valid consent to enter into marriage. child marriages are often considered by default to be forced marriages. marriage below the age of majority has a great potential to constitute a form of child abuse (noh, 1994). in many countries as krason (2007) observes, there are no adequate laws to criminalise these practices and even where there are laws, they are often not enforced. 2.1. statement of the problem child abuse is a prevalent occurrence in zimbabwe that affects almost every strata of society. the press is always full of cases of child abuse of one type or the other n almost a daily basis. perpetrators also vary but the pervasive denominator is that they are mainly adults’ relatives or non-relatives. there is therefore, need to conscientise would-be victims of this heinous act so that it can be minimised. this study seeks to specifically investigate the level of awareness of school children about child abuse. 2.2. purpose of the study the study sought to establish the extent to which pupils are aware of different forms of child abuse that affect them in order to empower the pupils to report child abuse and even fight it. 3. research questions the study sought to provide answers t the following research questions. 1. are pupils aware of different forms of child abuse that affect their learning? 2. do pupils know what to do when they or their siblings or friends are abused? 3. what role do school authorities play to empower pupils on knowledge about child abuse? 4. are pupils aware of the impact of child abuse on their education? 3.1. significance of the study the importance of the study stemmed from the fact that it sought to bring out the degree of awareness of child abuse that the pupils have and the role teachers can play in empowering pupils so that they can report these cases. this is significant in that the information gathered would assist educational planners and policy makers in policy formulation and programmes that enhance the fight against child abuse. 3.2. limitations of the study the study is limited to pupils’ awareness levels about child abuse cased perpetrated against children using a small sample of pupils. the study is thus no more than a snap shot of pupils’ attributions regarding what constitutes child abuse. clearly, the findings cannot be generalised but they alert one to experiences of pupils regarding child abuse using a small sample. 3.3. delimitation of the study the researchers delimited the investigation to establishing the level of awareness of pupils about various forms of child abuse that affect them in one cluster in nkayi district of zimbabwe. knowledge about child abuse from teachers, heads of schools and parents were outside the purview of this study. 4. research methodology the study adopted a qualitative methodology and made use of a case study research design. the methodology and the design were selected because they afforded the pupils to live their experiences in their daily lives. the population consisted of all pupils at gomadoda cluster in the nkayi south circuit in nkayi district. random sampling was used to select a sample of 30 pupils. random sampling was chosen because as kumar (2008) observes each independent, same size subset within a population is given an equal chance of becoming a subject. therefore, as anderson (2011) argues if properly conducted simple random sampling results in a sample highly representative of the population of interest. however, as blumberg (2008) states, while the randomness of the selection process asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 23-28 26 ensures the unbiased choice of subjects, it could also by chance, lead to the assembly of a sample which does not represent the population well. this random variation, independent of all human bias and in many cases difficult to pinpoint is known as “sampling error.” the probability of incurring errors in sample increases with decreased sample size (lawrence, 2005). 4.1. data collection and analysis data were gathered by means of semi-structured interviews using an interview guide. all interviews were audiotaped, transcribed and became the primary data source for analysis used by the researchers (babbie, 2012). the aim was to understand experiences from the participants’ point of view. a transparent disclosure of the role of the researchers and their relationship with the participants, “the volunteering” of participants and description of the abusive situations pupils experience was done to contextualise the research and to allow for the impact of the researcher’s roles and participant selection on findings. the use of a small sample is common in qualitative research where the aim is depth and not breadth. 5. findings and discussion the study sought to investigate the awareness levels of primary school pupils about child abuse in zimbabwean schools. this part is presented in two parts, namely, demographic data and actual findings. 5.1. demographic data table-1. distribution of research participants by sex n = 30 sex frequency percentage male 12 40 female 18 60 total 30 100 table 1 above shows that 60% of the respondents were female and the other 40% were male. table-2. composition of respondents by approximate age n = 30 age in years frequency percentage 0 – 8 years 5 17 10 – 12 years 11 36 13 – 16 years 14 47 total 30 100 table 2 above shows that 17% of the respondents fell within the 0 – 8 years age group, 36% within the 10 – 12 years age group and 47% fell within the 13 – 16 years age group. 5.2. actual research findings one of the many challenges facing society in zimbabwe and the world over is the suffering that children experience under a hidden epidemic of child abuse and neglect. children throughout the world experience one form of neglect or the other and in the majority of cases, these children might not be aware that they are being abused. as noh (1994) argues the best method to reduce cases of child abuse is through the empowerment of children themselves by making them aware of what child abuse entails and how they can avoid abusive situations before they are abused. this enquiry revealed that the majority of children under study stayed with grandparents followed by those staying with step parents, and then those staying with uncles, aunties and brothers and sisters. a few were staying with their biological parents. the high percentage of pupils staying with their biological parents may imply a high probability of these children experiencing abuse. as molina (2006) posits, the majority of children who experience abuse do not stay with their biological parents. this therefore, means that children in this study are likely to experience abuse by those who stay with them. the study also showed that the majority of pupils indicted that they were not aware of what child abuse entailed. after explaining to the participants about the types of child abuse, the majority of pupils indicated that they had experienced those acts of abuse, particularly corporal punishment both at home and in class, bullying, neglect through denial of food as punishment, verbal abuse and emotional abuse. this tally with findings by bussien (2011) who discovered that the majority of children thought that their abuse was normal treatment that adults had every right and duty to give to them because they were not aware that they were being abused. however, as krason (2007) posits, there is a very thin line between normal upbringing of children and child abuse particularly in most developing countries. this inquiry also revealed that most respondents stated that their parents/guardians did not teach them about child abuse let alone talk about it in the homes. they also indicated that their school did not include information about child abuse in the curriculum. teachers too were said to be not making pupils aware about child abuse. the few participants who indicated that they were aware about child abuse stated that they got the information from their parents who were police officers. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 23-28 27 the study also established that after explaining to pupils what constituted abuse, they opened up and revealed that grandparents were abusing them, neighbhours, teachers, brothers, family members, strangers as well as other pupils. the reason for this high prevalence of abuse is that the abusers took advantage of the pupils’ ignorance on the subject. the pupils could not defend themselves because their guardians were either old or defenseless or had strong cultural beliefs that promoted “abuse” of children. this tallies with findings by taylor and steward (2011) who said that orphaned pupils were sometimes forced into traditional marriages organised by grandparents. if pupils had enough power on the subject, they could find against child abuse. on how they reacted after experiencing the abuse, most of the pupils indicated that they did not report the abuse to anyone as they were afraid if it got the ears of their abusers they would commit more acts of abuse against them. they therefore feared to report when they were abused. a few however, indicated that they reported cases of abuse to their class teachers who, according to the pupils did not seem keen to pursue the matter further. those who stated that they reported to their parents were very few and they indicated that their parents did not believe them particularly their male parents or guardians. on how they felt after experiencing abuses, all the pupils indicated that they felt the effects of abuse on their learning. some indicated that they felt as if they were different from other pupils. those abused by men state that they did not want to mix with males or even coming close to them. in other words, going to a school with boys and male teachers made them feel uncomfortable. some pupils said they felt sleepy in the classroom, particularly those who were awakened very early in the morning by step parents particularly step mothers to perform household chores before they left for school. other pupils indicated that they lost memory about school work because most of the time they were thinking about the abuse they would experience when they got home. 6. conclusion given the background of the above findings, the researchers make the following conclusions:  child abuse in schools is a hidden curriculum that affects many pupils.  most children are not aware that they are being abused and this makes it easy for them to become willing victims.  very few people can be trusted with the protection of children as all categories of parents or guardians have the potential to abuse their children just like other relatives and strangers.  most children were not aware of what constituted child abuse.  the most common forms of child abuse experienced by pupils included corporal punishment, bullying, verbal and emotional abuse, sexual abuse, as well as neglect.  parents, teachers and even heads of schools did not talk about child abuse to pupils thus, the magnitude of unawareness about the problem.  pupils were also not able to defend themselves because there also not able to defend themselves because there were no systems put in place to protect them from further abuse after reporting.  pupils did not report cases of abuse because they feared retribution from their abusers after they got information that they reported them.  pupils experienced negative feelings as a result of abuses perpetrated against them and this affected their school life profoundly. 7. recommendations in light of the findings of this study, the researchers would like to make some recommendations.  schools should have regular sessions where senior teachers including the head, speak about various forms of child abuse to pupils so as to conscientise all pupils in the school about this phenomenon.  community leaders should be encouraged by the government to effect stiffer penalties for those adults who abuse children within their localities especially under the guise of cultural beliefs for example on child marriages, beating up of children, neglect of children through failure to provide basic necessities like food, clothing or school fees and / or child labour in order to protect children.  the ministry of primary and secondary education should reconfigure the primary school curriculum so as to include information on child abuse on pupils’ learning.  schools should be encouraged to establish peer educator clubs for all age groups to provide awareness about child abuse to all pupils.  the government of zimbabwe, through the department of social welfare should make child line facilities accessible to all pupils particularly these in rural areas so as to enable pupils to report cases of abuse anonymously without fear of victimisation.  government should design schemes that will help to rehabilitate pupils who have been negatively affected by child abuse in all its forms. references anderson, c., 2011. research in education. london: d.p. publications. babbie, e., 2012. the practice of research. belmont: woodsworth. becker-weidman, a., 2011. dyadic developmental psychotherapy. lanham md: jason aronson. blumberg, c., 2008. research methods. boston: irwin. bussien, n., 2011. breaking the spell: responding to witchcraft accusations against children. geneva, switzerland: unhcr. bussien, t., 2011. child abuse and neglect prevention. new york: macmillan. choga, d.k., 2013. practical teaching. harare: zimbabwe publishing house. cohn, j., 2011. the two year window. new republic, 242(18): 10 – 13. doyle, c., 2009. helping strategies for the sexual abuse. harare: whilly and bund limited. finkelman, b., 2010. introduction. child abuse: a multidisciplinary survey. new york: garland. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 23-28 28 fontana, v.j., 2004. the maltreatment syndrome of children. pediatric annal, 13(100): 736 – 744. gorcy, k.m. and d.r. leslie, 2007. the prevalence of child sexual abuse: integrative review adjustment for potential repose and measurement biases. child abuse and nglect, 21(4): 391 – 398. hosin, a.a., 2007. responses to traumatised children. basingstoke: palgrave, macmillan. hoyano, l. and keenan, 2007. child abuse: law and policy across boundaries. oxford: oxford university press. krason, s.m., 2007. the critics of current child abuse laws and the child protective system: a survey of the leaving. the catholic social science review, 15(1): 307 – 350. kumar, f.s., 2008. research in educational settings. london: university of london. lawrence, s., 2005. an introduction to curriculum research and development. london: butter and tanner limited. melton, g.b., 2008. protecting children from abuse and neglect. new york: the guilford press. molina, j.a., 2006. the invention of child witches in the democratic republic of congo: social cleansing, religious commerce and the difficulties of being a parent in an urban culture., london: save the children. national plan, 1999. vision research: a national plan 1999-2003. harare: government printers. noh, a.h., 1994. cultural diversity and the definition of child abuse. child welfare research review, columbia university press, 28(5): 28 – 40. orphan care policy, 1999. harare: government printers. ross, s., 2006. risk of physical abuse to children and spouse abusing parents. child abuse and neglect, 20(7): 589 – 598. shumba, a. and o.c. abosi, 2011. the nature, extent and causes of abuse of children with disabilities in schools in botswana. international journal of disability. development and education, 58(4): 373 – 388. taylor, c. and w. steward, 2011. women and child abuse. london: hertman (pvt) ltd. theokliton, d., n. kabilitisis and a. kabitsi, 2011. physical and emotional abuse of primary school children by teachers. child abuse and neglect, v., 36: 64 – 70. wolfe, s., 2011. the effects of child abuse and neglect. new york: the guilford press. authors’ bio-data 1. thembinkosi tshabalala (dr): he is a senior lecturer and national programme leader for the master of education in educational management in the faculty of arts and education at the zimbabwe open university. he is a phd holder in educational management. he has published more than 30 papers in peer reviewed journals. he can be contacted at the zimbabawe open university p.o.box mp1119 mount pleasant harare zimbabbwe or by e-mail (tshabalalathembinkosi@yahoo.com ). 2. mufunani tungu khosa (dr): he is a senior lecturer and national programme leader for the bachelor of education in educational foundations in the faculty of arts and education at the zimbabwe open university. he is a phd holder in monitoring and evaluation in educational management. he has published more than 5 papers in peer reviewed journals. he can be contacted at the zimbabawe open university p.o.box mp1119 mount pleasant harare zimbabbwe or by e-mail by e-mail (tungukhosa@gmail.com ). views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. mailto:tshabalalathembinkosi@yahoo.com mailto:tungukhosa@gmail.com asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 3, 71-77, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 71 curbing societal vices through the use of fables rabiu iy anda 1* 1 osun state university, osogbo, department of languages and linguistics, college of humanities and culture, ikire, nigeria abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 72 2. significance of fables ................................................................................................................................................................ 72 3. language and style of narrating fables ................................................................................................................................. 74 4. some problems facing fables and probable solutions ......................................................................................................... 76 5. conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................................. 77 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 77 bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................................. 77 fables, one of the major forms of literature could be said to be as old as man. it serves as an informal educational sector and acts like a store-house for african traditions before the colonial contact. as literature it’s borne out of man’s existence and experience, so also is fable, which is attached to perform its major roles; correcting, satirizing, entertaining and to teach morals. this paper looks at the present dearth situation of fables, makes efforts to explicate the importance of fables. it delves to how fables could be used to contribute to searching for global peace and mutual relations in the present day generation as it was in the past. the paper also examines some problems militating against fables and equally put forward ways of surmounting these obstacles. keywords: literature, fable, society, vices. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1 (3): 71-77 72 1. introduction literature has been defined differently. it takes new and different connotations daily. it is seen as a field of study that delves into imaginative creativity. this imaginative creation specializes in the use of communicative devices and styles that ensure the intellect and the mind reveal ideas and experiences that have been gathered from around creative writers. this is to say that the art of literary creativity depicts the individual man and his environment in such colours that are best suited to the creative mode so employed by the writer. literature according to ogunba (1979), defines literature as the vehicle for societies to give sensitive expression to the innermost thought and feelings of individuals as well as the community. he goes further to cite mbiti, that, to know the literature of any people is to know them well……… it is the precipitation of their mentality, their customs, their habits, their hopes and ideas about life itself. this shows that literature encloses the world view and perception of the people. to akporobaro (2006), oral literature as the corpus of artistically significant verbal expressions evolved by a group of people and transmitted orally from one generation to another. he goes further to view it as the imaginative compositions distinguished by their beauty of forms of expressions and local ideas developed over the years by a people and handled down from one generation to another by a word of mouth. literature is said not to be what is written only, but all verbal creations written or spoken which are artistically projected. aduke (2010) refers to imaginative works dealing with human and other beings, in which the aesthetic function predominates. this is in line with other authors and anthropologists. literature is of two sides, the written and the oral. oral literature comprises of fables, riddles, songs, myths, folktales, festival dramas, ritual songs, etc. the fable which is a form of oral literature, is viewed differently. achebe (1987) opines on african oral tradition that, … it is only the story that can continue beyond the war and the warrior. it is the story that outlives the sound of war-drums and the exploits of brave fighters. it is the story... that saves our progeny from blundering like blind beggars into the spikes of the cactus fence. the story is our escort; without it, we are blind. does the blind man own his escort? no, neither do we the story; rather it is the story that owns us and directs us. according to cristina ferreira pinto in an article downloaded on 24 th august 2011, our heritage is created upon myths and tales. this is the foundation for all cultures. every human culture in the world seems to create stories as a way of making sense of the world. from this definition of a form of literature, it is necessary to state that fables parables and allegories are forms of imaginative literature or spoken utterances constructed in a way that their readers (for the written forms) or listeners (oral form) are encouraged to seek for their meanings beyond the literal surface of the fiction. fables and parables are similar, but while fables are concerned with the impossible and probable, parables deals with possible events. hornby (2001) defines fable as a traditional short story that teaches moral lessons especially one with animals as characters. moral is usually embodied in the plot of a fable. fables cuts across nations and dated long. panchatantra is a well known fable collection by an indian vishnushaman between 3 rd and 4 th century in india. this collection influenced many similar texts across nations as it was reportedly translated into more than 50 languages with about 200 versions. in france in the 12 th century marie de france published a collection of animal fables entitled, roman de renart, the principal character was a wily fox named renard. jean de la fontaine fables, fables de la fontaine, were published between 1668 – 1694, this collections influenced many fable writers across nations. other important modern european fabulists include, thomas de iriarte y oropesa, literary fables 1782, ambrose bierce, fantastic fables 1899, george ade, fables in slang 1900, james thurber, fables of our time 1940, william saroyan fables 1941 and many several others. fables are of different types, the one which animal act as the principal character is called beast fable. this is the type so common in many societies. the main character of fables differ from one nation to another, in the yoruba community of nigeria, tortoise is usually the major character. in the ghana, spider is the most common personality in fables. it isa hare in the central africa, a mouse in congo, fables are of different facade: dilemma, trickster and ogre. apart from the characters and the themes, they perform almost the same function with different viewpoint and approach. it should be mentioned that the primary aim of any fable is teaching of morals. a fable can also be explanatory tales or stories centered on animals and other beings not related to any historical events meant to teach specific lessons. it means a short story that teaches moral lessons. it usually ends with a warning. fables teach general tales. all deal with animals, human beings, non natural figures such as monsters, ogres, fairies, spirits, gods behaving in familiarly human way. according to bascon as quoted by akporobaro (2006) …the mythological system of a people is often their educational system, and the children who sit listening to an evening’s tale are imbibing traditional knowledge and attitudes no less than the row of sixth graders in our modern classrooms. myths and legends may contain detailed descriptions of sacred rituals, the codified belief or dogma of the religious group accounts of tribal or clan origins, movements and conflicts. proverbs have often been characterized as the distilled wisdom of past generations and are unmistakably so regarded by a projective system… from this we can deduce that fables inform the younger generation of their historic reality in an artistic form and not like the historians. from fables many education as well as societal mores and norms were given to the children. fable belongs to the society at large, it is handed down from generation to generation. the rationale of a fable among others, is to teach a particular lesson, value or to give sage advice. roger (1983) on his own sees fables as stories that are commonly told in the evening, in a public setting, and that are an important medium of entertainment and instruction. fables cut across linguistics boundaries. every culture and language presents fables in their languages. 2. significance of fables at a 1987 pan african conference, chinua achebe called on african authors and illustrators to create quality books for african youth. in his keynote address on children’s literature in africa, achebe challenged serious asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1 (3): 71-77 73 african writers to save african children from the ‘beautifully packaged poisons’. he called on african authors to produce books that have african flavor to assist in retaining our cultural heritage and norms. this is the sole way to bring to an end the all vices by the youths in africa. it also assist in inculcating in the youth the accepted model. the role of foreign literary texts is of more harm than the benefits. our cultural heritage in our literatures cannot be overemphasized. it is the best for our education, arts and cultures. our literary writings are solely or majorly for us, it serves as art for art sake for other tribe. the aesthetics and hidden meanings could not be properly comprehended by non natives. so also others literatures in africa. the foreign writers write to suit his culture and society. for a stranger, it may not yield the expected results. this could be part of the amoral attitudes in our younger ones. foreign literature may be misunderstood and misrepresented by a foreign audience. this is to emphasize the need to reawaken african towards losing their heredity to a foreign cultures that have no base in african. akporobaro, states that the forms of african oral literature have not been borrowed from external cultural traditions, and by and large uncontaminated by western influences. they then remain the modes for the transmission of cultural traditions. this is to show that for africans to operate within their literary sphere, they tend to project and protect their cultures and norms. fable, an aspect of literature is one way of communicating ideas and feelings. it assists to visit places and people we might otherwise never know. adesanya quoted by afolabi (1971) asserts that: mythological stories are a device to bridge the gap between thinkers and the rest of man… a device to teach the generality of men to understand pictorially what they could not comprehend conceptually from this, we can see that fables help to travel far and inform of happenings outside our immediate area of jurisdiction, even though not physically. we can also say that, with fables we have the opportunity of laughing at our foolishness. we cry and comfort each other when faced with tragedy with the aid of fables. fable possesses the attributes of changing time to reflect the needs of any given generation. but literature also explores basic human feelings, such as greed, love, jealous and ambition. these feelings have changed very little over time. they have always inspired good stories that are told well. for this reason, we can still enjoy great literature of any age for its story and expressive language. fable can also play the role of cultural preservation. this is so because stories are passed on by words of mouth from parents to their children or from one generation to another. through this, many traditions are preserved in story form. before the discovery of printed materials, people used to entertain themselves as well as teach moral lessons through stories. fables link us to our past. we know of happenings in our area before us through fables. through this play away technique, moral is being imparted in the young ones while much abnormal behaviour are down played with a view to correcting them. another notable and important point about fables is that; it illuminates many aspects of a culture. this is so easy as animal will be personified. the author or story teller then enjoys the advantages of giving detailed information and achieves his or her aim at ease. writers turn fables into inspiration. let us look at some examples; george orwell’s animal farm, la fontaine, les fables and several others. these authors used animals to make their points and illustrations not only known but vivid. for orwell, the lesson among others from the fable is that human beings claim to be equal but many factors differentiate them. equality among men seems far from achievable in the societies. those in the corridors of power make the outsider believe they are making sacrifices whereas in the true sense of it they are making money, not only for themselves, but for their generations yet unborn. through literature, these set of leaders are exposed, and most often the unfortunate end of some of them serves as lessons for the upcoming generations. the example of animal farm testified to this. pierre fontaine used fables to criticize the dictatorial sovereign, louis xiv, of the seventeenth century, the way and manners in which this monarch arrogated powers to himself was x-rayed with the use of animals. despite the wickedness of louis xiv, the narrator, makes use of animals to criticize and condemn this sovereign monarch. he was able to achieve this stunning criticism despite the laws on any literary materials of the century. to cub indiscipline or many unethical acts in the present age, fables can be given to serve as a deterrent. as an example, using the tortoise, as a smart and greedy animal could serve as a major character to stir up troubles and teach the lesson against deceit. this type could serve as a warning to others. thus, in another of such a story; the love of money is the beginning of evil the saying goes. the tortoise as said earlier may have served in various situations to be too conscious of himself and by so doing have caused his own downfall. all these could be given as examples to the present generation so as to cub their excesses. in this other and important fable, the tortoise serves as the principal actor. this animal wanted to be seen as embodiment of knowledge he intended to gather all the wisdoms on earth and keep them for his personal usage. he claimed to have every wisdom in the calabash and ready to put it on a palm tree so that no other person will have access to any wisdom without his approval. he succeeded in doing this to his own thinking and conviction. to avoid others making use of these wisdoms, he selected a very tall palm tree to conceal the calabash. he put the calabash in his belly/stomach and making efforts to climb the palm tree with the calabash. after unproductive efforts, sweating profusely, unable to climb the said palm tree, snail, a small animal the tortoise considered to lack the smallest unit to be called a wisdom now meet the so called mr. know-all,(tortoise) in this attempt. the snail advised him to put the calabash at the back, this will make it easy for the tortoise to climb successfully, and this tortoise did and was able to have a smooth climbing. the tortoise then realized that he has not been able to collect every wisdom, decided to start all over. to cut it short he was unable to achieve his intention. from this we can see that it is not possible for a person to know everything. such a fable could be used to teach any greedy child that he should be contended with a part and not bother to have everything. this fable also shows that nobody knows everything; wisdom and knowledge belong to everybody. another animal/bird called “èlúlùú” in yoruba, and several others in different languages is known to be lazy and not strong enough. from history it is known that this bird used to be strong and agile, but it acted against the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1 (3): 71-77 74 agreement with other birds, which resulted in her present predicament. history has it that in a time immemorial there was a draught all rivers were dried off. water became a very scarce thing in the community. many died because of lack of water. to solve this problem, all birds agree to dig a well to serve as source of water for all. all agree to a date which all and sundry should be present. elúlùú, cleverly move away from the town on the eve of the appointed day. all were present except this bird. the work was a success. avery reliable and safe water was reach within a very short period. they all share the joy and planned to sanction those absent from this work. it was unanimously agreed not to allow èlúlùú to drink from the water unless he has a reasonable excuse. èlúlùú did not hassle to give any reason to any of the mates. the following morning, èlúlùú was the first to go to the well. he finished the whole water before any other person could come. while others get to the well they met nobody but just observed that no water in the well. they had a tête à tête on the way out of this problem. the following morning, èlúlùú woke very early and go to the well. as he set on the water, other birds appeared from their hidden places and continue to beat èlúlùú till point of death. he was then allowed to go with no power or strength. it was from this particular day that èlúlùú has lost his power and stamina. till date èlúlùú is the weakest of all birds. this is caused from the pains suffered from the beating. such a story depicts the popular proverb which says: that concentrated efforts bring success. the bird, “èlúlùú” that refused to lend a hand with others is now left alone to face the music. one should cooperate with others to bring positive changes to ones environment. this could serve as a lesson, to the younger ones. 3. language and style of narrating fables fables generally are narrated with the narrator and the audience face to face in a typical african society. the presence of the narrator and the audience makes the language of fables to be direct and simple. it is mandatory for the narrator to put the age, exposure, society and the psychological situation of the audience into consideration to have a meaningful outing. the mood of the audience is also very important as they form the recipients which their participation is as important as the presenter. fables are usually narrated with local language of the narrator and the audience. ashcroft (1995), quoted by ajayi (2010), says language carries culture, and culture carries language, especially through orature and literature, the entire body of values by which we come to perceive ourselves and our place in the world. language is thus inseparable from us as a community of human beings with a specific form and character, a specific history, a specific relationship to the world. they all share many things in common. the narrator is an elder in the society while the younger ones are the audience. women constitute the larger percentage of the narrator in an african setting. the younger ones sit to be entertained, educated and informed by the older ones, usually women as said earlier. men usually play dominant roles in this circumstance; they lie by the side listening non active, serve as the chief security for the narrator and the audience. elders are the custodians of fables and all other forms of oral literature. the elders who are the repositories of a culture’s wisdom pass these artistic forms from one generation to another. they serve as a link between the past and the future. they lived with the ancestors; those forms they retained were passed to the new ones who also retain them for generations. a fable, which is an aspect of oral tradition is both more specific and less ambiguous form of communication, because the speaker reinforces his or her specificity of meaning with body gesture and expressions, intonation and various self-correcting mechanisms of which writing is incapable of. many innovations are added this makes the story to differ as the narrator has to be diplomatic and allay their fear to the barest minimum in every presentation. there are several interruptions on part of the audience and at times the narrator. clapping of hands, drumming, crying by the audience that are timid and fidgeting in some occasions adds to the aesthetics in the performance of oral literature. in the oral tradition, as said earlier, the aged are the repositories of a culture’s wisdom. the elderly ones can be discounted somewhat in modern technological society, not so much because of rapid changes in successive waves of the future but because wisdom is available in books. plato according to rosenburg (1987) was of the view that the wisdom of writing was superficial; no give and take of cross examination and responses was possible. there can be no immediate responses to a written literature so also of the defense. a book (literary book) can be put aside and never be opened at all. oral rendition cannot be easily side-stepped in face to face situations. the style of narrating fables is usually simple and direct. the narrator or the presenter makes all the audience to be attentive and get sited. usually, in africa, fables are narrated in the night after the day’s work under the moonlight or they sit surround a camp fire to get relaxed. the narrator normally starts by captivating the attention of his /her audience put them in suspense. he announces the principal actor in the fable and gives a very short story on the character of such an actor. okpewho (1990) ‘since oral narrative-performance is, like a stage productions, characterized by an immediate interaction of narrator and audience, the first contact between both parties initiates the first effort by the narrator to achieve aesthetic harmony with his audience’. apart from such preliminary modus operandi as for example in the yoruba narration, ‘my story spins and spins and falls on the heads of two jealous cowives’. this is to ignite the passion of the audience. in yoruba society, the narrator usually plays on words. ajiboye (2008) quotes babalola (1973) and amoo (1987); narrator: àló o audience: àló narrator : alo mi da firigbagbo,o da lori ijapa, ijapa tiroko oko yannibo ese danin danin bi aran ope. to kole kole, t’o fi iran ba a je. ti n lo laarin epa, ti’pako re n han firifiri oni opelope pe oun ga.(2) also roger (1983) informs readers of ways to start fables thus; my story breaks sharply, pá asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1 (3): 71-77 75 don’t let it break its arms it breaks, whirs, and thuds, wàrà gbì don’t let it break its neck; it didn’t fall on my head! it didn’t fall on my neck! nor did it fall on the bit of rat that i’ll eat before i sleep tonight! instead it fell on the head of… (tortoise, elephant or…) (15) another writer babalola (1973) agrees with this system of preparing audience minds before entering into the mainstream of the story. he uses different manners to start his own fables. apàló: àló o! elégbè : àlò ! apàló : àló ò mi dá fìrìgbáàgbó, ó dá lórí ìjàpá àti ajá. (55) meaning: narrator: alo o! audience: alo o.! narrator: my fable centers on tortoise and dog. akporobaro (2006) also agrees that the narrators of fables in the african settings do not just launch into the story, but set the atmosphere for the story, create a state of suspense of eager anticipation, anxiety and interest in the audience. he goes further to state that the narrator holds the audience in rapt attentiveness to the story. all these serve as the introductory aspect of fables. the story on the fable always falls on the head of the main character. while the name of the character in the fable is given, a short description of such an animal is followed, this is to grasp and arouse the concentration of the listener/audience as said earlier. the ways and manners in which the narrator defines or describes the main character influences the success of the story. olatunji (1987), cited bamgbose that àló fable in the yoruba language, that there is keying and framing devices which set the events of the àló apart from narratives of everyday experience. he writes about the mirror image structure of the opening and closing frames. that it usually opens with ààló o by the narrator, meaning, (here is a story), the audience responds ààlò meaning let us have the story. this shows the demarcation and prepares the audience attentiveness to the story. towards the end of the story, when the narrator has told the story, he concludes by saying, ìdí àló mi ree gbagbalako, idi alo mi ree gbangbalako, meaning this is the end my story. at this point the audience is expected to give the lesson deduced from such story. another area is the narrative technique. the narrator captivates the attention of his audience with beautiful and simple language. the language will be simple and direct. usually fables are narrated in the local language of the listeners. the narrator also introduces music to his narration, with the introduction of music the audience partakes as they serve as chorus. they sing the chorus line while the narrator led. song adds to the aesthetic in fables. the listeners at times clap and dance to the song. this adds to the artistic assessment of the narration. to conclude fables, the narrator ascribes the success of such a fable to himself and the negative he attributes to another entity. let us examine another fable from the yoruba tradition of nigeria. tortoise and elephant. this is to strengthen and explain the more how it is been use and how it is narrated. olagoke (1973), in a fable which belongs to the yoruba society recorded by him, erin ati ijapa, elephant and tortoise. he paints the picture of a society where there is calamity and things refused to go the normal way. the king in this society is the head of the town. he possesses the spiritual and political power over his subject. this is usually the case in any african society. he is to see to the well being of the citizens under his jurisdiction. in this fable, the citizens complained bitterly about the deplorable situation. the king is not pleased with this awful situation and so disturbed. to solve this unsuitable situation, solution must be provided. according to the tradition and customs of these people, ifa oracle, a divine authority, needs to be consulted. this was done. according to the oracle, to appease the ancestors and the gods, an elephant should be killed in the palace. it is only this that can bring about positive change in the society. the problem then was how to get an elephant into the palace. the king, the supreme head of the citizenry and the chiefs become worried on the way out. out of desperation, the king promises to share all his belongings to two equal parts for whosoever that can achieve this task and thus to save the entire town from calamity ahead. all the warriors and the hunters’ efforts were in vain. the herbalists achieved nothing all as avenue seemed blocked. they tried all their capacities but failed to accomplish the goal of bringing the elephant into the town. the tortoise heard of this went to the palace to meet the king. he made promise to bring a life elephant for the sacrifice. the news of tortoise’s plan to bring the elephant into the palace got to the town. many people make jest of him as an hypocrite and lazy somebody that it is only interested in the wealth and that has no power to execute the laborious task which all the warriors could not perform. he was not bothered with these comments but continued with his doggedness and plan. he requested for certain period of time and made promise to bring the elephant to the palace. he said further that if this is not possible the king should kill him. tortoise started the journey with akara, a yoruba beans cake prepared with honey. he set on the trip to the forest where it was believed to habour elephant. after the third day, he became very tired. he was contemplating on the way out. on this note he slept off under a tree in the forest. the following day as he woke up he saw an elephant. this is amusing and he fells a sign of relieve. ha! elephant the savior of the moment, the king of all beings. tortoise, cry out, elephant you are here while everybody have been looking for you since the demise of the king. you have been nominated the next king. you should be ready to follow me now as it is not too late. the elephant felt amazed and furious with this news and warned the tortoise of deceit and asked him to stop such a joke. tortoise present him with one beans cake. this is to show you that you are the king. this is your food, meant only for the king. without wasting time tortoise starts drumming and singing after praising his prowess. a o m erin j’oba ereku-ewele asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1 (3): 71-77 76 a o m erin j’oba ereku-ewele as he sings, he gives the elephant some of the cake made of honey. what a delicious meal! exclaimed the elephant. he starts dancing with the tortoise and straight to the town. on getting to the town tortoise lead elephant straight to the palace. to cut it short, the elephant was brought to the palace by the tortoise. the prepared ditch covered with best attires was shown as a reserved space for the king which nobody should step on. this attracts elephant and walks gorgeously on the spot, without any notice elephant fell into the pitch and the warriors shot at him. elephant was used for the sacrifice as ifa oracle predicted. to and the sacrifice was done. the king divided his properties, the movables and immovables to two equal parts and give a portion to tortoise. from this fable many lessons could be derived. 1) one should not underrate anybody. the tortoise was considered too petite to bring an elephant into town. a task that many great people have failed to achieve, was achieved by almost the smallest being in that society. this feat is to the glory of determination and preparation. one should remain doggedness and resolute whenever a task is to be accomplished. 2) another notable factor is that one should be careful of what to take as food one needs not to be greedy as this account for part of the elephant’s predicament and downfall. 3) from the cultural point of view, one is able to see function of a king in the yoruba society, how the subject were under his care. the king concerns himself with the well-being of the citizen under his jurisdiction and can go extra kilometer to make life enjoyable. 4) the fable also reveals the norms and beliefs of these people, yoruba. they hold their faith in the king and gods. ifa is seen as the messenger of the ancestors and prescribes whatever is to be done to appease these ancestors. this must be done to have positive change in their daily activities. 5) the ability of the gods to protect is also revealed. the sacrifice to appease them could also be seen. these are seen in the fable. the aesthetics in this cultural transmission can only be treasured by those that share the same culture. the belief in ifa as the sole agent that can proffer solution under such a condition is another notable factor that has to do with cultural trust, but to an alien it serves no purpose. all these and many other moral lessons formed the coherent reasons or intentions this particular fable performs. 6) as fable transfer cultural elements from a generation to another, from this fable, the young ones who double as the audience are trained to solve their problems through consulting ifá. they will imbibe this culture in a play away manner and it becomes part of them when they grow up. 4. some problems facing fables and probable solutions fables as an integral part of literature, faces a lot of problem in this technological era. this period that supposed to be an added advantage turns otherwise. the advancement in technology should contribute positively, and judicious usage ought to be maximized. many obscene films that lack all moral justifications constitute the order of the day, many home video tapes are not censored this results in dissipated acts in our society. development in technology can assist fables across linguistic boundaries, with globalization which makes societies become a global village. the local areas where these fables reside with the elders are being deserted, everybody are running to urban areas. with the migration from local areas the elders could not see their offspring to listen to these fables. as they die they die with these fables. the emphasis on science and technology being the order of the day has created and still creates problems for the literary aspects. many parents and the society at large no longer to a large extent reckon with humanities studies, literature, history, government etc., and this could be inimical to development as human beings are but flesh and blood and not robots or machines. the role being played by literature cannot be underestimated as it enhances the development of oral/written comprehension and production. the idea of putting all to writing is another factor that militates against oral literature. the ways and manner of passing this genre of literature constitutes aesthetics and distinguishes it from any other aspect of writing. while writing it the audience participation is removed. in the words of olatunji (1987), when the text is torn out of the natural setting of performance, the repetitions that engender audience participation and group solidarity, the poets’ comments in response to a wink, a gesture, the coming in of a member of the audience or the message from his master drummer, all appear irrelevant or trivial. but these comments and repetitions are significant within the setting of performance, drum, dance and drama. from the foregoing it is evident that writing constitute another notable point is the dearth of functional literary text in many libraries which constitutes menace to fables. there is the shortage of novels, and when it exists it is rather wrongly selected or expensive to afford. therefore, the present generations seldom have adequate access to well written literary texts. this lack of access does not allow them to be rich adequately in terms of pleasure reading or information seeking. this could also be termed to account for their lack of stick to their societal customs and traditions. priority on part of governments, there are many scholarship and bursary awards for science oriented courses. it looks rare and almost passes into oblivion for the literary students. this needs to be reconsidered so as to persuade the younger ones to imbibe the culture of reading. department of languages and literature in our tertiary institutions of learning should give this a prominent role to play so as to reinforce this golden heritage. the curriculum planners also need to gear up and revitalize the contents by reconsidering our cultures, most especially the oral literary aspect in the recommendation of texts for the literary aspects. in summary, the government, parents, non-governmental agencies, all and sundry should come together to raise literary writers from their slumbers and to those prolific ones to write to reflect their cultures more than the foreign ones in their writings so as to benefit from the treasures of literature. one can gain much knowledge via this fable if asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1 (3): 71-77 77 its importance is well known to our government and they are well disposed to this. they should create avenues for the griot or raconteurs to give this aspect all attention it deserves. another ways of retaining this vital portion of humanities is that every community should strive to set a day apart for this all important aspect. elders or those professionals should be engaged to perform on this special day and be remunerated by the local people or the non governmental agencies. by so doing others will be interested and enthusiastic response will be received. 4.1. suggestions unobjectionable use of fables will among other advantages assist the children to examine and explain why they think as they do about certain issues being discussed. this process requires reasons for judgments and reflection upon criteria used in making judgments. an example is to determine what one's criteria for realism are after contending that realistic paintings are best. these children are also encouraged to listen carefully to comments of each group member and be willing to reconsider opinions. however, there is no attempt to come to a single "accurate" judgment for the group, as in the form of a vote. taking hold of harmony does little to encourage philosophical accepted wisdom or dialogue and is a flawed attempt at closure in philosophical examination. understanding the important influence of context upon one's judgments and opinions is crucial. insofar as knowledge is a historical, linguistic, and social construct, it is dependent on context. listeners’ judgment perception and ability is developed and they live to cultivate such useful habit. 5. conclusion to meet the challenges posed by the 21 st century, we cannot do away with our cultural heritage. the ultimate goal of any literary works is to promulgate customs and norms of societies and to contribute to peaceful co-existence of the members of such societies among others. this paper has given insight into fables which is an integral part of literature, the problems being encountered in this era and plausible solutions have been proffered to solve the problems enumerated. by so doing, our culture will be preserved. the norms and values of the society will also be given due recognition and the society will achieve its desired goals (development and nonviolent co-existence). not only this, the society will be regarded as an embodiment of cultural entity. if properly and judiciously utilized, all the vices in the society will be things of the past. human trafficking, child abuse, drug abuse and the likes would be adequately addressed. peace and tranquility could return to our society. references achebe, c., 1987. anthills of the savannah. edinburgh: heinemann. aduke, a., 2010. the nature and functions of literature: the comparatist’s perspective. an inaugural lecture delivered at the university of ibadan. ibadan: university of ibadan. afolabi, s.a., 1971. alo dun. osogbo: fagbamigbe publishing nigeria limited. ajayi, j.f.a., 2010. history and the nation and other addresses. ibadan: spectrum. ajiboye, o., 2008. àló: orísun ogbón ìjìnlè yorùbá. ilorin: ema books. akporobaro, f.b.o., 2006. introduction to african oral literature. lagos: princeton publishing company. amoo, a., 1987. alo apagbe evans brothers npl. ibadan. babalola, a., 1973. akojopo alo ijapa. ibadan: oxford university press. hornby, a.s., 2001. oxford advanced learners dictionary. oxford: oxford university press. ogunba, o., 1979. literary art and literary creativity in contemporary africa. an inaugural lecture delivered at the obafemi awolowo university. ife: obafemi awolowo university. okpewho, i., 1990. the oral performance in africa. ibadan: spectrum books limit. olagoke, o., 1973. ijapa tiroko oko yannibo. ibadan: longman. olatunji, o., 1987. asayan alo onitan. ibadan: y. books. roger, d.a., 1983. african folktales. united states of america: pantheon books. rosenburg, b.a., 1987. oral tradition. oxford: oxford university press. bibliography bamidele, l.o., 2000. literature and sociology. lagos: sterlinghorden publishers nig ltd. fashiku, j.a. and n.a. abdusalam, 2007. literature teaching in nigerian schools; problems and prospects. a paper presented at osun state college of education, ila orangun during the 1st school of languages national conference between march 27-30th. finnegan, r., 1977. oral literature in africa. nairobi: oxford university press. george, o., 1968. animal farm. london: longman green and co ltd. louis-jean, c., 1996. que sais-je? la tradition orale. paris: presse universitaire de france. thrall, 1960. a handbook to literature. new york: the odyssey press. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 2, 99-101, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 99 heading and leading educational institutions in rural africa: a western trained educationists experiences in ghana william otu 1 1 methodist university college, dansoman-accra, ghana abstract contents 1. introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 100 2. conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................ 101 references ............................................................................................................................................................................ 101 citation | william otu (2016). heading and leading educational institutions in rural africa: a western trained educationists experiences in ghana. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(2): 99-101. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.99.101 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 20 august 2015/ revised: 16 october 2015/ accepted: 2 november 2015/ published: 16 november 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group the observation and experiential study talks about the demanding role of institutional heads and leaders in africa; taking into consideration the culture and norms of governance in rural traditional africa. the study also took a look at the traditional leadership in africa, its leadership style, and its influence on its local societies and communities. case study was used to illustrate the study. keywords: leadership, traditional, behaviours, group goals and responsibilities, achievement. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.99.101 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.99.101 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 99-101 100 1. introduction what is leadership? there are various schools of thoughts to the definition of leadership but for the purpose of this write up, the following definitions will be considered. leadership refers to the use of a person’s abilities and talents to influence others in the achievement of a common goal. stoner and wankel (1986) define leadership as the process of directing and influencing the task-related activities of group members. another definition is that, leadership is the process of organized group towards goal setting and goal achievement. again, leadership is explained as the ability to persuade others to seek defines objectives enthusiastically. it is important to note that, it is the human factor which binds a group together and motivates it towards a goal achievement. it is again important to note that, leadership implies influence. so the idea of influence is central to leadership. leadership implies that, there are followers because no one can claim to be a leader when there are no followers. again, leadership is goal directed, so whenever there is a leader, there must be a goal, objective or task to mind. in addition, leadership includes the ability to motivate one’s followers. the able leader must be able to inspire his or her personnel to put in their best. 1.1. traditional rural african leadership in the traditional african rural societies, the leader who was often the chief and his elders, featured prominently in educational, social and economic life of the people in his or community. according archer (2003) in most african rural communities, societies as well as ‘peri-urban’ societies, the chiefs are chosen among the members of the royal family as to how they became royal families nobody knows. the type of leadership was however not uniform because they were different ‘political system 1.2. traditional leadership style in africa early anthropologist distinguished two main types of political ‘systems’. the centralised authority: example; ‘the ashantis’ of west africa and the zulus’ of south africa’. the other type lacked centralised authority: example; the akuapem of eastern ghana in west africa and the nuer of sourthern sudan’ the centralised system is the most predominant political system with very strong political as well as military system. the ashanti kingdom for example has a very complex set up. it is made up of the king (the equivalent of the head of a state), immediately followed by a group of highly powered chief called ‘omahene’ (thus, equivalent of a gorvernor of a state). these are in charge of a whole tribe which is states in themselves. under each ‘omahene’ were the various ‘chiefs’ who were the leaders of the big towns comparable to a municipal or county ‘chief executive’. the chiefs were responsible to the ‘omahene’ and the ‘omahene’ to the king-asantehene’. in each cae or those levels, the powers of the leader (chief, omahene and the king) are great, even absolute. this is so because the three branches of power distinguished by public law-legislative, executive and judiciary are held as a unit by the sovereign. the monarch was sacred-in a deeper sense than the power of the western monarchies or that of asian monarchies based on divine right. the sovereign by virtue of his or her office, had a special position in the world of vital forces. he or she shared in them more than the ordinary people, for he or she represented his or her people identified with them; ‘a mystical sense; he or she was his or her community. due to this awe surrounding his or her position, there is a strict protocol surrounding him or her which indicates that the leadership is set apart from other men. sometimes special vocabulary is used to describe his or her ordinary activities such as drinking, eating, sleeping and even his or death. access to him or her is through intermediaries’ and a strict protocol. he or she was not to be seen out on ordinary days. the governmental instruments were the court, which is made up of his/her trusted and devoted friends, relatives and allies who represents the lineages close to him or her. the monarchs, though absolute is expected to respect established right to uphold justice and to behave with kindness in rewarding the deserving. the obedience of his or her subjects was the counterpart of his or her leadership. an agreeable manner seemed to have been valued as much as material liberality; an arrogant chief rapidly lost his or her followers. in return for his or her protection and leadership he or she have claims to the service of his or people. they had to pay taxes to him or her in case and in kind. craft men supply their wares freely to him or her; traders and all other producers gave part of their product to him or her subjects serve him or her in public works, helps in building, weeding and cleaning roads. he or she lavish gift and honours on those who has distinguish themselves in wars and other public services. according to annor (2003) the leader be it the chief, omahene, and the king provide for the needy. the way he or she gets people to do what is expected of them is through collective pressures, ridicules, isolation and ostracising. the traditional african leader was authoritarian with more or less absolute powers. he or she was for removed from his or her subjects and they look upon him or her with great amount of respect. he or she has the right to demand special services from his or her ‘subjects’ but he or she also sees to the welfare of his or her people. he or she shows personal interest in the individual and make sure that as far as possible, the needs of every individual is met. usually his or her subjects present gifts to him or her. these gifts usually win the givers favour before the king. a leadership with these characteristics makes it difficult for indigenous african to behave under type of leadership which is personal, democratic and less concerned with personal needs of the individual. 1.3. case study 1 there was a teacher in a rural community that a western trained professional teacher headed. the teacher usually goes to school drunk; he is not punctual and time conscious. after several queries handed to him by the head of the school, the teacher did not heed to the warning to refrain from his unacceptable behaviour. several consultations were done to ensure that this teacher tends a new leave in order to deliver well as a teacher. he was asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 99-101 101 given a sack. then came the traditional leadership in a rural setting behaviours; the local chief together with his elders summon the head and his staff before the chief to answer to why his ‘kin’ has been sacked, after the narration and evident submitted to the local chief indicating the queries given to him and his elders who are also witnesses to the behaviours of the said teacher, demanded the re-instatement of the teacher because he is ‘kin’ and a royal. the educational authorities to the outmost surprise of the head was given a transfer letter to the head stating among things the demand of the rural folks, elders and the chief that they can live with the head because he is not cooperative. it can be observed here that little regard is given to a well-structured institutional systems that woks with it rules and regulations and aims at achieving a specific goal. the effort of the head of the institution is therefore scarified for the whims and caprices of the chiefs and the traditional leaders of the communities. the educational authorities on the other hand expect that, the head of the institution adjust to the customs and the norms of the community without necessarily achieving the set educational target and goals of the nation. 1.4. case study 2 parents demand of school authority for their wards to attend to domestic activities like farming and fishing one’s in a week and also allowed to go to market every friday morning before attending school. the school head in this instance has no choice but to agree to the request of the community or the society to ensure that the school continue to exist. this demand is not done in a vacuum. it is done with the explicit knowledge of the local chief and the elders who are ward are also students in the schools. to them, societal good cannot be scarified for individual good like acquiring academic knowledge that may not benefit the society. again it can be deduce that institution that looks like taking the power of the local chiefs and the elders from their hand is a treat to their leadership and are therefore not given the needed cooperation. the act therefore places a greater responsibility on the school head to draw a time table and sometimes re-structure a national curricular to be able to continue its work in a traditional rural community. 2. conclusion leadership can be looked at from various perspective, but it practices differ from one geographical setting to the other. even within the same geographical setting it practices in rural africa demands a quick fit decision making skills in order to remain relevant. the western trained educationalist can therefore not holistically practice effectively without learning some few domestic leadership skills in traditional rural africa before becoming relevant to the teaching profession. references annor, k., 2003. making education relevant to our societies. takoradi-ghana: jacobus publicationas. archer, f.k., 2003. work and organisational practices in africa 1. biraa publishers-kumsi, 1(1): 32-33. stoner, j.a.f. and c. wankel, 1986. management. 3rd edn., new jersey: prentice-hall. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 1, 1-7, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 1 women farmers’ participation in agricultural extension activities in ikwuano l.g.a, abia state nigeria onuekwusi, gideon.c 1 --chukwu, miriam. c 2 1,2department of rural sociology and extension, michael okpara university of agriculture umudike abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group 1. introduction a lot of agricultural development programmes are on ground with the aim of increasing food production and improving the standards of living in nigeria. although women farmers are actively involved in the process of food production, processing and marketing, social and economic constraints have placed barriers around their access to scientific and technological information (daman, 1997). the women folk do not have needed technical knowledge to enable her derive production use of farm input for more optimum yield. many women however do not participate fully in agricultural programmes due to ignorance, low income (adekanya, 1988; inter-america development bank., 2000), inaccessibility to credit facilities, poor communication (nonyelu, 1996; fao., 2006) etc. these to a large extent limit the wormers effort in their bid to increase food production for the teeming population. according to adekanya (1988), nigerian women constitute 68.8 percent of the labour force and produce about 80 percent of the national food output. despite the immense contribution of women farmers to the national and economic development, they are yet to be fully recognized and given the necessary agricultural extension services which will help to improve their agricultural output. the marginalization of the women farmers according to nwansat (2002), is largely due to their seeming inferior position in the male dominated cultures of nigeria. this has denied them the opportunity of fully benefiting from extension services particularly, when time of delivery of extension services conflicts with other household activities and responsibilities, (protz, 1977). other problems include the lack of knowledge of women’s contribution to agricultural production, lack of gender disaggregated data and information, assumption of agricultural policy makers and planners that agriculture is a male domain and the unpaid attention to women’s agricultural work (ekong, 2003). this study was therefore aimed at determining the extent of women farmers participation in agricultural extension activities identifying their constraints and improving their participation thereby enhancing agricultural productivity. the study was aimed at assessing participation of women farmers in agricultural extension activities. a sample size of 150 women farmers, were initially taken for the study but only 110 respondents were analyzed. simple random sampling technique was used for the sample selection and questionnaire was used to elicit information from the respondents. both description and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. the results showed that women farmers participated highest in radio broadcast(4.0), home visit (3.6), crop activities (3.8), farmer educational meeting (3.6), establishing demonstration plots (3.09), method demonstration (3.12), formation of farmer group (3.8) and t.v advertisement (3.7) respectively, while they participated low in activities like reading extension leaflets, newsletter etc. methods of fertilizer application (31%) and planting geometry (28%), ranked the highest in the type of messages disseminated by extension agents. michael okara university of agriculture umudike (mouau), national root crop research institute (nrcri) umudike and friends were the major sources of agricultural information to the women farmers in the study area. the major problems hindering their participation were lack of credit facilities (26.35%), lack of incentives (22.22%) and land tenure system (15.40%). age, educational level, farm size, household size, household income and farming experiences of the women farmers showed no significant relationship with their level of participation in agricultural extension activities. key words: agricultural extension, assessment, farmers, participation, women. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1):1-7 2 the broad objective of the study is to assess women farmers’ participation in agricultural extension activities in ikwuano local governments are of abia state. specifically to; i. describe the personal characteristics of the women involved; ii. determine the level of participation of women farmers in agricultural extension activities in the study area; iii. determine the type of messages disseminated by extension agents to women farmers in the study area; iv. determine the sources of agricultural information available to the women farmers in the study area and; v. identify the problems hindering women farmers participation in agricultural extension activities in the study area. hypothesis of the study the following hypothesis is stated for the study. ho: there is no significant relationship between women farmers’ participation in agricultural extension activities and selected socio economic characteristics of the respondents. 2. methodology the study was conducted at ikwuano local government area (l.g.a) of abia state located between latitudes 5 0 24 1 5 0 30 1 e and longitude 7 0 32 1 7 0 37 1 e in the degraded humid forest of southeast agro – ecological zone of nigeria (chukwu and ebeniro, 2000). it is bounded on the north by bende and umuahia north l.g.a, on the south by umuahia south l.g.a, isialangwa l.g.a and akwaibom state on the west and east respectively. the l.g.a covers about 600km 2 and has a population of 137897 (made 70509, female 67388) (2006 population census final result). officially, ikwuano l.g.a. comprises of four autonomous communities namely, ariam, ibere, oboro and oloko and is characterized by total annual precipitation of over 200mm, high temperatures (22.3 0 ) (minimum and 31.0 0 (maximum) and high relative humidity (66-79%) (chukwu and ifenkwe, 1996; chukwu and asawalam, 2001). the area has a mean annual soil temperature of 28.8 0 c and its vegetation is of a typical rain forest. relatively thick natural forests and forest plantation, of gmelina arborea exist in ibere. in ikwuano l.g.a of abia state, there are problems of poor knowledge of land resources, declining productively and under utilization (chukwu and ifenkwe, 1996). the area occurs on physiographic surface ring from 30 – 152m above sea level, the soil are characterized by top sequence and are derived from alluvium, shale and coastal plain sands (chukwu and ifenkwe, 1996; chude and chukwu, 2000; chukwu and ebeniro, 2000). cocoa (theobroma cocoa) is one of the important cash crop, grown and is the major source of income in ibere area. about 60% of land is devoted to cocoa production in the area. other cash crops grown include oil palm (elaesis guineensis), banana and plantain (musa spp). popular variable crops grown in the area include cassava (manihot esculenta) and maize (zea mais). the existence of inland valley and the hydromorphic nature the area (chude and chukwu, 2000; chukwu and ebeniro, 2000) as well as the existence of rivers ehie and ako itunta, favour potential use of land visit for irrigation agriculture, sugarcane, fishery and rizipisculture. the population of this study includes all the women farmers that participated in agricultural extension activities in the study area. oboro, ibere autonomous communities, were purposively selected on the basics of its accessibility for the study. the list of villages in each of the selected autonomous communities were obtained from ikwuano l.g.a headquarters. this formed the sampling frame for the selection of the villages. these villages include obohia, iberenta, ntalakwu, amawom and amoba. in each village, the list of women farmers were obtained from the respective village heads from the list, thirty farmers were randomly selected from the villages in oboro and ibere communities. this gave rise to a total of 150 respondents for the sampling. the primary data used include: questionnaire, a five point likert type scale was used to determine the major views of the respondents they include. fully participate (pp) = 5 averagely participate (ap) = 4 fairly participate (fp) = 3 participate little (pl) = 2 non participate (np) = 1 oral interview:this includes a structured interview scheduled with the women farmers based on the objectives of the study. secondary data were also used to collect information. 3. method of data analysis to make the data collected more meaningful, the researchers used descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution of the respondents, percentages and means for objectives (1,3,4 and 5). objective (2) was however asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1):1-7 3 analysed using a five point likert type scale. pearson product moment correlation coefficient (5) was used to test hypothesis. the dependent variable for this study was participation while the independent variable was the socio economic characteristics of the women farmers involved in agricultural extension activities. the level of women farmers participation in agricultural extension activities was measured on a five point likert type scale rating of fully participated = 5, averagely participated = 4, fairly participated = 3, participated little = 2, non participated = 11. the summation of all the points was divided by the number of scale as; x = ∑x = 5+ 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 15 n 5 5 = 3.0 any mean greater than or equal to 3.0 implies full participation while mean less than 3.0 implied little participation. 4. results and discussion table 1 shows that socio-economic characteristic of the respondents studied include age, marital status, educational status, household size, household income, farming experience, farm size and farming systems. the results showed that women within the age bracket of 41-50 years constituted the highest frequency (4636%). this group was followed by those between 31-40 years who represented 29.09%. the respondents between 51-60 years had a frequency of 13 equivalents to 11.8%. the number of respondents who were less than 30 years old made up about 8.0% while the least (4.5%) comprised those who were over 60 years old. this result showed that, generally, about 83.63% of the respondents were less than 51years of age while 16.37% were greater than 50years. this implies that majority of the respondents are still young and agile farmers with a mean age of 41.7 years. it is expected that majority of the respondents will be more educated and can adopt easily modern communication techniques. the table also showed that majority (84.5%) of the women farmers in the study area was married. however, widows and divorcees comprised 10 and 3.6% of the respondents, respectively. from the results, it can be inferred that the study area is dominated by married women. the result is not surprise since chude and chukwu (2000) confirmed that women farmers are mostly married. the results of the study showed that about 18.18% of the respondents had a formal education while 37.27% attained primary education. about 32.7 and 11.8% of the respondents attained secondary and tertiary education, respectively. the study area is therefore, dominated by literate female farmers with a mean educational level of 8years. this is not a surprise because over 80% of them are less than 51years (table 1) and have the opportunity to avail themselves of formal education. percentage distribution of the household size of the respondents was in the magnitude of 61.8 > .34.5 > 3.6 for household sizes ranging from 4-6, 7-9 and 1-3, respectively (table 1). however the mean household size of the respondents is six persons. this suggests a lot pressure on the women for the upkeep of the households, and probably, more hands for farm. income distribution of the respondents showed that only about 21.3% had a household annual income of less than #150,000. about 17.02%, 23.4% and 14.89% of the respondents had annual income ranges of #150,000 250,000, #251,000-350,000 and #351,000-450,000, respectively. about 19.14% and 23.4% of the respondents had an annual income ranging from 451000-550,000 and over 550,000 naira, respectively. the distribution of the respondents according to farming experience showed that about 10 (9.09%) and 78 (70.9%) had less than 10years andn10-20 years of experience in farming respectively. only 15.45% and 4.5% of the respondents had a farming experience ranging from 21-30years and greater than 30years, respectively. the mean experience is about 17 years implying that the farmers are experienced. the results collaborate the mean age (41years) of the farmers. a farmer who is over 40 years in the rural environment is expected to have a reasonable year of experience in farming. table 1 also presents the frequency distribution of the respondents according to farm size. about 12.7% and 9.09% of the respondents had less than 0.25 ha. and 0.5ha respectively while 45.45% had 0.6ha. only 32.7% had farm size greater than. the mean farm size is about 3.0ha. the study area is therefore dominated by large holder farmers. the result is not a surprise; since ikwuano is a major coca producing area in abia state (chukwu and chinaka, 2001).land use for cocoa involves relatively a large holdings. with regards to farming system, majority of the respondents (63.6%) practice mixed cropping while 28.18% practice mixed farming. only about 8.18% of the respondents practice sole cropping. interaction from the respondents and report on agricultural land use in ikwuano (chukwu and chinaka, 2001) revealed that old cocoa and oil palm plantation are sole cropping, while inter cropping is practiced in young plantation. about 10-11 years ago, chukwu and ebeniro (2000) and resources of ikwuano provided opportunities for vegetable, rice, sugarcane, fishery, rise fish culture, forestry and irrigation to enhance rural development. this could have been harnessed as reflected in the present farming system that involved mixed farming and mixed cropping (table 1). it is concluded from the results that the dominant farming system is mixed cropping. the distribution of respondents according to their level of participation in agricultural extension activities is shown in table 2. results showed that the women participated averagely from that, their participation in farm visits, home visit, crop activities, farmer educational meeting, establishing demonstration plots, method demonstration, formation of farmers group and tv advertisement was fair with a mean score of less than 4 but greater than 3: this shows that they actively participated. similarly, they participated little in reading extension leaflets, newsletter, extension bulletins, and score of less than 3. ikwuano is a beneficiary of rural electrification. consequently, all the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1):1-7 4 respondents had a radio which can be operated with electricity. this accounted for their highest participation in listening to radio broadcast. non availability of extension leaflets, newsletters and bulletins accounted for their little participation because over 50% of the respondents had primary education and above (table 1). so they can read these extension materials if they are made available to them table-1. distribution of the respondents according to socio – economic characteristics, n= 110 characteristics frequency percentage (%) mean age (years) < 30 9 8.18 41.7 31-40 32 29.09 41-50 51 46.36 51-60 13 11.8 760 5 4.5 marital status single 2 1.8 married 93 84.5 widowed 11 10 divorced 4 3.6 household size 1 – 3 4 3.6 5.8 4 – 6 68 61.8 7 – 9 38 34.5 household income < 150,000 1 2.127 150,000 – 250,000 8 17.02 251,000 – 350,000 11 23.4 351,000 – 450,000 7 14.89 451,000 – 550,000 9 19.149 >55,000 11 23.4 farming experience (years) < 10 10 9.09 10 – 20 78 70.9 21 – 30 17 15.45 > 30 5 4.5 farming size (hectare) < 0.25 14 12.7 3 0.5 10 9.09 0.6 50 45.45 > 1ha 36 32.7 farming system mixed farming 31 28.18 2.35 sole cropping 9 8.18 mixed cropping 70 63.6 source: field survey, 2011. tables 3 and 4 shows the frequency distribution of respondents according to types of messages disseminated and how effective the messages are, respectively. in table 3, the frequency distribution of messages disseminated was in order. method of fertilizer application > planting system > post harvest technology > message on animal husbandry >yam minisett technology>method of pest control. the highest frequency of method of pest fertilizer application buttressed the need for adequate attested to the reposts by chukwu and ifenkwe (1996) and chukwu and asawalam (2001) that ikwuano soils suffer multi nutrient deficiencies. hence, extension has to respond to their suggestion for fertilizer use to increase crop yield and farmers income. table 4 shows that about 65.4% and 34.5% of the respondents indicated that the messages were highly effective and effective respectively. the mean score value was 4.65 which was greater than 3.0 implying that the messages boarded on the felt heads of the women who responded as expected. this is not a surprise because the messages were among the most important challenges women farmers in all l.g.as in abia state emphasized, based on a study by chukwu and ebeniro (2000). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1):1-7 5 table-2. distribution of respondents according to their level of participation in agricultural extension activities. n = 110. source: field survey, 2011. table-3. distribution of respondents according to types of messages disseminated data in table are multiple choice responses source: field survey, 2011. table-4. distribution of respondent according to the effectiveness of the messages. n = 110 variable frequency percentage% ranking mean highly effective 72 65.45 5 4.65 effective 38 34.5 4 fairly effective 3 ineffective 2 highly ineffective 1 total 110 100 source; field survey, 2011. from table 5, the nrcri umudike ranked as the highest (29.28%) source of agricultural information. this was followed by friends (19.6%), moua, umudike (14.28%), radio and t.v. the state adp was the least source of information. the results can be explained by the fact that nrcri umudike started as a provincial farm in 1924 and metamorphosed into a research institute in 1976. the people are already used to the institute in terms of reaching and training and consultations. similarly, moua, umudike has adoption village extension services that penetrate the communities in ikwuano. the least contribution of the adp as a source of information is due to the wide extension agent, farmer’s rations of 1:490 in the state against 1:800 recommended by world bank (2001). the result supported the observation by chukwu and chinaka (2001) that given the wide ratio, many of the grass root women might not be reached by extension agent. the low percentage of women farmers having extension agents as their source of agricultural information could be that male farmers have more access to agricultural information through extension agents than female farmers as reported earlier by adekanya (1988). the results also agreed with the findings of adekanya (1988) that women farmers usually get agricultural information from their husbands, friends and mass media. from table 6, the result from this shows that majority (26.38%) of the respondents indicated lack of credit facilities, followed by lack of incentive (22.2%), and land tenure system (13.4%) as the three most important problems hindering their active participation in agricultural extension activities. however 11.8%, 8.68% and 7.29% of the respondents indicated that ineffectiveness of extension services, husband’s negative influence and lack of information, respectively are other challenges that serve as a drawback to their active participation in agricultural extension activities. only 5.2% of the respondents indicated lack of interest as the problem hindering their participation. the rating of lack of credit facilities first among the challenges supported the world bank (2001) and fao. (2006) that women farmers have no access to the credit and capital required to increase the production. the result also supported the report by chukwu and asawalam (2001) that women farmers in abia ranked lack of fund highest (26%) among the seven production constraints they identified to hinder agricultural development. extension activities fully participate (>70%)5 averagely participate (5160%)4 fairly participate (41-50%)3 participate little (<40%)2 non participat e (0%)1 mean score individual activities farm visits 95 164 141 4 1 3.68 home visits 60 192 144 4 3.6 crop activities 24 5 42 4 3.86 farmers education meeting 18 48 49 5 2 3.6 establishing demonstration plots 30 96 174 36 4 3.09 method demonstration 8 20 53 18 1 3.12 formation of farmers group 27 48 24 8 3 3.8 farmers field days 6 30 37 23 14 2.9 mass media activities extension leaflets 2 19 47 24 18 2.66 newsletter 2 20 53 27 8 2.8 extension bulletin 5 22 55 26 5 2.9 slides 3 15 40 41 11 2.6 firm presentation 2 26 54 19 9 2.9 tv advertisement 20 53 26 9 2 3.7 radio broadcast 30 54 23 1 2 4.0 variables frequency percentage (%) methods of fertilizer application 74 31 method pest control 15 6.3 message on animal husbandry 26 10.9 yam miniset technology 22 9.2436 post harvest technology 33 13.865 planting geometry 68 28.57 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1):1-7 6 table-5. distribution of respondents according sources of agricultural information. n = 110. data in the table are multiple choice responses source; field survey, 2011. table-6. distribution of respondents according to problems hindering their participation in agricultural extension activities. n = 110 data in the table are multiple choice responses source: field survey, 2011. table-7. correlation between socio-economic characteristic, of the respondents and their participation in agricultural extension activities. variable correlation decision age -0.01128 ns education 0.10679 ns household size -0.03572 ns household income 0.22309 ns farming experience -0.00342 ns farm size 0.08872 ns ns = not significant at 10% the correlation between socio economic characteristics of the respondents and their participation in agricultural extension activities is shown in table 7. the result from this table shows that age, household size, farming experience had a negative correlation of -0.01128, -0.03572, and -0.00342 respectively but it was not significant. educational level, household income and farm size has a positive correlation of 0.10679, 0.22309 and 0.8872 respectively but was not significant. the implication of that increase in educational level household income and farming experience will had to an increase in the level of participation while an increase in age, household size and farming experience will lead to a decrease in participation. thus the null hypothesis is accepted since there is no significant relationship between socio economic characteristics of the respondents and their participation in agricultural extension activities. 5. conclusion the study shows that majority of the women farmers in the area participated actively in individual activities of extension except farmer field days while the women’s participation in mass media activities, were relatively low except in tv advert and radio where they participation actively. the major types of message dissemination to the women agricultural information to the respondents were nrci umudike, friends, moua umudike radio and tv. the state adp was the least source of agent information. the women farmers did not have the expected access to professional extension agents. there was no significant relationship between socio economic characteristics (age) educational level, household size, household income, farming experience and farm size of the respondents and their participation in agricultural extension activities. 6. recommendation the following recommendations were being made in view of the aforementioned findings of the study: 1. government should encourage and assist women farmers by giving them special attention in terms of access to needed farm inputs and incentives. new farming implement should be made affordable and available to the women. 2. women adult literacy education programme is required to help women farmers acquire basic skills and abilities to seek and receive agricultural information through extension agents. this will make them to participate more in reading extension leaflets, bulletin, newsletter etc. 3. credit facilities should be provided by the government either through various women group and cooperate so as to enable them participate fully in agricultural activities. varibles frequency percentage (%) ranking radio 29 10.357 4 adp 6 2.1408 9 nrcri, umudike 82 29.28 1 tv 29 4.28 8 moua, umudike 40 14.28 8 extension agent 12 4.28 posters 13 4.6 7 friends 55 19.6 2 agric shows 14 5 6 variables frequency percentage (%) lack of credit facilities 76 26.38 land tenure system 53 15.4027 lack of interest 15 5.208 ineffective of extension services 34 11.8 husbands negative influence 25 8.68 lack of information 21 7.29 lack of incentives 64 22.223 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1):1-7 7 4. finally considering women designated roles in agricultural production effort, agricultural information to farmers should be gender specific and sensitive. references adekanya, t.o., 1988. women in agriculture, african note special volume in women in agriculture. institute of african studies, university of ibadan. chude, k.a. and g.o. chukwu, 2000. soil characterization in relation to aquaculture: a case study of ikwuano local government area, abia state nigeria. in global journal of pure and applied sciences, 6(4): 603-607. chukwu, g.o. and d.o. asawalam, 2001. land capability evaluation of ikwuano local government area of abia state for agricultural development. proceedings of 25th annual conference of soil science society of nigeria. benin city edo state 21st – 29th november, 2001.: pp: 39 – 44. chukwu, g.o. and c.c. chinaka, 2001. agricultural land use in ikwuano l.g.a., abia state. implication, for agro-technology transfer. proceedings of 34th annual conference of the agricultural society of nigeria (asn). pp: 192 – 194. chukwu, g.o. and l.a. ebeniro, 2000. rizipisci-cuttuse potential of inland valleys of ikwuano local government area of abia state. proceedings of the 3300 annual conference of the agricultural society of nigeria (asn). pp: 152 – 154. chukwu, g.o. and g.e. ifenkwe, 1996. an edaphalogical approach to biodiversity conservation in ikwuano local government area of abia state. implications for agro – technology transfer. proceedings of the 5th annual conference of the nigerian society for biological conservation. fed. univ. of agric. umudike.: pp: 91 – 94. daman, p., 1997. cooperation and poverty reduction enhancing social and economic imperatives. ica road, new delhi: ps. ekong, e.e., 2003. an introduction to rural sociology. 2nd edn., fiya nigeria: dove educational publisher. fao., 2006. gender and agricultural support systems. sustainable development. fao. available from htpp/www.fao.org/sd/wpd.ret/4./15/2006. inter-america development bank., 2000. social protection for equity and growth, sustainable development. department’s poverty and inequality advisory unit, washington d.c. nonyelu, c., 1996. an appraisal study of the agricultural extension system in nigeria. the role of women proceeding of the workshop for national agricultural strategy plan and extension services input delivery. abuja, november 25th -26th. nwansat, g.s., 2002. problems of women in nigeria agriculture, " in journal of women in nigeria agriculture”, in journal of women in academics (jowacas), 2(1): 68. protz, m., 1977. developing sustainable agricultural technologies with rural women in jamaica: a participatory media approach. university of reading: u.k.: 1-3. world bank, 2001. nigeria and the world bank: learning from the past, looking to the future. the world bank. washington d.c. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.fao.org/sd/wpd.ret/4./15/2006 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 2, 58-63, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 58 restricted collective bargaining and wage-related industrial unrest in the public service: the nigerian case uzoh, bonaventure chigozie 1 1 department of sociology/anthropology nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 59 2. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 62 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 63 collective bargaining has been regarded as the best method for determining wages and other employment conditions of workers. unfortunately, the collective bargaining machinery is not wellestablished and entrenched in the public service in nigeria. as a result, it is rarely employed as an instrument of wage determination and other working conditions. the government prefers to use direct intervention through wage commissions, semi-judicial tribunals, and wage committees or even government proclamations and pronouncements for fixing wages and other conditions of employment for its employees in the public service instead of collective bargaining. this situation has largely been blamed for the incessant wage-related industrial unrest in the public service in nigeria that manifests mainly in the form of strike actions. all the aforementioned methods do not give workers room to freely negotiate their employment conditions through their representatives. this explains why recommendations of wage commissions and government pronouncements over wages and other conditions of employment are usually greeted with protests and widespread agitations by workers in the public service. the paper therefore contends that the limited use of collective bargaining machinery for the determination of wages and other conditions of work of employees influences the frequent wage-related industrial unrest in the public service in nigeria and unless the collective bargaining machinery is deeply entrenched and frequently used for wage determination and settling other employment conditions it would difficult to maintain industrial peace and harmony. keywords: collective bargaining, wage, wage commission, industrial unrest, public service, government. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 58-63 59 1. introduction although, there is a great diversity among countries in the legal framework governing employment relations, it should be recognized that in many developing countries including nigeria, the legal framework is still considered more restrictive especially in the public sector (tajudeen and kehinde, 2007). the experience of nigeria in employment relations reveals a clear reluctance by successive governments to adhere to the principle of voluntarism. instead, political process seems to have superseded free negotiation between employers and employees (yesufu, 1984; tajudeen and kehinde, 2007). according to fashoyin (1987), the post -colonial government of late sir abubakar tafawa balewa adopted the principle of voluntarism as a guide in its industrial relations policy. through this policy, the government sought to encourage the use of collective bargaining as a vehicle for settling wages and other conditions of employment in preference to an outright state intervention. the reason for adopting the voluntarism philosophy was based on the contention that the long term interest of government, employees, employers as well as trade unions rested on the process of mutual consultation and discussion, which was the foundation of industrial democracy (fashoyin, 1987). collective bargaining took a new turn when the military came to power in 1966. the government initiated a series of decrees that virtually upheld the institution of wage tribunals as a means of settling industrial disputes thereby abrogating the principle of collective bargaining based on voluntarism. scholars of industrial relations (ubeku, 1986; aderogba, 2005) have adjudged the use of the collective bargaining machinery in determining wages of employees and other conditions of work the best means. unfortunately, this machinery has been grossly underutilized as a means of determining wages and other conditions of work in the entire public service in nigeria, a situation that obviously encourages industrial unrest that manifests itself mainly in the form of strike actions (yesufu, 1984; kester, 2006). the problems of collective bargaining as an instrument of wage determination in nigeria in terms of its restricted nature and the relatively large number of workers outside its coverage emanate from the developments in the national polity (nigeria labour congress, 2008). ubeku (1986), for instance argues that while the employers and the unions may establish their procedural and substantive rules through the collective bargaining process in nigeria, that exercise must be subjected to the control of government. kester and ayantunji (2002) also opine that conditions of employment of civil servants in nigeria are practically determined outside free negotiation. the bargaining concept as known in the private sector and the right to strike cannot be applied without modification. omole (1987) also submits that if collective bargaining in the private sector could be regarded as a system of rule making and wage determination in nigeria, it can hardly be considered the same in the public sector. more so, according to nigeria labour congress (2008), a large number of unionized workers particularly in the public sector are not covered by formal and well structured bargaining machinery which often lead to ad hoc negotiations occasioned by industrial crisis. most government parastatals with few exceptions have no collective bargaining machinery, nor do unions negotiate with their managements. yet, the legislation which established these parastatals empowered their board or management to independently review the conditions of service. in the case of the civil service, the age-long negotiation machinery became dormant in the 1990‟s and was only resorted to during severe crisis (nigeria labour congress, 2008; 2009). ghosi (1989) also observes that in the nigeria context, collective bargaining is a form of direct intervention. the government has been directly appointing wage commissions for the determination of wages and salaries of public sector employees. at the same time, commissions‟ awards restricted to the public sector usually result in high incidence of trade disputes in all sectors of the nigeria economy. consequently, wage commissions serve to weaken the collective bargaining system in nigeria (ghosi, 1989). it is necessary therefore to investigate the relationship between the limited use of collective bargaining in determining wages of employees and frequent industrial unrest in the public service in nigeria. 1.1. clarification of concepts some important concepts used in this paper are hereby clarified so as to remove any ambiguities about their meaning within the context of the work. the concepts are as follows; collective bargaining: this refers to the process of negotiation between representatives of workers and employers in respect of the terms and working condition of employees, such as wages, hours of work, grievance procedure and so forth. according to singh (2013), “collective bargaining typically refers to the negotiation, administration and interpretation of a written agreement between two parties that covers a specific period of time. this agreement or contract lay out in specific terms the conditions of employment, puts some limits on employees and sets limits on management‟s authority”. it is a process of accommodation between two institutions which have both common and conflicting interests. the process is „collective‟ because representatives of employees and employers in groups rather than as individuals solve issues relating to terms and conditions of employment. the term „bargaining‟ refers to evolving an agreement using methods like negotiations discussions, exchange of facts and ideas, rather than confrontation (singh, 2013). the process of collective bargaining is bipartite in nature, which means that the negotiations are between the employers and employees, without a third parties intervention. divergent view points are put forth by the parties concerned, and through negotiations, a settlement is reached with the objective of arriving at an agreement. wage; employers usually see wage as all costs incurred for the recruitment and use of labour in their enterprises. these include direct wages, fringe benefits, social security benefits paid to the employees and other costs incurred for occupational safety and health and human resource development. employers are therefore concerned with the total cost of labour. workers on their own see wages as the direct payment received for work done (kessler, 1995; 2000). duncan (1989) and poole and jenkins (1998) posit that workers are concerned with the immediate quantum of disposable income, although they recognize that fringe benefits associated with terms and conditions of employment and all other benefits in cash or kind are also part of wages. the types and quantum of fringe benefits vary with countries. it is determined through government intervention with legislation and collective bargaining between asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 58-63 60 employers and trade unions. it is therefore a result of tripartite consultation and agreement (milkovitch and newman, 1990). according to armstrong (1999), the main components of payment systems include; basic pay, productivity incentives, social security, fringe benefits such as medical benefits, paid leave and allowances. some of the allowances include rent in lieu of quarters, basic amenities for electricity, water, transport, subsidies for education of children, and domestic assistants (armstrong, 1999; bratton, 1999). industrial unrest; is a generic term that covers all forms of industrial actions undertaken by workers and employers to express their dissatisfaction in the workplace (anugwom, 2007). although, strike is the most popular form of the manifestations of industrial unrest in any society, there are other forms, which do not attract much notice or public attention. yet this latter category accounts for a significant proportion of labour management dispute (fashoyin, 2005). these other forms through which industrial unrest manifests itself are mainly used by workers and their unions as pressure methods on the employers to win their demands (fashoyin, 2005). the types of action in this category include, work-to-rule, over time ban, lock-in/out, and intimidation (fashoyin, 2005). work-to-rule aims at the restriction of output through deliberate reduction in the pace of work. in nigeria, for instance, work-to-rule (popularly referred to as „go slow‟) actions have featured prominently in labour-management relations for a long time, although they became a regular instrument of union bargaining strategy following the nostrike provision of the wartime legislation (yesufu, 1984; ubeku, 1986; fashoyin, 2005). the overtime ban is a union strategy, which seeks to impose additional costs on the employer if more production is needed. overtime ban is an effective means of securing the employer‟s concession. where, however, the union embarks on overtime ban, this has a disruptive effect on efficiency (fashoyin, 2005). in nigeria, for instance, this strategy is used in the banking industry where normal work usually continues for several hours after the close of banking services to the public (yesufu, 1984; fashoyin, 2005). the lock-in/out is an action in which employees physically „take over‟ the company premises, either by lockingin or locking-out the management staff, thus denying them access to or exit from the premises (fashoyin, 2005). unlike the first two forms, this action is often an indication of extremely unhealthy labour relations, which sometimes suggests excessive use of union power. in many cases, union leaderships do not sanction this strategy (fashoyin, 2005). intimidation aims at putting the employer in a bad light by doing things, which are embarrassing or antithetical to normal work behaviour. this form of industrial action is a more recent phenomenon and now commonly used in public – oriented organizations (ubeku, 1986; fashoyin, 2005). this form of industrial action is used to induce the employer to negotiate. in quite a number of cases, the foregoing forms of industrial action have been used to induce the employer to negotiate. in quite a number of cases too, the foregoing forms of industrial action have also been as effective as the strike (ubeku, 1986; fashoyin, 2005). strike action is the most common form of industrial unrest in nigeria and remains the most used instrument by organized labour in nigeria for pushing through their demands from employers (yesufu, 1984). strike indicates a breakdown of cordial relationship between labour and management and is usually the one aspect of industrial relations that invites the most negative commentary. yet the strike, distasteful as it is, performs various useful functions for the two sides of industry (ubeku, 1986). when a union calls out its members on strike, it is in the belief that the strike will exert pressure on the employer (and sometimes indirectly on government) to take a desired action, such as conceding a demand for improvement in terms of employment, or ameliorating an unsatisfactory working condition. all strikes, whether orthodox or political, fit into this description (yesufu, 1984; fashoyin, 2005). in many cases, non-strike actions serve as the first phase of an action package that ultimately ends up in a strike. there are also cases where workers have been locked out of the company premises by management. lockout is actually the employers‟ counterpart of the strike. the company gates are locked, thereby preventing workers from entering company premises (fashoyin, 2005). lockouts are not common occurrence in labourmanagement relations in nigeria. in fact, it appears that most lockouts that occur are preceded by strike action or other forms of industrial action. oftentimes, when workers embark on an action and the management or the third party intervention has failed to resolve it, they might find it expedient to lock out the workers, either to reduce overhead costs or to safeguard lives and properties. for this reason, it is not usually easy to separate the two phenomena in labour – management relations (fashoyin, 2005). yesufu (1984) observes that industrial unrest can also manifest in the form of covert or unorganized action. in his own words “the signs of un-organized discontent that result from each individual taking whatever step he can in pursuit of his own happiness are; a high rate of labour turnover, absenteeism, and general inefficiency and unwillingness to work". public service; refers to service provided by government to people living within its jurisdiction, either directly (through the public sector) or by financing provision of services. in other words, service provided or supported by government or its agencies (wikipedia, 2014). service performed for the benefit of the public, especially by a nongovernmental organization. public service also refers to the business of supplying an essential commodity, such as water or electricity, or a service, such as communication, to the public. 1.2. collective bargaining and wage-related industrial unrest in the public service in nigeria: a theoretical review the structure of collective bargaining refers to a system of negotiations in industrial relations, which includes negotiating wages, or remuneration of labour (aiyede, 2002). ordinarily, there are two patterns of interaction between the parties in industrial relations. these are the tripartite and bipartite patterns. tripartite interaction involves three parties, namely, government, employer and labour. government may interact as state authority or as employer. in the tripartite interaction, the government negotiates or consults with employers and workers‟ representatives on important industrial relations policies and other macroeconomic policies that touch on fundamental issues of development (adesina, 1995; aiyede, 2002). bipartite interaction involves two parties in asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 58-63 61 industrial relations and the major issues discussed and negotiated usually centre on wages and salaries, and working conditions. the interaction may be between government and employers, government and labour, or between labour and employers. when government negotiates with labour in this role, it acts in its capacity as an employer (adesina, 1995; aiyede, 2002). in nigeria, whitley councils were the first collective bargaining institutions set up for the public service in 1948 by the government to provide avenues for workers participation in determining the terms and conditions of service in the public sector (aiyede, 2002). whitley council was an all embracing machinery of a national scope covering federal, state, and (sometimes) local government employees. thus, it constituted a centralized form of collective bargaining (yesufu, 1984; otobo, 1992). according to fashoyin (2005) whitley system failed in many government establishments after barely a year of its existence for some reasons. first, instead of serving as bargaining machinery, they were used as consultative bodies. second, there were problems of representation on both sides, indecision, redtapism and lack of government support. third, they were rendered useless because decisions on wages and conditions of employment were generally made by semi judicial wage commissions, particularly for public sector employees. yesufu (1984) and omole (1991) report that it was not until 1963, when the government faced several pressures from trade unions for review of wages and working conditions that a modification of the structure and scope of collective bargaining was attempted in nigeria. this was through the morgan commission of 1963-1964 set up by the federal government. the commission sought to remove the shortcomings of the whitley councils and noted that collective bargaining between government and employees, through whitley councils, has hardly been effective. according to aiyede (2002), and aminu (2008), institutions to support collective bargaining such as the national wages advisory council earlier recommended by the morgan commission were eventually established in 1965. these institutions faced the same fate as the earlier whitley councils and were moribund during the national crisis and civil war of 1966-1970. agitation by workers for improvements in their working conditions increased immediately after the civil war, the federal government set up the adebo commission (1970-1971) which upheld the position of the morgan commission that collective bargaining was the most desirable means of determining wages and conditions of work. accordingly, it revived the whitley council system, providing for skilled and unskilled workers. it also made case for the use of collective bargaining for both the public and private sectors of the economy on the ground that it will keep wages in proper national balance both in comparison between sectors, and in relation to available real resources (sokundi, 1992; adesina, 1995; aiyede, 2002). sokundi (1992) opines that the commission recommended that wage boards and industrial councils be provided as machinery for the determination of wages and conditions of service for sections of the labour force that are outside the purview of collective agreements and areas where wages are unreasonably low. according to fashoyin (1987), following the approval of the adebo commission‟s report, the federal military government issued the wages board and industrial council decree no.1 of 1973 to repeal the wages ordinance of 1957. this provided the legal bases for the industrial wages board and national wages board that were established for the private and public sectors respectively. in 1974, the udoji commission recommended a unified civil service structure and called for a revival of the bipartite machineries for negotiation in the public sector through the creation of public service negotiating councils (ubeku, 1986; olugboye, 1996) . the udoji commission did not leave the adjustment of wages to these councils, but went ahead to award increments. the civil service was thrown into confusion as several complaints were leveled against the new grades and salary scales announced in the government white paper on the udoji report. according to fashoyin (1980) , the establishment of productivity, prices and incomes board (ppib) that had earlier been recommended and emphasized by the adebo and udoji commissions respectively would have been supportive of collective bargaining, but was made moribund when the military government imposed a wage freeze in 1976, the same year the board was inaugurated. fashoyin (1980) and aderogba (2005) maintain that as for the bipartite negotiating councils, the government did not make recourse to them in wage determination, thereby giving the impression that it believed that collective bargaining was unfit for setting wages and conditions of service in the public sector. making salary structure and wage levels uniform across the public sector also foreclosed collective bargaining at the level of the various governments and parastatals with the exception of the centre (aiyede, 2002). aderogba (2005) and kester (2006) submit that collective bargaining plays a number of roles in fostering good labour-management relations. one of such roles is its standard setting function. together with the law, it constitutes the main source of regulations governing wages, conditions of work, mutual relations and industrial relations generally. it provides a means of determining, by voluntary negotiations between the parties concerned, the wages and conditions of work that would be applicable to the employees covered by the collective agreements. the federal government of nigeria seems to be unaware of this, because it believes it can do whatsoever it likes, arbitrarily, in matters of collective bargaining. it is therefore a general opinion among scholars of industrial relations that the problems associated with wage determination in the public service that frequently result in industrial unrest is because of the restrictive use of collective bargaining machinery in wage determination (yesufu, 1984; ubeku, 1986; adesina, 1995). the principle of sovereignty makes the government in nigeria the sole determinant of wages and other conditions of service at least in the public sector. this is why government sets up wage tribunals towards wages or increase in wages of workers. this method of industrial relations, means that government dictates wages and conditions of service, whether it is accepted by workers and their unions or not (yusif, 2008). again, this is indeed contrary to the principle of collective bargaining, which is recommended by the international labour organization as the only democratic path for civilized industrial relations system (kester, 2006). while the principle of voluntary collective bargaining is not given a chance to operate as a result of excessive state intervention in industrial relations system, the strategy of state intervention does not allow peace in the system. therefore, a confused shift in government policy emerged. this is what is called the principle of limited intervention, which is a combination of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 58-63 62 some elements of principle of voluntary collective bargaining and that of state intervention (yesufu, 1984; ubeku, 1986; yusif, 2008). the theoretical thrust of this paper is the marxian theory which is associated with the great german philosopher karl marx. marx (1844/1964) asserts that capitalism entails the need for companies to be profitable. if they are not, capital could not be invested in them and they would not survive. to be profitable, they have to be based on the extraction of surplus value (the difference between the value of the work done and the wages paid) and the exploitation of workers. marx (1844/1964) maintains that only labour produces wealth. thus, wealth in capitalist society is produced by the labour power of the workers. however, much of this wealth is appropriated in the form of profits by the capitalists who own and control the means of production. the wages of workers are well below the value of the wealth they produce. there is therefore a contradiction between the forces of production, in particular the labour power of the workers which produces the wealth, and the relations of production which involves the appropriation of much of that wealth by the capitalists who form the ruling class. marx (1844/1964) further postulates that work which entails the production of goods and services holds the key to human happiness and fulfillment, as work is the most important and the primary social activity. as such, it can provide the means to either fulfill people‟s potential or to distort and pervert their nature and their relationship with others. like their products, workers are reduced to the level of a commodity. a monetary value is placed on their work and costs of labour are assessed in the same way as the cost of machinery and raw materials. like the commodities they manufacture, workers are at the mercy of market forces of the law of demand and supply (marx, 1844/1964). the marxian theory adequately captures the situation in nigeria. the situation in nigeria is that the political and the administrative elite, who form the ruling class and are also in the minority, have cornered the common wealth, leaving majority of the people most of who belong to the working class impoverished. in nigeria, the difference in pay between managers and ordinary workers is one of highest in the world. this difference has also been increasing over the years (nigeria labour congress, 2008; 2009). at the same time, owners and managers of banks, top government officials and members of the political class have seen their pay and wealth swell astronomically while workers have had to survive on starvation wages. this has frequently led to workers demanding higher wages, a situation that generates industrial unrest. this is because workers must fight back so as to get at least minimal increases in their wages (nigeria labour congress, 2008; 2009). government never feels comfortable negotiating with workers for fear that workers would insist on getting all that they are entitled to, and as a result government uses direct intervention mainly through wage commissions to determine wages and other employment conditions of employees in the public service. the recommendations of wage commissions are rarely satisfactory to workers because they hardly make any inputs into the deliberations of wage commissions and even when they do, their inputs are usually not binding on the commission. this situation frequently generates industrial unrest in the public service. many of marx critics have argued that history has failed to substantiate marx‟s views on the direction of change. thus, they claim that class conflict, far from growing in intensity, has become institutionalized in advanced capitalist societies. rather than moving towards a polarization of classes, they argue that the class structure of capitalist societies has become increasingly complex and differentiated. in particular, a steadily growing middle class has emerged between the ruling class and working class people (haralambos and holborn, 2004). in spite of these criticisms the marxian theory still provides the best insight into the subject of this investigation. 1.3. the way out all the major actors in the country‟s industrial relations system especially the government should see collective bargaining as the only means of achieving industrial peace and harmony and also raising the productivity of workers. this is because collective bargaining has the advantage that it settles issues through dialogue and consensus rather than through conflict and confrontation. collective bargaining usually represents the choices or compromises of the parties themselves. government needs to decidedly encourage collective bargaining by re-examining its current imposition of compulsory arbitration and limiting its use to exceptional cases that defy meaningful collective bargaining exercise. moreover, government should always endeavour to respect agreements collectively reached with its employees. if it thinks that it is necessary to get involved in any negotiation, then it should be prepared to honour any agreement reached in such a negotiation. this ensures that collective bargaining remains an effective and viable method of determining wages and other employment conditions of workers in the public service. furthermore, the imposition of income guidelines also interferes with the collective bargaining process and therefore should be removed. although, it may be argued that this reduces inflationary trends in the economy, yet its removal is necessary because imposition interferes with union‟s autonomy and dictates what is to be bargained for before the actual negotiation. it is an established fact that if the worker is restricted, he may work out other means to take what he thinks is due to him such as pilfering, corruption, absenteeism, stealing and so on. collective bargaining should always be encouraged because it is a form of participation. both parties participate in deciding what portion of the „cake‟ is to be shared by the parties entitled to a share. at the end of the agreed term labour again insists on participating in deciding what share of the fruits of their labour should be apportioned to them. collective bargaining is a form of participation because it also involves a sharing of rule making power between employers and unions, and this has eroded areas that in earlier times were regarded as management prerogatives, for instance, transfer, promotion, redundancy, discipline, modernization, and production norms. 2. conclusion collective bargaining has been adjudged the best method of fixing wages of workers and other working conditions. this is because it gives employers and representatives of workers the opportunity to sit down on a round table and iron out the employment contract of workers. if there are grey areas in the contract, they are also peacefully resolved without resorting to confrontation. when there is collective bargaining, the parties involved also realize at asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 58-63 63 some points in the course of the negotiation that sacrifices and shifting of grounds would be necessary so as to have successful bargaining process. the agreements reached at the end of a successful bargaining become sacrosanct because all the parties are expected to abide by them, and the agreements would also specify when the next negotiations will be held. like this it becomes possible to maintain industrial peace to a very large extent and industrial unrest is reduced to the barest minimum. unfortunately, the above scenario is not what is obtainable in the public service in nigeria where the government is the only employer of labour. instead of collective bargaining, government prefers to use wage commissions, government pronouncements and direct interventions in determining wages of workers and other conditions of employment. these are actually deliberate actions on the part of government to continue to shortchange workers. government knows that when there is negotiation workers will demand what is rightly due to them. even when government agrees to negotiate as a result of pressure from workers, it hardly honours the agreement and this is the situation that often leads to industrial unrest in the public service. but of course, this is in line with the repressive character of the nigerian state with very rigid class structures that reinforced at every point in time. well-established and deeply entrenched collective bargaining machinery will obviously reduce the frequency of wage-related industrial unrest in the public service in nigeria. this is because it gives both the government and its employees (represented by their unions) the opportunity to resolve contentious and thorny issues pertaining to wages and other employment conditions without confrontations thereby avoiding industrial unrest. 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vol. 5, no. 4, 151-156, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p)2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.54.147.152 the meaningful place: transforming taman sari banda aceh as city park rahmalia1  nurul hikmah2 ( corresponding author) 1school of journalism and communication, huazhong university of science and technology (hust), wuhan, 430074, p. r. china 2school of education studies, universiti sains malaysia (usm), gelugor 11800, penang, malaysia abstract city park is a public space which should be utilized optimally by the community. one of the city parks intersecting with the center of facilities and infrastructure of banda aceh city is taman sari. the condition of the urban park in banda aceh city is not comfortable enough. therefore, people tend not to use public space optimally, in this case, as a place for interacting and holding the certain events. this research was intended to conduct a systematic observation on the utilization of taman sari (the city park) to maximize its function as public area and manage the efforts for the improvement of the area related to transformation of recreational area as the local playground into more meaningful, purposeful and useful site in term of social, economic, and environment sectors. the data obtained through field surveys, interviews and the study of literature as well as providing documentation about the activities of the community by analyzing the qualitative descriptive methods. the result showed that the city park which was also as the representative public open area in banda aceh did not provide public facilities sufficiently. therefore, the existence of the city park would not only act as a playground but it could be more functional and beneficial in accordance with social and recreational activities, community creative art and entertainment, entrepreneurial activities as well as environmental conservation. the availability of public facilities would provide more attracting values to invite public to utilize the area as the center for many activities. keywords: the meaningful place, city park, taman sari, transforming, banda aceh. citation | rahmalia; nurul hikmah (2018). the meaningful place: transforming taman sari banda aceh as city park. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(4): 147-152. history: received: 29 june 2018 revised: 2 august 2018 accepted: 10 september 2018 published: 19 october 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 148 2. the methods ................................................................................................................................................................................... 148 3. the concept of place .................................................................................................................................................................... 149 4. results .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 149 5. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 151 6. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 151 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 151 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.54.147.152&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1512 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0069-057x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2846-5657 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1512 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0069-057x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2846-5657 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1512 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0069-057x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2846-5657 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1512 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0069-057x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2846-5657 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(4): 147-152 148 1. introduction city park is a public space which should be utilized optimally by the community. one of the city parks intersecting with the center of facilities and infrastructure of banda aceh city is taman sari. one of the public parks (rahmad and yulianti, 2017) and also the historical places (ar, 2012) in banda aceh, taman sari is strategically located between some other important places. masjid raya baiturrahman, one of the grand mosques in banda aceh is located 200 meters (yudistira, 2015) on its southern side, while its eastern side is located straightly in front of the mayor of banda aceh office and other government offices. after tsunami disaster (ar, 2012) hit aceh in 2004, taman sari was renovated. some old facilities are replaced with the new ones due to lost affected by the tsunami. some new facilities are, park benches, kids games facilities, hot spot internet connection area, parking place, pedestrian, a place providing the water for public, gathering place, park lighting, walking path, and food courts. besides, the government also provides the toilet and praying place to make the people feel comfortable. taman sari is an open area used as the public place to hold some events held by the government or nongovernment in banda aceh, namely, banda aceh expo, product and service for national travel and handcarving event, exhibition, culture and art festivals. the condition of this city park has fulfilled the standard as a city park (yudistira, 2015) but it‘s still lack of green and public area (sari, 2014; rahmad and yulianti, 2017).it is also lack of facilities needed to hold the big events, as well (rahmad and yulianti, 2017). this paper is talk about the history, the meaningful place, function and the transformation of taman sari as well. exploring how to use a place to be more important and meaningful, not only as a recreation place and waiting for place, but also to be a place where the social interaction can be done and also as people‘s activities area. 1.1. historical background aceh (crow, 2000; thaib, 2000; ar, 2012) is a province located on the tip of northern sumatera island (thaib, 2000; mcgregor, 2010; ichwan, 2011) and also the last province in western indonesia(jemadu, 2004). aceh is a province with special autonomy (sulistiyanto, 2001; ichwan, 2011; vignato, 2012) given by indonesian government (sulistiyanto, 2001) with banda aceh as the capital city. banda aceh is a city which surrounded by the beaches from the western indonesia coastal area. there are so many historical sites left by the previous kingdom (oga and husaini, 2017) in this place. there are so many struggling histories to fight the colonial (crow, 2000; sulistiyanto, 2001; jemadu, 2004; aspinall, 2007; grayman et al., 2009) as well as releasing from the long conflict (sulistiyanto, 2001; mccarthy, 2007; mccawley, 2014). the story about the cooperation with other kingdoms all over the world(jemadu, 2004)the capital of the world trade (aspinall, 2007) the story of sea traffic (sufi, 1996) and a crowded transportation place by that time (jemadu, 2004) in indian ocean, until the story of being a destroying city by tsunami disaster. a park which was described in the old manuscripts(harun, 2004)the place where the sultan‘s family was playing (ichwan, 2011) is taman sari located in the middle of the city and one of the sites (yudistira, 2015) which was often visited by the people. at the first time, this park is only a playground for the sultan‘s family (ichwan, 2011) which was full of plants and flowers, and left empty until aceh was free from dutch colonial expansion (kreike, 2012). there was no building there at that time. in 1945 the freedom tower was built there for remembering that banda aceh was a capital area for indonesia. being a strategic place, with a long landscape, which is close to any other tourism places like tsunami museum, peutjoet kerkhof (a mass grave which one of dutch general, kohler, and many other soldiers were buried), blang padang field, aceh‘s museum (aceh‘s house), putroe phang park and also gunongan park, made taman sari become a real favorite place for family recreation, for discussion, for gathering, and also for the kids playground, as well as the relaxing place for waiting another member of family doing shopping in aceh‘s market (about 300 meters from the park) or getting meeting with someone in the offices placed across this park. as it was told about the history in the past, this park is a proof about the development of banda aceh city from the kingdom era to the modern government era. 1.2. objectives of the study this research was intended to conduct a systematic observation on the utilization of taman sari (the city park) to maximize its function as public area and manage the efforts for the improvement of the area related to transformation of recreational area as the local playground into more meaningful "place", purposeful and useful site in term of social, economic, and environment sectors. this study focuses on the transformation of taman sari as the city park after the end of the tsunami disaster in aceh. the big disaster had created the acehnese history, as time went on, served as its main rationale for continued the new life in. 2. the methods 2.1. methods design the data obtained through field surveys, interviews and the study of literature as well as providing documentation about the activities of the community by analyzing with the qualitative (creswell et al., 2003; yin, 2009) descriptive methods. taman sari the city park of banda aceh was chosen as a study site for this research because it is one of the most strategic and accessible place (lukermann, 1964; relph, 1976; cresswell, 2008) located in the middle of city density. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(4): 147-152 149 2.2. overview of the research site the research was conducted in taman sari, the city park located in the one of most congested areas in the middle of banda aceh city, aceh province, associated with buildings, the area of stores, offices, masjid (grand mosque), tsunami museum, and other cultural sites. the position of this city park is very potent because it is located only 200 meters on the southern side of baiturrahman mosque. the eastern side of the park is directly opposite the mayor's office of banda aceh and other office buildings. 3. the concept of place place is in more than just a location and can be described as a location (lukermann, 1964; relph, 1976) created by human experiences. in fact ‗place‘ that is filled with meanings and objectives by human experiences (includes art, monument, architecture) in this particular space. places are centers where people can satisfy, there biological needs such as food, water etc (tuan, 1977). the idea that place, to be a place, necessarily has meaning. although there are glimmers of this idea throughout the history of geography, it grew in popularity in the modern discipline with the rise of humanistic geography (tuan, 1977). and a host of others approached place as a subjectively sensed and experienced phenomenon (relph, 1976). in each of these cases, the place is where the land is so very different from its surroundings that it deserves a name all its own. the museum is an attempt to produce a 'place of memory' will not be forgotten (cresswell, 2008). the gardens are the result of the efforts of others to carve out a place from a little piece of the human for their community to enjoy nature. we give them special names and call them ―places‖. a place can be labeled in several different ways. all of these are examples of the ongoing and diverse creation of places sites of history and identity in the city. 4. results each city has its own history which becomes the starting point of the city's development. to this day, taman sari, which in the past was famous as the playground for the sultan's family, is still continuing to transform and is trying to restore its landscape. visitors can experience the place, and enjoy the historical royal family atmosphere in this modern era. this place also serves a hotspot area where people can freely access the internet. there are also children's playground facilities, gathering place, and recreational facilities. visitors can meet with friends or relatives. they also can do discussion, do exercise, or merely spend their leisure time. they can find it all in this green open space with modern nuances. 4.1. taman sari as the city park for a long time, this park has been an outdoor recreational place for the people of banda aceh especially, or for acehnese in general. especially, this park had been a meeting point for some people, but so many changes have taken place after the tsunami disaster hit aceh on december 26, 2004 (ratrin hestyanti, 2006; jauhola, 2010). after being rehabilitated and reconstructed, taman sari has changed in many aspects. before that, there were only minor changes happened in taman sari. that is as the researcher witnesses, since the researcher has been visiting the city park with family and friends for as long as the researcher can remember, and so the researcher has seen how it has changed for the last twenty years. however, basically, taman sari has remained very much the same. even when the researcher is away from her hometown, the researcher can still remember the family atmosphere compelled by this place. this park is not very wide, it is only about 2370.00 meters square (department of environment cleanliness and beauty city of banda aceh (dlhk3), 2013) but this is supposed to be one of the reasons which ease people to interact with each other. moreover, people can enjoy the city view, and it is also close to the baiturrahman grand mosque as well as to the market and the government offices. it makes the taman sari as a city park has always been a destination to visit. 4.2. transforming taman sari to the meaningful place the result showed that taman sari which was also as a representative public open area in banda aceh did not provide public facilities sufficiently (sari, 2014). whereas, the availability of public facilities is crucial to encourage people to visit a place. therefore, the existence of the city park would not only act as a playground but it could be more functional and beneficial in accordance with social and recreational activities, community creative art and entertainment, entrepreneurial activities as well as environmental conservation. as one of the city icons, taman sari has begun to transform, the atmosphere is comfortable as a playground, a place to relaxing, a stopover or a place to waiting, a place to a gathering, witness various cultural exhibitions and local art performances. in addition to the existing facilities (leafy trees, park benches, adequate waste, parking) especially if coupled with more play rides for children, becoming a more purposeful place rather than just a recreational place (tate and eaton, 2015) for the community. the availability of public facilities would provide more attracting values to invite public to utilize the area as the centre for many activities. briefly, this public area would serve the community in conducting certain event or activities. there are a lot of memories for the community who often make taman sari as a meeting point, or only as a gathering place, but still can see the activity of urban people on working days. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(4): 147-152 150 figure-1. location of taman sari the city park source: authors, 2017 the availability of facilities and infrastructure in the city centre raises the attraction for the community to do activities. the city park (tate and eaton, 2015) is a place where people engage in social interaction and social activities. when you walk in taman sari or gather in the playground, you are experiencing the outcome of that meaning. nevertheless, the change of function has not been followed by improvement of its quality as a city park (rahmad and yulianti, 2017). in its efforts to increase the intensity of utilization, taman sari is already acting as a city park, functioning socially, ecologically and aesthetically (yudistira, 2015) but it is still not maximal, its facilities as a green open space and public space is still lacking (sari, 2014). as facilities to support major events are not yet supported, it becomes less interesting to conduct events. the event organizers have to make a stand/use a nonpermanent building, demolish it once the event is done. there is no permanent building that can facilitate the event held there. to improve the quality of the city park, actions must be done through the arrangement, good facilities, improvement of utilization, and socialization (publication). this is to increase visitors and utilization of the city park as a public space in banda aceh. the addition of multifunction shelter in the park can be useful as a protective area of the sun or rain, and can also be used as a place of exhibition, and art performances (piasan seni). it is necessary to take these actions for the creation of taman sari as a representative city park for a part of the public space of banda aceh. 4.3. the meaningful place a good city park provides security and comfort for the community in performing activities. it should also link all creativity of children with the performances of various arts and performances of natural products or local products, and the interest of the urban area. good facilities will improve the image of taman sari as a city park, so it worth a visit. furthermore, the urgent issue is how to improve the image of banda aceh through landmark (taman sari). since 2004, taman sari has transformed to become more beneficial to the community. the researcher does not consider taman sari as an ordinary city park, as time goes by, the researcher sees taman sari as a meaningful place. taman sari has become an icon or a landmark (lynch, 1960) of banda aceh, which is being developed after earthquake and tsunami. banda aceh has been recognized nationally as the capital of the province. the city represents acehnese culture, its cultural diversity, and religious diversity. it is a special place that represents aceh today. most people interpret meaning about a community by cultural values they see in a community. it is to encourage the community to consider using the place for social interactions and other activities (or doing other programs). if a place can be defined as relational, historical and related to identity, then space which cannot be defined as relational, historical, or concerned with identity will be a non-place (auge, 1996). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(4): 147-152 151 some cities have been developing their own sustainability indicators, to try and measure the quality of life issues in a meaningful way. figure-2. frame work of taman sari the city park source authors, 2017 5. discussion it analyzed some of the ways to improve the image of the city park so it will be more well-known, interesting to visit, and leaving a great impression. thus, with good facilities and comfortable atmosphere, it will make visitors and the public remember taman sari as a meaningful place to visit. it will also become a valuable tourist destination worth to be publicized, and eventually will be an important landmark of banda aceh city. this research provides interesting information to all parties, city-planners, visitors, researcher, government, and the community, in order to create taman sari as a purposeful and meaningful place as the city park. consequently, it will improve good image to outsiders about the role and importance of public green space for the citizens‘ well being and quality of life. people‘s relationships and connections with their places have shown how a place can act as a gift. in the past and in the future, ancestors and descendants are an inalienable presence to particular places. these may be nurtured, in the way we help to conserve the park and the homeland. 6. conclusion with the socialization of taman sari as a city park owned by the public, it is supposed to be an open space that is free to be used for any public activity. provided that, the cleanliness and beauty of the city park should always be maintained. consequently, the public knows that taman sari does not belong to certain parties, and is intended for the citizens instead. although, of course, the government is responsible for managing the maintenance and supporting facilities in the park. by this research, we can find out how the city park reaches the feasibility standard by increasing the comfort and facilities of the taman sari as a city park and green open space in banda aceh and able to make it as a landmark of kota banda aceh. as a suggestion, to deepen the understanding, a broader perspective and other methods may be implemented in order to further study the field, an interdisciplinary approach should be conducted to study the city park as a meaningful place. references ar, n., 2012. the manuscript collection of the aceh museum. indonesia and the malay world, 40(116): 94-110.available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/13639811.2011.649001. aspinall, e., 2007. from islamism to nationalism in aceh, indonesia. nations and nationalism, 13(2): 245-263.available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8129.2007.00277.x. 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(thesis). asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://dlhk3.bandaacehkota.go.id/taman-dan-rth-lainnya/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 1, 29-33 , 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 29 “the effect of training and development on employee performance in a private tertiary institution in ghana” (case study: pentecost university college (puc) ghana) philipina ampomah 1 1 department of secretaryship and management studies, cape coast polytechnic, ghana abstract contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 30 2. review of literature ................................................................................................................................................................. 30 3. methodology .............................................................................................................................................................................. 31 4. results and discussion .............................................................................................................................................................. 31 5. conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................................. 33 6. recommendation ....................................................................................................................................................................... 33 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 33 citation | philipina ampomah (2016). “the effect of training and development on employee performance in a private tertiary institution in ghana” (case study: pentecost university college (puc) ghana). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(1): 29-33. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.29.33 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 4 june 2015/ revised: 2 september 2015/ accepted: 9 september 2015/ published: 25 september 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group training and development is one of the key factors in improving employee performance in most organisations today. evidence derived from research showed that there is now a broad discussions amongst commentators that skills training and career development improve employee performance in the organization. the study focused on the effect of training and development on employee performance in a private tertiary institution in ghana; a case study of pentecost university college. the study used the simple random sampling technique to select staff from all levels of management. a high response rate of ninety-six percent was obtained using the personal method of data collection, based on which the analysis was made using the frequency tables and charts. the study found out that employees are aware of the purpose of training in the organisation, the training objectives are clear to them before the training as well as the selection criteria. the study also found out that employees are motivated through training; and training and development results into higher performance. the study recommended that training and development of all staff should be vigorously pursued and made compulsory. keywords: training, development, human resource, elements of training, puc, ghana. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.29.33 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.29.33 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 29-33 30 1. introduction human resource is the lynchpin of any organization; either non-profit or profit oriented. without people, an organization cannot exist. attention on the people and the meeting of their needs is important to achieve corporate objectives. according yahaya (2007) training and development is a very important component of human resource administration and management. it is thus seen that in ghana the government is taking adequate steps to ensure that people acquire the necessary knowledge and skills. the provision of secondary and technical schools, vocational training institutes and colleges, professional and tertiary institutions, as well as the educational reforms currently taking place in the country, are all geared towards the acquisition of skills and knowledge to ensure effectiveness and efficiency in our workplaces (professor mike ocquaye, 2004). with these efforts by the government, it has become necessary for organizations to provide long and systematic training and development programs for its employees. according to maund (2001) if employees are to experience flexibility and effectiveness on the job, they need to acquire and develop knowledge and skills, and if they are to believe that they are valued by the organization they work for, then they need to see visible signs of management’s commitment to their training and career needs. 1.1. statement of the problem according to cole (2002) it is a well-known fact that training enhances skills, knowledge, abilities and competencies and ultimately employee performance in organizations. one purpose of human resource is to produce a talent that would be fit in the needs of the organization and be suitable to the human knowledge in their position. the idea of having the right people in the right position is not impossible through the integration of training and development. but on what ways will the training and development affect the level of performance of the employees? this research is therefore being conducted to assess the effect of training and development on employee performance. 1.2. objectives of the study the study investigated the relationship between training and development; and employee performance in a private university in ghana. this paper therefore looks at training and development as an hrm practices in a private university and its effect on employee performance in the organization. specifically, the aim of the study is to find out: i. the training and development practices and purpose in the institution. ii. ascertain the training and development policy in operation. iii. the effect of training and development on employee performance. 2. review of literature according to armstrong (2003) human resource management has gone through series of stages. environmental and people factor called for its formation. it originated in 1915. the main idea of personal management was to provide welfare facilities and to dip into the personal inters of workers. it later became very important that personal management operations be extended to include personnel support to management in the form of recruitment and selection, basic training and record keeping etc. many activities has now become involving as need arise with the passage of time. training is a learning activity directed towards the acquisition of specific knowledge and skills for the purpose of an occupation or task. the focus of training is the job or task for example, the need to have efficiency and safety in the operation of particular machines or equipment, or the need for an effective sales force to mention but a few (cole, 2002). according to mcghee (1996) training therefore can be explained as a planned and systematic effort by management aimed at altering behavior of employees, in a direction that will achieve organizational goals. a formal training program is an effort by the employer to provide opportunities for the employee to acquire job-related skills, attitudes and knowledge. krietner (1995) says development is “a systematic process of training and growth by which individuals gain and apply knowledge, skills and attitude to manage work organizations effectively”. development perspective examines the current environment, the present state, and helps people on a team, in a department and as part of an institution identify effective strategies for improving performance. in some situations, there may not be anything “wrong” at the present time; the group or manager may simply be seeking ways to continue to develop and enhance existing relationships and job performance. in other situations, there may be an identifiable issue or problem that needs to be addressed; the development process aims to find ideas and solutions that can effectively return the group to a state of high performance. development implies creating and sustaining change. according to noe (2005) in the field of human resource management, training and development is the field concerned with organizational activity aimed at bettering the performance of individuals and groups in organizational settings. it has been known by several names, including employee development, human resource development, and learning and development. these two processes, training and development, are often closely connected. training can be used as a proactive means for developing skills and expertise to prevent problems from arising and can also be an effective tool in addressing any skills or performance gaps among staff. development can be used to create solutions to workplace issues, before they become a concern or after they become identifiable problem. training and development describes the formal, ongoing efforts that are made within organizations to improve the performance and self-fulfillment of their employees through a variety of educational methods and programmes. in the modern workplace, these efforts have taken on a broad range of applications from instruction in highly specific job skills to long-term professional development. in recent years, training and development has emerged as a formal business function, an integral element of strategy, and a recognized profession with distinct theories and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 29-33 31 methodologies. more and more companies of all sizes have embraced "continual learning" and other aspects of training and development as a means of promoting employee growth and acquiring a highly skilled work force. in fact, the quality of employees and the continual improvement of their skills and productivity through training are now widely recognized as vital factors in ensuring the long-term success and profitability of small businesses and in addition create a corporate culture that supports continual learning (mckenna and beech, 2002). cole (2002) argues training is one element many corporations consider when looking to advance people and offer promotions. although many employees recognize the high value those in management place on training and development, some employees are still reluctant to be trained. training and development offers more than just increased knowledge. it offers the added advantage of networking and drawing from others’ experiences therefore it is not uncommon to hear excuses regarding why someone has not received training. 3. methodology the research problem of the study was to assess the impact of training and development on employee performance. a case study of pentecost university college – ghana. the simple random sample technique was used in selecting the sample. this method of sampling was used to select thirty respondents across all sections of the university. 4. results and discussion table-1. an overview of the respondents details frequency percentage gender male 13 43.33 female 17 56.67 age 18 – 25 10 33.33 26 35 8 26.67 36 45 5 16.67 46 55 5 16.67 55 60 2 6.67 educational background senior high level 6 20 higher national diploma 9 30 first degree 13 43.33 master’s degree 2 6.67 work experience below 1 year 5 16.67 1 – 5 years 10 33.33 6 – 10 years 15 50 status of respondents management staff 5 16.67 senior staff 15 50 junior staff 10 33.33 source: fieldwork 2014 method of training: figure-1. methods of training figure 1.0 shows the method of training used at pentecost university college. on-the-job training represents 35%, seminar 31%, understudy training 17%, formal lectures 10% and other methods 7%. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 29-33 32 figure-2. elements of training figure 2.0 depicts the elements of training. these elements involve participation in training which shows that employees representing 96.7% have participated in training. the training selection criteria which show that performance appraisal 34.48%, new technology 31.34 and organizational restructuring also 34.48% were used to select employees for training. about 68.96% of employees were also aware of training objectives. figure-3. types of training figure 3.0 represent the types of training used in the organisation. job training 38%, refresher training 35%, career or development training 24% and orientation training 3%. figure-4. motivation through training. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 29-33 33 figure 4.0 shows that employees are motivated through training; 90% which leads to job satisfaction and dissatisfaction is at a minimal level; 10%. table-1. effect of training and development on employee performance: opinion on training and development effect on performance by management: details frequency percentage higher performance 25 83.33 lower performance 5 16.67 table 1 depicts the effect of training and development on employee performance. it showed that 83.33% of employees performed in higher levels after training. 4.1. discussion the purpose of training and development activities at pentecost university college is to achieve employee performance, acquision of skills and competencies and organizational performance in terms of completion and change. the main purpose of training is to improve knowledge and skills and to change attitudes and behavior for the purpose of enhancing employee performance and organizational effectiveness. training is one of the most potential motivators which can lead to many possible benefits for both individuals and the organization. new technology requires that employees update their knowledge, skills and abilities needed to fit in with new processes and techniques. the results indicate that, training policy the institution has was formulated to achieve the purpose of training and development and the policy also provides a coherent structure for training and development activities that improves access to training meant to help attain employee performance. the main objective of the study was to find out training and development effect on employee performance. the study found out that employee’s link their performance to training which indicate that training and development improve on employee performance positively resulting in job satisfaction. table 1 indicates 83.33% resulting in higher performance. the interview with training manager and the human resource manager did indicate that training and development of employees did boost employee performance and leads to job satisfaction. 5. conclusion the study seeks to assess the impact of training and development on employee performance in private institutions using pentecost university college as a case study and findings and recommendations provided. since training and development at pentecost university college is planned and systematic, the management should make sure the processes involved are duly followed and provide measures in correcting its training and development activities when the need arise. the findings of this research indicated that pentecost university college nature of work depends mainly on high technological and sophisticated equipment. this makes continuous training and development of its human resource crucial and vital, taking into consideration the rapid technological advancement. from the results of the study, it can be concluded that pentecost university college certainly had a well-established policy to invest in the training and development of employees. it also organizes training programs from time to time for its employees to update their knowledge and skills and to ensure that maximum staff efficiency exist in pentecost university college. employees who realized the need for change in attitude and want to develop themselves through formal education in order to be abreast with modern technological advances are sponsored by the institution or by themselves with assistance from the institution to acquire these skills. 6. recommendation i) training and development of all staff should be vigorously pursued and made compulsory. ii) career planning and development: career progressions projection plans and training and development projections should be made available to each employee. iii) evaluate training for effectiveness: the basis upon which each category of training is to be evaluated should be continued and adopt to change while considering how the information required evaluating learning events would be obtained and analyzed. references armstrong, m., 2003. a handbook on personnel management practice. 9th edn., london: kogan. cole, g.a., 2002. personnel and human resource management. 5th edn., continuum london: york publishers. krietner, s., 1995. the good manager’s guide. 1st edn., london: synene publishers. maund, l., 2001. an introduction to human resource management, theory and practice. new york: pelgrave macmillan publishers. mcghee, 1996. nature of learning. 1st edn., boston: mcgraw-hill book company. mckenna, e. and v. beech, 2002. human resource management-a concise analysis. 1st edn., uk: date publishing company ltd. noe, r.a., 2005. employee training and development. 3rd edn., boston: mcgraw-hill irwin. professor mike ocquaye, 2004. former minister of the ministry of education at the 5th congregation of central university college, ( august 2004). yahaya, k.a., 2007. impact of investment in human resource training and development on employee effectiveness in nigerian banks. available from < http://yahayahmad.com/. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://yahayahmad.com/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 3, 109-115, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 109 organizational citizenship behavior of special forces in the rok army soyoung shin 1 --julak lee 2* 1,2 department of security management, kyonggi university, suwon, republic of korea abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................. 110 2. literature review .................................................................................................................................................................... 110 3. method ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 111 4. results ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 112 5. discussion and conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 113 references .................................................................................................................................................................................... 114 the unconventional nature of the working environments and tasks of the rok army special forces (“special forces”), as compared to regular army forces, means that special forces’ organizational performance is largely influenced by their behavioral patterns and mindset. this study examines the organizational citizenship behavior of special forces to enhance their organizational performance. specifically, this study seeks to investigate the causal path of organizational citizenship behavior and its factors, self-leadership, and trust in the supervisor. data was collected from special forces based in the seoul metropolitan area during a two-month period, from june to july 2013. a total of 650 questionnaires were distributed, of which 647 were returned. using 638 questionnaires, excluding those that were unresponsive or filled out incompletely, frequency analysis, reliability and factor analysis, correlation analysis, and path analysis were performed using the spss 19.0 and amos 19.0 software packages. the results showed that special forces’ self-leadership had a significant effect on trust in the supervisor and organizational citizenship behavior, and trust in the supervisor had a partial mediating effect on the relationship between self-leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. accordingly, this study posits that to enhance special forces’ organizational citizenship behavior, it is important to strengthen their self-leadership and trust in the supervisor. keywords: rok army special forces, self-leadership, trust in the supervisor, organizational citizenship behavior, mediating effect. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 109-115 110 1. introduction changes in the domestic and international security environments and innovation in scientific technology expedited the enactment of south korea’s defense reform in december 2006, signaling the organization’s desire to take radical steps to respond more effectively to the changing nature of warfare. specifically, the south korean defense organization sought to adopt a low-cost, high-efficiency defense management system and to restructure the military, from one that is manpower-heavy to a streamlined yet information-driven organization powered by cutting edge technology. such reform measures have changed the perception of the military from an organization that demands unilateral personal commitment to a professional organization that fosters the capability and development of its personnel. human resources must be managed effectively to achieve these changes. given the military’s pyramid chain of command and control structure, it is especially vital to apply efficient human resources management at every phase. unlike civilian employees, members of the armed forces have a duty to protect their country and fellow countrymen, posing extreme mental and physical challenges. for the rok army special forces (hereafter “special forces”), the context and the specifics of their tasks, such as workplace characteristics and isolation from society, elevate the significance of each member’s behavioral patterns and mindset (turnipseed and murkison, 2000). thus, interactive and multi-directional human resources management must be in operation for special forces to function effectively. recent studies have underscored the importance of organizational citizenship behavior in empowering special forces as well as the larger military organization (ehrhart et al., 2006; loyd, 2011). organizational citizenship behavior is a discretionary behavior that goes beyond the delineated job requirements, which the formal reward system does not recognize. voluntary assistance to co-workers, courtesy and civility, and commitment to the organization are behavioral patterns that fit the definition of organization citizenship behavior (smith et al., 1983). organizational citizenship behavior generally inspires other members of the organization to commit to the organization, benefitting the organization. the pyramidal rank structure of a military organization means that at higher levels, there are fewer available positions, creating excessive competition that negatively impacts organizational citizenship behavior, decreasing individual and overall commitment to the organization. lee (2012) highlights the anxiety felt by long-serving military personnel who have hit a career plateau, as perceived employability based on their military experience is low. this study examines the organizational citizenship behavior of special forces. it can be argued that special forces’ unconventional warfare and missions mean that the behavioral patterns and mindset of these individuals, compared to those of regular armed forces, have a greater effect on the organization. for instance, because they must remain alert and maneuver under uncertain circumstances, the anxiety level and threat to life are extreme. more research is needed on special forces’ behavioral patterns and how they affect the individual members and the organization itself. demonstrating this gap in the literature, kim (2008)’s study is the only one to date; however, the methodology used only allows a forecast of the factors. this study goes beyond his study and demonstrates the paths between the forecasted factors. as such, this study examines special forces’ organizational citizenship behavior in the context of self-leadership and trust in the supervisor, arguably the two most important variables of organizational citizenship behavior. this study seeks to investigate the causal path of self-leadership and trust in the supervisor. 2. literature review 2.1. special forces and organizational citizenship behavior special forces carry out unconventional tasks that generally require a heightened alertness level. in practice, they are tasked with different missions from regular military units. in peacetime, special forces conduct counter-terrorism and disaster recovery operations, as well as support major national ceremonies, among other tasks. wartime requires special forces to engage in missions such as infiltrating enemy rear areas and hitting strategic targets in unpredictable battlefield situations (nam, 2009). because special forces were established to carry out exceptional and uncertain tasks, the mindset and the behavioral patterns of the members may greatly affect the mission’s outcome. it must be noted that the level of collaboration between special forces members increases the probability of potential problems, such as fear and a clash of values, but also enhances the probability of resolution if approached and worked through properly, thereby benefitting the organization. organizational citizenship behavior is defined as a discretionary individual behavior that goes beyond the job requirement and benefits the organization, without being acknowledged by the reward system (yoon, 2012). there are many factors leading to good citizenship behavior. ancient political philosophers posited that responsible citizenship behavior is a balance of obedience, loyalty, and participation (cary, 1977). smith et al. (1983) who first introduced the term organizational citizenship behavior, differentiated beneficial behaviors from general compliance behaviors. organ (1988) makes a further differentiation, including altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, and civic virtue. this study uses organ (1988)’s five differentiations, except courtesy and civic duty. the term courtesy is not used because it overlaps with, and is a subset of, altruism. civic duty as delineated by organ (1988) is also not used in this study to avoid any unintended confusion, for those surveyed carry out national security-related tasks adhering strictly to military rules and regulations. civic duty as defined by organ (1988) is a behavior characterized by an active and voluntary participation in the organization stemming from an intense interest in the life and matters of the organization. because special forces carry out their missions in accordance with orders, using civic duty in the context of special forces can be misleading, and yield confusing and inaccurate results. 2.2. self-leadership, trust in the supervisor and organizational citizenship behavior currently, public and private organizations seek efficient employee management through lifting morale and meeting needs based on the principle of autonomy (i.e., self-control and discretionary participation). when organization members recognize the importance of the “self,” overlooked in the past, and exercise self-leadership, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 109-115 111 external and internal motivations interact to meet the organization’s goals. in the past, organizations were fundamentally results-oriented, based on a one-dimensional perspective, which fostered a speed and results-centered organizational climate, which effectively lessened morale and job satisfaction and alienated members, (i.e., employees). however, a modern organization requires a different type of organizational structure and climate. the ability to demonstrate a high level of independence, self-reliance, and self-trust is highly regarded. as such, the principle of self-leadership was introduced and paved the way for action and cognitive strategies that allowed subordinates to take a self-leadership role. manz (1986) posited that self-leadership goes beyond empowerment and participatory value, and is about leading oneself by practicing self-control built on self and norm assessment. accordingly, self-leadership can be differentiated into behavior-focused strategies, natural reward strategies, and constructive thought pattern strategies (prussia et al., 1998). behavior-focused strategies develop one’s behavioral patterns through a process of selfanalysis. natural reward strategies involve differentiating tasks that one can concentrate on easily from others, then making the necessary changes to enhance the performance of all tasks. constructive thought pattern strategies (prussia et al., 1998) involve changing one’s thought patterns using self-talk, visions of success, and anchoring oneself in a belief system. self-leadership is related to extroversion, sincerity, and diligence. as such, one who practices self-leadership at an advanced level through constructive thinking increases positive emotions and optimism, as well as self-efficacy, resulting in an extroverted disposition. furthermore, an extroverted member has good interpersonal relations, and displays a positive behavioral pattern even when required to perform tasks beyond the delineated job responsibilities. these displays indicate commitment to the organization, and are connected to organizational citizenship behavior (chang, 2011). organ (1988) defined organizational citizenship behavior as individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes effective organizational functioning. as such, although immediate reward is not recognized for organizational citizenship behavior, repetition of such behavior could positively affect the organization in the long-term. self-leadership and organizational citizenship behavior have a common ground, in that a discretionary behavior affects midto long-term organizational achievement. as such, it appears to make sense to study the two together. however, this study focuses on the members of special forces, and therefore, trust in the supervisor, along with selfleadership and organizational citizenship behavior is examined. this organization functions as a clear hierarchical system based on loyalty to the supervisor, so the influence on the member’s thought patterns and actions must be considered. trust in the supervisor can positively affect the members’ thought patterns, resulting in a boost in morale and discretionary behavior that increases the organization’s effectiveness. further, a subordinate’s cognitive trust in the supervisor affects organizational citizenship behavior, with a study finding that certain causes of this trust may have a mediating effect (organ, 1988). in this study, a causal path is used to examine the effect self-leadership has on organizational citizenship behavior, based on the hypothesis that trust in the supervisor is a mediating factor in the relationship. according to research conducted by koh et al. (2011) in which survey data was collected from medical institution employees similar to the one distributed to special forces in this study, the results showed that selfleadership and trust in the supervisor affected organizational citizenship behavior; and trust in the supervisor has a mediating effect on the relationship between self-leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. this study seeks to understand whether data from special forces differs from data from the employees of medical institutions, which are civilian organizations. kim (2013) conducted a study on the relationship of self-leadership, trust in the supervisor, and organizational citizenship behavior with respect to special forces. however, the causal path in that study was investigated using multiple regression analysis, and therefore exogenous variables could not be controlled. thus, this study seeks to address the limitations of this research method by using path analysis to examine whether the structural model is applicable. 3. method 3.1. hypothesis this study seeks to investigate the causal path of the factors and variables that affect special forces members’ organizational citizenship behavior. the research model is based on the hypothesis that trust in the supervisor has a mediating effect on the relationship between self-leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. figure-1. route model asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 109-115 112 hypothesis 1. special forces’ self-leadership has a positive effect on trust in the supervisor. hypothesis 2. special forces’ self-leadership has a positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior. hypothesis 3. special forces’ self-leadership and trust in the supervisor have a positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior. 3.2. sample to conduct this study, data were obtained from special forces members working in the seoul metropolitan area during a two-month period, from june 1 to july 31, 2013. for this study, existing research and expert advice shaped the questions in the survey and judgment sampling was used to select the respondents. a total of 650 questionnaires were distributed, of which 647 were returned, and 638 questionnaires were analyzed, excluding those that were unresponsive or filled out incompletely. the characteristics of the sample deserving the most attention are that the respondents’ years of service were relatively low, and they were low-ranking, mirroring the organization’s pyramid structure. years of service was grouped into two sections, more than five years and less than five years, as most of the members served four years and 3 months on average. data show that 473 respondents (68.5%) served less than 5 years, and 201 respondents (31.5%) served more than 5 years. as for the military ranking, most were staff sergeants (47.6%); the higher the rank, the lower the frequency among the respondents, further reflecting the organization structure. there was correlation between rank and income. 3.3. measures organizational citizenship behavior was measured based on a 16-item scale developed by bateman and organ (1983), podsakoff et al. (1997), and mackenzie et al. (1991), using details from studies by kim (2007). this study takes altruism, when one helps fellow members facing hardship; conscientiousness, when one voluntarily carries out the minimum level of tasks required by the organization; and justification, when one carries out the tasks of the organization without complaint as the subset of organizational citizenship behavior. self-leadership was measured using a method based on manz and sims (1991) and prussia et al. (1998). in this study, the subset of self-leadership includes behavior-focused strategies, making changes through self-observation and self-analysis; natural reward strategies, exercising discretionary control and respect toward oneself; and constructive thought pattern strategies, solidifying and drawing from effective thought patterns. trust in the supervisor was measured using a method based on a survey influenced by lewis and weigert (1985). depending on situations and conditions, trust in the supervisor was classified as cognitive trust, relating to the issue of reliability; or emotional trust, relating to the emotional interaction with the supervisors. the responses were based on a 5-point likert scale. for every subset variable, the respondents could choose between five choices: “strongly disagree” (1 point); “somewhat disagree” (2 points); “neutral” (3 points); “somewhat agree” (4 points); “strongly agree” (5 points). in general, the higher the cronbach’s α coefficient value, the higher the reliability of the measuring instrument. while there is no agreement as to the minimum value required to pass the reliability test, 0.6 is generally accepted in the social sciences (lin et al., 2006), and hence in this study as well. upon completion of the reliability test, the validity of the factors was assessed to test their theoretical and empirical properties. the reliability of survey questions on organizational citizenship behavior, self-leadership, and trust in the supervisor all had a cronbach’s α value greater than 0.7. factor analysis yielded a factor loading greater than 0.4, demonstrating that their respective subsets are all good fits for this study. 3.4. analysis the spss 19.0 and amos 19.0 software packages were used to analyze the collected data. a reliability test was used to calculate cronbach’s α, which measures the reliability of the variable. then, factor analysis was used to evaluate the validity. subsequently, a correlation analysis examined the correlation between the variables, and path analysis used to study the causation path. 4. results prior to conducting the hypothesis test, descriptive statistics were compiled and a correlation analysis carried out to assess the classification of and the relationship between the variables. descriptive statistics show that the average values for altruism and validity were greater than 4.0, indicating that special forces exhibited a high level of organizational citizenship behavior. special forces’ conscientiousness yielded a value of 3.74, higher than the 3.0 median, but lower than the values for altruism and justification. for the self-leadership variables, both behaviorfocused strategies and natural reward strategies had a value greater than 4.0, though the value for constructive thought pattern strategies was comparatively lower, at 3.94. for trust in the supervisor, the value for cognitive and affective trust was 3.91, and the value for emotional trust was 3.76, both of which were above the 3.0 median. the values of the trust in the supervisor variables were lower than the values of the variables for both organizational citizenship behavior and self-leadership. a pearson correlation coefficient (r) between ±1.0 and ±0.7 indicates a strong linear relationship; r between ±0.3 and ±0.7 indicates a moderate linear relationship; and r between ±0.1 and ±0.3 indicates a weak linear relationship. if r falls between -0.1 and +0.1, then this linear relationship is deemed unusable. further, if the correlation is greater than ±8, then multicollinearity may be a factor. the findings in this study show that the correlation coefficient does not indicate a correlation exceeding 0.7, satisfying the discriminatory validity. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 109-115 113 table-1. bivariate correlation matrix for variables * p<.05, two-tailed. path analysis was used to test the hypothesis, using the variables that passed the reliability and validity tests. the results of the route model based on the research model, which examined the mediating effect trust in the supervisor had on the relationship between self-leadership and organizational leadership behavior, are as follows. the goodness-of-fit of the research model (chi-square = (76.904), p = 0.000, gfi = (.969), nfi = (.957), ifi = (.966), tli = (.943), cfi = (.966), rmsea = (.074)) indicates that the goodness-of-fit of the route model is reasonable. though the cmin value rejected the null hypothesis because it is a value that is highly sensitive to the sample size, the model was tested with the rmsea value, developed to overcome the limitations of large sample sizes. the result was less than .08, and therefore sufficient to assess the model by other fit indexes. first, the path coefficients show that self-leadership (coefficient = .459, t=7.342, p<0.001) has a significant effect on trust in the supervisor. self-leadership also has a statistically significant effect on organizational citizenship behavior (coefficient = .584, t = 10.723, p = 0.001). second, trust in the supervisor (coefficient = .232, t = 5.772, p < 0.001) has a significant effect on organizational citizenship behavior. finally, a comparison of the independent and dependent variables within the direct effect model and the mediated effect model shows a decline in the explanatory power of the mediated effect model, indicating a partial mediated effect. table-2. route coefficient route estimate s.e. c.r.(t) trust <self-leadership .459 .063 7.342*** org citizenship behavior <self-leadership .584 .054 10.723*** org citizenship behavior <trust .232 .040 5.772*** *** p<.001, two-tailed. to test the mediated effect of trust in the supervisor, direct and indirect effects were analyzed. the results showed a reliability value of .106 (p<0.001), indicating that trust in the supervisor has a mediating effect on selfleadership and organizational citizenship behavior. the bootstrap method was used to test the significance of this indirect effect, yielding a value less than .05, indicating that the value was significant. trust in the supervisor has a partial mediated effect on the relationship between self-leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. table-3. effects of variable route direct effect indirect effect total effect self-leadership trust .459*** .459*** self-leadership org citizenship behavior .584*** .106*** .690*** trust org citizenship behavior .232*** .232*** *** p<.001, two-tailed. 5. discussion and conclusion as mentioned above, the unconventional nature of the special forces’ environment and missions means that their behavioral patterns and mindset have a bigger effect on the organization, compared to those of regular armed forces. this study examines special forces’ organizational citizenship behavior, a discretionary behavioral pattern, toward other members of the organization and the organization itself. causal path was used to examine the variables of selfleadership and trust in the supervisor, providing the following results. first, the examination of key variables showed that most lie above the median, yielding a high value. however, conscientiousness yielded a lower value than altruism and validity, indicating that the framework of the special forces command chain leaves little room for carrying out voluntary actions. regarding self-leadership, the value for constructive thought pattern strategies was lower than values for behavior focused strategies and natural reward strategies, demonstrating that the chain of command restrains the members’ constructive thought pattern and behavior focused strategies. in a study by ro (2013), the degree of difference between the variables of organizational citizenship behavior and other variables was limited. such findings highlight the difference between the mindset and behavioral patterns of special forces and those of regular military forces, which are rooted in the differences in the working environments and characteristics of tasks involved. these findings demonstrate the need for separate studies on special forces and regular military forces. second, the route coefficient showed that self-leadership had a significant effect on both trust in the supervisor asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 109-115 114 and organizational citizenship behavior. further, trust in the supervisor had a significant effect on organizational citizenship behavior, signifying that all route coefficients used to test the hypothesis were statistically significant. in other words, self-leadership positively affects trust in the supervisor and organizational citizenship behavior, and trust in the supervisor had a positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior. as such, strengthening the selfleadership factors would positively affect special forces’ mindset toward the organization and have a significant effect on trust in the supervisor. such findings reinforce results from previous studies (choi, 2012) on the relationship between self-leadership and organizational citizenship behavior, as well as confirming that the factors affecting organizational citizenship behavior are self-leadership and trust in the supervisor. these studies shared a common ground in that they examined organizations driven and operated by human resources, making the differences in the type of organization, i.e., private or public, less relevant in examining this subject matter. further, kim (2013)’s study, also based on data from special forces, offers partial support, which strengthens the case that self-leadership and trust in the supervisor play a significant role in enhancing special forces’ organizational citizenship behavior. third, trust in the supervisor has a partial mediating effect on the relationship between self-leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. in fact, self-leadership has a direct effect on organizational citizenship behavior and affects organizational citizenship behavior through trust in the relationship. this means that as the level of selfleadership increases, the level of trust in the supervisor increases, effectively enhancing the discretionary behavioral pattern toward the organization. koh et al. (2011) studied the same subject matter, though focused on medical institution employees, finding that self-leadership had a significant effect on organizational citizenship behavior through trust in the supervisor. the study also found that trust in the supervisor had a partial mediating effect on organizational citizenship behavior, which is supported by this study. further, jeong (2009)’s study, which focused on employees of private institutions, showed that trust in the supervisor had a partial mediating effect on the relationship between the interplay between supervisor and subordinates and their job satisfaction, which highlighted the significant effect trust in the supervisor had on the mindset and attitude of the members of the organization. though this study takes place within a different context and has unique characteristics, the fact that it is an organization powered by human resources means that trust in the supervisor has a significant effect on discretionary mindset and behavioral patterns, such as self-leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. in conclusion, the unique demands placed on special forces is immense, including elevated awareness and concentration when responding to unforeseen situations, so their organizational citizenship behavior and mindset play a pivotal role. a multi-layered approach to nurturing the factors that enhance organizational citizenship behavior will empower special forces to effectively demonstrate discretionary behavioral patterns and a positive attitude. furthermore, trust in the supervisor leads to mid-to long-term job satisfaction (chon and kim, 2006) which positively affects the organization’s operations. furthermore, to continuously enhance organizational citizenship behavior, a military-wide effort must be made to establish a systematic human resources management system. special forces require investments in developing selfleadership and trust in the supervisor. given the unconventionally demanding nature of their duties, a distinctive and tailored management system is required. finally, collecting data on special forces posed challenges because they are tasked with carrying out missions to uphold national security. to overcome these challenges, hypotheses pertaining to corporate structures were adapted to examine the special forces organization, as their organizational structure shares certain characteristics of corporate structure. this study is also significant in that the exploratory examination showed that the corporate model of human resources management can be applied to a considerable degree to examine the human resources management of the special forces organization. references bateman, t. and d. organ, 1983. job satisfaction and the good solider: the relationship between affects and employee citizenship. academy of management journal, 26(4): 58-595. cary, c., 1977. the goals of citizenship training in american and soviet schools. studies in comparative communism, 10(3): 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citizenship behavior: its nature and antecedents. journal of applied psychology, 68(4): 653-663. turnipseed, l. and g. murkison, 2000. good soldiers and their syndrome: organizational citizenship behavior and the work environment. north american journal of psychology, 2(2): 281-302. yoon, d., 2012. influence of motivator-hygiene theory by herzberg on the organizational citizenship behavior of police officers. phd diss. honam university. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 4, no. 2, 82-87, 2017 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2017.42.82.87 82 detecting earning management of companies listing on hose vo thi quy1  duong trong nhan2 ( corresponding author) 1the faculty of business administration international university, vietnam 2the faculty of accounting department ho chi minh city open university ho chi minh city, vietnam abstract the study is aimed to detecting earning management from companies listing in ho chi minh stock exchange (hose) during the period from 2013 – 2015 by using 2 models, jones (1991) and modified jones model developed by dechow et al. (1995). moreover, we also tested the effectiveness of jones (1991) for detecting firms’ earning management since prior researches showed that jones (1991) has lower standard error in detecting accruals based earning management compared with other models as suggested by deangelo et al. (1994). hence we proposed that jones (1991) provides a more significant outcome for estimating the nondiscretionary component of accruals and thus less exposed to misspecifications error from absent variables. we found that jones (1991) illustrates a better explainable ability even though the adjusted r-square of the models is closely similar with each other. keywords: earning management, jones model, modified jones model, hose. citation | vo thi quy; duong trong nhan (2017). detecting earning management of companies listing on hose. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(2): 82-87. history: received: 16 may 2017 revised: 7 june 2017 accepted: 14 june 2017 published: 20 june 2017 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 83 2. theoretical background ................................................................................................................................................................. 83 3. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 85 4. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 87 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 87 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 87 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=vo thi quy https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=duong trong nhan https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=vo thi quy https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=duong trong nhan https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=vo thi quy https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=duong trong nhan asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 82-87 83 1. introduction earnings management has been gaining a lot of attention recently. earnings management is characterized as the adjustment of firms’ financial statements and actual economic performance by insiders or administrators to either ―deceive some stakeholders‖ or to ―control contractual outcomes‖ (healy and wahlen, 1999). many studies about earning management proposed that managers process manipulation to their reported earnings to match their motives by adapting certain company’s accounting procedure, altering accounting estimation, and/or managing accruals. earnings management is able to create unfavorable consequences for the value of the companies in the long term. previous studies found that firms involving in earnings management to meet and/or overcoming analyst predictions have benefited from a rising stock price, but this advantage appears only for a short term. for the long term, the performance and share price of those companies involved in managing earnings are less sustainable than enterprises that did not employ earning management technique (bhojraj et al., 2009). earnings management also creates an apparent disadvantage for financial information users like external stakeholders who faced an asymmetric information problem and count on the financial report to come up with final decisions in order to make important investment (burns and merchant, 1990). the act of manipulating earnings also contravenes the accounting’s practical code of professional. managing earning can violate the relevant rules of accounting. for example, the act of successful manipulation to cover earning adjustments, disguising a failure to meet or exceed forecasted profit by financial analyst, changing a loss into profit or vice versa (grant et al., 2000). earning management has been gaining more attention since the fraudulent scandal of enron and worldcom were exposed and judged as an unethical action of manipulating earning management. there are many popular and well known models developed by healy (1985); deangelo (1986); jones (1991); patricia et al. (1995) and kothari et al. (2005) used to identify and investigate the actions of manipulating earnings management of firm managers, but in vietnam lacks of such studies, even though the difference between preand post-audit earnings of vietnamese firms listing in vietnamese stock markets is announced rather regularly, so that we suspect the existence of manipulating earnings management among these firms. therefore, this study was carried out for identifying the action on earnings management from the listed companies on hose, and investigating the effectiveness of jones (1991). 2. theoretical background 2.1. earning management definition earnings management happens when firm managers makes adjustment in reporting financial statement deceive shareholders, investors, creditor and readers of financial report about the actual operating performance of the company or to create an impact on profitable outcomes which rely on reported numbers on financial statement (healy and wahlen, 1999). 2.2. models for detecting accrual based earning management 2.2.1. healy (1985) healy (1985) studied relationship between earning management and executive compensation, and developed the model to evaluate nondiscretionary as in below equation: ndat+1 = (1/n)ʃ (tai,t /a t-1) where: ndat+1 = nondiscretionary accruals for period t+1 ta i,t = total accruals in year t for firm i at-1 = total assets in year t-1 for the firm i n = number of years healy model estimates non-discretionary accruals. the discretionary accrual is calculated by subtracting the nondiscretionary accruals from the total accruals from the estimated period. 2.2.2. jones (1991) jones (1991) developed the model to detect the accrual based earning management, and become the most widely used model for estimation of earnings management. the model is expressed as below: tai,t = q0(1/ai,t–1) + q1δrevi,t + q2ppei,t + si,t where: tai,t = total accruals in year t for firm i δrevi,t = revenues in year t less revenue in year t-1 for firm i scaled by ai,t-1 ppei,t = gross property, plant and equipment in the year t for the firm i scaled by ai,t-1 ai,t-1 = total assets in year t-1 for the firm i εi,t = error term in the year t for firm i jones (1991) is a linearly related regression approach with the explanatory variables as changes in revenue, and the gross property, plant and equipment, which represent the control for non-discretionary accruals, and regress total accruals. this model was developed with an assumption that all revenues are nondiscretionary and the changes in revenue as a nondiscretionary accrual. thus, if managers use technique of manipulating revenue, jones (1991) cannot identify or may underestimate discretionary accruals, according to ronen and yaari (2008). moreover, heteroskedasticity in the model as a big problem; to control the heteroskedasticity, all the variables included, dependent and independent variables, are divided by lagged assets, however, white (1980) stated that heteroskedasticity is reduced by deflation of a variable, but not to be eliminated. 2.2.3. modified jones model by dechow et al. (1995) the model of jones (1991) was adjusted by dechow et al. (1995) for addressing the problems above. the model is specified as below: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 82-87 84 tai,t = q0(1/ai,t–1) + q1(δrevi,t — δreci,t) + q2ppei,t + εi,t where: tai,t = total accruals in year t for firm i scaled by ai,t-1 δrevi,t = revenues in the year t less revenue in year t-1 for firm i scaled by ai,t-1 δreci,t = receivables in the year t less receivables in year t-1 for firm i scaled by ai,t-1 ppei,t = gross property, plant and equipment in the year t for the firm i scaled by ai,t-1 ai,t-1 = total assets in year t-1 for the firm i εi,t = error term in the year t for firm i change in accounts receivable is accounted for by the changes in revenue because manipulation is the first modification of dechow et al. (1995). another effect that the modification caused is cash sales is now adopted in the model because of containing changes in accounts receivable, and this addresses the problems in the jones (1991). 2.2.4. modified jones model by kothari et al. (2005) performance matching model developed by kothari et al. (2005) improved on the jones (1991) and the modified jones model by patricia et al. (1995). the two most well-known models for detect earnings management above are not able to present the correlation between accruals and firm performance because of misspecification in cases of firms that had intense performance (patricia et al., 1995); (kothari et al., 2005) debated that operating performance must appear in the equation of discretionary, and thus their model can be used for investigating relation between discretionary accruals and the performance of firms. tai,t = q0 + q1 (1/ai,t–1)+ q2δrevi,t + q3ppei,t + q4roai,t + si,t where: tai,t = total accruals in year t for firm i δrevi,t = revenues in the year t less revenue in year t-1 for firm i scaled byai,t-1 ppei,t = in the year t for the firm i scaled by ai,t-1 roai,t = return on assets in the year t for firm i scaled by ai,t-1 ai,t-1 = total assets in year t-1 for the firm i εi,t = error term in the year t for firm this study used three popular models that is the jones (1991) the modified jones model by dechow et al. (1995) and modified jones model by kothari et al. (2005) to detect earnings management in listed firms on hose. 2.2.5. data collection data is collected from the annual financial reports between 2013-2015 from 300 nonfinancial companies listed on hose from the website cophieu68.vn. 2.2.6. models standardized for controlling heteroskedasticity to reduce the heteroskedasticity, three models are standardized by dividing all their components by total asset (ai,t-1). the standardized models expressed as below:  jones (1991): tai,t/ ai,t–1 = β0(1/ai,t–1) + β1δrevi,t/ai,t–1 + β2 ppei,t/ai,t–1 + si,t  modified jones model by dechow et al. (1995): tai,t/ ai,t–1 = β0 (1/ai,t–1) + β1 (δrevi,t — δreci,t) + β2 ppei,t + εi,t  modified jones model by kothari et al. (2005) tai,t/ ai,t–1 = β0 (1/ai,t–1)+ β1 δrevi,t + β2 ppei,t + β3 roai,t + si,t 2.2.7. measuring earnings management earnings management is assumed to be the act of manipulating accruals. accruals could be either an impression of earnings manipulation or just usual accounting measures based on the expectations of business in the future. it is not easy to identify which one would affect accruals. however, it was proven that the size of accruals could be employed as a harsh measurement for manipulating earnings, especially companies with high-accrual. to determine the total net accruals estimated in a specific period of time, we must subtract the cash earnings from the accruals earning for the period. there are two approaches using: the balance sheet or the cash-flow statement in order to calculate the total net accruals hidden in the reported earnings. in this study the balance sheet method was used to process the measurement of total accrual, and the total net accruals can be estimated as below: total accruals = accrual earnings + cash earnings (1) apparently, accrual earnings and cash earnings are not presented in the balance sheet, to retrieve this information, further calculation must be performed. step 1: estimating accrual earnings net income appears in the balance sheet as retained earnings, which serves as a part of owners' equity. moreover, the net distribution to equity holder is demonstrated by owners’ equity, thus this item should be modified. therefore, the owners’ equity will be estimated as the equation below: ending equity = beginning equity – cash dividends – stock repurchases + equity issuance to estimate accrual earnings, the above formula can be rearranged to identify the difference between ending owners' equity and beginning owners' equity, and then adjusting it with stock repurchases, dividends, and stock issuances. this adjustment represents the net cash distributions to equity. accrual earnings (ae) =? owner equity + cash dividend + stock repurchases – equity issuance ae = ? owner equity + net cash distribution to equity now, assuming that assets liabilities = owners' equity, we can substitute in to get the following equation for accrual earnings: accrual earnings =? assets ? liabilities + net cash distribution to equity (2) http://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/retainedearnings.asp http://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/sharerepurchase.asp http://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/dividend.asp asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 82-87 85 step 2: estimating cash earnings to start, cash earning have a relation with cash account and can be determined by looking at the changes. moreover, net cash distributions to equity holders also have influence on cash account, and these items need to be adjusted. therefore, at the end of the period, cash earnings will be: cash earnings =? cash + cash dividend + stock repurchase – equity issuance =? cash + net distribution to equity (3) step 3: estimating total net accruals from (1), (2), (3) we have: total net accruals = accrual earnings – cash earning = (? assets ? liabilities – net cash distribution to equity) – (? cash + net cash distribution to equity) the net cash distributions to equity eliminate each other out, and the equation reduces to: total net accruals =? assets ? liabilities ? cash 3. results 3.1. ordinary least square regression table-1. ols regression results jones (1991) coefficients p-value 1/ai,t-1 .720 0.000 δrevi,t/ai,t-1 -.261 0.000 ppei,t /ai,t-1 -.124 0.012 patricia et al. (1995) coefficients p-value 1/ai,t-1 788 0.000 δrevi,t δreci,t) /ai,t-1 .055 0.170 ppei,t /ai,t-1 -.317 0.000 kothari et al. (2005) coefficients p-value 1/ai,t-1 .717 0.000 δrevi,t/ai,t-1 -.269 0.000 ppei,t /ai,t-1 -.151 0.010 roai,t /ai,t-1 .850 0.396 source: calculated by authors from eview 8 the results shows that two variables (δrevi,t/ai,t-1 and ppei,t /ai,t-1), significantly, explains the variance of total net accruals of the 3 models (see table 1). adjusted r-square of all three models is rather higher (table 2) hence, all three models can be applied to detect earnings management of firms. table-2. adjusted r-square of 3 models model adjusted r2 p-value jones (1991) 0.618 .000 patricia et al. (1995) 0.582 .000 kothari et al. (2005) 0.617 .000 source: calculated by authors from eview 8 3.2. multicollinearity test if ―multicollinearity‖ appeared, in which two certain independent variables themselves create a linear relation with each other, then the results generated by regressions will be biased. therefore we tested for multicollinearity and the test results presented in table 3. table-3. detecting multicollinearity jones (1991) variance inflation factor(vif) 1/ai,t-1 1.218 δrevi,t/ai,t-1 1.726 ppei,t /ai,t-1 1.866 patricia et al. (1995) vif 1/ai,t-1 1.100 δrevi,t δreci,t)/ai,t-1 1.123 ppei,t /ai,t-1 1.184 kothari et al. (2005) vif 1/ai,t-1 1.228 δrevi,t/ai,t-1 1.785 ppei,t /ai,t-1 2.642 roai,t /ai,t-1 2.144 source: calculated by authors from eview 8 the variance inflation factors (vif) of all predictors in the three models are lower than 10, therefore we conclude that there are no the existence of multicollinearity in all three models. 3.3. autocorrelation test to detect the existence of autocorrelation in the model durbin-watson test was used and the test’s results shown in table 4. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 82-87 86 table-4. durbin-watson test result models durbin-watson test jones (1991) 1.841 patricia et al. (1995) 1.839 kothari et al. (2005) 1.838 source: calculated by authors from eview 8 in durbin-watson test, there are 2 critical values, an upper critical value (du) and a lower critical value (dl). there is also an intermediate region where we can neither reject nor accept h0. table-5. durbin watson critical values models lower critical value (dl) test statistic upper critical value (du) jones (1991) 1.79051 1.841 1.83088 patricia et al. (1995) 1.79051 1.839 1.83088 kothari et al. (2005) 1.78371 1.838 1.83773 source: calculated by authors from eview 8 table-6. durbin watson critical values models du test statistic 4 du jones (1991) 1.83088 1.841 2.16912 patricia et al. (1995) 1.83088 1.839 2.16912 kothari et al. (2005) 1.83773 1.838 2.16227 source: calculated by authors from eview 8 the test statistics of all three models are greater than upper critical values (du) and smaller than 4 –du. so we do not reject the null hypothesis that there is no evidence of autocorrelation in models. 3.4. white test for heteroskedasticity table-7. white test results white test resulted in the rejection of null hypothesis, implying the presence of heteroskedasticity in the models. 3.5. treatment for heteroskedasticity table-8. treatment results jones (1991) coefficients p-value 1/ai,t-1 -4966.937 0.0098 δrevi,t/ai,t-1 .058324 0.0000 ppei,t /ai,t-1 .019393 0.0865 patricia et al. (1995) coefficients p-value 1/ai,t-1 -3754.492 0.0508 δrevi,t δreci,t) /ai,t-1 1.71e-05 0.5922 ppei,t /ai,t-1 -.317 0.1127 kothari et al. (2005) coefficients p-value 1/ai,t-1 -4756.989 0.0118 δrevi,t/ai,t-1 .055435 0.0000 ppei,t /ai,t-1 .014489 0.2711 roai,t /ai,t-1 46734.9 0.0000 source: calculated by authors from eview 8 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 82-87 87 through the tests of heteroskedasticity, we can see that jones (1991) and modified jones model by kothari et al. (2005) have better performance than the modified jones model by patricia et al. (1995). 4. discussion the three models have closely the same the adjusted r2. however, jones (1991) and modified jones by kothari et al. (2005) outperform the modified jones model by patricia et al. (1995). firm manager makes the decision to manage not only sale revenues but also costs and expenses in the financial reporting. for that reasons, if we do not include costs and expenses, it might not fully represent the characteristics of current accrual. the poor explanatory power of model may be resulted from not including expenses. due of this reason, we might recognize that the relationship between total accruals and current accruals is imbalanced because the models cannot present a suitable and applicable explanation for the relationship. in short, managers are able to select between account receivable and account payable to manage earnings. using ppe as a proxy for noncurrent accruals is relatively appropriate, but ppe may not be effective enough to represent the real characteristics of noncurrent accruals. the component that should have been acknowledged is intangible assets because general accepted accounting principle rules stated that intangible asset investments be recorded as expenses in the period they have occurred (international accounting standards boards, 2010). for that reason, the model must include additional proxy to represent the intangible assets. 5. conclusion this study provided the understanding on how firms manipulate actual earning revealing earning management in vietnamese firms. the study also analyzed the effectiveness of the three most well-known models, and to examine how fit of those models in the context of vietnam. the research’s result demonstrated that jones model is shown as better measurement in case of effectiveness and explanatory power of selected proxies to detect the act of manipulating earning. however, the outcome would be more accurate if the intangible asset variable was added to develop a new model. identifying the act of earning management is useful for not only investors but also financial analysts to have a deep understanding about the characteristics of emerging stock market like vietnam market, thus there will 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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=the%20relation%20between%20earnings%20and%20cash%20flows http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0165-4101(98)00020-2 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 2, 127-135, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 127 a study of female entrepreneurs in belize gerson aldana1 somanadevi thiagarajan2  1 arrears assistant, belize bank limited, placencia branch, belize 2 assistant professor, faculty of management & social sciences, university of belize, belmopan, belize ( corresponding author) abstract a research was carried out to understand, analyze and document the profile of female entrepreneurs in belize and to identify the factors that contribute to their success. the data was collected through questionnaires and analyzed by using spss. the profile studied include age, education level, income, number of children, marital status, business type, etc. the factors that contribute for success of the female entrepreneurs were measured by using variables such as profits, social status, self-achievement, quality of product and services. to improve success and life style it is recommended that the female entrepreneurs engage in continuous training and complete tertiary level education. in order to encourage more women to become entrepreneurs, financial institutions should create micro financing outlets to provide credit facilities along with sound business and legal advice. keywords: women entrepreneurs, success, training, microfinance. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 128 2. literature review .............................................................................................................................................................. 128 3. research design ................................................................................................................................................................. 128 4. results and discussions ..................................................................................................................................................... 129 5. conclusion and recommendations ................................................................................................................................... 135 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 135 bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................................... 135 citation | gerson aldana; somanadevi thiagarajan (2016). a study of female entrepreneurs in belize. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(2): 127-135. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.127.135 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 19 november 2015/ revised: 20 december 2015/ accepted: 24 december 2015/ published: 30 december 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.127.135 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 127-135 128 1. introduction there is a wide gender gap exists when it comes to entrepreneurship. when comparing the existing data on men and women involved in business entrepreneurship for the world, men generally prevail. only in a handful of countries the entrepreneurial activity of men and women is on comparable similar level. and only in four countries of them, ghana, zambia, brazil and niger, women are even more involved in entrepreneurial activities than men. even in developed countries such as parts of europe, only 29% of entrepreneurs are women (nešporková and dvořáčková, 2015). belize is a small country located in central america with an estimated population of 368,000 of which 50% are females (statistical institute of belize, 2015). the business community in belize has been steadily growing over the past years. the women of belize are contributing immensely for the development of the business sector of the country. although some people might see women as secondary or complements to men in businesses, some if not most of the business women have established their business alone. some of these women are single mothers, and others are being assisted by their husbands. nevertheless, these female entrepreneurs demonstrate their strength and ability to operate a business successfully. the types of businesses range enormously and continue to grow in the areas such as: beauty salons, boutiques, restaurants/fast food sheds, hotels, bars, tourism, pharmacies, laboratories, travel agencies, and grocery stores. society expects women to have certain roles and sometimes entrepreneurship is seen more fit for men than for women. the caribbean and latin america has similar situation (terjesen and amoros, 2010). despite the possible discrimination from their partner, parents, or family, women struggle in the business community and prove to be successful (mcgowan et al., 2012; namdari et al., 2012). by establishing a profile of a successful female entrepreneur, other women in society that match those characteristics will identify themselves and feel confident to start a new business as the profile in a way will serve as a guarantee that they will succeed. also, in identifying the success factors of female entrepreneurs, the researcher will obtain a better understanding of the importance and existence of such establishments. additionally, greater awareness and appreciation towards these women will be achieved. as a result, women can be empowered and serve as role models to other women who are still faltering to become entrepreneurs. however there is no comprehensive research has been carried out on their profile and the factors that influence the success of female entrepreneurs in belize. 1.1. research questions 1. what are the characteristics of business woman in belize? 2. what are the factors that measure the success of female entrepreneurs? 3. what are the motives that drive women to become entrepreneurs? 2. literature review alam et al. (2011) while studying the factors that contribute to the success of women entrepreneurs in southern malaysia concluded that women no longer adhere to the stereotype that only men can be wage earners in the family, and that besides numerous obligations assigned to women including reproductive chores, such as childcare and doing house work, women can find success through their own businesses. their study also found out that a woman can be successful in their venture if they have support from family, strong social ties, and internal motivation. in a study conducted by lee and stearns (2012) on entrepreneurial activity in south korea indicates that many females encounter barriers because they lack the requisite skills, training, and background. this in turn prevents them from becoming successful in their businesses. this research was based on a model that incorporates the relationship between the motivations of female entrepreneurs and critical success factors in female owned business. the findings indicate that a positive relationship exists between the critical success factors (communication skills and knowledge of business, product competency and business capability, or availability of resources) of female owned business and the performance of the business. woman like men decide to open their own business with the hopes to become successful. the achievement of such success is based on the assumption that they are prepared academically. in a study done in kuwait, by naser et al. (2012) suggest that personal characteristics such as knowledge and education, skills, interests, and hobbies are other factors that might influence women to become entrepreneurs. success, according to mani (2011) is dependent on the age compositions. young entrepreneurs are more willing to changes than older entrepreneurs. on the other hand, older entrepreneurs have attained knowledge and experience throughout their years in business. gertner (2013) in a study conducted in hungary indicated that age plays an intermediate role influencing entering entrepreneurship in the following way: aging and out-of-date of skills may push hired workers towards entrepreneurship. an overview of women entrepreneurs by seenivasan (2014) posed many questions on factors that contribute to women as entrepreneurs, he emphasized that women’s participation in entrepreneurship varies significantly across countries, across different phases of the entrepreneurial process, and with different sources of motivation. 3. research design after a review of related literature, a questionnaire was designed and distributed to female entrepreneurs in the cayo district of belize. the research design utilized a simple random sampling techniques as each female entrepreneur had equal chance of being included in the selection of sample. . as study instrument, both close-ended and open-ended questions were used. the target population was all the registered female micro and small entrepreneurs. these women were studied to get a clearer picture of the factors that make them successful in their businesses. out of the registered female entrepreneurs, 65 participants were interviewed to obtain the necessary information to assist the researcher in analyzing and generalizing the success factors of business women in belize. a questionnaire was designed to conduct interviews with the female entrepreneurs. the questionnaire was designed based on the variables that needed to be measured and was adapted from other studies done internationally. after the revision of the questionnaire, a pilot study was conducted in order to ensure that it was clear, easy to comprehend, and most importantly that it was consistent. to encourage participation, the topic and objectives of the research was asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 127-135 129 explained and assured discretion and complete anonymity. upon receiving consent from the participants, the data was collected by asking questions from the questionnaire and provided explanations and clarification when needed. since the questionnaire was designed in english, translation was required for spanish-speaking participants. furthermore, for questions requesting financial information such as weekly income and debt situation, respondents who did not wish to divulge such information were respected and the ―prefer not to answer‖ option was marked off. the questionnaire consisted of a combination of twenty seven close-ended and open-ended questions. data gathered was analyzed using statistical package for social sciences (spss) and results were presented in tables and figures such as pie charts and graphs. 4. results and discussions the aim of this study is firstly, to illustrate the shared characteristics in successful female entrepreneurs and hence establish a general profile. secondly, the results presented will identify the factors that the women consider to be the leading measure of their success. 4.1. types of businesses according to the summary of responses received (figure 1) the majority of female entrepreneurs are restaurant/bar owners (31%), boutique owners (17%), and cosmetologist (11%). only 3% of the female entrepreneurs own a medical laboratory and 1% are involved in the hotel industry. 37% of the respondents are involved in other business activities such as: gifts shops, travel agencies, pharmacies, pastry shops, and tourism. figure-1. business types source: survey data analyzed through spss 4.2. demographic profile of respondents the research found that the majority of respondents were between the ages of 28-37 (30.8%) and 48 years and over (32.3%) as show in table 1. table-1. age of respondents source: survey data analyzed through spss in addition, 60% are married while 40% of the respondents are single. the results also show that 68% of these women had between 1-3 children, 23% had 4-6 children, and 9% had no child (figure 2). women are diligent, and considered not self-centered when it comes to raising children. emotional abilities, multitasking, interpersonal skills, and leadership activities involved in women´s personal spheres positively spill over into professional realms. ruderman et al. (2002) refer to this as the role accumulation perspective which is based on the idea that multiple roles provide some people with more energy, rather than deplete a set reserve (marks, 1977). frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid 18-27 7 10.8 10.8 10.8 28-37 20 30.8 30.8 41.5 38-47 17 26.2 26.2 67.7 48+ 21 32.3 32.3 100.0 total 65 100.0 100.0 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 127-135 130 figure-2. number of children source: survey data analyzed through spss interestingly, 58% of the women have less than tertiary level education (junior college or university) and 42% have obtained tertiary level education of which 41% of the respondents with a tertiary education are from ages 28-37 years (figure 3 and figure 4). figure-3. education level source: survey data analyzed through spss figure-4. education level by age group source: survey data analyzed through spss in previous studies done by mani (2011) and gertner (2013) they state that a positive relationship exists between education and entrepreneurship. similarly, the findings in this work show that education has a positive relationship with income level. women with a tertiary level education earn more than women with lower level education. as can be seen the table below, women with a tertiary education can earn over $4,000 weekly as opposed to females with a lower education that earn less than $3,000 weekly (table 2). this suggests that special attention should be devoted to initiatives to create business women models to inspire and encourage especially women with the elementary education and secondary education backgrounds, who lack self-confidence. women who are better educated, have better self-confidence, and have jobs with higher incomes, have a higher like hood of being entrepreneurs (allen et al., 2008). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 127-135 131 table-2. education and weekly income cross-tabulation weekly income total less than $1,000 $1,0001,999 $2,0002,999 $3,0003,999 over $4,000 prefer not to answer education primary 5 4 2 0 0 4 15 secondary 6 5 1 0 0 11 23 tertiary 1 7 9 4 1 5 27 total 12 16 12 4 1 20 65 source: survey data analyzed through spss 4.3. nature of the venture forty three percent of the women start their own business between the ages of 23-27 years (figure 5). it shows young people are adventurers and ready to take risk and venture in to their own business. figure-5. age women started their businesses source: survey data analyzed through spss according to the study before establishing their own business, 52% of the women state that they have not always worked for themselves but instead have worked for other establishments thus gaining experience. the other 48% stated that they have always worked for themselves. 66% of the respondents are first time entrepreneurs while 34% have had other businesses in the past or are current owners of more than one business (figure 6 & 7). figure-6. status of women entrepreneurs source: survey data analyzed through spss figure-7. first-time business owners source: survey data analyzed through spss results show that being an entrepreneur is evidently a way of life that requires extensive working hours as 72% of the respondents dedicate 50 or more hours per week whereas 12% dedicate at least 48 hours per week, and only %16 dedicate between 15-40 hours per week (figure 8). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 127-135 132 figure-8. hours dedicated to business per week source: survey data analyzed through spss for the question on weekly earnings, 31% preferred not to answer while 25% said they make around $1,000$1,999. 18% make less than $1,000 while another 18% makes as much as $2,000 and under $3,000. only 8% of the respondents make $3,000 and over. of these earnings, female entrepreneurs make a profit 25-50% depending on the type of business they operate (figure 9). figure-9. weekly earnings source: spss data from survey figure-10. preparation to start own business source: survey data analyzed through spss majority of the respondents had a natural instinct in starting their own business. over 60% of the women wanted to be independent and started their business because of self-confidence. just over 20% took training in entrepreneurship before starting their business and about 10% took few relevant short courses before starting their business (figure 10). however close to 60% of the respondents said they need additional training to update their skills and 30% of them said they do not need any more additional training (figure 11). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 127-135 133 figure-11. need for future training source: survey data analyzed through spss when respondents were asked why they became entrepreneurs and the outcome suggests that majority of the women (58%) became entrepreneurs for the mere fact of the personal satisfaction and independence they achieve in not having to respond to an employer. 26% claim they became spontaneous entrepreneurs (figure 12). these are women that possess natural skills and as a result become entrepreneurs in order to exercise such skills. examples of such skills are those involved in businesses such as cosmetology and cooking. on the other hand, only 8% became entrepreneurs because they inherited the business from a family member, mainly from the parents. the other 8% of the women were forced to become entrepreneurs for reasons such as unemployment and/or single-parenthood. figure-12. reasons for becoming entrepreneurs source: survey data analyzed through spss the respondents were asked to identify the obstacles that they faced at the beginning of their business venture and 16% claimed that they did not have any obstacles (figure 13). the number one obstacle encountered by the respondents was the lack of adequate capital (23%). 21% of the respondents found it difficult to balance time for family and the business due to the long hours. 17% had problems in finding the right contacts such as suppliers; some respondents also felt that the lack of an appropriate guide or mentor (14%) also became an obstacle at the beginning. as indicated by the results, most women who engaged in entrepreneurship entered their industry with self confidence as only 8% claimed they were lacking self-confidence. interestingly, only 1% of the respondents had an issue with hiring the right personnel and this became an obstacle in providing the best of quality goods at the beginning of venture. figure-13. obstacles face at the beginning source: survey data analyzed through spss importance was also given to the obstacle they are presently facing and 36% have no obstacle, 23% have it difficult to balance family and work life as their major obstacle, secondly, 21% are having financial problems, and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 127-135 134 14% claim that the upgrading of their skills would be an asset for their business growth; however, they are unable to do so due to time and finances (figure 14). the remaining 6% confessed that they had other obstacles such as envy from the competition; location and work space, and finding skilled personnel. figure-14. present obstacles source: survey data analyzed through spss results show that 44% of the women did not seek any financial assistance since they used funds from their savings, while others used their gratuity collected from their previous employment. the remaining 56% confessed that they accessed financial assistance from a family member, a credit union, or a local bank as displayed in figure 13. figure-15. financial assistance source: survey data analyzed through spss 4.4. analysis of determinants of success all the sixty five respondents proudly expressed that they are successful in their business. but what exactly is success and how it is measured can only be defined by each woman individually. 32 % of the respondents said that the level of success is measure by the level of quality of their products or services they provide to their clients (figure 14). success is achieved only when the clients are highly satisfied in a consistent manner. as a result, their sales would definitely be boosted and in turn more profits would be generated. an emphasis on the profits as a measurement of success cannot be left unsaid as 31% said that the more profits they generate, the more they feel they achieve success in their business. thirdly, a 24% said that by achieving independence, self-motivation, and satisfaction in what they are doing, they have succeeded. self satisfaction and accomplishment drives them to provide better products/services and increase their profits. on the other hand, the determinants that had little impact on success were: being able to balance family and work life (10%) and the status achieved for being an entrepreneur (3%). figure-16. determinants of success source: survey data analyzed through spss asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 127-135 135 5. conclusion and recommendations after the analysis of the data obtained from the research, a profile was created describing the typical successful female entrepreneur in belize. the established profile includes characteristics such as age, marital status, education level, and business type. also, the findings helped to identify the factors that determine success for female entrepreneurs. the level of education achieved by the female entrepreneur is at most a secondary level education and has worked for other employers and then established a business between the ages of 23-27 years. it is also concluded that women with a tertiary level education earn more than women with lesser education level. furthermore, pure entrepreneurship drives these women to establish their business. they have the urge to boost their ego by achieving independence and thus personal satisfaction. as opposed to working for other employers where weekly working hours are not more than 45 hours, these successful women dedicate 50 to 100 weekly hours. in turn, these women generate incomes between us $500 to over us $2,000 per week with profits between 25-50%. the research also assisted in determining the factors that successful entrepreneur identified as the true meaning of their success. those factors include the level of profits, social status, self-achievement, products and services, and balance with family and business lifestyle. most respondents confirmed that by offering quality products/services, they have achieved success. profits cannot be left unsaid, as it ranked second place as determinant of their success. to improve their standard of living, these entrepreneurs should constantly engage in training programs. as entrepreneurs, they must improve their skills and the skills of their employees in order to be able to provide better quality products and services. the educational institutions in the country offering many evening/part time programs, the female entrepreneurs can enroll to complete a tertiary level education. this in turn will allow them to make better business decisions and become better managers. with a higher education, they can also make personal and family decisions to improve their lifestyle. to improve the success rate and encourage more females to become entrepreneurs, there is a need for providing financial assistance through an effective program. local banks, credit unions, and other non-governmental organizations (ngo’s) can take the initiative to establish micro-financing departments and assist women with short-term loans to start a new business or expand existing ones. also, to ensure that the micro-financing program succeeds, the financial institution can provide additional services free of cost. those services can include; advice on starting or expanding a business, legal advice, and recommendations on relevant training programs. a high number of respondents claimed that they did not face any obstacles when they first established their business (16%) and another 36% said that currently they are not facing any obstacles as entrepreneurs. in future researches, a study can be conducted to identify the possible reasons why female entrepreneurs do not face any obstacles. a study can be done using the level of education, level of conformity, experience level, ethnicity, and business location to establish a possible relationship between the paths of success of this group of women. references alam, s.s., m.f.m. jani and n.a. omar, 2011. an empirical study of success factors of women entrepreneurs in southern region in malaysia. international journal of economics and finance, 3(2): 166–175. allen, e., a. elam, n. langowitz and m. dean, 2008. report on women and entrepreneurship global entrepreneurship monitor. gertner, m.i., 2013. the profile of a success women’s entrepreneur. advances in management, 6(6): 34 – 37. lee, s.s. and t.m. stearns, 2012. critical success factors in the performance of female—owned businesses: a study of female entrepreneurs in korea. international journal of management, 29(1): 3–18. mani, c., 2011. forces behind entrepreneurship of womenan economic study. international journal of bio-resource and stress management, 2(3): 355-358. marks, s.r., 1977. multiple roles and role strain: some notes on human energy, time and commitment. american sociological review, 42: 921-936. mcgowan, p., c.l. redeker, s.y. cooper and k. greenan, 2012. female entrepreneurship and the management of business and domestic roles: motivation, expectations, and realities. entrepreneurship & regional development, 24(1-2): 53-72. namdari, r., s. raz and h. aramoon, 2012. a survey on socio-cultural and economical factors affecting women entrepreneurs in khouzestan providence. australian journal of basic and applied sciences, 6(13): 11-17. naser, k., r. nuseibeh and a. al-hussaini, 2012. personal and external factors effect on women entrepreneurs: evidence from kuwait. journal of developmental entrepreneurship, 17(2): 1-23. nešporková, r. and r. dvořáčková, 2015. women and entrepreneurship an overview. journal of small business and entrepreneurship development, 3(1): 44-53. ruderman, m.n., p.j. ohlott, k. panzer and s.n. king, 2002. benefits for multiple roles for managerial women. academy of management journal, 45(2): 369-386. seenivasan, r., 2014. global research on women’s entrepreneurship: an overview. journal of small business and entrepreneurship development, 2(2): 121-140. statistical institute of belize, 2015. mid-year population estimates. available from http://www.sib.org.bz/statistics/population. terjesen, s. and j.e. amoros, 2010. female entrepreneurship in latin america and the caribbean: characteristics, drivers and relationship to economic development. european journal of development research, 22(3): 313-330. bibliography kelley, d.j., c.g. brush, p.g. greene and y. litovsky, 2013. global entrepreneurship monitor 2012 women's report. global entrepreneurship research association (gera). asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.sib.org.bz/statistics/population asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 3, 78-82, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 78 investment in fixed assets and firm profitability: empirical evidence from the nigerian banking sector olatunji, toyin e 1 --adegbite, tajudeen a 2* 1,2 department of management and accounting ladoke akintola university of technology, ogbomoso, nigeria abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 79 2. literature review ...................................................................................................................................................................... 79 3. methodology .............................................................................................................................................................................. 80 4. data analysis techniques ......................................................................................................................................................... 80 5. presentation and analysis of data ........................................................................................................................................... 80 6. summary and conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 82 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 82 the study examined the effect of investment in fixed assets on profitability of selected nigerian banks. it also analyzed the significant components of fixed assets investment of selected nigerian commercial banks. data were obtained from annual reports and accounts of selected nigerian commercial banks. pearson product moment correlation and multiple regressions were employed to analyze the relationship between the dependent variable (net profit) and independent variables (building, land, leasehold premises, fixtures and fitting, and investment in computers.). findings show that there is a significant relationship between dependent variable (net profit) and the independent variables (building, information communication and technology, machinery, leasehold, land and fixture and fitting) with the adjusted r 2 @ 96%. therefore, investments in fixed assets have strong and positive statistical impact on the profitability of banking sector in nigeria. in order to improve bank profitability through efficient management of fixed assets, nigerian banks should increase fixed assets investments in form of ict. fixed assets utilization and productivity needs to be monitored to boost profitability for shareholders’ satisfaction. keywords: net profit, fixed assets, commercial banks, investment, nigeria, correlation. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 78-82 79 1. introduction no organization can be sustained without some investment in fixed asset. investment in fixed assets like land, building, plant and machinery, fixtures, fittings and motor vehicle enhances the productive capacity of firms. profits can be generated by investing in such assets to ensure long term profitability. this category of assets does not change frequently and they are purchased to produce and sell more. assets have significant role in determining the efficiency and the profit ratio of a firm. since a firm acquires plant and machinery and other productive fixed assets for the purpose of generating sales. therefore, efficiency in the use of fixed assets should be judged in relation to sales. pandey (1999) opined that fixed assets turnover ratio measures the efficiency with which a firm is utilizing its investment in fixed assets. it also indicates the adequacy of sale in relation to investment in fixed assets. generally, a high fixed assets turnover ratio indicates efficient utilization of fixed assets in generating sales, while a low ratio indicates inefficient management and utilization of fixed assets. banking sector just as firms in the brewery and other industries require a large amount of fixed asset investment in large capital equipment while, service companies and computer software producers need a relatively small amount of fixed assets. effective organization of fixed assets is one of the most important parts of the entire corporation and in creating value for shareholders. the main purpose of any firm is to reduce the cost of production in order to maximize their profit. but, maintaining liquidity of the firm also is an important objective. the problem is that increasing profits at the expense of fixed asset can bring serious problems to the firm. yet, some organisations find it difficult to increase their investment in fixed asset. the main objective of this study is to examine the effect of investment in fixed asset on profitability of selected nigerian banks. it also analyses the significant components of fixed assets investment of selected nigerian commercial banks, examines the relationship between fixed assets values and return on investment (roi) and determines the effect of fixed assets investment on net profits of sampled nigerian commercial banks. 2. literature review prior studies reported that investment in fixed assets may have an important effect on the firm’s profitability. eriotis et al. (2000) investigated the relationship between debt to equity ratio and firm’s profitability taking into consideration the level of a firm’s investment and the degree of market power. the study used panel data for various industries, covering a period 1995-96. they concluded that firms which prefer to finance their investment activities through self-finance are more profitable than firms which finance investment through borrowed capital. according to them, firms used their investment in fixed assets as a strategic variable to affect profitability. ibam (2007) argued that a company’s investment in fixed asset is dependent, to a large degree, on its line of business. some businesses are more capital intensive than others. according to ibam (2007) fixed asset turnover ratio looked at asset over time and compares the ratio to that of competitors. this gives the investor an idea of how effectively a company’s management is using fixed asset. it is a rough measure of the productivity of a company’s fixed assets with respect to generating sales. the higher the number of times turned over, the better. however investors look for consistency or increasing fixed assets turnover rates as positive balance sheet investment qualities (ibam, 2007). sayeed and hogue (2009) studied the impact of assets and liability management on profitability of public and private commercial banks in bangladesh. according to them, banks’ profitability is almost always of concern in modern economy. banks are in business to receive deposits or liabilities and to issue debt securities on the one hand and create or invest in assets on the other hand. thus commercial banks incur cost for their liabilities and earn income from their assets. thus profitability of banks is directly affected by management of their assets and liability. their study examined how assets and liability management together with external variable such as degree of market concentration and inflation rate impact the profitability of selected commercial banks in bangladesh. the study also dealt with the impact of assets and liability management (alm) on the profitability of the sixteen bangladesh commercial banks classified into private and public. the results show that the use of total income the dependent variable for private and public banks show evidence that all of the assets have significant contribution to total income of the private banks. berger and deyoung (1997) indicated that most research on bank efficiency is mainly weighted on cost efficiency; zheng et al. (1997) as stated in alayemi (2013) also emphasized the cost efficiency of small and midsized banks in taiwan. it was not until recently that profit efficiency began to be noticed. the study of profit efficiency considers both the cost efficiency and earning efficiency. berger and deyoung (1997) pointed out that while conducting research on cost efficiency, profit must be assumed to reach its maximum level under the predetermined bank inputs and outputs. however, the above assumption may be inconsistent with reality due to the ignorance of quality problems. for instance, higher quality banks may have higher costs that induce cost inefficiency. however, the higher quality banks may generate higher earnings and profits, thus it makes profit efficiency. beneish et al. (2001), and fairfield, whisenant and yohn (2003), among others have identified a rather strong negative relationship between investment intensity and profitability. gautam (2008) found out that high fixed cost can deplete a company’s profit especially if sales fall. the revelation that other variables do not have significant impact on profit after tax may be explained by the fact that companies probably adjust selling prices of their products to take care of changes in variable cost other than fixed cost. okwo et al. (2012) studied the investment in fixed assets and firm profitability, evidence from the nigerian brewery industry. a cross sectional data was gathered for the analysis from the annual reports of the sampled brewery firms for a period of 1995 to 2009. the four brewery firms that constitute the sample were those quoted on the nigerian stock exchange and their inclusion in the analysis is based on the availability of data for the sample period. the brewery firms that constitute the sample are: nigerian breweries plc, guinness nigeria plc and international breweries plc, champion breweries plc. the result of the tested hypothesis showed that the level of investment in fixed assets does not strongly and significantly impact on the level of reported profit of breweries in nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 78-82 80 khalid (2012) examined the relationship between the asset quality management proxies and profitability nexus. using the return on assets and profitability ratios as proxies for bank profitability for the period 2006-07 to 2010-11, operating performance of the sample banks is estimated with the help of financial ratios. also multiple regression model was employed to examine if bank asset quality and operating performance are positively correlated. the results showed that a bad asset ratio is negatively associated with banking operating performance, after controlling for the effects of operating scale, traditional banking business concentration and the idle fund ratio. 3. methodology net profit is the explained variable in this model, while the explanatory variables are book values of building, land, leasehold premises, fixtures and fitting, and investment in computers. 3.1. method of data collection the data was obtained from annual reports accounts of twenty (13) nigerian commercial bank. 3.2. sample size thirteen nigerian commercial banks were purposively selected for the survey and analysis. the duration of the research was basically from 2000-2012. this study employs annual data on theeffect of investment in fixed asset on profitability of selected nigerian banks from the period of 2000 to 2012. 4. data analysis techniques regression analysis technique was used to measure the effect of independent variables on dependent variable. while pearson product moment correlation was used to measure the relationship between the dependent variable and independent variables. regression models in the following variables: = a regression model relates to a function of and where: dependent variable, i.e profitability independent variables i.e investment in fixed assets by description . error term 3.1. model specification        2222 . . sfsfnwcwcn sfwcsfwcn r    1 n = no of observations. where r = coefficient of correlation showing the degree of relationship between the dependent variable and independent variable. = + + + 2 where: 5. presentation and analysis of data the analysis of the effect of investment in fixed asset on profitability of selected nigerian banks from the period of 2000 to 2012 is presented below. table-1. descriptive analysis of the significance of components of fixed assets investment of selected nigerian commercial banks observation mean standard deviation minimum maximum bank 13 10.5 5.91608 1 20 np 13 5.35e+07 4.30e+07 3102597 1.34e+08 bdg 13 1.44e+07 1.15e+07 3516916 3.47e+07 ict 13 7798724 4532298 1000324 1.60e+07 mach 13 1.18e+07 1.08e+07 781571 3.45e+07 leaseh 13 8065366 6947649 678882 2.09e+07 land 13 6076165 4042935 1333600 1.38e+07 ff 13 9320967 7362425 525236 2.02e+07 source: researcher’s computation using stata 10 the descriptive statistics of the analysis is presented in table 1 above shows that bank as the dependent variable. bank had a mean value of 10.5 with a standard deviation of 5.91608, it had a maximum value of 1.34e+08 and a minimum value of 3102597. net profit had a mean of 5.35e+07 and standard deviation of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 78-82 81 4.30e+07 with positive maximum and minimum value of 3102597 and 1.34e+08 respectively, which signifies that for every 1% increase in bank fixed assets investment, net profit increases by up to 5.3%, this implies that there is a positive relationship between bank fixed assets and net profit of nigerian banks. the impact of building and other assets can be seen as shown in the table 1, information and communication technology, machinery, leasehold, land and fixture and fitting with mean values of 7798724, 1.18e+07, 8065366, 6076165 and 9320967respectively and standard deviations of 4532298, 1.08e+07, 6947649 and 7362425 having positive maximum values of 1.60e+07, 3.45e+07, 2.09e+07, 1333600 and 525236 and positive minimum values of 1000324, 781571, 678882, 1.38e+07 and 2.02e+07. this implies that 1% increase in bank fixed assets triggers a rise in net profit of up to 5.35. it can be deduced from the analysis that there is a positive relationship between bank’s profits and the investment in fixed assets, therefore null hypothesis is rejected. table-2. the relationship between fixed assets and net profit of sampled nigerian commercial banks np bdg ict mach leaseh land np 1.0000 bdg 0.8710** 1.0000 ict 0.1118** -0.1282 1.0000 mach 0.9254** 0.8662* 0.2180 1.0000 leaseh 0.9408** 0.9620* 0.0852* 0.9529* 1.0000 land 0.8992** 0.8541* 0.2461* 0.9809* 0.9343* 1.0000 ff 0.8765** 0.8506* -0.0335* 0.7340 0.8534* 0.7514* **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). source: researcher’s computation using stata version 10 the table 2 shows the relationship between fixed assets and net profit of sampled nigerian commercial banks. the result in table 4.2 shows that net profit (np) has positive relationship with investment in building (bdg), coefficient 0.8710. this result implies that an increase in investment in building contributes to increase in net profit. investment in computer (ict) has positive relationship with net profit with coefficient of 0.1118. this result implies that an increase in investment in computer (ict) leads to increase in net profit. in the same vein, machinery (mach) also has positive correlation with net profit, coefficient 0.9254. this result implies that the increase in machinery (mach) influences increase in net profit. investment in leasehold premises (leaseh) also has positive significant relationship with net profit with coefficient of 0.9408. furthermore, the result also shows that land (land) also has positive correlation with net profit, coefficient 0.8992. this result implies that the increase in land (land) affects increase in net profit. fixture and fitting (ff)also influence increase in net profit in that ff has a positive correlation with return on investment with a coefficient of 0.8765. the table also revealed that all the predictor variables have a positive relationship with net profit hence return on investment. table -3. the effect of fixed assets investment on net profit of sampled nigerian commercial banks coefficient std. err. t p>[t] 95% conf. inter. -1.06132 1.51416 -0.70 0.056 -4.332465 2.209824 -.4405003 .927785 -0.47 0.043 -2.444858 2.209824 5.345736 2.023779 2.64 0.020 .9736268 9.717845 .2840708 4.048585 0.07 0.045 -8.462365 9.030507 -6.68098 3.688471 -1.81 0.093 -14.64944 1.287478 3.316814 .8135801 4.08 0.001 1.559181 5.074447 1.64e+07 8809607 1.86 0.085 -2616294 3.54e+07 prob> = 0.0000 r 2 = 0.9611 adj r 2 = 0.9432 f(3,26) = 38.32 root mse = 36815 source: researcher’s computation using stata version 10 the table 3 above shows the effect of fixed assets on net profit. a unit increases in building (bdg) reduces net profit (np) by 1.1 units. this shows the negative effect of investment in building on net profit of nigerian commercial banks. also a unit increase of investment in computer (ict) reduces net profit (np) by 0.4 unit. this also suggests that an inverse effect of ict on np. conversely, there is a positive relationship between investment in machinery (mach) and net profit because a unit increases in mach increases net profit by 5.3 units. the result is significant. a unit increases in leasehold (leaseh) increases net profit by 2.8 units. this indicates that leasehold (leaseh) has positive effect on net profit. conversely, a unit increases in investment in land (land) reduces net profit in nigerian selected bank by 6.6 units. this also suggests the inverse effect of land on np. a unit increase in investment in fixture and fitting (ff) increases net profit by 3.3 units. this indicates that there is positive relationship between fixture and fitting (ff) and net profit. given the coefficient of determination (r 2 ) as 0.9611 which is 96% supported by high value of adjusted r 2 as 94%, it presumes that the independent variables incorporated into this model have been able to explain the variation of net profit to 94%. that is, there is a significant relationship between dependent variable (net profit) and the independent variables (building, information communication and technology, machinery, leasehold, land and fixture and fitting). the f probability statistic also confirms the significance of this model. this hypothesis is to determine the effect of fixed asset investment on net profit. from the decision rule above, because the p-value for the alternative hypothesis equals 0.0000 p<0.1, therefore the null hypothesis is rejected while the alternative hypothesis is upheld. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 78-82 82 6. summary and conclusion the effect of fixed assets investment on profitability of sampled nigerian commercial banks was examined. results show that investment in fixed assets has significant positive relationship to the performance of the sampled banks which implies that for every increase in net profit through years 2000 to 2012 resulted from an increase of 5.35% of investment in building, 1.14% in information communication, 7.79% in machinery, 8.06% in leasehold, 6.07% in land and increase of 9.32% in fixture and fitting. there is also positive correlation between net profit and fixed asset quality of banks, when it was analyzed independently while it gave a positive relationship when analyzed together with other performance indicators. investment in computer also has positive significant relationship with return on investment. similarly, freehold land and building also exert negative effects on roi indicating that the usage and not ownership has effect on return on investment. in the same vein, machinery also has positive correlation with return on investment. this result implies that the increase in machinery also leads to increase in return on investment. investment in leasehold premises also has positive significant relationship with return on investment with the value of 0.9408. fixture and fitting also leads to increase in net profit that is there is a positive correlation with return on investment. the higher the level of investment in fixed assets, the higher the profit of selected nigerian banks. in conclusion, investments in fixed assets have strong and statistical positive impact on the profitability of banking sector in nigeria. in order to improve bank profitability there should be efficient management of fixed assets. nigerian banks should improve the level of fixed assets investments in terms of ict and the fixed assets should be utilized effectively and productively in order to boost their profitability for their shareholders’ satisfaction. references alayemi, s.a., 2013. relationship between assets utilization and corporate profitability: a case study of food and beverage industry quoted on the nigerian stock exchange. merit research journal of business and management, 1(1): 001-010. beneish, m., c. lee and r. tarpley, 2001. contextual fundamental analysis in the prediction of extreme returns. review of 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profitability: evidence from the nigerian brewery industry. european journal of business and management, 4(20). available from www.iiste.org. pandey, i.m., 1999. financial management 8th edn., new delhi: vikas publishing house pvt ltd. pp:1226. sayeed, m.a. and m.s. hogue, 2009. impact of assets and liability management on profitability: a study of public vs private commercial bank in bangladesh. available from www.wbicconpro.com/30%5b/%5d.pdf [accessed 5th december, 2010]. whisenant and yohn, 2003. asset liability management and commercial banks profitability in ethiopia. research journal of finance and accounting, 4(10, 2013). available from www.iiste.org issn 2222-1697 (paper) issn 2222-2847 (online). zheng, s., x. nuo and x. zhi, 1997. the research of the optimal allocation of assets structure and business performance. res. j. econ. bus. ict, 8: 1-5. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.rediff.com/ http://www.iiste.org/ http://www.wbicconpro.com/30%5b/%5d.pdf http://www.iiste.org/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 2, 64-69, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 64 electoral systems and antagonism in politics: a case study of ghana edward brenya 1* --jennifer aboagyewaah asamoah 2 --hadi azindow alhassan 3 1 lecturer, history and political studies department, kwame nkrumah university of science and technology, ghana 2,3 teaching assistant, history and political studies department, kwame nkrumah university of science and technology, ghana abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 65 2. electoral systems and democratic process......................................................................................................................... 66 3. first-past-the-post/winner-takes-all electoral system .................................................................................................. 66 5. feasibility of proportional representation in ghana......................................................................................................... 67 6. discussions and conclusions ............................................................................................................................................... 68 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 69 political pundits and civil society organizations have been making clarion calls for the adoption of proportional representation electoral process in ghana so as to end the perceived antagonism in ghana‟s political system. using a review of scholarly materials, this paper examines the feasibility of the proportional representation electoral system in ghana. it argues that the most significant aspect of democratic consolidation and development is not entirely about the type of electoral system adopted but the strengthening of the institutions of state. therefore, by strengthening the institutions of government, the much needed political goods will be delivered to the citizenry, which will go a long way to improve the democratic process and development of ghana. keywords: proportional representation, electoral system, winner-takes-all, ghana, political institutions, democratic consolidation. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 64-69 65 1. introduction in every political system, the need for the concerns of the people to be addressed is paramount to its survival; thereby any system that tries to place a limit on its people in the area of expressing their views, opinions, choices etc stands on the verge of destruction. in democratic systems, an avenue that gives citizens periodic opportunities to take part in decisions that affects them is electionswhich can only be accepted by all as a true reflection of the will of the people when there is an able institution to administer/conduct and supervise electoral processes. often, such institutions are known as electoral commission or board of election. election is a formal process by which a population of people selects or chooses representative(s) with the responsibilities and duties to address the needs of that people. in every democratic dispensation, election is not an end in itself; it is rather a means to an end i.e. it provides an avenue for offices to be occupied by people whom the electorates have chosen. electoral commissions all over the world encounter challenges in one way or the other. these challenges have caused serious impediments to the realisation of democracy in the world. according to pastor (1999): democratic transitions are rarely smooth, and a good number are derailed at their moment of greatest promise during an electoral process. the usual explanations for failure are: (1) the incumbent regime refused to give up power; (2) the opposition parties boycotted or protested because they were weak and knew they would lose a free election; (3) the electoral commission was biased or was perceived to be biased in favour of one party, usually the incumbent; or more broadly, (4) the country lacked a democratic political culture. these explanations are not mutually exclusive; indeed, most electoral failures are due to some combination of the above, although the precise way in which these explanations interact is not well understood. when challenges such as these occur, they undermine the whole electoral process and further endanger the administration of the country. it is therefore prudent and salient to address these challenges as they occur so as to safeguard the electoral process from suspicion and destruction. the type of electoral system adopted often determines the political process and the relationship between the political parties and actors in a political system. it is generally perceived that an electoral system that does not offer political actors an avenue of participation in decision making create tension and limits political participation in decision making by members of the opposition parties, which could also affect the developmental process of the country. in recent times, many of the new democratic countries have virtually ended up with a two party system in which either of two dominant parties has the chance of emerging as a winner in a competitive general election in spite of the presence of other minor parties. this practise emerged after the end of the cold war, which ushered many developing countries into democratic system of governance through the influence of the united states of america and its western allies. often the winning party forms government and administer the affairs of government including allocating the resources of the country. this in many cases results in a winner-takes-all system where the winning party appoints their supporters as officials in government to administer the day-to-day functions of government to the detriment of the losing party which forms opposition. it is generally argued that the winner-takes-all system breeds antagonism between the members of the ruling party and the opposition due to the neglect of the members of the opposition in decision making and allocation of resources. political pundits maintain that there is antagonism between the ruling national democratic congress (ndc) and the new patriotic party (npp) members because of the winner-takes-all system of governance of the country. presently, a debate is going on about adopting a proportional representation system whereby different political parties can be represented in government. it argued that such system of government will help to address the alleged antagonism between political parties because of the winner-takes-all electoral system. for instance, there have been several calls in ghana by some political parties and civil society organisations to adopt the proportional representation form of electoral system. they argue that the proportional representation form of electoral system has the advantages of promoting representativeness, embracing diversity, reducing electoral tensions, strengthening the independence of legislators and finally enhancing democracy. this call has been necessitated by the deep-seated and sharp division inherent in the winner-takes-all or first-past-the-post voting system. winner-takes-all simply refers to the situation in which a candidate with the most votes, whether or not the majority is achieved, is the absolute winner. in simple terms it means that if a candidate wins a simple majority of votes in a particular constituency it is assumed they have won all the popular votes in that constituency. it is therefore a zero-sum game a gain for one side entails a corresponding loss for the other side. this system, many proponents of the proportional representation believe is the cause of ghana‟s under-development. for instance the people national congress (pnc) has called for the adoption of the proportional representation as an alternative for the winner-takes-all-system. the party describes the winner-takes-all system as a „hijack of the governance system‟. the party further claim that the current electoral system in ghana makes it difficult to harness ideas of all ghanaians for national development (bokpe and darkwah, 2015). in addition, the bi-monthly publication of the institute of economic affairs, ghana in its july/ august 2013 governance newsletter with the heading rethinking the winner-takes-all system raised similar concerns. they argue that the winner-takes-all system „threatens to undermine ghana‟s constitutional democracy, as elections and access to power have become a means to deprive certain groups from resources and privilege and punish disloyalty‟. as a result of several of these concerns raised against the winner-takes-all electoral system, there is an ongoing debate among social commentators and political pundits on the need to revise ghana‟s electoral system. many of these commentators have called for the replacement of the winner-takes-all electoral system with proportional representation system. the increasing calls for replacing the current winner-takes-all electoral system with a proportional representation system raise a lot of questions on the feasibility of the proportional representation in the ghanaian democratic process. therefore, this paper seeks to undertake an academic investigation to ascertain if the proportional representation electoral system can be feasible in ghana. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 64-69 66 specifically, the objective of the paper is in three-folds: firstly, to examine the alleged antagonism embedded in the winner-takes-all electoral system of ghana. secondly, to investigate the feasibility of the proportional representation electoral system in ghana; and lastly, to assess if there are other possible factors that may be contributing to the alleged antagonism in ghanaian politics and offer suggestions to address the problem. the intention of this piece is to argue that the most significant aspect of democratic consolidation and development is not entirely about the type of electoral system adopted but the strengthening of the institutions of state. therefore, by strengthening the institutions of government, the much needed political goods will be delivered to the citizenry, which will go a long way to improve the democratic process and development of ghana. 2. electoral systems and democratic process elklit and reynolds (2002) conducted a research on eight african countries “how different levels of election administration quality might impact on the perceived legitimacy of the electoral process.” it came out that individual experiences related to the conduct of elections appears to have a direct bearing on how the sense of political efficacy develops in individuals, and that this is an important factor behind the development of legitimacy and progression towards democratic consolidation. they identified five factors in analyzing election administration. they include; the organizational structure of electoral management bodies (embs), independence from political forces, internal electoral management bodies motivation, electoral management bodies staff motivation and lastly embs transparency. they argued that the organizational structure of electoral management bodies has a direct impact on the electoral process and the results that comes out of it. important questions like how should the relationship between the head of staff be regulated and who should head the commission were also raised in their arguments. they further claimed that a problem will definitely occur if the commission is composed of representatives of political parties and ethnic groups. kerr (2012) also shared similar sentiments. according to him, citizen‟s perceptions of election quality have a great impact on the performance of election-related institutions. he uses the 2007 nigerian elections as a case study. when citizens perceive elections as free and fair, they are more satisfied with democracy, more supportive of the ruling government, and more likely to accept the defeat of favoured candidates. it was realized in his research that citizens rely most on their evaluations of the election-related institutions to gauge election quality, relative to partisanship and experience with electoral irregularities. the assessment of the electoral commission‟s performance is most crucial in their judgments of election quality. he revealed in his research that nigerians rely more upon their assessment of the electoral commission‟s autonomy relative to its capacity when forming their opinions of election quality. the extent, to which the electoral commission can independently carry out its functions without interference from government and other political or societal actors, was more important to nigerians than whether it had the institutional capacity to effectively manage elections. maame and gyekye-jandoh (2013) focusing on electoral reforms, found that ghana‟s gradual democratization was partly as a result of substantial electoral reforms carried out by the ec, which hindered fraud, and bolstered public acceptance of results. they argue that it promoted political stability and contributed to ghana‟s first electoral turn over in 2000. election management has become one of the most important prerequisites for successful democratic consolidation. this is because an independent and impartial election management has been regarded as “essential in the transition and consolidation of representative democracy.” the electoral machinery must be seen to be impartial and capable of performing its functions. when the electoral machinery fails in its duty of facilitation of free and fair elections the repercussions is the destruction of the public's faith in the whole concept of democratic governance. she identified certain indices for free and fair election and these are: 1. electoral laws and systems 2. demarcation of a country into several constituencies 3. election management 4. the electoral campaign etc from the above arguments it can be generally accepted that elections are a crucial part of democratic transformation. it is also true that the type of electoral system a country adopts either enhances or reduces its democratic gains. there are many electoral systems throughout the world and there is little consensus as to which is best for democratic governance and political stability. countries using any of the systems have their fair share of problems regarding elections and democracy such as inadequate representation in parliaments, lack of accountability and unstable governments. thus, no one electoral system is a panacea for solving political challenges. generally, there are two types of electoral systems commonly used in modern democracies and these are the first-past-the-post or the-winner-takes-all and the proportional representation electoral systems. 3. first-past-the-post/winner-takes-all electoral system this is the simplest form of the single member district system-a system of selecting one individual to represent a district. the winner-takes-all system allows each voter to vote for only one candidate, and the winner of the election is whichever candidate represents a plurality of voters, that is, whoever received the largest number of votes. this makes the plurality voting system among the simplest of all voting systems for voters and vote counting officials. the plurality and majority single-member district methods are winner-takes-all methods. the candidate supported by the largest number of votes wins, and all other voters remain unrepresented (lijphart, 2012). in this system, for a candidate to be declared a winner they are required to garner majority or plurality of the votes. the main purpose of this system is to represent the majority or plurality of voters in a district, and to ensure representation of local geographical areas. the electoral system used for electing parliamentarians in ghana is the single member district type of the plurality system. this means that more than two candidates may compete in a given district. the candidate with the simple majority of votes is declared the winner. it is therefore considered a zero-sum gain such that as one candidate gains the other loses. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 64-69 67 there are several advantages to this system among which is better representation for electorates at the district or constituency level. the winner-takes-all system is believed to have the ability to serve the people especially at the district levels because of the idea that each parliamentarian must come from a particular constituency. this idea contrasts with the proportional representation system where the whole country is considered as one district. given the ethnic plurality of the ghanaian society many proponents of the winner-takes-all system believe that it helps to reduce tension and further enhance development in that the local voter is able to identify with their parliamentarian so that they could better relate with them and share their challenges. there is a certain value in having your representative in parliament, who is from your area, with an office nearby. a person who is dedicated not just to voting on major party issues, but dealing with issues brought forward by his local constituents, the ones who put his name on the ballot, not just his party's name. in addition to this the winnertakes all system ensures that the position of the largest number of voters is represented. winner-takes all elections can lead to and reinforce a system of a few political parties, because it is hard for smaller parties to survive. having fewer political parties can simplify voter choice. it is also argued that the simplicity of the winner-takes-all system makes it welcoming to the very many voters who are unenlightened about the complex and cumbersome nature of the proportional representation system especially in parts of the world that have large rates of illiteracy. there are others who say that the winner-takes-all system has worked for many countries and has recorded little electoral violence and therefore, they go on to say, you do not fix what has not been broken. relating it to the ghanaian electoral system, they believe the winner-takes-all system has been in existence for so long a time and it has been able to serve our electoral needs and therefore must not be changed. some arguments have also been advanced against the winner-takes-all electoral system among which are: the winner-takes-all system has the potential of leaving up to forty-nine point nine percent (49.9%) of electorates unrepresented in a particular constituency. this challenge of over-representation and under-representation of some constituencies is said to be undemocratic and could breed trouble in future elections. secondly, the winnertakes-all system is said to breed divisions, factionalism and does not encourage unity. it deprives certain groups (ethnic minorities, women, opposition political parties) from resources and privileges and punishes disloyalty. smaller parties may never also get the chance of representation in parliament. thirdly, it is believed that the winner-takes-all system could be used by the incumbent government to redraw constituency boundaries also known as gerrymandering for the purposes of gaining undue electoral advantage over other political parties. there is also the chance of pork barrel politics, in which few powerful parliamentarians are able to support each other in using the public purse as a development fund for their constituencies and districts. 4. proportional representation electoral system according to lijphart (2012) the basic aim of proportional representation is to represent both majorities and minorities and, instead of over-representing or under-representing any parties, to translate votes into seats proportionally. in this system legislators are elected in multimember districts instead of single-member districts, and the number of seats that a party wins in an election is proportional to the amount of its support among voters. proportional representation systems come in several varieties, but they all share two basic characteristics. first, they use multi-member districts. instead of electing one member of the legislature in each small district, proportional representation uses much larger districts that elect several members at once. second, which candidates win the seats in these multimember districts is determined by the proportion of votes a party receives. before the election, the minimum threshold (the minimum vote required to win a seat) is published by the electoral management body (emb). the minimum threshold varies from country to country. so if we have a 275-member district and party „a‟ wins twenty percent (20%) of the total votes cast, they receive fifty-five (55) of the two hundred and seventy five (275) seats in parliament. if party „b‟ gets sixty percent (60%) of the vote; they get one hundred and sixty five (165) seats and if a third party, probably an independent party wins the remaining twenty percent (20%) they get fifty five (55) seats. the essence of such systems is that all votes contribute to the result, not just a plurality, or a bare majority, of them. electoral system designers have devised several ways to achieve these proportional results, and so there are three basic kinds of proportional representation: party list, mixedmember, and single-transferable vote (also called choice voting). most of western europe and emerging democracies, especially in africa, have opted for the proportional representation system. proportional representation has been widely adopted because it avoids an outcome in which some people win representation and the rest are left out. under proportional representation rules, no significant groups are denied representation. even political minorities, who may constitute only 10-20 per cent of the voters, are able to win some seats in these multi-member districts. in proportional representation systems, nearly everyone's vote counts, with 80-90 per cent of the voters‟ actually electing someone.at the end, the legislature will accurately reflect the voting strength of the various parties. the proportional representation system has the advantages of reducing the act of gerrymandering, increasing voter participation, enhancing democracy and reducing cost to candidates and their political parties. it has been criticized mainly for its inability to link the voters and their parliamentary representatives. others also believe that proportional representation is very complex to practice. 5. feasibility of proportional representation in ghana the arguments so readily made for the adoption of proportional representation in ghana can be misleading especially because the challenges that confronts the ghanaian political system goes beyond just better representation for political parties and racial minorities, fewer wasted votes, higher levels of voter turnout, better representation of women, greater likelihood of majority rule, and little opportunity for gerrymandering. many of the challenges confronting ghana‟s political system are not derived from our electoral system but from weaknesses of our state institutions. true, the winner-takes-all system has deepened the political exclusion of opposition parties and has further polarized major aspects of our national life, but the question still remains whether or not proportional representation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/plurality_%28voting%29 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/majority asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 64-69 68 is the solution to these challenges. the winner-takes all electoral system merely acts as a catalyst to highlight the inherent flaw in the underlying set up of government. that is, the lack of accommodation for the classic principle of the separation of powers. in a true liberal democracy, just as there should always be a separation of legislature and the judiciary, and the executive and the judiciary, there should also be maintained a proper separation of executive and legislature. so as to prevent a conflict of interest between those who execute the law and those who make the law, both arms of government should abide by the separation of powers concept and thus be established independently of each other. kerevel (2009) considered voter confidence as a critical factor on the legitimacy of elected officials, support for government policies and institutions and the quality of representation. electoral management bodies with excessive partisan influence or exclusive commissions that limit political input in the administration of elections may lead to a perceived lack of professionalism and impartiality that will make citizens to question the fairness of the election process. touching on the role of the media, kerevel (2009) states that the media is likely to publish any problem that arise in the running of the election , such as problems with the voter rolls, inadequate training of polling officials or questionable decisions taken by election commissions that may introduce bias into the election process. proportional representation is been practised in many parts of the world and has recorded some defects similar to ghana‟s first-past-the-post system. for instance, when it comes to accountability there is the greater chance of parliamentarians kowtowing to the wishes of their political parties than the voters. this is so because it is the political parties that determine the names of individuals on the list and so therefore there is the inclination to support the political party than the voter. a case in point happened in the south african parliament where a bill (protection of state information) was pushed through the national assembly by the anc (africa national congress), in opposition to public opinion (sibalukhulu, 2015). in addition to this, the situation where voters are unable to remove parliamentarians in the proportional representation system makes these law-makers unresponsive to the plight of the voters and is also a dent on real representative democracy. this practise happens because voters do not have a total say on who should represent them and who they should consult when a problem arises in a particular district. for instance in mozambique there has been a criticism of the proportional representation system for its inability to guarantee the representation that is so desirable for the stability of the political system in the new mozambique. when this happens there is the likelihood of dissatisfaction and voter apathy among electorates. institutional failures, weaker checks and balances of the structures of state, high concentration of power on the executive arm of government, corruption and poor accountability measures are generally some of the challenges that confront ghana‟s political system. it is questionable to assume that a change in electoral system can resolve the myriad of challenges facing ghana‟s political environment. 6. discussions and conclusions debrah (2011) argued that the success of the electoral commission in ghana could be attributed to the making of the electoral process transparent, fostering agreement on the rules of the game and asserting its autonomy in relation to the performance of its mandate. he suggested that there should be electoral reforms to overcome challenges posed by delayed adjudication of post-election disputes and executive financial control of the electoral commission. this will require the creation of an electoral court to deal swiftly and impartially with election disputes and a special electoral fund to insulate the electoral commission from government‟s financial manipulation. he further stated that institutional authority is significant for managing the electoral process. to him, the ec of ghana is to some extent autonomous. he defines autonomy as freedom from external controls and the ability to make rules, regulations and decisions and enforce them on individuals, groups and other bodies. the security of tenure granted to its members by the constitution, their salaries, allowances, pensions and other emoluments for members of the ec charged to the state‟s consolidated fund, are cases in point. the financial administration system operating in ghana is a challenge for the e.c. it is the government that allocates financial resources to the e.c through the consolidated fund. this might create the event of the electoral commission being manipulated by the government. for example, “the chronic postponements of revision of voters roll in non-election years of 1997, 1999, 2001 and 2006 were as a result of government‟s unwillingness to release funds for such an important electoral exercise” debrah (2011). lopez-pintor (2000) also suggests that for electoral systems to be effective they must be inclusive, sustainable, just and independent. he classified one hundred and forty eight countries (148) countries according to the type of electoral administration and he came to a conclusion that independent electoral bodies serve democratic stability better than elections run by the executive branch and that permanent electoral management bodies are more cost effective than temporary ones. he basically assessed the operation of ad hoc and temporary embs in comparison with permanent independent electoral bodies. his methodology was a combination of thematic and country specific analysis. the import of his research was the different types of embs and how they operate. the most significant argument he made was that the independence of the embs was very important and that they should not be manipulated by external forces or bodies. nanda (2006) in the hypothesis of her thesis examined „equality, objectivity, proportionality, accessibility, credibility, civic-participation, non-partisan election management body results in conduct of free and fair elections‟. she suggested that one of the most important tools for measuring the neutrality of election administration machinery which needs focus is strict enforcement of mode of code of conduct for political parties and the government in power at all levels along with election officials. one challenge she identified was government sponsored advertisements. on the eve of election, the central and state government embarked on an advertisement spree to influence the voters in the guise of providing information to the public. she identified this as a huge challenge in the conduct of free and fair elections in himachal pradesh (india). in the lead up to the 2012 general elections of ghana, the daily graphic report of october 1, 2012 had it that the government of ghana released ghc261,256,525 representing 91.5% of the total ghc286,288,025 the electoral commission requested. the amount requested was to fund biometric registration, acquisition of verification equipment, exhibition of the voters register and the conduct of the presidential asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(2): 64-69 69 and parliamentary elections. the late arrival of the funds and the inability of the government to release the total amount requested had the potential of delaying and disrupting the schedule of the electoral commission. as stated earlier, the challenges facing ghana‟s political system has more to do with institutional failures than with a change in electoral system. since the inception of the fourth republic, the parliament of ghana and the majority in parliament in particular has always been forced to do the bidding of the executive much to their own dislike. this is so because of the clause in our constitution where majority of ministers must come from parliament. this practice has rendered parliament a complete stooge of the executive and has further made it less critical of the executive arm of government. it has also made useless of the practice of separation of powers and has therefore inhibited parliament from scrutinizing critically all executive dealings with less political lens. in the light of this challenge a creation of the office of a special prosecutor as practised in other jurisdictions such as florida in the united states becomes relevant nadjari maurice (1974). the presence of the office of the special prosecutor promotes checks and balances in the executive branch, and enhance the legislature‟s oversight responsibilities over the executive branch. the office of the special prosecutor core responsibility is to act as a watchdog of the executive branch and at the same time to avoid the temptation of being used as harassment tool against the president. it is astonishing to see how embs from other countries manage voter education. according to macnamara et al. (2009), the government of australia in order to promote democracy was committed to open government based on a culture of engagement, built on better access to and use of government held information, and sustained by the use of effective technology. the emphasis is on „effective technology‟. the amazing thing in this is that the australian electoral commission (aec) found knowledge in this and through its advisory board on election research (caber) recommended that the commission investigate the potentials for new forms of social media to contribute to the achievement of the objective of the aec, particularly in relation to engaging young people and other functions that includes; to encourage citizens to enroll to vote; to encourage citizens to maintain their electoral enrolment; and encourage citizens to vote formally in elections. and it worked. the parliament of ghana should adopt the practice of 'recall election' as seen in the congress of the united states, canada and switzerland. a recall election is a procedure by which voters can remove an elected official from office through a direct vote before his or her term has ended. this happens when a certain number of voters sign a petition requesting for a recall of a parliamentarian. if enough registered voters sign the petition, the speaker of the legislature announces before the house that the member has been recalled and a by-election follows as soon as possible, giving voters the opportunity to replace the politician in question. this will put parliamentarians on their toes and make them active participants of parliamentary proceedings. they will almost always put the interest of their constituents first because of the likely backlash they might face. the institute of economic affairs has also identified the institutional deficiencies and challenges such as internal fragmentation and political factional line as factors in the softly reactive manner parliament deals with executive dominance. they have therefore recommended that parliament overcome its own internal weaknesses and reinforce its efforts to hold the executive to account. it can therefore be concluded that the political challenges facing ghana has more to do with weak institutions and structures than with a change in electoral system. references bokpe, s.j. and r.a. darkwah, 2015. pnc urges proportional representation in governance. graphic online, 2014. available from http://graphic.com.gh/news/politics/26994-pnc-urges-proportional-representation-in-governance.html [accessed 1st january]. debrah, e., 2011. measuring governance institutions success in ghana: the case of the electoral commission, 1993–2008. african studies, 70(1): 33-39. elklit, j. and a. reynolds, 2002. the impact of election administration on the legitimacy of emerging democracies: a new comparative politics research agenda. commonwealth & comparative politics, 103(2): 86-119. kerevel, y., 2009. election management bodies and public confidence in elections: lessons from latin america.williamand kathy hybl international fellow on democracy studies. usa: university of new mexico. kerr, n., 2012. perceptions versus reality: assessing popular evaluations of election quality in africa. center for social science research, democracy in africa unit. afrobarometer working papers. issue 137. legon-accra. ghana. lijphart, a., 2012. patterns of democracy: government forms and performance in thirty-six countries. new haven: yale university press. lopez-pintor, r., 2000. electoral management bodies as institutions of governance. bureau for development policy. new york: united nations development programme (undp). maame, a.a. and gyekye-jandoh, 2013. electoral reform and gradual democratization in africa: the case of ghana. department of political science, university of ghana. african journal of social science, 3(2): 74-92. macnamara, j., p. sakinofsky and j. beattie, 2009. electoral engagement: maintaining and enhancing democratic participation through social media. a report for the australian electoral commission by university of technology sydney. australian center for public communication, 4. nadjari maurice, h., 1974. new york state office of the special prosecutor: a creation born of necessity. hofstra l. rev., 2(1): 97. available from http://scholarlycommons.law.hofstra.edu/hlr/vol2/iss1/3 [accessed 20th january]. nanda, m., 2006. managements of elections in himachal pradesh. university of ljubljana: faculty of economics. internationalcentre for promotion of enterprises, ljubljana, slovenia. pastor, r.a., 1999. the role of electoral administration in democratic transitions: implications for policy and research. a frank cass journal, 6(4): 1-27. sibalukhulu, n., 2015. sa‟s electoral system fails the people. mail & guardian. available from http://mg.co.za/article/2012-04-20-saselectoral-system-fails-the-people [accessed 19th january]. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://graphic.com.gh/news/politics/26994-pnc-urges-proportional-representation-in-governance.html http://scholarlycommons.law.hofstra.edu/hlr/vol2/iss1/3 http://mg.co.za/article/2012-04-20-sas-electoral-system-fails-the-people http://mg.co.za/article/2012-04-20-sas-electoral-system-fails-the-people asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 1, 8-16, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 8 a focused analysis of recruitment and performance management in the import and export industry r george 1 --a slabbert 2 1,2faculty of business cape peninsula university of technology abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group 1. introduction organizations currently compete in an environment where talented people are understood to be the key to the success of the business. this then stands to reason that a company’s strength should be built on the quality of its employees. formerly, people worked solely for socio-considerations. work was a means to providing the family with the basic essentials for life. today’s inconsistent and competitive business environment has brought about a shift in outlook as people no longer work because of socio-economic considerations alone. although there is little doubt that many people work in order to satisfy needs to live, as well as wants, there are a few other reasons such as job security, sense of achievement, sense of purpose and to make new friends; to name but a few. nonetheless, people work and organizations are confronted with having to match the best potential candidate to a specific job; this function is known as recruitment. hiring staff is a task that every organization will face in order to satisfy the needs of a company. the specific job will be analyzed and candidates must be attracted to that job. a lengthy process is then followed until the best suited candidate is placed in that particular job in order to ensure that those particular tasks/duties are carried out. the question then arises as to whether that recruit is actually needed, should he/she not be capable of performing those particular tasks/duties. skill shortages are faced by countless organizations for various reasons such as: losing employees to competitors, employees immigrating with the family, the increasing impact of aids on the workplace and while many studies have been conducted on recruitment and performance management, there is a paucity of research on these two functions within the industry. recruitment and performance management are vital human capital and human resource (hr) functions that play a crucial role in guaranteeing an organisation’s ability to achieve its business strategy. furthermore, studies have shown that in recent years, performance management has become intrinsic to most organisations. the research comprised five phases of data collection from 151 randomly selected respondents. a questionnaire was developed and distributed to gain insight into how these two functions were executed within the industry under investigation. thereafter a performance management module was developed and implemented, and the questionnaire was redistributed after six months. the results support the view that the functions of recruitment and performance management are poorly managed within the industry. furthermore, the intervention of the performance management module indicates that interaction with employees relating to individual performance enhances both their work performance and general awareness of inter-personal and organisational issues. the findings from this research suggest that recruitment and performance management are essential hr practices often overlooked in an environment that is extremely demanding. disregard of these practices, especially performance management, has proved to have a negative impact on employee job performance. it is therefore recommended that organisations follow processes and invest in such programmes, not only to achieve their organisational goals, but also to develop and enhance employee performance. this study has specific and important implications for the import and export industry, substantiating the researcher’s premise that effective recruitment and performance management can improve and facilitate the management of the industry’s employees. keywords: data analysis, employee, employment relationship, human capital, human resource management (hrm), performance management, recruitment. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 8-16 9 affirmative action applied incorrectly to name but a few; despite the fact that this is over and above the shortcomings that the company faces. times have changed in the business world to the extent that legislation requires companies to focus on training and development, performance management, career management and succession planning as well as policies. previously, performance management was believed to only be beneficial to the employer as management needed to assess whether they were paying staff the appropriate salary. however, performance management is both beneficial and important for the employee and employer. from the employers’ viewpoint, performance management will assist in understanding and evaluating the current performance of employees, identify any shortcoming, establish training needs and so much more. the employee on the other hand will receive feedback with regards to his/her performance. this feedback provides an outline to be used when assessing future career development. when focusing on human capital, it is easy to see that recruitment and performance management are functions that are to be performed in order to deal with or manage some of the factors that human capital encompasses. human capital plays a crucial role in guaranteeing that an organisation has the capacity to provide the specific product or service required by the clients. to ensure that this takes place, effective recruitment processes, policies, procedures and practices must be developed and implemented in order to employ the right people with all the necessary abilities and competencies. the bottom line is that the finest strategy will fail without the right people in the right places to execute it. this is because human skills are required in ninety nine percent (99%) of organisations in order to implement and execute the business strategy. kong and thomson (2009) explain that in the last few decades employees have been widely recognised as a valuable resource; however the debate has now shifted from whether human resources are important to how important they are in an organisation. employees bring knowledge to an organization and this is believed to provide the organisation with a valuable asset. in the fierce economy of today, organisations are forced to compete for the best talent as this facilitates the effective functioning of the business and this is one of the reasons why human capital has become more prominent; another is because of the increase in diversity. individual performance contributes to the overall performance of the organization and as such it is essential that the right labor is recruited and the performance of this labor is managed constantly and effectively, so as to contribute to successful employee job performance and to the competitiveness of the organization. 2. manifested problem recruitment and performance management are critical functions in companies where specific policies, processes and procedures exist. the purpose of these policies is to offer support to employers when attending to recruitment and performance management functions. do companies adhere to the recruitment policies, standards and procedures when recruiting candidates to fill all positions or only when senior positions are being filled? in addition to this, is it only the performance of these employees that will be monitored, as the company stands to lose money or its reputation! when a candidate is not measured against any particular selection criteria, then the possibility of not selecting the best candidate is amplified. this is a result of the proper recruitment process only being utilised for certain positions. furthermore, when the performance of an employee is not monitored and managed; the organisation cannot be certain that the employee is performing effectively in the particular role. this is specifically how an individual could end up in a position that he/she is not suited for. another outcome is that the individual may not perform at his/her full potential as the job does not bring out any of the employees’ strengths. in some instances only the weaknesses of the individual will be displayed. the question which led to the focused analysis of both recruitment and performance management, is whether these are being adhered to as stipulated by the company. 3. literature review the biggest hurdle to success is simply failure to plan and prepare. this statement applies to many aspects, including recruitment and performance management. recruitment deals with the individuals that a company attracts and performance management takes it one step further in aiding management to recognise and retain good performers. in some instances, performance management may lead to the realisation that an employee needs more training or at worse, dismiss under-performers. employees of an organisation are valuable assets and as such, the evaluation, monitoring and measurement of performance should receive as much attention as the recruitment of the employees. this is supported by laroche and rutherford (2007) who explains that most organisations confess that the quality of their employees does play a critical role in the success of the organisation. recruiting, retaining and managing people well, provides the finest competitive advantage. having the finest workforce begins with the critically important step of recruiting the finest people. as a result of the necessity to recruit and retain the right candidates, human resources (hr) plays an increasingly important role in business today. recruitment is the process whereby organisations source and attract not only suitable but qualified candidates for job openings. swanepoel et al. (2006) supports this statement and describes recruitment as those activities in human resource management which are undertaken in order to attract sufficient job candidates who have the necessary potential, competencies and traits to fill job needs and to assist the organisation in achieving its objectives. organisations depend on their staff’s performance in order to achieve targets, goals and business objectives; and in order to achieve this it is imperative that organisations necessitate candidates with the proper knowledge, skills and ability. earlier on it was mentioned that an organisation must attract qualified candidates in order to survive and grow. stone (2002) explains that the management of an organisation must anticipate changes in the organisation’s environment to ensure that people who are recruited have the unique skills and know-how required by the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 8-16 10 organisation’s strategic business objectives. strategic recruitment does this by linking recruiting activities to the organisation’s business objectives and culture. recruitment is not only concerned with placing the best candidate in a vacant position; it aims at achieving the finest fit between the candidate, the job and the organisation. ivancevich (2004) defines recruiting as a set of activities that an organisation uses to attract job candidates who have the abilities and attitudes needed to help the organisation achieve its objectives. according to coetzee and schreuder (2010) the importance of recruiting and selecting the right people, including scarce and critical skills, and of being seen as an employer of choice, has been enhanced by the increasingly competitive and globalised business environment and the requirement for quality and customer service. therefore, recruitment is increasingly regarded as a critical human resource function for organisational success and survival. agreeing with this statement is walker et al. (2008) who in addition explain that the task of recruiting qualified job seekers becomes more difficult considering demographic trends that limit the number of qualified workers in the applicant pool. this is yet another reason why recruitment is regarded as an extremely important function for organisations. furthermore, the systematic attraction, selection and retention of competent and experienced scarce and critical skills have become core elements of competitive strategy, and an essential part of an organisations’ strategic capability for adapting to competition. taylor and collins (2000) provide more information relating to recruitment detailing that organisations in a variety of sectors find that they are engaged in fierce and continuing battles with competitors for the recruitment of the best and brightest new hires. agreeing with this statement is cascio (2003), identifying recruitment as a form of business competition that is fiercely competitive. as organisations compete to develop, manufacture and market the best product or service, they must also compete to identify, attract and recruit the most qualified people. askehave (2010) also explains that the fierce competition for talent amongst organisations is created when a permanent shortage of skilled workers is evident. furthermore agreeing with this line of thinking is brock and buckley (2013) explaining that an organisation’s ability to recruit and retain and even develop the best employees becomes essential for developing and sustaining a competitive advantage. while all organisations function differently within the various industries and make use of innumerable detailed definitions of recruitment, the purpose and importance of recruitment for all organisations remain the same. recruitment is an acknowledgement of a request from the organisation that additional personnel are required and recruitment begins with identifying this requirement. in certain instances management may deviate from policies and procedures in order to fill a position with a person desired in that role and thereafter, neglect to evaluate and monitor the performance. if people are any organisations’ most valuable asset then effective management of performance as well as recruitment should be seen as essential functions that do not alter based on certain positions. this is the reason for the researcher’s choice of the problem. according to http://recruitment.naukrihub.com an integral part of any organisations’ human resource planning as well as their competitive advantage is the function of recruitment. locating and attracting the right candidate for the right position is vital and contributes considerably towards the organisations’ strategic advantage. it is important that organisations make use of their recruitment process as this facilitates selecting the best candidate for the organisation. recruitment is becoming more important in every business sector due to the competitive global world as well as the increasing flexibility in the labour market. stone (2002) supports this statement and states the following: “the pressures of competition, cost saving, downsizing and global skill shortages have made recruitment a top priority.” recruitment is therefore the first step in satisfying the needs of any organisation in order to assist in achieving the organisations’ objectives. according to beardwell and claydon (2007) the current state of recruitment and selection is complex because a variety of internal and external factors continue to influence the process. these factors are constantly changing and the environment in which the recruitment process operates is dynamic and increasingly uncertain. there is no common solution to this uncertainty that organisations worldwide could apply; organisations need to adapt to accommodate their needs. a candidate that is selected to fill a position is the individual who is the best fit as he/she possesses the required qualification, skills, knowledge and attitude for that particular job. if good employees are required in an organisation, then surely the management of the performance of these employees should be just as important; due to the impact that it has on the growth and success rate of the organisation. performance management is a crucial function and an essential tool, yet is not performed correctly by some organisations due to those involved in the process not being properly equipped to do so. performance management is yet another function that benefits both the employee and employer and no matter the size of the organisation; it is imperative that time, money and effort is invested into. the bottom line is that people and their performance must be managed; not overlooked. tung et al. (2011) explain that if organisations are to survive in today’s rapidly changing environment they must identify their existing position, clarify goals and operate more effectively. performance measurement systems will assist organisations in achieving such objectives. this is supported by the website http://www/mbapartnership.com.au which states the following: “performance management principles are needed wherever in the world people interact with their environments to produce desired effects. cultures are different but the laws of behaviour are the same worldwide. performance management can be described as a strategic and integrated approach to increasing the effectiveness of organisations by improving the performance of the people who work in them and by developing the capabilities of teams and individual contributors”. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 8-16 11 a fundamental factor of performance management is that it is a shared process between managers and the individuals or teams that they manage and as such, the parties involved should take advantage of this. performance management is based on discussions and an agreement of objectives, requirements, work performance, training and development plans. it is a crucial element of any organisation which is why it embraces the input of the parties concerned. more and more organisations have come to learn and perceive performance management as an encouraging, supportive, productive and beneficial process in order to assist the employee in reaching their full potential through creating an environment contributing to just that. schraeder and jordan (2011) elucidate that the management of employee performance is now regarded as an essential function and this is due to the fact that sustained competitiveness of organisations may very well hinge on the overall effectiveness of this function. this is not specifically astounding given the fact that the employees symbolise a significant asset for organisations, which means that employee’s individual and combined performances should be recognised as playing a vital role in helping the organisation achieve overall objectives. initially, performance management was not perceived well by management due to the fact that during the process it forced them to move away from the old-fashioned style of management, where what the manager says, goes. this is supported by armstrong (2006) who explains that performance management processes have become prominent in recent years as a means of providing a more integrated and continuous approach to the management of performance than was provided by previous isolated and often inadequate merit rating or performance appraisal schemes. performance management is based on the principle of management by agreement rather than management by command. bagraim et al. (2010) provides a straight forward and understandable definition of performance management, stating that the essence of it is: “establishing a framework in which performance by human resources can be directed, monitored, motivated and refined, and that the links in the cycle can be audited.” furthermore, hunter (2012) defines performance management as a technique that is being applied by a large number of organisations and incorporates the more effective aspects of management by objectives, goal setting, performance appraisal, training and coaching. it has already been established that a requirement for business success is to plan and recruit the right people for the right position. in order to ensure that this is maintained, performance management comes into play; what gets done must be measured in order to be compared with the required results. organisations differ and for this very reason the performance management programme of each organisation should be designed or developed so as to fit that particular organisation. performance management has become vital because employees are an essential part of running any organisation efficiently and effectively. human resource management plays a role in the success of an organisation because of the qualities that come along with human capital; and in order to acquire the benefit of these qualities, the effective management thereof comes into play. this is supported by noe et al. (2011) who explains that with regards to the human resource management practices: the analysis and design of work deals with the development and designing of jobs, human resource planning is the practice of determining how many employees with specific knowledge and skills are required, recruitment encompasses attracting potential employees and selection is the task of choosing employees, training and development is the task of teaching employees how to perform in jobs and preparing employees for the future, compensation is the rewarding of employees, performance management is the very important task of evaluating performance and employee relations deals with creating a positive work environment. recruitment and performance management are the two human resource management practices that are the focus of this study and that assist any organization with its performance; individual performance therefore contributes towards organizational performance. this then means that recruitment and performance management go hand in hand and also, that each of these two human resource management practices will have an impact on the job performance of an employee. 4. research methodology the main aim of this research project was to develop a better understanding, through a focused analysis of recruitment and performance management in the imports and exports industry. the main aim is coupled with the task of developing awareness, amongst all levels of management, with regards to the importance of carrying out the recruitment and performance management functions as procedurally documented in the form of policies. in this study, the population and sample on which the investigation was carried out was the imports & exports industry in cape town. the companies falling in this industry offer a variety of services. the industry itself can be very fast paced and majority of the time there is little room for planning. for this very reason, the researcher was intrigued to explore whether this kind of fast-paced industry utilises both the recruitment and performance management functions correctly. the methodology used will be clarified through the use of five (5) phases, as follows: phase 1: the development of the questionnaire zikmund et al. (2010) outline that a questionnaire is relevant to the extent that all information collected addresses a research question that will help the researcher address the present problem being investigated. the researcher should however, be specific about data needs and have a rationale for every element of information being requested. the main reason for a questionnaire being chosen was due to the fact that at times respondents are too scared to answer questions truthfully and face-to-face; a questionnaire eliminates this fear for respondents. an advantage of questionnaires is that the respondents may remain anonymous if they so choose. brynard and hanekom (1997) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 8-16 12 explain that an additional advantage with questionnaires is that respondents have time to think about the answers to questions in the questionnaire. the researcher therefore deemed a questionnaire as the most appropriate data collection method for the purpose of this study. based on what the researcher was focusing on, it made sense to make use of the likert scale for measurement in the questionnaire. the reason for this is based on the explanation provided by cooper and schindler (2011) state the following: “the likert scale is the most frequently used variation of the summated rating scale. summated rating scales consist of statements that express either a favourable or an unfavourable attitude toward the objective of interest. the participant is asked to agree or disagree with each statement. each response is given a numerical score to reflect its degree of attitudinal favourableness, and the scores may be summed to measure the participant’s overall attitude.” with regards to the questionnaire, certain questions had to be asked in order to measure or determine the use of the recruitment as well as performance management processes. the questions or statements asked were all created from the various steps conducted in the recruitment and performance management process; by the researcher. a pilot study was conducted with ten (10) of the respondents in the target population, in order to detect any weaknesses in the design of the initial questionnaire. phase 2: distribution of the questionnaire cooper and schindler (2011) clarified that a population is the total collection of elements in which the researcher aimed to make particular interpretations. the population was the imports and exports industry within cape town. it must be understood that this industry is colossal as the services offered are of such a diverse nature. for this very reason, the researcher was extremely precise with the definition of this industry. for the purpose of this study, the definition of imports and exports will refer to only those companies that:  operate by packing exports and unpack imports  provide the transportation and storage of full containers  provide storage of cargo  not only supply these services to one client; but multiple clients this definition eliminates many companies from this wide-ranging industry, but for the purpose of this study the definition was to be particularly precise. those companies falling within this definition compete against each other for the title of the market leader in the imports and exports industry within cape town. there are various other services offered by companies in conjunction with the above mentioned functions; however should they not offer a minimum of two of the above mentioned services they would be eliminated from the study. the questionnaire was distributed amongst one hundred and fifty one (151) respondents, working at various companies in the imports and exports industry within cape town. phase 3: development of the performance management programme for the purpose of this study the performance management programme that was to be developed, could not be time consuming. in certain companies a performance management programme did not exist, while in other companies a programme did exist but was not utilised or only utilised on certain employees. certain elements of performance management necessitate that managers or supervisor have been equipped with specific skills in order to assist with and carry out this important function. however, due to time constraints, a basic performance management programme was to be developed. a programme that was simple and straight forward and one that any person within any one of the companies in the imports and exports industry within cape town; could understand and work. this programme was to incorporate various sections. these sections included that focusing on the employees’ work or job performance, as well as a section that deals with work at present and what is required for future performance. the performance management programme was developed by the researcher after reviewing various performance management programmes. phase 4: implementation of the performance management programme the performance management programme was only implemented on those employees who received a score of sixty-two (62) or less on question one (1); the section of the questionnaire that dealt with performance management. this score was calculated by looking at the vital questions that respondents should have “agreed” or “strongly agreed” should the company have a performance management programme in place. irrespective of whether the particular company had a performance management programme in place, the programme that was developed by the researcher was to be made use of. most managers indicated that they would like to be involved in the process of managing their employees’ performance. there were instances that managers or supervisors required assistance with regards to carrying out this function. in such instances, the researcher gladly assisted those managers and supervisor telephonically or by setting up a meeting to explain the programme. it was not a necessity that the researcher be present when the programme was being implemented. the implementation of the performance management programme itself did not take that long; most meetings took about 30 – 40 minutes, if that. phase 5: re-distribution of the performance management questionnaire the researcher waited six (6) months before re-distributing the performance management questionnaire; this is so that it could be determined a while after the intervention (performance management programme) whether employees acknowledged that a performance management programme is in place. re-distributing the questionnaire immediately after the intervention was not the best time as all employees would then acknowledge the performance management programme; the aim was to determine whether management had followed up on employees’ performance, resulting in employees acknowledging the performance management programme sometime after the initial implementation. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 8-16 13 the researcher also re-distributed the behavioural criteria summary sheet at the same time. this sheet was where the employees’ performance was rated on; and by re-distributing it, the researcher could determine whether there was a difference in the rating of the employees’ job performance after the implementation of the performance management programme. 5. results and discussion 5.1. performance management the descriptive statistics of the performance management questionnaire reflect a distinct difference, particularly in the mean of the re-distributed questionnaire as it had increased significantly to the extent that it had almost doubled. the increase in the mean (average) after the re-distribution of the questionnaire is more than likely due to human manipulation. the cronbach’s alpha based test confirmed the reliability of the statements used in the questionnaire. the paired samples test confirmed that the two means were in fact different from each other when measuring the pre and post-test scores after exposure to the intervention. the pre and posttest scores are received from the same people, suggesting an underlying relationship between the scores. the paired samples test substantiates what has been discovered in descriptive statistics. the intervention is the only discrepancy when looking at all factors relating to the pre and post-test scores, which suggest that the intervention is the reason for the increase in the mean. the paired differences t-test concluded that there is a statistically significant difference between the two means. furthermore, the confidence interval has confirmed the result of the t-test. by examining all tables relating to the initial distribution and the re-distribution of the performance management questionnaire, the end result is that the outcome of the re-distributed questionnaire is enhanced. all tests confirmed that there was a significant difference in the statistics obtained from the different variables. the two variables were the statistics collected from the initial completed questionnaire and the statistics collected from the completed re-distributed questionnaire. there was no difference in the substance of the questionnaires; however the re-distributed questionnaire was subsequent to an intervention. this intervention encompassed a performance appraisal and a brief discussion regarding training, short and long-term goals of the employee and performance in general to name but few categories. the statistics have confirmed that when an organisation understands, shows an interest in and carries out the performance management function effectively, employees’ responses towards the function will be positive and constructive. based on the results received, it is recommended that organisations implement and maintain a performance management programme. all companies operating in this industry ought to invest in a suitable performance management programme; a programme that has been developed and shaped to the needs and culture of the company. performance management is an increasingly popular topic in today’s economy but is a function that should be focused on because organisations need to be more efficient and effective in order to remain competitive. when performance management is mentioned, people tend to only think of the performance appraisal and the negative side of it; but performance management is so much more. not only does performance management reward good performance; but it provides opportunities for improving performance. this process encourages managers make time to provide employees with regular feedback relating to their performance, resulting in strengths and weaknesses being identified. good performance is recognized and rewarded and in incidents of poor performance, ways are identified in which performance can be improved. performance management provides the opportunity for employees to enhance knowledge in their current job, which in turn helps to gain skills for future advancement and job opportunities. another important factor is that performance management provides employees with a clear understanding of their job expectations which eliminates workplace ambiguities; as the employee is allowed the opportunity to think about and discuss their duties, responsibilities, and goals. having employees included in the section relating to the job expectations, makes the employee feel included and important. where the employee may have suggestions or sentiments, the manager will consider them and should the employee have and any questions from the employee are to be clarified by the manager. by managing performance, the organization creates an environment that is conducive to enhancing employees’ skills through training, development, motivating, guiding, supporting, coaching and mentoring; and this will assist the employees with making better use of their skills; thus improving individual job performance and organizational effectiveness. a performance management module is a system that organizations can use every day in order to care for employees as well as pay attention to their performance. this module is to be viewed as a system that serves to provide managers with the strength required in order to instill reliability and performance management as a daily process within the organization. furthermore, this module is a means through which knowledge regarding performance can be acquired in order for decisions to be made relating to improvements in employee performance and work processes. people are essential in any organization and a performance management module will help build support, guidance and momentum. such a module can work well on its own and/or in conjunction with various other modules that will benefit the organization. a performance management model that can be utilized as a guideline during such a system may be perused in figure 5.1. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 8-16 14 figure-5.1 performance management model source: present researcher 5.2. employee performance the behavioral criteria sheet is the performance appraisal that was conducted during the intervention and again six (6) months later. the results received from the descriptive statistics illustrates that the mean has increased; even though this increase is marginal, the fact that the mean has increased is important. in addition to the mean increasing, it was also detected that the mode had also increased. this means that employees’ responses have become slightly more favourable with regards to the options being selected. the results have increased to some extent indicating that the performance intervention has had a positive impact on the performance of the employees. a difference denotes that respondents or employees performance has been enhanced because of the performance intervention. the paired samples tables have confirmed that not only have the means (pre and post-test scores) increased, but that there is a statistically significant difference. the behavioural criteria sheet was re-distributed six months after the intervention, which then means that the intervention was the reason for the increase in the means. while not every criterion for every respondent has improved, the fact that there is a significant difference proves that some involvement from management with regards to employee performance has a positive influence. this statement is supported by the results depicted in all tables relating to the behavioral criteria sheet. this then confirms that that the slightest bit of interaction with employees regarding their performance, offering support and guidance, monitoring and evaluating their performance and providing them with feedback, has a positive effect on performance resulting in its enhancement. one of the objectives of every organization is not only to survive but to become profitable. a large portion of achieving this objective depends on the employees’ performance. the information above has proven that managing employees’ performance does enhance it to a certain extent. as a result, organizations should create a culture that is conducive to managing employee performance. 5.3. recruitment cross tabulation tables were used to analyze the results of the recruitment questionnaire. the tables confirmed that the organizations within the specified industry do follow the recruitment process; however, this process has not been followed with the majority of the employees. chi-square tests were conducted for all statements in the recruitment questionnaire and gave valid results in all instances. it is important to understand that certain steps in the recruitment process would be considered more crucial for an external candidate than an internal candidate, due to the fact the external candidate is coming into the organisation’s environment uninformed of many conditions. preferred performance 1.planning know what to do: • set goals & targets •select indicators for the measurement of performance •identify relevant performance standards •communicate expectations 2. execute perform; know how to do it 3. evaluate monitor and measure performance 4. feedback provide feedback on performance asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(1): 8-16 15 before the recruitment process commences, it is imperative that the needs of a vacant or newly created position are realistic as one downfall of many organizations is creating unrealistic specifications; the position is to be portrayed as accurately as possible. applicants must be made aware of potential challenges and demands of the position. it is crucial that the organization recruits the right individual, into the right job, at the right time. recruiting staff is essential, but a costly exercise in any organization and as such it should be done properly. an organization may have the latest technology and resources, but without the right people it will battle to achieve the required results. recruitment is a topical area and has become ever more important due to the fact that the employees of an organization are the foundation of the competitive advantage. a recruitment model facilitates management with executing this function effectively. an example of such a model is seen in figure 5.2. figure-5.2. recruitment model source: present researcher 6. conclusion recruitment and performance management are imperative hr practices that are often overlooked in an environment that is unplanned and extremely demanding. yet, a disregard for these practices, especially performance management, has proven to have a negative impact on employee job performance. investing time and effort into both the recruitment and performance management processes, has bountiful benefits for the employee and the organization. if organizations want to be successful and have productive employees with a high standard of performance then it must be realized that the monitoring, evaluating and managing of employee performance is just as important as the recruitment of new employees. these two hr practices, inclusive of the processes thereof, are crucial and if not executed in the approved manner, a negative impact on employee job performance will be particularly evident. both recruitment and performance management are hr practices that face constant challenges, but what makes all the difference when organizations deem employees their biggest asset, ensure that the vast changes are understood as well as keep abreast with the changes. recruitment and performance management are two functions that deal with the human capital of the organization; 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ojide makua chukwu gabriel 1* -- ikpeze nnaemeka i. 2 1 socio-economics unit, international institute of tropical agriculture, ibadan, oyo state, nigeria 2 department of economics, faculty of social sciences, university of nigeria, nsukka, enugu state, nigeria abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 45 2. methodology......................................................................................................................................................................... 45 3. results and discussion ......................................................................................................................................................... 47 4. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 51 5. acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................................................ 51 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 52 this paper examines the impact of interventions of government and oil companies on the social wellbeing (education, health and housing) of ogoni community in niger delta region of nigeria. measurement of such impacts is an essential requirement for policy formulation and strategic planning. primary data used in this study were collected through a survey of 400 households using a multistage sampling technique. the results reveal that government interventions in provision/renovation of school building and provision of scholarship have positive effect on school completion in the community. making basic education free is a good policy; but if the households would need their children to be involved in income generation, such policy may fail. thus, empowering the household heads and other working-class adult members of the household to raise enough income for the household would help the children become available to benefit from free education policy or even household-funded education. keywords: education, health, housing, social wellbeing, participatory development, ordinal logit model, households. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1):44-52 45 1. introduction crude oil is one of the natural resources accessible for development of nigeria economy which also poses unintended detrimental effects on people and other natural resources. oil exploration activities, sometimes, result in the disruption of social and communal harmony, the loss of human livelihood and life, as well as the introduction of new diseases. these and other consequences can negate the positive benefits of economic development projects such as oil exploration. however, oil firm through it co-operate social responsibility activities and government through it intervention programmes can minimize such negative externalities. oil exploration activities in nigeria are mainly carried out in the niger delta region. rivers state is one of the niger delta states. ogoni community (also referred to as ogoniland) is in rivers state. the ogoni group includes a large number of dialects which can be grouped into four namely khana, gokana, eleme and ogoi. apart from the need for an in-depth and intensive study, the choice of ogoniland for this paper is based on the fact that the community was among the first places where oil was found in a commercial quantity in nigeria – shell began drilling in ogoniland in 1958 (nest, 1991) . the ogoni people are a distinct indigenous minority nationality living in an area of 1,000 square kilometers on the south eastern fringe of the niger delta region of nigeria. using an average population growth rate of 2.50 (2007 – 2010) and 831,726 population published by the national bureau of statistics (2006), the 2010 population of ogoni people is estimated to be around 914,899 (saro-wiwa, 1995; unpo, 2009; world bank, 2010). ogoniland is made up of four local government areas (lga) namely eleme, gokana, khana, and tai. the population of each of the lgas is as shown in table 1. table-1. number of inhabitants by lga (2010 estimate) lga inhabitants eleme 209,972 gokana 251,711 khana 323,639 tai 129,577 total 914,899 source: national bureau of statistics (2006) and world bank (2010) the impacts of oil and gas exploration activities have been of concern to government regulatory agencies, oil companies as well as the host communities (ukoli, 2001). ofuoku et al. (2008) studied the social impact of oil production on small holder farmers in oil-producing communities of the central zone of delta state, nigeria. however, they were rather interested in environmental problems experienced in the communities. using data collected from a sample of 120 respondents, they identified soil erosion, noise pollution, bush burning, land degradation/pollution, water pollution, air pollution, massive deforestation and acid rain as the major environmental problems experienced in the area. okoye et al. (2010) examined the impact of oil and gas production on the socio-economic development of the niger-delta region of nigeria with focus on the role of oil industry operation and government. they used the chiefs and title-holders in ogba community in rivers state as their survey sample, questionnaire as the major instrument for data collection, and chi-square as statistical tool. they found that the impacts of the operators and the government towards the socioeconomic development of the region were not significant. one of the most recent published researches on ogoniland is the environmental assessment conducted by united nations environment programme (unep, 2011) which covered level of contaminated land, groundwater, surface water, sediment, vegetation, air pollution, public health, industry practices and institutional issues. the study was conducted using field observations and scientific investigations (laboratory analysis) methodology to examine soil contamination, groundwater contamination, naturally occurring radioactive materials, surface water and sediment contamination, fish contamination, oil contaminants on vegetation, damage to mangroves, and air pollution and public health. unlike the aforementioned studies, this paper seeks to ascertain if intervention activities of government and oil companies in ogoniland have significant impacts on education, health and housing in the community. this study is based on the concept of „participatory development‟. participatory development is concerned about what the people themselves perceive to be their challenges, interests and needs (oecd, 1995; undp, 2006). thus, the null hypotheses tested in this paper are:  h0: government interventions in ogoniland do not have significant effect on social wellbeing of the community  h0: oil companies‟ interventions in ogoniland do not have significant effect on social wellbeing of the community three aspects of social wellbeing considered in this paper are education, health and housing. 2. methodology primary data was used for this research. the data was obtained using a multistage sampling method. interview schedule was adopted as the survey instrument. the sampling units were households in ogoni community. the total number of households in ogoni community in the niger delta region is as shown in table 2: table-2. number of inhabitants by lga (2010 estimate) lga inhabitants total no. of regular households eleme 209,972 45,397 gokana 251,711 54,422 continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1):44-52 46 khana 323,639 69,973 tai 129,577 28,015 total population 914,899 197,807 source: national bureau of statistics (2006) and world bank (2010) the sample size was determined using 95 percent degree of accuracy. the sample size formula specified by yamane (1967), was applied which is stated in equation 1: s = required sample size. n = the population size. e = the degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion (.05). using the above formula, 400 was obtained as the sample size. this sample size was distributed in proportion to number of households in each local government in ogoniland as shown in table 3. table-3. sample size distributed in proportion to lga population lga total no. of regular households sample size (household) eleme 45,397 92 gokana 54,422 110 khana 69,973 141 tai 28,015 57 total population 197,807 400 structured interview schedule was predominately closed ended questions to enhance response rate and easy merging of data from all the four local government areas. the interview schedule consists of 57 questions. the questions were developed based on reviewed literature and preliminary interviews. some multiple choice questions also allowed respondents to comment further where necessary. given the sensitive nature of this survey, indigenes of ogoni community, were used as enumerators. they were trained on general techniques for successful questionnaire administration. also, they were given detailed review of each question – why the question and expected range of responses – and how to ask the question to avoiding „leading question‟ bias. in addition, they were instructed to adequately explain to the respondents the purpose of the survey as to avoid, as much as possible, biased responses. the use of educated indigenes of ogoni community enhanced communication and reduced security risks given the emotional and political nature of the subject of interest and the study area. the questions were asked by the enumerators who filled-in the responses into the interview schedule. this reduced the chances of misinterpreting the questions. the respondents in each of the selected household were the head of the household or its representative (who must be a spouse or adult son/daughter, where an adult is a person not less than 18 years old). the interview schedule used in this study includes sections on demography, socioeconomic related issues, and environment related issues, as well as government and oil firms‟ intervention activities. 2.1. pilot stage and test of the instrument research experts (including an indigene of ogoni community) conducted the face and content validation of the interview schedule. the reliability of the instrument was determined during the pilot study of 30 households randomly selected in tai local government area (which is one of the local government areas of the study). the interview instrument was administrated to the 30 households. their responses were tested using split-half reliability index – coefficient alpha (cronbach, 1951). in split-half technique, the coefficient alpha is calculated using equation 2 (allen and yen, 1979): where n = number of items ∑var(yi) = sum of item variances var(x) – composite variance using spss, the coefficients alpha for the different sections of the instrument was computed for the responses from the 30 plot households. on the average, the research instrument achieved about 83% reliability. 2.2. model specification the “driving forces – pressure – state – impact response model” (dpsir) framework has been extensively applied in socioeconomic and environmental studies (walmsley, 2002; odermatt, 2004; fistanic, 2006; amajirionwu et al., 2008). despite its extensive use in socioeconomic and environmental researches, the dpsir framework has not been widely used in empirical studies (bell and etherington, 2009). nonetheless, the dpsir framework is globally recognized as a means of identifying meaningful indicators of cause-and-effect relationships (smeets and weterings, 1999; walmsley, 2002; bell and etherington, 2009). this study, therefore, evaluates the social aspects of dpsir framework using ordinal logit model as stated in equation 3. 3.............*   kkk xy  1................... )(1 2en n s   2.................. ] )( )( 1)[1( xvar yvar n n i   asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1):44-52 47 where y* is an unobserved, continuous, underlying tendency behind the observed ordinal response (rating). the xk represent the independent variables, while the βk represent the associated parameters. the error term (εk) captures stochastic (unobserved) variation. it is assumed to be distributed logistically. relating the unobserved y* to y through a series of “cut points”, is as represented in equation 4: where y is the rating and the μ‟s represent thresholds of y* that delineate the categories of the ordered response variable. these threshold parameters are restricted to be positive where each one is greater than the previous. the first parameter μ1 is normalized to 0 so that one less parameter has to be estimated. that is not a problem because the scale of the latent variable is arbitrary (borooah, 2001). to avoid confusion and misinterpretation of estimates, y is restricted to a five-point likert item or less – measuring impacts of oil companies‟ interventions and government interventions on social wellbeing of ogoni community. using equation 3, equation 5 was estimated. variables are as defined in table 4. table-4. definition of variables variable code description ap air pollution (very low=1, low=2, mild=3, high=4, very high=5) ddh demand for housing (very low=1, low=2, average=3, high=4, very high=5) education school completion by household members (primary and secondary schools) os oil spillage (very low=1, low=2, mild=3, high=4, very high=5) health predominance of diseases in household (not too often=3, somewhat often=2, very often=1) housing cost of housing (<n1000=1, n 1000 n 3999=2, n 4000 n 6,000=3, > n 6000=4) income household income (18000 & below=1, 18100 50000=2, 50100 100000=3, 100100 – 250000=4, > 250,000=5) ccgg to giw below were coded as: low=1, average=2, high=3, very high=4 csrhe corporate social responsibility of oil firms towards provision of healthcare services csrho corporate social responsibility of oil firms towards housing in the community csrsb corporate social responsibility of oil firms towards provision or maintenance of school building csrsch corporate social responsibility of oil firms towards provision of scholarship gihe government intervention in provision of healthcare services giho government intervention in provision of housing facility in the community gisb government intervention in provision and maintenance of school building gisch government intervention in provision of scholarship 3. results and discussion household survey was conducted in all the four local government areas (lgas) in ogoni community. the survey started in december 3, 2013 and ended in january 17, 2014. given that a scheduled survey method was used, responses from sample size of 400, as specified, were successfully collected. thus, 100 percent of the sample size was obtained. analysis of gender distribution of respondents in all the four local government areas of ogoni community (pooled data) indicate that an average of 51.3% of the household representatives were male (table 5). the proportion of female respondents (70.7%) was relatively higher in eleme compared to the other three local government areas. tai had the highest male respondents (64.9%) followed by gokana (54.5%). most of the respondents in the community (in the four lgas) were within the age range of 26 – 35 years (35.8%) and 36 – 50 year (26%). about 6.3% of the respondents were 51 year and above (table 6). table-5. respondents sex male (%) female (%) tai 37 (64.9) 20 (35.1) eleme 27 (29.3) 65 (70.7) gokana 60 (54.5) 50 (45.5) khana 81 (57.4) 60 (42.6) pool 205 (51.3) 195 (48.8) table-6. respondents age range 18-25 years (%) 26-35 years (%) 36-50 years (%) 51-65 years (%) 66 years & above (%) 125 (31.3) 143 (35.8) 107 (26.8) 18 (4.5) 7 (1.8) 4....... * if j ... * if 2 y* if 1 1 21 1            yy yy y j   5....... ),,(fsin ),,,,(f ),,,,(f         ddhcsrhogihoghou incomeaposcsrhegihehealth incomecsrschcsrsbgischgisbeducation asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1):44-52 48 greater proportion (54%) of the respondents was household head. table 7 indicates that the 46% non-household head respondents were wife (22.8%), son (34.8%) and daughter (42.4). the gender distribution of household house heads, where respondents are not household heads, is as shown in table 8. table-7. category of respondent household head (%) 216 (54.0) non-household head (%) 184 (46.0) non household head wife (%) 42 (22.8) son (%) 64 (34.8) daughter (%) 78 (42.4) table-8. if respondent is not household head, sex of household head male (%) 137 (74.5) female (%) 47 (25.5) household size minimum 1 maximum 16 mean 6 standard deviation 2 table 8 also indicates that the average household size in the community is 6 persons with 2 as standard deviation. majority (81.5%) of the households surveyed were indigenes of ogoniland; while the rest are nonindigenes who are residing in ogoni community (table 9). eleme had the highest proportion (53.3%) of nonindigenes. on other hand, tai and gakana had 96.5% and 96.4% indigenous households respectively. about 79.5% of the households had lived in the community beyond 10 years (table 10). table-9. status of household head in the community ogoni indigene (%) 326 (81.5) not ogoni indigene (%) 74 (18.5) status of household head in the community tai (%) eleme (%) gokana (%) khana (%) ogoni indigene 55 (96.5) 43 (46.7) 106 (96.4) 122 (86.5) no ogoni indigene 2 (3.5) 49 (53.3) 4 (3.6) 19 (13.5) table-10. duration of the household in the lga below 5 years (%) 5 10 years (%) above 10 years (%) 28 (7.0) 54 (13.5) 318 (79.5) analysis of literacy level of household heads reveals that only about 3.8% of the household heads in the community had no formal education. majority of the household heads were literate with primary school (10.3%), secondary school (26.3%), national diploma (22.8) and first degree/post graduate degree (37%). the results of the estimated ordinal logit models are presented in table 11. table-11. ordinal logistic analysis of social impact models education health housing variable value 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3 1, 2, 3, 4 predictor coef odds ratio coef odds ratio coef odds ratio const (1) -2.9873* {0.000} -1.1444* {0.005} 04960 {0.210} const (2) -18155* {0.000} 1.0445* {0.010} 4.2991* {0.000} const (3) 6.8190* {0.000} gisb 0.7705* {0.003} 3.02* gisch 0.6028* {0.019} 1.83* gihe 0.1365 {0.391} 1.15 giho -0.2454 {0.203} 0.78 csrsb 0.2964 {0.289} 1.34 csrsch 0.0264 {0924} 1.03 csrhe -0.0331 {0.841} 0.97 continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1):44-52 49 csrho -0.0938 {0.650} 0.91 os -1.0042 {0.975} 1.00 ap 0.0482 {0.697} 1.05 income -0.0310 {0.823} -0.22 0.29748* {0.001} 1.35* ddh 0.65635* {0.000} 0.52* test that all slopes are zero (g) 11.558* {0.041} 15.150* {0.010} 52.204* {0.000} goodness-of-fit test (χ 2 ) 320.232* {0.000} 383.721* {0.007} 137.403* {0.030} cases used 392 (98%) 331 (82.75%) 393 (98.25%) cases with missing values 8 (2%) 69 (17.25%) 7 (1.75%) notes: p-values are in parentheses – {}; percentages in brackets – (); * represents 5% significant a. impact on education (school completion – primary and secondary) i. overall model: in this model, 98 percent of the observations were used while the rest were excluded due to missing values. the goodness-of-fit test, chi-square (χ 2 = 320.232) with p-value (0.000), indicates that the model is appropriate for the data. similarly, the overall relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable is significant. this is because the statistic g (11.558), with p-value of 0.041, indicates that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that at least one of the estimated coefficients in the model is different from zero. thus, the independent variables are simultaneously significant. the model examined five factors namely government intervention in provision/renovation of school building (gisb), government intervention in provision of scholarship (gisch), corporate social responsibility of oil firms in term provision/renovation of school building (csrsb), corporate social responsibility of oil firms in term provision of scholarship (csrsch), and household income. the p-values of the predictors indicate that for 0.05 alpha-level, there is sufficient evidence to conclude that government intervention in provision/renovation of school building (gisb) and government intervention in provision of scholarship (gisch) significantly impact education (school completion) in the community. these government interventions are positively associated with school completion. on the other hand, the result indicates that corporate social responsibility of oil firms in term of provision/renovation of school building (csrsb), corporate social responsibility of oil firms in term of provision of scholarship (csrsch) and household income are not among the significant factors affecting education (school completion) in the community. therefore, the null hypotheses about government interventions were rejected with the conclusion that government interventions, in terms of provision of scholarship (gisch) and provision/renovation of school building (gisb), have positive and significant effects on the social wellbeing of ogoni community in terms of school completion. on the contrary, the null hypotheses about corporate social responsibility of oil firms in term of provision of scholarship (csrsch) and provision/renovation of school building (csrsb) were accepted with the conclusion that corporate social responsibility activities of the oil companies, in terms of provision of scholarship (csrsch) and provision/renovation of school building (csrsb) do not have significant effect on the social wellbeing of ogoni community in terms of school completion. ii. marginal effect of individual predictors on the log-odds of the dependent variable: the result indicates that a unit increase in government intervention in provision of scholarship (gisch) would result in about 0.603 unit increase in the log-odds of being in a higher category of school completion while the other variables in the model are held constant. likewise, each unit increase in government intervention in provision/renovation of school building (gisb) would result in about 0.77 unit increase in the log-odds of being in a higher category of school completion given that the other variables are held constant in the model. iii. cumulative predicted probabilities for each score category and probabilities for the individual scores of the dependent variable at the means of the independent variables keeping the estimated parameters fixed (that is β = 0), the cumulative predicted probabilities for each of the three categories and probabilities for the individual scores of school completion in the community were calculated (table 12). table-12. cumulative predicted probabilities of school completion predictor coeff score cum prob(score) prob (individual score) const (1) -2.9873 1 0.048003 0.048003 const (2) -18155 1 or 2 0.139975 0.091972 cumulative scores (3) 1 or 2 or 3 1 0.860025 table 12 indicates that ogoni people have greater probability (0.860025) of being in the highest category of school completion. this agrees with the descriptive analysis which shows that about 84.8% of the household did not have any member who dropped out of school (primary and secondary schools). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1):44-52 50 b. impact on health i. overall model: in this model, 82.75 percent of the observations were used while the rest were excluded due to missing values. the goodness-of-fit test, chi-square (χ 2 = 383.721) with p-value of 0.007, indicates that the model is appropriate for the data. similarly, the overall relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable is significant. this is because the statistic g (15.15), with p-value of 0.01, indicates that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that at least one of the estimated coefficients in the model is different from zero. thus, the independent variables are simultaneously significant. the model examined five factors namely government intervention towards the provision of healthcare services (gihe), corporate social responsibility of oil firms towards the provision of healthcare services (csrhe), oil spill (os), air pollution (ap) and household income. the p-values of the predictors indicate that for 0.05 alpha-level, there is sufficient evidence to conclude that only household income significantly impact on health status of the community. on the other hand, the result indicates that government intervention towards the provision of healthcare services (gihe), corporate social responsibility of oil firms towards the provision of healthcare services (csrhe), oil spill (os) and air pollution (ap) are not among the significant factors affecting health status in ogoni community. therefore, the null hypotheses about government interventions in healthcare services delivery and corporate social responsibility activities of the oil companies in healthcare services delivery were accepted with the conclusion that these interventions from government and oil companies in healthcare delivery do not have significant impact on the social wellbeing of ogoni community in terms of health status. ii. marginal effect of individual predictors on the log-odds of the dependent variable: the result indicates that a unit increase in household income would result in about 0.30 unit increase in the logodds of being in a higher category of health status (predominance of diseases tending towards „not too often‟) while the other variables in the model are held constant. in other words, increase in household income increases the logodds of the household being in the category where diseases related to environmental factors are not experienced too often in the household. iii. cumulative predicted probabilities for each score category and probabilities for the individual scores of the dependent variable at the means of the independent variables keeping the estimated parameters fixed (that is β = 0), the cumulative predicted probabilities for each of the three categories and probabilities for the individual scores of health status in the community were calculated (table 13). table-13. cumulative predicted probabilities of health status predictor coeff score cum prob(score) prob (individual score) const (1) -1.1444 1 0.241513 0.241513 const (2) 1.0445 1 or 2 0.739717 0.498204 cumulative scores (3) 1 or 2 or 3 1 0.260283 table 13 indicates that the health status probability of ogoni people has a form of normal distribution ranging from very often to not too often in terms of frequency at which diseases related to environmental factors occur in households (see figure 1). the probability of such diseases occurring very often in household is about 0.242; while the probability of such diseases occurring not too often in household is about 0.26. the probability of such diseases occurring somewhat often in household is about 0.5. the regression result suggests that oil spill and air pollution are not significant detrimental factors to health status in the community. in addition, it indicates government and oil firms interventions towards the provision of healthcare services have not contributed significantly to the health status of the community. household income was identified as the major determinant of health status in the community. figure-1. probability at which diseases related to environmental factors occur in households c. impact on housing (cost of housing) i. overall model: in this model, 98.25 percent of the observations were used while the rest were excluded due to missing values. the goodness-of-fit test, chi-square (χ 2 = 137.403) with p-value (0.03), indicates that the model is appropriate for the 0.242 0.498 0.26 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 very often somewhat often not too often pr ob ab ilit y o f in div idu al sc or e how often does any household member suffer disease related to environmental factors? probability of individual score asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1):44-52 51 data. similarly, the overall relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable is significant. this is because the statistic g (52.204), with p-value of 0.000, indicates that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that at least one of the estimated coefficients in the model is different from zero. thus, the independent variables are simultaneously significant. the model examined three factors namely government intervention in provision of housing (giho), corporate social responsibility of oil firms in term provision of housing (csrho) and demand for housing (ddh). the p-values of the predictors indicate that for 0.05 alpha-level, there is sufficient evidence to conclude that only demand for housing (ddh) significantly impact cost of housing in the community. on the other hand, the result indicates that government intervention in provision of housing (giho) and corporate social responsibility of oil firms in term of provision of housing (csrho) are not among the significant factors affecting cost of housing in ogoni community. therefore, the null hypotheses about government and oil companies‟ interventions in terms of provision of housing were accepted with the conclusion these government and oil companies‟ interventions do not have significant effect on the social wellbeing (in terms of cost of housing) of ogoni community. ii. marginal effect of individual predictors on the log-odds of the dependent variable: as stated above, only demand for housing (ddh) significantly impact cost of housing in ogoniland. it is positively associated with cost of housing in the community. for instance, the result indicates that a unit increase in demand for housing would result in about 0.66 unit increase in the log-odds of being in a higher category of cost of housing while the other variables in the model are held constant. iii. cumulative predicted probabilities for each score category and probabilities for the individual scores of the dependent variable at the means of the independent variables keeping the estimated parameters fixed (that is β = 0), the cumulative predicted probabilities for each of the four categories and probabilities for the individual scores of housing in the community were calculated (table 14). table-14. cumulative predicted probabilities of cost of housing predictor coeff score cum prob(score) prob (individual score) const (1) 04960 1 0.621519 0.621519 const (2) 4.2991 1 or 2 0.986601 0.365082 const (3) 6.8190 1 or 2 or 3 0.998908 0.012307 cumulative scores (4) 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 1 0.001092 table 14 indicates that households in ogoni have greater probability (0.621519) of being in the lowest category of cost of housing. the regression result, however, indicates that demand for housing positively affects cost of housing in the community. in other words, increase in demand for housing in the community increases cost of housing. 4. conclusion in the light of „participatory development‟, this paper examined the impact of intervention activities of government and oil companies on the social wellbeing (in terms of education, health and housing) of ogoni people. the results reveal that government interventions in provision/renovation of school building and provision of scholarship have positive effect on school completion in the community. however, government interventions in healthcare service delivery and housing in ogoniland do not have significant impact in the community. likewise, corporate social responsibility activities of the oil companies in ogoniland do not have significant impacts on education, health and housing in the community. household income was established as the major determinant of health status in the community. the result suggests that households with higher income would suffer little or no environmental related diseases. also, the result indicates that demand for housing is a significant determinant of cost of housing. in line with the law of demand and supply, increase in demand increases costing of housing in ogoni community. given their high literacy level, it can be inferred that the household heads in ogoniland can contribute meaningfully to community development. therefore, development agencies willing to improve the social wellbeing of ogoni people should consider engaging the household heads during the formation of development programmes for the community to ascertain community priorities. involving these household heads from the conception of these development programmes through the implementation stage would improve the chances of such programmes impacting significantly on the members of the community. school completion rate in ogoni community is relatively high. however, having 10% of the household with, at least, a member who did not complete junior secondary school would have long run adverse effect on the community. government should increase effort towards ensuring that every member of the community is given basic education. many of the affected household blamed the development on lack of fund. making basic education free is a good policy; but if the households would need their children to be involved in generating income for the household, the policy may fail. thus, empowering the household heads and other working-class adult members of the household to raise enough income for the household would help the children become available to benefit from free education or even household-funded education. of course, the result has shown that such increase in household income would enhance household health status in the community. 5. acknowledgement the authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of the following people in providing suggestions, vetting the research instrument and proofreading: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1):44-52 52 1. prof. stall madueme, university of nigeria, nsukka 2. asst. prof. o. onyukwu, university of nigeria, nsukka 3. dr. emmanuel nwosu, university of nigeria, nsukka 4. dr. augustus legborsi – an indigene of ogoniland, river state, nigeria references allen, m.j. and w.m. yen, 1979. introduction to measurement theory. monterey, ca: brooks/cole. amajirionwu, m., n. connaughton, b. mccann, r. moles, j. bartlett and b. o'reaan, 2008. indicators for managing biosolids in ireland. j. environ manage, 88(4): 1361-1372. bell, s. and l. etherington, 2009. connecting the global and local: europe‟s regional seas. j. law soc, 36(1): 75-93. borooah, v.k., 2001. logit and probit: ordered and multinomial models. sage university papers series on quantitative applications in the social sciences. thousand oaks, ca: sage. pp: 7-138. cronbach, l.j., 1951. coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. 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the use of the content. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fbf02310555#page-1 http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/nbsapps/connections/pop2006.pdf http://www.oecd.org/home/ http://aessweb.com/journal-detail.php?id=5005 http://www.cenbank.org/out/publications/occasionalpapers/rd/2001/owe-01-2.pdf http://www.unep.org/ http://www.unpo.org/members/ogoni.htm http://www.worldbank.org/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 4, 142-151, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 142 the spatial study of catholic market in china zhaohui hong 1 --jianfeng jin 2* 1 professor of history and director of the center for global studies at purdue university calumet, indiana, and the co-director of the center on religion and chinese society, purdue university, usa 2 graduate assistant, purdue university calumet, usa; purdue university calumet, hammond, usa abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................. 143 2. methodology ............................................................................................................................................................................ 143 3. data .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 143 4. results and findings ............................................................................................................................................................... 145 5. discussions ............................................................................................................................................................................... 149 6. conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................................ 150 7. acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................................................... 150 references .................................................................................................................................................................................... 150 this article is designed to use geo-spatial, digital and statistical methods to visualize and measure the demand and supply of catholic market in china. selecting nine representative cities covering three regions of china, the article measures the density of catholics through discussing the number of catholic population and number of catholic churches in an effort to calculate the average number of catholics using each church. in addition, this article utilizes two spatial methods to visualize and gauge the distance and driving time between the catholic residential area and the nearest church in an effort to measure the church availability and accessibility in the selected nine cities. after proposing three measurable criteria of evaluating the shortage of church, this article identifies five specific cities as the areas in which there is a catholic church shortage in china. keywords: spatial study, catholic market, church density, church accessibility, church availability. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 142-151 143 1. introduction the catholic market, to a larger extent, is determined by the demand of the catholic population and the supply of catholic churches (iannaccone, 1991; yang, 2006). according to the qualitative and conventional research findings, most scholars have concluded that the catholic market in today's china should be characterized by the demand over supply and thus catholic churches are overcrowded or overpopulated (yang, 2006; yang, 2010). however, few, if any, scholars provided virtualized, digital and measurable descriptions concerning the shortage of catholic churches in china. benefited from the geographic information system (gis), scholars are able to utilize geo-spatial and digital methods to map the demand and supply of catholic market in china. authors have published several articles addressing the shortage of protestant churches in china spatially, digitally, statically and comparatively (hong and zeng, 2012; hong et al., 2014; hong and yan, 2015). this article is designed to continue the similar effort to focus on the shortage of catholic churches and the catholic market in china by means of selecting nine representative cities covering three regions of china. this article measures the density of catholics through discussing the number of catholic population and number of catholic churches in an effort to calculate the average number of catholics using each church. in addition, to measure the church availability and accessibility in the selected nine cities, this article has used two spatial methods to visualize and gauge the distance and driving time between the catholic residential area and the nearest church. after proposing the reasonable and statistical criteria of evaluating the shortage of church, this article identifies specific cities as the areas in which there is a catholic church shortage in china. the innovative spatial research methods and exceptional perspective on this study may shed new lights of understanding religious market and religious economy. 2. methodology this article has used both statistical and spatial methods to check the density, availability and accessibility of catholic churches in the nine major cities covering the east, central and west regions of china in 2004. relying on conventional statistical techniques, this study calculates the average number of the catholic population using one church to demonstrate the density of churches in each selected cities. supplemented by the spatial method, which visualizes the location of catholic churches, the quantitative table is capable of showing the statistic data that denotes the balance of church supply and catholic demand. obviously, the more catholic members each catholic church has, the worse the church shortage is. following the proper and unified measurement, the areas with a catholic church shortage can be identified. in addition to the church density, it is vital to study the church availability and accessibility through estimating the distance and driving time between the catholic residential area and the nearest church. needless to say, the longer the distance or the longer the minutes for local catholics to travel from home to their nearest church, the worse experience they have in terms of the shortage of church. as an effective program for spatial study, arcgis 10.1 is able to address the availability and accessibility of catholic churches in the designated areas. benefitting from the gis technique, this study first applied the two step floating catchment area (2sfca), which is aimed at estimating the driving time from catholic residential areas to the closest church within the nine cities. consequently, the average catholic members who can't reach their nearest church within the allotted time frame can be statistically demonstrated. to supplement and verify the results discovered by the 2sfca, this study has used a second spatial method, the network analysis method (nam), which can measure both driving time and driving distance (hong and yan, 2015). the differences between the 2sfca and the nam are worth addressing. while relying on the street map, the 2sfca in this study uses a straight line of distance travel time, due to the limited street map data in the nine cities. this is based on the assumption that the catholic population is distributed equally throughout the area. obviously, this method is not accurate, but it may be the second best option in light of current incomplete data provided by the chinese government. by contrast, the nam takes the district map, instead of the street map, as the key reference. it is possible to integrate network data, maps and spatial information through gis and other spatial statistical methods in an effort to estimate driving time and distance. meanwhile, google maps provides an effective tool for the nam to measure the average driving speed and calculate the starting and ending locations for the randomly selected cities around the center of the representative city. as a result, the nam can visualize different driving times (in minutes) and distances in a designated location (hong and yan, 2015). 3. data indentifying the accurate and complete data about the total catholic population in china is challenging, due to the disparity of various data sources and the lack of religious information on china's census. therefore, scholars have to rely on reputable institutes and chinese government information for key references. for instance, the pew foundation in 2011 estimated there were 9,180,000 catholic people in china in 2010, accounting for 0.7% of the total population (pew research center, 2011). by contrast, an official blue book on chinese religions published by the chinese academy of social sciences (cass) (wang, 2010) accepted the estimation by the xinde institute for cultural studies, that is, approximate 5.7 million of catholic population in 2009 (xinde institute for cultural studies, 2009). here, the pew research center has added additional 3.3 million catholics who are affiliated solely with unregistered catholic congregations (pew research center, 2011). the authors of this paper have accepted the conservative estimation of 5.7 million as the reference number of catholics in china. a further complication is caused by the calculation and estimation of catholics at the level of cities. few, if any, institutes conducted scientific surveys on the catholic population in the local areas. the only exceptions were the city's yearbook, individual scholars' research and online information. in an effort to maintain regional balance in asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 142-151 144 selecting catholic churches in china, this study has identified three major cities in each of china's three regions. for the east region, shanghai, the largest city in china; fuzhou, the provincial capital city of fujian; and wenzhou, the so-called chinese jerusalem in zhejiang province were all selected. in addition, three provincial capital cities in the central region were selected, including shijiazhuang city of hebei province, wuhan city of hubei province and zhengzhou city of henan province. the three additional provincial capital cities in the west region were also chosen as case studies: xi’an city of shaanxi province, chongqing city, and guiyang city of guizhou province. map 1 shows the locations of the nine cities in chinese map. map-1. location of the nine cities in the three regions of china in order to understand the spatial locations of all catholic churches in the nine cities, map 2 below visualizes the spots of catholic churches in each city indicated by each specific dot on the map. map-2. spatial catholic church maps for the nine cities asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 142-151 145 given the limited information, it is impossible to have all data pertaining to catholics from the different cities in the same year. thus, this paper selects the years close to the first ten years of 21 st century. table 1 below demonstrates the number of catholics in the nation and the nine cities supported by various references on column 4. table-1. catholic population in china and its nine cities, 2000-2010 location catholic population percentage of catholic reference china 5,700,000 0.44% (wang, 2010) fuzhou 63,989 3.01% (yao, 2000) wenzhou 18,450 1.35% (wen, 2002) shanghai 68,704 1.11% (office of shanghai government, 2004) shijiazhuang 19,845 1.07% (office of shijiazhuang government, 2002) chongqing 53,775 0.86% (xie, 2012) xi’an 42,728 0.83% (office of xi’an government, 2005) guiyang 5,000 0.26% (guizhou database, 2000) wuhan 6,406 0.15% (wuhan, 2000;2005) zhengzhou 1,684 0.05% (religion in zhengzhou, 2010; zhengzhou government, 2010). in addition to the number for the catholic population, an accurate number of catholic churches in china is not easily calculated. according to the china census bureau, there were 2,419 registered catholic churches in 2004 (china census bureau, 2005). however, in 2010, the blue book on chinese religion indicated there were 5,967 catholic churches and houses of prayer (wang, 2010). obviously, the houses of prayer included a substantial number of independent and unregistered catholic churches which did not have legal status and had not affiliated with the official patriotic catholic association (pew research center, 2011). also, the number of 5,967 churches was based on the year of 2009, while the number of 2,419 was the record in 2004. therefore, this paper accepts the number of 2,419 catholic churches published by the china census bureau. meanwhile, the china census bureau (2005) also lists the number of catholic congregations at the level of each individual city. table 2 below shows the data about the catholic churches in the nation and the selected nine cities in 2004. as a comparative reference, table 2 also lists the u.s. catholic church information. table-2. the number of catholic churches in the u.s., china and the nine cities (2004) location number of catholic churches us 22,095 china 2,419 wenzhou 33 shanghai 17 xi’an 15 guiyang 8 fuzhou 7 chongqing 7 wuhan 6 shijiazhuang 2 zhengzhou 1 4. results and findings 4.1. the density of catholics: statistical method to estimate the density of catholics in the selected nine cities, it is important to figure out the number of the catholic population and number of catholic churches. obviously, the size of catholic churches matters when measuring the average number of catholics using each church, but it is difficult to estimate the size of each individual church unless the intensive empirical investigation would be conducted in each church. furthermore, although it may be possible to collect the information concerning the number of available seats in each church, it is still not possible to accurately measure the actual participation rate of catholics during the weekend religious service. therefore, this project decides to calculate the average number of density based on the number of catholics and catholic churches, without considering the size, seats and participation rates of each individual church. table 3 below finds five important data about the density of catholics in the nine cities, the whole nation, and the u.s. as discussed in table 1 given the limitation of available data on the number of catholics in the same year, the data has been selected covering the first decade of the 21 st century instead of the exact same year. among the nine cities, shanghai has the largest catholic population (68,700), as it is the largest city in china. however, with respect to the percentage of catholics among the total population, fuzhou, the capital city of fujian province, reached the highest percentage of catholics (3.01%)--seven times more than the national average (0.44%). while looking at the number of catholic churches, wenzhou city, as the only non-provincial capital city among the selected nine city, had 33 catholic churches, almost doubled from shanghai’s 17. this is attributed to its historical legacy, east coast location, and more importantly, less governmental regulations during deng xiaoping's china (1978-1997) (cao, 2010; chan, 2011). after presenting the number of catholic population and catholic churches, it is easier to figure out the average number of catholics per church in the designated location. indicated by table 3 while shijiazhuang city suffered from an overcrowded condition (9,900 catholics sharing one church by average), it is again surprising that wenzhou city had its best rate of church density (561 catholics using one church by average). this is more than five times better than the density rate in the u.s. (2,933) and four times better than the average rate of nationwide china (2,356). finally, table 3 finds the rankings of catholic church density, demonstrating that both china (#5) and the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 142-151 146 u.s. (#7) stay in the middle rankings among other nine chinese cities. in particular, chinese ranking of catholic density is better than the u.s. this may be caused by the different sizes of churches available (larger churches in the u.s.) and the underestimation of the chinese catholics, due to political sensitivity (hadaway et al., 1993; potter, 2003; morris, 2011; hanson, 2014). table-3. the density of catholics in china and its nine cities, 2004 city/nation number of catholics percentage of catholics number of catholic churches average number of catholics per church rankings of density shijiazhuang 19,800 1.07% 2 9,900 11 fuzhou 64,000 3.01% 7 9,143 10 chongqing 53,800 0.86% 7 7,686 9 shanghai 68,700 1.11% 17 4,041 8 u.s. 64,800,000 (2005) 23.90% 22,095 2,933 7 xi’an 42,700 0.83% 15 2,847 6 china 5,700,000 0.44% 2,419 2,356 5 zhengzhou 1,700 0.05% 1 1,700 4 wuhan 6,400 0.15% 6 1,067 3 guiyang 5,000 0.26% 8 625 2 wenzhou 18,500 1.35% 33 561 1 to provide a much clearer comparative picture pertaining to the different densities of catholics, figure 1 below shows the rankings of catholics using each church by average in the nine cities, china and the u.s. apparently, no matter how incomplete or inaccurate the data of church size might be, the fact that approximately 5,000 catholics shared one church is not only unbelievable, but not acceptable. figure-1. the density of catholics in china and the u.s., 2004 4.2. the time measurement by the two step floating catchments area (2sfca) having briefly explained in the section of methodology, in an effort to address the accessibility of catholic churches in the specific area, the two step floating catchments area (2sfca) is an effective spatial method used to measure driving time between the catholic residential areas and the closest church. the faster time represents better accessibility in which catholic individuals are able to participate in their church services as quickly as possible. benefitted from gis, spatial maps of catholic accessibility in the selected nine cities can be visualized by the 2sfca (see maps 3, 4, 5 and 6 below). the area covered by the brown color in map 3 shows that catholic individuals can reach their nearest church within 30 minutes of one-way driving. in addition, the 2sfca is setting r>1/10000 or 0.0001 as the basic measurement of church accessibility--demonstrated by the brown color--while the green color means 1/10000>r>1/15000 and the white color indicates 1/15000>r>=0. in other words, the larger the area covered by brown color, the better accessibility the catholic population has. therefore, both shanghai and wenzhou cities should have their best accessibility score, as they have been covered by all brown color (see map 3) map-3. the best areas of the catholic church accessibility scores by the 2sfca asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 142-151 147 meanwhile, shijiazhuang and wuhan may be relatively catalogued by the second best accessibility performance, as the majority of their areas are covered by both brown and green colors, as indicated by map 4 below. map-4. the second best areas of the catholic church accessibility scores by the 2sfca in addition, given that xi'an and chongqing cities in west region of china are covered by more white color than that of brown color (denoted by map 5 below), they may be set as the third level of catholic church accessibility score. map-5. the third best areas of the catholic church accessibility scores by the 2sfca finally, the worst church accessibility areas include fuzhou, guiyang and zhengzhou because most areas are wrapped by the white color shown in map 6 below. map-6. the worst areas of the catholic church accessibility scores by the 2sfca to convert the spatial information above to the statistical data, table 4 below shows the different percentages of catholics in the nine cities who take more than 30 minutes of one-way driving to arrive at their nearest churches. as a result, there are six cities where more than 45% of catholics can't reach their nearest church within 30 minutes. meanwhile, catholics in both shanghai and wenzhou had more accessibility to local churches. the reason for wenzhou with the highest accessibility should relate to the fact that only 561 catholics shared one church by average, representing the highest density of catholic churches, as compared to the other eight cities in china (see table 3 above). with respect to the case in shanghai, although its density of catholics was not good enough (4,041 catholics sharing one church by average), the modern public transportation system and facilities might help overpopulated catholics reach their churches as quickly as possible. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 142-151 148 table-4. catholic church accessibility in china by the 2sfca apparently, the statistical rankings of catholic church accessibility match the spatial discovery virtualized by maps 3-6. while both wenzhou and shanghai have the best rankings and best accessibility score, guiyang, zhengzhou and fuzhou are ranked with the worst performance, as supported by spatial maps. it may provide added value to study catholic market through combining both innovative spatial method and conventional statistical technique. 4.3. the time measurement by the network analysis method (nam) in an attempt to verify the results by the 2sfca, it is imperative to use another spatial method, the network analysis method (nam), to address the driving distance and time between the catholic residential areas and the nearest church. to be consistent, this project sets up the fixed category of 12km and 30 minutes of one-way driving to measure the average distance and driving time between the two designated locations. maps 7 8 & 9 below demonstrate spatial driving maps for the catholic churches in the nine cities. here, the circle with green color symbolizes 15 minutes of driving time, the middle circle with yellow color symbolizes 30 minutes of driving and the largest circle in red represents 45 minutes of driving. the area without color indicates that catholic individuals can't reach their nearest church within 45 minutes. the location of catholic churches is indicated by a specific spot (hong and yan, 2015). obviously, the more green and yellow areas a city has, the better church accessibility and church availability. thus, map 7 below denotes that shanghai, fuzhou, and wenzhou cities in all the east region of china may be the best areas for catholic individuals who can reach their churches quickly and shortly. map-7. the best areas of the catholic church availability and accessibility by the nam as the areas with the second best church availability and accessibility, wuhan, xi'an and shijiazhuang cities have more green and yellow color covered (see map 8). map-8. the second best areas of the catholic church availability and accessibility by the nam asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 142-151 149 finally, map 9 shows there are few green and yellow colors over the cities of chongqing, guiyang and zhengzhou. map-9. the worst areas of the catholic church availability and accessibility by the nam table 5 below displays the nam statistical data about the accessibility and availability of catholic churches in the nine cities. first, wenzhou city is consistently the highest ranking of church accessibility by both 2sfca and nam and church density by the statistic method. meanwhile, given that 66% of catholics in chongqing (ranking 9 of 9) and 54% in shijiazhuang (ranking 6 of 9) can't arrive at the nearest church, both cities are still ranked as the worst areas of church accessibility, which is consistent to their situation of church density supported by table 3 and table 4. table-5. catholic church accessibility in the nine cities by the nam (30 minutes) 12km (30minute) accumulated area (km2) catholic and area coverage percentage of catholics can't reach the nearest church number of catholics who can’t reach ranking chongqing 1,280.66 34% 66% 35,376 9 zhengzhou 390.67 41% 59% 990 8 guiyang 490.42 44% 56% 2,781 7 shijiazhuang 504.02 46% 54% 10,663 6 xi’an 1,408.60 47% 53% 22,605 5 wuhan 566.56 50% 50% 3,210 4 shanghai 787.58 54% 46% 31,805 3 fuzhou 413.32 60% 40% 25,615 2 wenzhou 1,298.44 64% 36% 6,576 1 more importantly, visualized maps demonstrated by maps 7-9 are consistent to the spatial statistics denoted by table 5 above. for instance, while wenzhou, fuzhou and shanghai cities are ranked by the top 3 of their church availability and accessibility based on the statistic result, they are also characterized by the best areas of accessibility demonstrated by map 7. similarly, both statistical data and spatial maps all verify that chongqing, zhengzhou and guiyang should be identified as the worst cities with respect to their availability and accessibility of catholic churches. the similar results by spatial and statistical methods may prove that it is vital for scholars to combine and supplement different research methodology in search for the truth on the religious market in china. 5. discussions the study of catholic density, catholic church availability and church accessibility in the selected nine cities may propose three sensible criteria of identifying the areas which have the shortage of catholic churches. first, in reference to the average density rate of catholics in china (2,356 catholics per church) and in the u.s. (2,933 catholics per church), it is reasonable to assume that an area that has more than 5,000 catholics sharing one church by average should be determined as the place of the catholic church shortage in china. if this is the case, shijiazhuang (central china), fuzhou (east china) and chongqing (west china) should fall in the category of church shortages. this criterion is consistent to the standard of identifying shortage of protestant churches in china defined by authors' other article (hong and yan, 2015). in addition, given the information provided by table 4 it may present the second criterion of judging the shortage of catholic churches, with emphasis on the church accessibility by the 2sfca. it can be proposed that areas with more than 45% of catholic individuals in a specific city who must take more than 30 minutes of one-way driving or 60 minutes of round trip to reach their nearest church should be defined as the location of church shortage. in light of this second standard, in addition to guiyang (92%), zhengzhou (77%) and xi'an (55%), other three cities, fuzhou (76%), chongqing (49%) and shijiazhuang (46%), should also be determined as areas with catholic church shortages, which is similar to the first criterion based on the catholic density. therefore, six cities can be identified as the areas with catholic church shortages, based on the second standard. finally, relying on the results revealed the nam in table 5 a third criterion can be added. that is, if more than 45% of catholics in a city need to travel more than 12km and 30 minutes to reach their nearest church, it should be categorized by the area of church shortage. as a result, the nam indicates that there are seven cities which fall into the category of church shortage. obviously, the nam may provide much accurate calculation and stricter standard than the 2sfca, because the nam is using street map data while the 2sfca is relying on the district map (hong and yan, 2015). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(4): 142-151 150 to summarize the three methods testing the catholic church density, church availability and church accessibility, three different rankings by three methods for each city can be averaged out to discover information about the church shortage situation. table 6 below shows the combined rankings of catholic church shortage in the nine cities of china's three regions. in reference to the three criteria used to judge the shortage of catholic churches and the combined rankings of the selected nine cities, it is appropriate to identify the top five worst cities as the areas of catholic church shortages in china--focusing on their church density, church availability and church accessibility by the two spatial methods. as a result, chongqing (west), zhengzhou (central), shijiazhuang (central), guiyang (west) and fuzhou (east) should be determined as the areas with a catholic church shortage. consequently, these five cities need to build more catholic churches in an effort to improve its church density and church accessibility, thus maintaining the balance of supply and demand for the catholic market and economy. table-6. combined rankings of catholic church shortage in the nine cities cities density rankings rankings by nam rankings by 2sfca combined rankings final rankings chongqing 7 9 5 7.0 9 zhengzhou 4 8 8 6.7 8 shijiazhuang 9 6 4 6.3 7 guiyang 2 7 9 6.0 6 fuzhou 8 2 7 5.7 5 xi’an 5 5 6 5.3 4 shanghai 6 3 2 3.7 3 wuhan 3 4 3 3.3 2 wenzhou 1 1 1 1.0 1 6. conclusion this article has utilized three statistical and spatial methods to address the catholic church density, church accessibility and church availability, focusing on the nine major cities and covering the three main regions of china equally. proposing the three measurable criteria of discovering the shortage of catholic churches, this article identifies five cities as the areas that indicate a high demand of catholics but low supply of churches, thus leading to a church shortage. these criteria may be applicable in understanding the catholic market in other chinese cities. needless to say, this spatial study on the religious market and church shortages is a dynamic approach capable of supplementing and improving the conventional research methods, such as the qualitative and empirical studies. although the data provided by the chinese government is incomplete and insufficient, applying the spatial method supported by gis may contribute added value to innovative methodology and exceptional findings on the religious study in general, and catholic church accessibility in particular. hopefully this spatial study of chinese religion and society will inspire and influence the national census to include more detailed information concerning the number of catholics and number of catholic churches in the levels of nation, region and city, and perhaps more importantly, encourage the creation of more accurate spatial street maps and district maps. this creation would be crucial for a reliable and reputable study of mapping and visualizing catholic market and economy. 7. acknowledgments the authors are grateful for two grants supported by the henry luce foundation from 2011 to 2016, "establishing a spatial information network for the study of christianity in china" (no. 4301-41573) and "the spatial study of chinese religion and society" (no. 4301-59088). the authors would also like to express their sincere appreciation to mr. le zeng, mr. jiamin yan and ms. leanne munoz, for their valuable suggestions and assistances. references cao, n., 2010. constructing china's jerusalem: christians, power, and place in contemporary. wenzhou. ca: stanford university press. chan, s.h., 2011. rethinking the role of the catholic church in building civil society in contemporary china: the case of wenzhou diocese. annual review of the sociology of religion: religion and politics, 2(2): 177-193. china census bureau, 2005. 2004 china’s economic 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office of regional recording. xi'an: xi'an publishing house. pew research center, 2011. global christianity--a report on the size and distribution of the world’s christian population (regional distribution of christians: appendix c: methodology for china-overview of findings and method. pew research center. potter, p.b., 2003. belief in control: regulation of religion in china. the china quarterly, 174(1): 317-337. religion in zhengzhou, 2010. zhengzhou ethics and religions. religion in zhengzhou. available from http://www.zzmw.gov.cn/article.jsp?id=409. wang, m., 2010. 2009 nian zhongguo tianzhujiao guanca (observation of chinese catholics in 2009). edited by jin ze and yonghui qiu, zhongguo zongjiao baogao 2010 (annual report on china's religions 2010). beijing: social sciences academic press. pp: 89-110. wen, c.j., 2002. present catholic diocese of wenzhou. catholic church in china, 13(6): 42-43. wuhan, d., 2005. social, people and events. wuhan shizhi 1980-2000. available from 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for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.sjz.gov.cn/col/1275386652840/index.html http://www.zzmw.gov.cn/article.jsp?id=409 http://www.whfz.gov.cn:8080/pub/dqwx/delsz/shrwdsj/dqsjp/dwz/200801/t20080101_22328.shtml http://www.zhengzhou.gov.cn/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 1, 82-90, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 82 informal financial institutions (ifis) and poverty reduction in konshisha local government area of benue state, nigeria beeior, c. t 1* --ajegi, s.o 2 --tyoakosu, j. a 3 . 1 department of agricultural education, college of education oju, benue state, nigeria 2 department of economics, benue state university, nigeria 3 department of economics college of education oju, benue state nigeria abstract contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 83 2. definition of concepts ............................................................................................................................................................... 83 3. methodology .............................................................................................................................................................................. 84 4. data analysis, result and discussion ...................................................................................................................................... 85 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 89 bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................................. 90 citation | beeior, c. t; ajegi, s.o; tyoakosu, j. a. (2016). informal financial institutions (ifis) and poverty reduction in konshisha local government area of benue state, nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(1): 82-90. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.82.90 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/ acknowledgment: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 2 july 2015/ revised: 1 august 2015/ accepted: 27 october 2015/ published: 8 november 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group this study was carried out to examine the impact of informal financial institutions (ifis) on poverty reduction in konshisha local government area of benue state, nigeria. a total of 220 questionnaires were administered to households in the study area; 110 each for beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of informal financial institutions (ifis) in the study area. data collected were analyzed using p-apha, logit regression model, simple percentages and t-test statistics. the result showed that the incidences of poverty (po), depth (p1) and severity (p2) were found to be worse among the non-beneficiaries of ifis. the result of t-test of difference in mean of real household consumption-expenditure of beneficiaries & nonbeneficiaries of ifis also indicated clearly that beneficiaries of ifis have more real household consumption expenditure than non-beneficiaries of ifis in the study area. the result of the logit regression model showed that out of the seven variables regressed, only three namely: averages monthly savings, education & household size have influenced significantly the poverty status of the respondents at 5% level. the study identified shortage of funds for disbursement to members as the major problem hindering the smooth operation of ifis in the study area. it was suggested among other recommendations that government and other relevant organizations should provide soft loans to members of ifis through the ifis in which they belong to expand their small businesses and hence reduce their poverty level. keywords: poverty, reduction, informal financial institutions (ifis), konshisha, benue and nigeria. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.82.90 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 82-90 83 1. introduction nigeria is endowed with numerous resources found in different states of the federation. it also has fertile arable land for agricultural production. in spite the abundance of these resources, there is still a great deal of poverty ravaging nigerian particularly the rural people (ajegi, 2004). the federal government has in line with the global convention, been trying to ameliorate the worsening condition of the poor, by directing public expenditure towards poverty reduction programmes and projects to cushion the effects of poverty in the country. these programmes include the directorate of food, roads and rural infrastructure (dfrri), better life programme (blp), family support programme (fsp), national directorate of employment (nde), family economic advancement programme (feap), national agricultural land development authority (nalda), national agency for mass literacy, the people’s bank of nigeria, the federal urban mass transits programme, nigerian agricultural and rural development bank just to mention but a few. in spite of the huge resources devoted to poverty reduction, deterioration in fiscal discipline, corruption, political instability and inconsistent policies undermined past efforts, thus making poverty reduction in nigeria a paradox. the level of unemployment continue to rise, inequality gap continues to widen (the rich becoming richer and the poor becoming poorer), while poverty conditions are exacerbated. a world bank estimate on the level of poverty in nigeria indicates that 70.2 percent of the country’s population live below the poverty line, the majority of this number is found in the rural areas and that the scourge will continue to rise if nothing is done to arrest it world bank (1990). this bizarre picture requires an urgent intervention, which the study on the informal financial institution is one. according to aliyu (2002) all the poverty alleviation programmes that nigerians have had dangled before their eyes since independence in 1960, have failed woefully or yielded very little fruits due to reasons earlier mentioned above. most of these poverty reduction programmes were aimed at providing income capital to the rural poor to burst their investment capabilities to reduce poverty. however, the rural people who are the most poor and expected to be real beneficiaries of such programmes in most cases are unable to access them. this frustrating situation have made some of these rural poor to alternatively come together and involve themselves in self help groups known as informal financial institutions (ifis) in order to access investment funds to reduce their poverty level. the situation of konshisha local government area which is basically a rural community is not different from other rural communities in nigeria. but the question is to what extent has informal financial institutions in konshisha local government area contributed to poverty reduction in respect to jobs creation and provision of income opportunities. it is against this background that this research work is embarked upon to ascertain the contribution of various informal financial institutions to poverty reduction of households who are members of these institutions in konshisha local government area with the view of examining the socio economic attributes influencing the poverty level of the people in the study area. 2. definition of concepts the term poverty means so many things to so many people under different situations. awolowo (1981) described poverty as “the absence or lack of basic necessities of life or lack of command over basic consumption needs such as food, clothing and shelter’’. there are so many other definitions of the concept of poverty but for the purpose of this study, the researchers define poverty as a situation where an individual’s real household consumption-expenditure is below 63875 naira per adult/ annum. this definition implies that once a respondent’s annual consumption expenditure is below the above poverty line, he/she is considered being poor. while informal financial institutions (ifis) can be defined as local arrangement for savings and credit which are unregistered and not controlled by the government but operate with an oath of allegiance and mutual trust. beneficiaries of informal financial institutions: this refers to people who are members of informal financial institutions in the study area. non-beneficiaries of informal financial institutions: these are non-members of informal financial institutions (ifis) and hence have never benefitted from these institutions in the study area. konshisha: this is the name of one of the local government councils in benue state nigeria, where the research work was carried out. 2.1. theoretical review this research work is based on two theories: vicious circle of poverty and financial repression theories: the financial repression theory (mckinnon, 1973; shaw, 1973) views informal finance as a result of state intervention in financial markets through a set of regulations and restrictions. instruments of financial regulations include among other things, interest rate ceiling, high liquidity ratio requirement, high bank reserve requirements, capital and credit control and restrictions on market entry.…. all these policies have a great potential of discouraging savings while reducing supply of credit by formal financial institutions. as a consequence some individuals are prevented from accessing credit, even though without these regulations they qualify for obtaining formal credits. the resulting unsatisfied demand is therefore, absorbed by the unorganized informal money markets which act as a residual market such as to allow financial market clear. it is implicitly assumed that informal financial markets are easily accessible. vicious circle of poverty: this theory emphasized the link between lack of capital and under development. the theory can be used at both national and individual levels, but we concentrated on the individual level in this research work. however, the vicious circles operate both on demand side and the supply side, the demand side of the vicious circle is that the low level of real income leads to low level of demand which is in turn leads to a low rate of investment resulting to deficiency of capital, low productivity and low income. while the supply side of the vicious circle holds that low level of real income means low saving which leads to low investment and deficiency of capital. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 82-90 84 the deficiency of capital in turn leads to a low level of productivity and back to low income. this theory is adopted for this study because many rural communities in nigeria are poor due to lack capital to increase productivity resulting to low income and saving. 3. methodology this study was conducted in konshisha local government area of benue state, nigeria. the local government is an agrarian community with large percentage of the populace engaged in farming and agro-allied activities. the population for this study is made up of all the informal financial institutions in konshisha local government (256 ifis) comprising 14,184 members compiled across the eleven council wards of the local government during pre-survey stage of the study. one informal financial institution was selected from each of the eleven council wards of the local government to have a total number of eleven ifis giving a total population of 1,604 members for the study. ten (10) respondents were then randomly sampled from each of the eleven (11) purposely selected ifis across all the eleven council wards in the study area for completion. the same numbers of respondents were also randomly sampled for non-beneficiaries of ifis in the same area. these two samples gave a desired sample size of 220 respondents considered for analysis. the data collected for this study was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. the description statistics includes mean, standard deviation, frequency, percentages and dollar per day measure of poverty. while adult equivalent scale, popular p-alpha class of poverty measure and logit regression served as inferential tools. 3.1. the adult equivalent scale this scale was used to obtain the real household consumption-expenditure of the respondents. it is recommended by the organization for economic cooperation and development (oecd) and was used by noah et al. (2009). it is adopted in this research work due to it’s simplicity of use. it is expressed as follows: ∑xpeq = ∑xp/n (0.7) ∑xp = total household expenditure n = household size 0.7 = exponential formation representing other adults in a particular household (grootaert and braithwaite, 1998). 3.2. dollar per day measure of poverty dollar per day was used as poverty line to separate the poor from the non-poor during data analysis. poverty line is an arbitrary divider of the poor from the non poor (federal of statistics (f.o.s), 1999). to delineate the poor from the nonpoor, a minimum acceptable threshold to measure the standard of living of the people was established. people were counted as poor when they fell below such a minimum acceptable threshold (appleton, 2001). a minimum annual consumption expenditure of 63875 naira per adult/annum was adopted to separate the poor from the non-poor. those who fell below this expenditure threshold were considered poor. the above value was obtained by multiplying the average exchange rate in the year 2014 by the number of days in a year 3.3. p-alpha p-alpha was used to determine the incidence (po), the depth (p1) and severity of poverty (p2) in the study area, (foster et al., 1984).the measure relates to dimensions of incidence of poverty; p0 p1& p2 defined as: p0= head count/incidence of poverty: this count the number of people with expenditure below the poverty line. p1 = depth of poverty: this is the percentage of expenditure/income required to bring each individual below the poverty line up to the poverty line p2 = severity of poverty: this is indicated by giving longer weight to the extremely core poor. it achieved by squaring the gap between their expenditure/ income and poverty increases its weight in the overall poverty measure. mathematically, p-alpha can be expressed as: p-α = q 1∑ (z-yi/z) α foster et al. (1984) where n = number of people under study q = number of ifis operators that are poor in the area z = poverty line yi = consumption-expenditure of individual households α = foster-greer – thorbocke (fgt) – poverty aversion parameter index which makes on the values of 0, 1 and 2 representing incidence of poverty, poverty gap and severity of poverty respectively.        z yiz = the proportionate short fall of expenditure/income below the poverty line. the quantity is raised to a power of α. if α = 0, the fgt becomes po= 1/ n q = which is the proportion of the population, that falls below the poverty line. this is called the head count or incidence of poverty. if α = 1 fgt becomes p1 = 1/n ∑i=1 α        z yz if α = 2fgt becomes p2 = 1/n ∑i=1 α 2        z yz asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 82-90 85 3.4. model specification a logit regression model was used. the model uses socio-economic variables of the respondents to determine the factors influencing poverty. ramakrishma and demeke (2002) implicitly expressed the model as: where: p і = probability that poverty occurs βo = constant term βk = coefficient to be estimated xk = independent variables that ranges from 1-7 і = with observation as zі ranges from –α, + α, pі ranges from 0 to 1 and pi is nonlinearly related to zі. the logit of the unknown bionomial probabilities i.e the lorithms of the odds, are modeled as a linear functions of the xі. the model is therefore estimated as: logit (pi) = ln        11 1 p p = β0 + β1+xi1bkxik+ µi the unknown parameters β1 are usually estimated by maximum likelihood. thus, the model is explicitly expressed as: z1 = βo+ β1x1+ β 2x2 + β3 x3+ β4x4+ β5 x5+ β6 x6 + β7x7+µ where: z1 = poverty status of households βo = constant term β1 = (1-7), vector of parameters to be estimated. xi = sex of the respondents (male=l and female = 0) x2 = age of households x3 = household size x4 = educational status of the respondents x5 = child dependency ration (ratio of 0-14 years to household size) x6 = average monthly savings (n) of the respondents x7 = marital status of the respondents (married= 1 single = 0) note: divorce, windows and widowers are also included). 3.5. a priori expectation this refers to the expected behavior of the independent variables on the dependent variables based on economic theories. thus, we have x1>0 or x1<0;x2>0 or x2<o; x3<0, x4>0; x5<0; x6>0; x7>0 or x7<0. this means that the independent variables such as educational status (x4) and average monthly savings of the respondents (x6) were expected to be positively significant to the dependent variable (z1=poverty status of households) while household size (x3) and child dependency ratio (x5) were expected to have negative impact on the poverty status of households. it was also expected that the impact of sex (x1), marital status (x7) and age of the respondents (x2) poverty status of households could be negative or positive. 4. data analysis, result and discussion 1.1. sex: the analysis of the study revealed that 66.67% of beneficiaries of informal financial institutions are male while 33.33% of the beneficiaries constitute the female population. for the non-beneficiaries of ifis the result showed that 56.19% of the respondents were female while 43.81% respondents. the low membership of the female gender in ifis in the study area could be attributed to the fact that household income in many rural communities in nigeria is owned by men unlike the female. women are therefore perceived to be more financial handicapped and may be unable to cope with the mandatory weekly or monthly savings required by ifis. 1.2. age: the result showed that 62.90% of the people who are beneficiaries of informal financial institutions in konshisha local government area fell within the age range of 36-60 years. this was followed by 29.62% representing those who were below the age of 35 years. the study also revealed that beneficiaries of ifis who were above the age of 60 years were very few (7.40%). this may be due to the fact that at the age of 61 years and above, many people are productively inactive and may not need to mobilize savings for business investment and other purposes. for the non-beneficiaries of ifis in the study area, the result showed that majority of the nonbeneficiaries were within the age bracket of 35 years and below, followed by 39.04% which represent those within the age range of 3660, while 20.00% constitute the non-beneficiaries that fell within the age range of 61 years and above. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 82-90 86 table-1.socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents characteristics beneficiaries of informal financial institutions (ifis) non-beneficiaries of informal financial institution (ifis) frequency percentage frequency percentage sex age marital status primary occupation male female total below 35 36-60 61 and above total married single divorced widow/widower total civil servant business man/woman farming driving unemployed/ schooling total 72 36 108 32 68 8 108 84 17 3 4 108 18 12 70 8 108 66.67 33.33 100 29.62 62.96 7.41 100 77.77 15.74 2.78 3.78 100 16.67 11.11 64.81 7.41 100 46 59 105 43 41 21 105 48 37 20 105 2 74 29 105 43.81 56.17 100 40.9 39.04 20.00 100 44.44 35.24 19.05 100 1.90 70.48 27.62 100 source: field survey, 2014. 1.3. marital status: the study revealed that the beneficiaries of informal financial institutions under study are predominated by married people (77.77%). 15.74% were single while 2.78% represent the beneficiaries that divorced. further analysis showed that only 3.70% of the respondents were widows/widowers. for the nonbeneficiaries, the result showed that 44.44% of the respondents were married. this followed by 35.21% representing the single population while 19.5% of the respondents were widows/widowers. it also showed that none of the respondents divorced. the higher number of married people (77.77%) in the informal financial institutions in the study area should not be surprise because married people are expected to have more financial responsibilities than their single counterpart and hence they involved in savings associations to access funds to cope with basic family needs such as health care, provision of food, education, clothing and other unforeseen occurrences. 1.4.primary occupation: the study revealed that 64.81% of the respondents who are beneficiaries of informal financial institutions engaged in farming as their primary economic activity, 16.67% of the respondents, were civil servants, 11.11% were business men/women while 7.41% represent those who were drivers. further analysis showed that none of the beneficiaries of informal financial institutions interviewed were either unemployed or schooling. similarly, farming was also identified as the major economic activity of non-beneficiaries of ifis in the study area constituting about 70.48% of the population interviewed. this is followed by 27.62% respondents who were civil servants. the result showed clearly that farming is the main economic activity of both beneficiaries (64.80%) and non-beneficiaries (70.48%) of ifis is the study area. this must not be unconnected to the fact that konshisha local government is a rural community whose inhabitants are predominantly farmers. 4.1. socio-economic attributes of the respondents the socio-economic attributes that are of important to this research work include household size, household consumption expenditure, education status of households, child dependency ratio and average monthly savings as presented in the table below. 2.1. household size: the study revealed that majority of the beneficiaries of ifis in konshisha local government area had a household size of 5-7 persons, followed by those with household size of 8-10 persons representing 28.70% while 24.7% of the respondents constitute the beneficiaries of ifis who had maximum of four persons in their households. the result further showed that only about 12.04% of the respondents had a larger household size of 11 persons and above. for the non-beneficiaries of ifis, the analysis showed that 35.23% of the respondents had a household size of 5-7 persons as in the case of beneficiaries of ifis. this was followed by 33.33% 20.95% and 10.48% representing non-beneficiaries of ifis who had household size of 8-10 persons, 11 persons and above and 0-4 persons respectively. since the household size of nonbeneficiaries is relatively higher than that of beneficiaries, the incidence of poverty will also be more among the nonbeneficiaries of ifis in the study area. this is because house size of respondents negatively influences their poverty status. 2.2. education status: the study showed that household heads with secondary education constitutes the highest percentage of 44.44 among beneficiaries of ifis interviewed. this was followed by those who acquired primary education (29.63%), tertiary education (18.51%) and finally those who had no formal education representing only 7.40%. on the contrary, the analysis of the education status of the non-beneficiaries of ifis indicated that 49.52% of the respondent lack formal education while 32.38%, 16.19% and 1.90% represent respondents who acquired primary, secondary and tertiary education respectively. the result cleary showed that illiteracy is higher among nonbeneficiaries of ifis (49.52%). than in the beneficiaries of ifis (7.40%). this implies that lack of formal education may be accountable for high occurrence of poverty among non-members of ifis in the study area since the importance of education in self sustenance cannot be overemphasized. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 82-90 87 table-2.socio-economic attributes of the respondents attributes beneficiaries of informal financial institutions (ifis) non-beneficiaries of informal financial institutions (ifis) frequenc y percentage frequency percentage household size education status household consumption expenditure /annum child dependency ratio average monthly savings 0-4 5-7 8-10 11& above total non-formal education primary education secondary school tertiary institution total below 55000 56000-100,000 100001-155000 156000-200000 200001& above total 0-2 3-4 5 and above total below 500 501-2000 2001-3500 3501-5000 above-5001 total 26 38 31 13 108 8 32 48 20 108 2 12 18 34 42 108 48 34 26 108 16 31 24 23 14 105 24.07 35.19 28.70 12.04 100 7.40% 29.63 44.44 18.51 100 1.85 11.11 16.67 37.48 38.89 100 44.44 31.48 24.07 100 14.81 28.70 22.22 21.29 12.96 100 11 37 35 22 105 52 34 17 2 105 12 48 20 15 10 105 29 37 39 105 no monthly savings 10.48 35.24 33.33 20.95 1000 49.52 32.38 16.19 1.90 100 11.43 45.71 19.5 14.29 9.52 100 27.62 35.24 37.14 100 no percentage. source: field survey, 2014. 2.3. household consumption-expenditure/annum (n): the result of the study revealed that majority of the members of ifis (38.89%) had estimated annual consumption expenditure of 200001 and above, followed by those with annual consumption expenditure of n156000-200000 constitution 31.48% of the respondent while 16.67%, 11.11% and 1.85% representing respondents with estimated household consumption-expenditure of n101000-155000 and below 55000 naira respectively. further result of the analysis indicated that majority of the non-beneficiaries of ifis (45.71%) in the study area had a lower household consumption-expenditure of n56000-100000 per annum. this followed by 19.05%, 14.29% and 9.52% constituting respondents with household consumption-expenditure of bellowed 55000. the result showed clearly that beneficiaries of ifis in the study area had higher household consumption-expenditure than those who were non-beneficiaries of ifis. this implies that they are likely to be better off and less poor than non-beneficiaries of informal financial institutions in the study area. 2.4. child dependency ratio: the study revealed that about 44.44% of the beneficiaries of ifis had 0-2 children as dependents. this followed by 31.48% (3-4 children) and 24.07% representing the respondents with high child dependency ratio of 5 children and above. for the household made up of non-beneficiaries of informal financial institutions, the study showed that 37.14% of the respondents had the highest child dependency ratio of 5 children and above. this was closely followed by those with 3-4 children and 1-2 children representing 35.24% and 27.62% of the respondents respectively. 2.5. average monthly savings: the result of the study revealed that 28.70% of the respondents contributed an average monthly savings of (501-2000). this was followed by members who saved between n2001-3500, n35015000 and above n5001 representing 22.24%, 21.29% and 12% of the respondent respectively. the analysis further reveals that only 14.8% of the respondents had a monthly savings of 500 and below. table-3. poverty incidence, depth and severity among households in konshisha local government of benue state based on minimum consumption-expenditure of 63875 naira per adult per annum. (poverty line) ifis number of poor people incidence of poverty (p0) depth of poverty (p1) severity of poverty (p2) beneficiaries of ifis 69 63.39 0.6371 0.6352 non-beneficiaries of ifis 82 78.09 0.7881 0.7762 source: field survey, 2014. table3: shows the poverty incidence (p0), depth (p1) and severity poverty (p2) of beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries of ifis in the study area using foster-greer-thorbecke (fgt index) as defined in the methodology. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 82-90 88 the study revealed that there was high incidence of poverty in both beneficiaries of ifis (63.89%) and nonbeneficiaries (78.0%). this result is in line with the findings of world bank (1996) that rural areas in nigeria accounted for 66% of incidence of poverty, 72% of the depth of poverty and 69% of the extreme poor. however, non-beneficiaries of ifis in the study area had a deeper poverty depth of 0.788% than beneficiaries of ifis with poverty depth of 0.6371. the severity of poverty was also found to be higher among non-beneficiaries of ifis (0.7762) than in beneficiaries of ifis (0.6352). the study also showed clearly that the incidence of poverty was higher among non-beneficiaries of ifis than those who engaged in savings with ifis. the higher incidence (po), depth (p1) and severity of poverty among non-beneficiaries of ifis implies that they are worse off in terms of welfare (standard of living) than those who are members of ifis in the study area. this means that informal financial institutions existing in konshisha local government area have helped its beneficiaries to reduce their poverty level. table-4. summary of regression analysis for determinants of poverty status for beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of informal financial institutions. variables beneficiaries of ifis coefficient (b) & t-test values non-beneficiaries of ifis coefficient (b) and t-test values sex age hs ms edu cdr avs constant -0939 (0.636) -0.033 (0.445) 1.847* (10.373) 2.561 (3.138) 0.400* (3.226) 1.020 (3.226) 0.002* (8.694) 7.159 (2.742) 0.419 (0.278) -0.24 (0.195) -1.020* (13.103) -1.611 (2.013) 0.060 (0.619) -0.311 (1.105) 0.000* (5.108) 7.203 (5.338) r 2 adjust r 2 0.54.50 0.52.01 source: data analysis, 2014. values in parenthesis represent t-test at 5% level of significant, while the single asterisks (*) indicate values that are significant at same level. a general look at the model shows that it has an r 2 of 0.54. this shows that 54% variation in the dependent variable (poverty status of the respondents) is explained by the explanatory variables (socio-economic attributes of the respondents) in the model while the error term takes care of the remaining 46% which are variables in the study that cannot be included in the model because of certain qualitative features. details of the analysis showed that two of the variables regressed namely; education (0.400 and 0.060) and average monthly savings (0.002) and 0.000) were estimated positive both in beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of ifis as respectively shown in the parentheses above. the result also revealed that three of the exogenous variables regressed estimated negative both in beneficiaries of ifis and non-beneficiaries of ifis. these include; child dependency ratio (-020 and -0.311), household size (-1.847 and -1.020) and age (-0.033 and -0.24) respectively (0.419) among the non-beneficiaries of ifis but was negative in (-0.939) beneficiaries of ifis, while marital status was found to have positive coefficient (2.561) in beneficiaries of ifis but was negative (-1.611) among the nonbeneficiaries of ifis. the positive values of the coefficient of variables in both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of informal financial institutions shows that higher values of these variables tends to increase the likelihood for better welfare and thus reduction in poverty status while the negative values of the variables on the other hand implies that a higher value tends to decrease the probability of better welfare and thus increase the poverty status of people in both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of ifis. for instance, education of household had positive estimates (0.400 and 0.060) for both beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries of informal financial institutions respectively but was only significant for beneficiaries of ifis at 5% level because members of ifis are more educated than non-beneficiaries of the institutions. this implies that the likelihood for poverty reduction among beneficiaries of ifis is higher than in non-members of ifis. the result also showed that household size had negative values of estimates (-1.8.47 and -1.020) for both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of ifis and were all significant at 5% levels. this is in line with the a prior expectation that household size negatively influence the poverty status of an individual as well as his welfare due to severity of dependence effect as households get larger. this implies that for every additional individual in a household, poverty will increase by-1.847 and -1.020 in both beneficiaries and non beneficiaries of informal asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 82-90 89 financial institutions respectively but it will be higher among non-beneficiaries of ifis base on the values given above. the average monthly savings of individual household was found to be positively significant in both beneficiaries (0.020) and non beneficiaries (0.000) of informal financial institutions at 5% level of significant. this is in consonance with the apriori expectation that the higher the savings of an individual household, the lower the incidence of poverty. this is because savings is expected to be channeled into investment. this further implies that for every increase in savings of households by one naira, poverty is expected to be reduced by 0.0021 and 0.000 in beneficiaries and non beneficiaries of informal financial institutions respectively. this result further justified why respondents who benefited from ifis in konshisha local government area were found to be less poor than non-beneficiaries. further analysis also revealed that child dependency ratio was negative in conformity with the apriori expectation for both beneficiaries of ifis (-1.020) and non-beneficiaries of ifis (-0.311), respectively. however, the influence of child dependency ration on poverty status of both beneficiaries and non beneficiaries of ifis was insignificant in the study area at 5% level. similarly, the study further revealed that the influence of sex, age and marital status on poverty level of the inhabitants of konshisha local government was found to be insignificant at 5% level. table-5. t-test of difference in mean of real household consumption-expenditure of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of informal financial institutions in konshisha local government area of benue state. informal financial institutions no. of resp. mean (n) st. deviation mean difference d.f t sig beneficiaries of ifis 108 59828.6 52209.81 27728.60* 155.11 4.96 0.00 non-beneficiaries of ifis 105 32100 2.5159.0 source: field survey, 2014. single asterisk (*) =t-test of difference significant at 1% level. table 5 shows that 108 beneficiaries of informal financial institutions in konshisha local government area have mean household consumption expenditure of n59828.60 per annum. while that of non-beneficiaries was 32100 naira per annum. this gives a significant mean difference of 27728.60 naira at 1% level. the result shows clearly that beneficiaries of informal financial institutions have more real household consumption expenditure than non beneficiaries in the study area. since individual’s consumption expenditure depends on their income, it therefore implies that beneficiaries of ifis in the study area have more income than non-beneficiaries. this is attributed to the fact that the existence of informal financial institutions in the study area enables members to access funds to meet their various needs thereby reducing their poverty level. a general look at this result thus conformed with the views of aryeetey (1994); noah et al. (2009) and ijaiya (2002) who reported that informal financial institutions has helped in mobilizing savings which are in turn used as working capital to restock supplies which enables beneficiaries to expand their output and earn a stream of profit, thereby providing a significant source of income to individual household which reduces their level of poverty. 4.2. conclusion and recommendations the study revealed that informal financial institutions are an integral part of rural economic life and an alternative source of credit for rural people. their existence in konshisha local government area has contributed significantly towards poverty reduction through the disbursement of micro loans to their members for productive investment. given the failure of most nigerian government rural financial intervention programmes, the researchers therefore recommended that money market development policies should be tailored towards developing the informal financial institutions in rural areas in order to expand their scope of meeting the financial needs of the rural dwellers particularly in konshisha local government area to reduce poverty. for instance, the government can augment the low-income earnings of members by making soft loans (loans with very low interest) available to members through informal financial institutions in which (ifis) they belong. equally recommended is that drastic efforts should be taken by all the stakeholders in the education sector to ensure that quality and affordable formal education is provided to all the inhabitants of konshisha local government area. this is because education is a social capital and it has impacted positively on poverty reduction level of the people in the study area. references ajegi, s.o., 2004. determining the poor against the background of local situation and circumstances. a paper presented at organizational workshop of national poverty eradication programme at benue hotel makurdi, nigeria. aliyu, a., 2002. implementation progress beport background, structure, achievement and problems of napep. a paper presented at a oneday special presidential retreat for permanent secretaries in abuja, nigeria. appleton, s., 2001. poverty in yuganda; 1999/2000 preliminary estimate from the unhs. nottingham: university of nottingham, mimeo, working paper no. wps/99/22. aryeetey, e., 1994. rural finance in africa: institutional development and access for the poor. nottinghan: university of nottinghan. in bruno, m. and pleskovic, b. (eds). annual world bank conference in development economic 1996, washington, d.c. awolowo, o., 1981. path to nigeria greatness. enugu: fourth dimension publishers. federal of statistics (f.o.s), 1999. poverty and agricultural sector in nigeria: poverty incidence of farmers by region. nigeria: f.o.s. head office abuja. pp: 4-33. foster, j., j. greer and e. thorbocke, 1984. a class of the decomposable poverty measure. economist, 52(3): 761-766. grootaert, c. and j. braithwaite, 1998. poverty correlate and indicator, and based targeting in eastern europe and former soviet union: world bank policy research working paper no.1942. ijaiya, g.t., 2002. the role of informal sector in minimizing poverty in ilorin metropolis. unpublished phd thesis. department of economics, usman dan fodiyo university, sokoto, nigeria. mckinnon, r., 1973. money and capital in economic development. 1st edn., washington dc. usa: broking institution. noah, y.i., i. gafar and a.i. muftau, 2009. informal finance institutions and poverty reduction in the informal sector of offa town, kwara state: a case study of rotating savings and credit associations. journal of social science, university of ilorin, 20(1): 7181. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 82-90 90 ramakrishma, g. and a. demeke, 2002. an empirical analysis is of food insecurity in ethiopia: the case north wollo. council for the development of social science research in africa: addis ababa. africa development, 27(1 & 2): 127-143. shaw, e.s., 1973. financial deepening in economic development. new york: oxford university press. world bank, 1990. world bank development. reporting poverty. new york: oxford university press. world bank, 1996. poverty in the midst of plenty: the challenge of growth with inclusion. a world bank poverty assessment report, population of human research division, world bank. bibliography aryeetey, e., 1998. informal finance for private sector development in africa. african development bank economic research paper. no. 41. cenral bank of nigeria, c.b.n., 2000. changing structure of nigerian economy and implication for development. lagos: realm communications ltd. world bank, 2001. attacking poverty: world development report. new york: oxford university press. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 1, 42-46, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 42 effects of globalization on health governance in bangladesh k. m. atikur rahman 1 1 research fellow, department of political science, university of dhaka, dhaka, bangladesh abstract contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 43 2. methodology......................................................................................................................................................................... 43 3. results .................................................................................................................................................................................. 43 4. discussion ............................................................................................................................................................................. 43 5. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 46 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 46 citation | k. m. atikur rahman (2016). effects of globalization on health governance in bangladesh. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(1): 42-46. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.42.46 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license contribution/ acknowledgment: i am grateful to professor qingye tang, shanghai university, china for his inspiring comments on my research articles published just one month ago. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 29 august 2015/ revised: 29 september 2015/ accepted: 9 october 2015/ published: 13 october 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group the paper mainly focuses the adverse impact of globalization on health sector in bangladesh. access of the common people to health care has already been difficult due to expensiveness, lack of transparency and good governance in management process, though globalization has expanded the infrastructural and logistic supports of the sectors across the world. in bangladesh, medicine intake, as if, is a regular having item for the majority of the people – a disease is cured by having one medicine – but another disease is being generated as a result of its side-effects. in addition, medical promotion activities have reached from 500 bed-hospitals to a village medicine vendor that has been made the sector healthy to health business elites. the study mainly aims to explain the adverse influences of globalization on health care system. besides, specifically it objectifies the corruption and irregularities of medical service focusing the high cost of this facility. the work is an explanatory type of basic study which has been conducted in qualitative approach. secondary data has been used herein of that sources include the books, journal articles, media report, organizational records, etc. good governance, proper adjudication activity, commitment of policy makers, skilled human resource management may curb or end the irregularities in bangladesh health governance. keywords: health business, business elites, privatization, high cost, common people, health tourism, irregularities. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.42.46 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 42-46 43 1. introduction health care is a basic right to human being; but presently it has been a great problem to the low and middle income group of people in bangladesh. medical services are being sold and bought at a high price in private medical centers or hospitals not only in bangladesh but also across the world. business elites make their medicare institutions the well-setting sources of making money; though they were to be the centers for social service. on the other hand, the public hospitals are not in proper conditions to serve the medical treatment especially for the commons – because government doctors are also involved as practitioners in such those private medical centers or hospitals for extra huge income brokers, agents of them are set up there to take away the patients to the centers. following the globalization policy, social sectors (health, education) are left to market line as business items. this policy adopted for protecting the health related human rights; but it is regretted that it has been a one kind of safe and profitable business. there is no loss in the businesses as which work centering human basic needs (health) – it is a matter of life – so people are being always trapped by the health business owners. presently almost 65 percent of child birth is being done by cesarean operation in private hospitals and clinics; though they are mostly unnecessary – it should be under 15 percent as per global standard – but money making trends of doctors and hospital owners make this situation vulnerable. medical expenditure has increased about 70 percent than that of 15 years back in bangladesh. as per the privatization and deregulation policy, medical services are reached up to villages and slums in urban areas; but common people have getting trapped in the cost web – even they are suffering from disease-cycle having medicine and its side-effects – they are puzzled to understand where they can get proper treatment. everywhere the money thrusters are sitting for money-making service in guise of medical servicemen. the elderly poor people are presently regarded as mostly vulnerable group – they are suffering from different diseases, but they have no money enough to be better medicated – the state authority cannot ensure their health rights actually due to the unethical practice of private medical sectors and bad governance in public sectors. local and multi national companies (mncs) expedites the health business enormously by promoting their medicinal items by their representative and greedy doctors engaged mainly in their private practice places (diagnostic centers or clinic or own chambers). globalization makes the health care system available everywhere through privatization policy; but they are, as if, untouchable to the commons – these are only for the riches – these are the platform of health related businessman. 1.1. objectives of the study the paper mainly aims to analyze the adverse impacts of globalization on health care management in bangladesh. moreover, there are several specific objectives. these include: a. to identify that private health care system is a one kind of profitable business not a social service. b. to explain the miserable conditions of the low income patients in access to health care in the age of globalization. c. to investigate the scenario of irregularity, mismanagement and corruption in bangladesh medical section. 2. methodology the study is an explanatory type of basic research work that has been conducted in qualitative approach. the paper is made mainly by secondary data of which sources are books, journal articles, media report and organizational records. the document analysis has been done through library work and web browsing for online data materials. practical self-experience and empirical observation reflects the primary data source herein. general analysis method of descriptive type of study is applied hence for data process and report design. 3. results there have been found some results that have identified the problematic picture of bangladesh health care management especially the private health care in the influences of global actors. these are: a. private health care system is a safe and profitable business instead of social service. b. access to health care is gradually getting very expensive in bangladesh. c. corruption and mismanagement is a common and regular phenomenon in medicare section. 4. discussion 4.1. background of liberalization in health management all types of social services are getting privatized or liberalized gradually all over the world for the interest of efficient services and socio-economic growth. health care is also a sector which is running at full private business style in bangladesh like other countries. in bangladesh, mainly it comes under market line in early 1980s following the conditionality and prescription given by donor agencies while providing loans and assistances. privatization or neo-liberal ideology is a strong element of globalization that should be discussed first before going towards main discussion. the term globalization appeared as early as civilization, but in modern age it has gone from being a jargon to cliché. in 1964, mcluhan talked about ‘the global village’ in his celebrated study of media (mcluhan, 2002). over the years, the concept of globalization has been both discussed and denied differently by scholars and institutions. walby (2003) defines globalization as ‘a process of increased density and frequency of international or global social interactions relative to local or national ones’. actually globalization process gets institutionalized in 1947, through establishing gatt which is the mother organization of world trade organization (wto). it is main aim was to eradicate the discrimination of global trade and increase the business growth. in order to meet up this ideology it adopts some polices namely liberalism, privatization, deregulation and reduce the tariff or non-tariff barrier through holding the hands of ‘washington consensus’ occurred in 1989. besides, in 1940s world bank (wb) and international monetary fund (imf) emerged in global arena and they started to function as a facilitator for economic and trade growth ending all discriminations. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 42-46 44 social sectors (health, education) came to the market line mainly through donor agencies (wb, imf, wto, ilo, oecd, western developed countries) imposing conditionality with assistances. the conditionality includes wider reforms in social, political, economic and cultural sectors. programs of reform typically involve: currency devaluation, reduction or elimination of foreign exchange controls, deregulation and privation of industry and services, removal of wage and price controls and subsidies on agriculture, food, energy and transport, cuts in public expenditure and social services (health, education) including transfer payments and public employment (owoh, 1996; townsend and donkor, 1996; lopes, 1999). bangladesh and other developing nations receive assistances from the donor agencies through abiding by their conditionality. as a result, most of the social services including health, education, transport, and telecommunication are getting privatized and deregulated. following these processes, though the availability of health services has been increased enormously; its costs gradually go beyond the accessibility of the low and middle income group. that’s why, health related complication increases everywhere. in bangladesh, though life expectancy has been raised, health comfort or happiness decreases. income inequality rises in society – the commons actually can hardly access to expensive medication service except herbal and traditional medicare system that harms the patients frequently. local and multi-national medical business conglomerates are doing their business with a high turnover. in fact, privatization policy comes to light for the advantages of multi-national medical companies and business owners. 4.2. health business within globalization structural adjustment programs (saps) reflect the neo-liberal ideology that drives globalization. this ideology has been promoted by world bank and international monetary fund (imf) for developing countries since the early 80s by the provision of loan conditional on the adoption of such policy. governments are encouraged and forced to reduce their role in the economy by privatizing state-owned industries, including the health sector, and opening up their economies to foreign competition (world health organization, 2015). globalization is a process by which business (social sector business) windows have been easily opened in the whole world – mncs are doing business worldwide profitably and uninterruptedly – local business companies are also doing so. donor agencies (wb, imf, wto, oecd, and developed country) played a vital role in uncovering the doors for the social business (medical, education, telecommunication, and energy) in favor of mncs and local business groups through different loan conditionality and policies. it is observed that global authorities work as a facilitator of the global business conglomerates so that global business growth increases sharply – they all are working partners each other as per their reciprocal interests – their eyes lay belongings to the developing nations. in fact, such type of global activities make a sharp business and economic growth – but these are mostly gone to the ‘interest boxes’ of the business groups – the commons are getting share very little from; rather complicated living pattern, inequality and deprivation hurt them in every step. if a scenario of global medical equipment business is mentioned in the paper, it will be astonishing to view the yearly return of them. only johnson and johnson co. made the total revenue of usd 28.7 billion, whereas general electro co. did usd 18.1 billion in 2014 (s and p capital iq, 2014). in the same way, all other multinational medical companies are making profits as well year-onyear; even they have no record of losses – the success of free market economy lies here notably. actually it is observed that business for social services never incurs any loss – as this is running centered to the lives of human being – emotion, sorrow, pains herein function as a business capital or trap. the victims cannot say anything against the medical service providers because it is a question of life. in domestic arenas, such type of businesses creates a divine harbor for the interest of business elites. even the health businesses are being running in the name of social well-being. in bangladesh, 1683 registered hospital and clinics are in operation in smooth form and out of them 1,005 are privately-run (government of bangladesh, 2015). moreover, about two-folds extra numbers of unregistered medical centers are also on function and thousands of mushroom typed diagnostic centers are excluded the statistics. mainly the diagnostic centers are playing the oppressing role in health sectors. they arrange a good number of doctors’ chambers in their centersthey prescribe and suggest big number of unnecessary pathological tests for the patients to meet up the reciprocal interests of the pathological centers. the centers and doctors work together in favor of their business interests; but the patients have to pay huge amount of money only for pathological tests including doctor’s consultation fees that sometimes go beyond their ability. if a patient gets admitted into a big private hospital, he has to pay usd 300-1,000 per day for receiving treatment. on the other hand, private practitioners suggest a patient about 3 to 10 items of pathological test – that has to be even in designated diagnostic centers – because the doctors are linked with the centers in exchange of 30-50 percent commission for a single item of test (transparency international bangladesh, 2014a). in bangladesh, about 48 private medical colleges are operating their education business of usd 80 million per annum. nearly usd 1-2 million has been taking from a single medical student only for admission fee. even the students have to pay huge amount of money for other tuition fee and living costs in every year. it is viewed that medical education and treatment are yet to be regarded as a humanistic service. in addition, following the privatization policy, about 199 allopathic drug manufacturing companies are running their business at a high volume of returntheir business expanding trends proves that successfully – even a single high ranked pharmaceutical professional is being paid bdt 2-5 lakh monthly including other facilities that seems to be shown their turnover scenario. in fact, everything is moving only through globalization policy. here is a true but pathetic matter that patients have to buy a single antiacidity tablet by bdt 7, whereas a single third generation antibiotic tablet costs about bdt 30-50. in this regard, low income people are getting marginalized gradually. but, national drug administration can take measure hardly in sake of free market economy. nearly 8 out of top 20 pharmaceutical companies in bangladesh are multinational and they are doing their business smoothly. the doctors are interested more to talk to the medical representative than the patients as they are being gifted valuable things (mobile phone set, laptop, freeze, tv, air-conditioned machine) at a regular basis from the drug companies. in exchange of the gifts, the doctors prescribe their medicine despite sub standardized items. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 42-46 45 4.3. health tourism health tourism is one kind of traveling from one country to another for obtaining medical treatment. traditionally, people would travel from less-developed countries to major medical centers in highly developed countries for medical treatment that was unavailable in their own communities (horowitz et al., 2007) but the trend has been changed and people also travel from developed countries to less-developed ones nowadays. bangladesh has developed the medical sectors desirably; however a large number of rich men go abroad for their medical treatment. people used to travel to many countries for health care from long time ago; even huge number of people makes their journeys to developed countries still today. mainly businessmen, politician, bureaucrats are principal role players in this connection. they have plenty of money that earned, perhaps, both in legal and illegal ways. health tourism also involves the recreational purpose, shopping, business, meeting the family members, political unsafe, money laundering etc. despite a lot of health opportunity exists in the home country, they take the foreign treatment due to the above mentioned reasons. moreover, medical officers and technologists are being migrated to convenience countries for better life. there are a good number of countries such as india, israel, singapore, thailand, usa, uk, brazil, costa rica, belgium, uae, mexico, and portugal income foreign currency through health tourism. globalization process makes the medical sectors privatized, free and open like other market products. thus the private medical centers of those countries have equipped themselves with various modern facilities within a reasonable treatment cost. they take it as one kind of profitable business. following globalization, communication technology, information system, different booking facilities have been easier and convenient to the people living anywhere in the world. so health tourism increases enormously and that seems to be continued for the next. many people from developed countries travel to less-developed ones for cost efficiency. plastic, and cosmetic surgery, abortion, child consumption expedite the medical tourism or business globally. moreover, having passed holidays, enjoyment activity takes an important place in regard of traveling abroad. many black money holders of less-developed countries drain their black money out of their home country; for having socio-political activities and other pleasure being done along with the medical tourism. a good number of bangladeshi rich men go abroad for political purpose, and shopping related pleasure in name of medical treatment. doctors and technologists are migrating to developed nations. every year a good number of doctors from bangladesh are going to foreign countries getting offered better jobs. generally, bangladeshi doctors and technologists are recruited in saudi arabia, united arab emirate, qatar, bahrain, libya, iraq, usa, and uk. they are being paid handsome compensation that encourages them to leave their motherland and jobs. actually it may be called brain drain. if they serve the people of their homeland, the people wouldn’t travel to another country for obtaining better medical treatment. it is viewed that medical treatment causes both the brain and money drain. perhaps, through globalization medical facility has been increased but less-developed countries lose their money and brain sharply. in addition, medical tourism somehow discloses the culture of black money income and expenditure. at present days, medical education and training have been included with health tourism. many students from south asian countries come to bangladesh for medical education. besides, recently a large number of bangladeshi students are getting admission in chinese medical colleges and universities. medical education tourism prioritizes the cost benefit and quality of education. in this regard, china is advanced more than other countries. 4.4. irregularities in health management donor agencies make the health sectors available to the people in the developing countries through the loan conditionality with social reforms. the social sectors in bangladesh are being left mostly to private sectors – their growth is obviously remarkable – but the advantages of health and education sector cannot reach desirably to the house of low and middle income people. as a business item health care has already been a profitable and safe business that made the sector heavily costlier. on the other hand, public health sector is getting vulnerable due to mismanagement and different irregularities. sometimes, patients and their attendants experience corruption and irregularities during receiving services from health facilities. according to tib’s national household survey on corruption 2012, 40.2% households experienced corruption while receiving health services. moreover, various surveys conducted by transparency international bangladesh (tib) during 2011-2013 also revealed that some doctors do not attend their duties up to the official time at different levels of hospital particularly those in sub-districts and districts; some patients do not get bed immediately after admission; some patients have to stay on floor up to a certain period, some patients are asked to go to doctor’s private clinics and chambers and some patients expressed their unhappiness about the quality of food they get from hospitals. moreover, some patients have to make illegal payments for getting services from hospitals that include services like purchase of tickets, getting bed/cabin, use of trolley, doing different medical tests and investigations, pushing of injection and saline, dressing services and ambulance services, receiving services from ward boys and sweepers etc. sometimes, patients are asked to go to doctor’s preferred diagnostic clinics or centers for doing medical tests and investigations (tib, 2014b). in bangladesh, private clinics and diagnostic centers are running their business at a high volume of return. about 40 percent of those are not licensed or registered properly and they do not recruit quality and regular doctors, nurse and technologist. they are mostly dependent on the temporary doctors who actually come from the nearby public hospitals or fresher. the doctors are presently eager to practice the private medical centers leaving almost their own duties. in addition, government doctors feel comforts passing their times with medical representative more than their patients. according to health ordinance 1982, private health facilities are required to employ expert doctors, one registered doctor, 2 nurses, and one sweeper for every 10 patients for running medical services and operations; however, most of private facilities do not follow such rules. sometimes, trained and qualified technicians are not employed. although it was made a rule to provide money receipt to patients, it is not given. similarly, they are asked to retain name and address of patients, but they usually keep names of patients only. it is found that private diagnostic centers maintain contracts with doctors in exchange of commission. the rate of commission depends on asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 42-46 46 the number of patients a doctor sends to a diagnostic center. according to doctors, their rate of commission normally varies 30-50%. similarly, bribers rate vary 10-30% (tib, 2014c). through globalization, medical infrastructure, logistic elements and human resource have been increased immensely; but they serve little the poor except riches and business elites. here it is viewed that donor agencies have no strong concern of the irregularities as the mncs have invested of million dollars in medical business of developing countries – they supply expensive medical equipments, consultant, pharmaceutical products, chemical raw materials – mncs and domestic medical businessmen stand in a unique line in this regard. actually state authority will has to control the medical sector strictly through law, policy, insurance, rules for the sake of common people; otherwise medical anarchism may hamper the total socio-political system. 5. conclusion it is finally viewed that through globalization or neo-liberal ideology health care goes to the proximity of villagers; but they can hardly access to the facility due to high cost and irregularities. medical service has presently turned into a normal business item changing its wellbeing manner. public health care is still low priced but mismanagement and corruption makes it vulnerable to all walks of people. urban people of low income group can access to private health care hardly; so they have to go to hazardous public health center or charitable medical units. besides, traditional medication is still the final destination to the poor people which sometimes is perilous. there are a good number of law, ordinance, regulations in bangladesh to maintain the standard of health care; but due to private sectors, greedy doctors-nurses and corrupt health administration, this worse condition exists every steps in health sectors. proper punitive measure, good governance, availability of logistic supports can ease this vulnerability and the state authority concerned must end all the irregularities in medicare system to make a sustainable development. references government of bangladesh, 2015. bangladesh statistical pocket book. dhaka: bangladesh bureau of statistics bbs. horowitz, m.d., j.a. rosensweig and c.a. jones, 2007. medical tourism: globalization of healthcare marketplace. medscape general medicine, 9(4): 33-41. lopes, c., 1999. are structural adjustment programmes an adequate response to globalization. international social science journal, 51(162): 511-519. mcluhan, m., 2002. understanding media – the extensions of man. london and new york: routledge. s and p. capital iq 2014. company data. new york: s and p capital iq. owoh, k., 1996. fragmenting health care: the world bank prescription for africa. alternatives, 21(2): 211-235. s and p capital iq, 2014. company data. new york: s and p capital iq. tib, 2014b. governance challenges in the health sector and way out. dhaka: tib. tib, 2014c. governance challenges in the health sector and way out. dhaka: tib. townsend, p. and k. donkor, 1996. globalization restructuring and social policy: the need to establish and international welfare state. bristol: policy press. transparency international bangladesh, 2014a. governance challenges in the health sector and way out. dhaka: tib. walby, s., 2003. the myth of the nation-state: theorizing society and polities in a global era. sociology, 37(3): 529-546. doi 10.1177/00380385030373008. world health organization, 2015. glossary of globalization, trade and health terms. available from www.who.int/trade/glossary/story084/en/ [accessed 23 august, 2015]. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story084/en/ 1 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 1, 1-7, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.51.1.7 becoming a culturally proficient teacher in these turbulent times patricia nugent1  heljä antola crowe2 pamela faber3 ( corresponding author) 1 associate professor, bradley university, usa 2 professor, bradley university, usa 3independent educational consultant, usa abstract “we teach who we are” (palmer, 2007) is an important self-revelation. given the current culture in america, there is much unrest in our classrooms and schools. as teacher educators, we need to be aware of the various cultures influencing not only our classrooms, but also the classrooms of our students and the society at large. this article discusses how cultural awareness and culturally proficient teaching can impact individual instructors and learning environments of their classrooms. as future teachers experience culture in our university classrooms, they are becoming aware of their own cultural identity and its effects on their future students. keywords: cultural diversity, reflective practitioner, culturally proficient instructor. citation | patricia nugent; heljä antola crowe; pamela faber (2018). becoming a culturally proficient teacher in these turbulent times. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(1): 1-7. history: received: 4 december 2017 revised: 15 january 2018 accepted: 22 january 2018 published: 26 january 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 2. theoretical frameworks ................................................................................................................................................................... 2 3. autobiographical portraits ............................................................................................................................................................... 2 4. autobiography impacting instruction ........................................................................................................................................... 5 5. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 6 references ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.51.1.7&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5021-0482 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6656-9465 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8917-7782 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5021-0482 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6656-9465 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8917-7782 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5021-0482 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6656-9465 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8917-7782 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5021-0482 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6656-9465 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8917-7782 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 1-7 2 1. introduction in many countries teachers are truly valued and revered. teacher voices are sometimes not taken seriously in the public discourse and the political arena in the u.s. darling-hammond et al. (2010) assert that in high-achieving countries teachers receive a government-provided high-quality education, earn competitive salaries, are mentored with reduced course loads, are provided extensive opportunities for professional development, and are involved in curricular decisions. in the u.s., however, beginning teachers find themselves with inadequate salaries, in demanding environments, and with little support. too frequently, the least prepared, least supported teachers find themselves in schools with the most educationally vulnerable population. this phenomenon frequently results in a revolving door in the schools that are most in need of stability. as we move into the second quarter of the twenty-first century, the urgency of preparing culturally proficient teachers is one critical aspect for institutions who prepare teachers for the future. multiple writers and frameworks developed for 21st century skills agree that collaboration and working with others is important in the world where we are encountering challenges and problems previously not experienced (framework for 21st century skills. retrieved from http://www.p21.org/overview). we posit that as culturally proficient instructor(s) (cpi(s)) (nurirobins et al., 2012) the valued and essential aspects of public education can and will be preserved. as cpis, our teacher candidates will be better prepared for the environments they find themselves in as they enter the profession. we focus here on professional growth through the use of the autobiographical lens (busse et al., 2000) to shed light on our growth as professors of teacher education. in analyzing the situational objective conditions with the interpretation or subjective explanation of them (pinar et al., 1996) we discuss professional development in us as professors. we are interested in a multitude of questions that our dialogue is bringing up. what do we and our students use as anchor points to maneuver in our classes? what happens in the family dynamics in relation to their immigrant, “middle of everywhere” (pipher, 2002) experiences as they negotiate living and working in communities that may or may not understand their functioning, let alone being afraid of being deported? what autobiographical events can we use to strengthen daily realities when we encounter unexpected and new situations with our student? what about the outsider/insider experience in new environments? how do we decide whether to belong or not to belong in a certain situation? 2. theoretical frameworks as a framework for discussing culturally proficient individuals, we use the nuri-robins et al. (2012) continuum. in these six stages, one sees the difference in culture but responds in different ways. an individual can choose to stomp the cultural difference out, make the difference wrong, act like they don‟t see the difference, respond inadequately, understand the difference the cultural difference makes or can respond effectively in a variety of environments. this movement is affected by how one enters the situation, as well as how they interpret them as we are going through the process of thinking about them. curiosity can propel us forward. the fear of uncertainty, the breaks between the thoughts we have and how to take action may propel us backward. as our teaching experiences become more diverse, our need to interact with courage should increase. this metacognitive stance, reflective practitioner mentality (schön, 1987) is crucial in growing as a professional. nuri-robins et al. (2012) use their culturally proficient continuum to define the qualities of cpis. cpis have a certain way of being. they have a mind-set or a mental model where they develop a worldwide view. they view themselves, others, organizations and communities with a multi-faceted lens. they are able to interact effectively with others. they have the ability to negotiate new cultural situations with humility and courage and are open to individuals they interact with. cpis are culturally aware, value diversity, manage the dynamics of difference, adapt to diversity and institutionalize cultural knowledge. cpis are aware of how their own culture, and their students‟ culture impacts instruction, learning and establishment of classroom environment. cpis appreciate, welcome and elicit diversity with their students. they recognize that conflict is a natural part of life and that conflicts between people may actually stem from conflicts in culture. since conflict is a natural occurrence, it is important that we are equipped with strategies to deal with conflict. lastly, cpis are committed to lifelong learning pertaining to cultural and an institutional acceptance of cultural proficiency. they accept that there is a hidden curriculum, an added layer of interactions, and that it is critical to incorporate facets of cultural proficiency into classroom environments. it is imperative that instructors can be intentional in their approach to cultural acceptance. self-understanding influence teachers‟ level of culturally proficient instruction. 3. autobiographical portraits portions of our cultural autobiographical portraits are shared here so that the reader can view the intricacies of our lives, not as a model but as reminder that every life is culturally significant. we encourage the reader to reflect on your own personal journey to see how each life experience informed you and gives you possible alternatives to meet each individual where they are. we define culture not only as international travels and encounters, but also those less obvious types of culture such as gender, race, rural/urban, generation, social, religious, marital, economic and parental experiences, just to name a few. a variety of international cultures and other cultural experiences impact our views of life and how we live our interactions with teacher candidates. portrait 1 i grew up in a small, rural town in southern illinois where a fourth of the students were „colored‟. i remember playing with both white and black friends on the playground which was located next to the abandoned colored school which had been desegregated in 1952. during lunch one day in my freshman year, i was called a „white honky bitch‟ by one of my black friends. i remember how hurt i was. i remember my dad telling me that i had better never bring a boyfriend into his house who was of a different race (“black or jap”). i remember the race riots in the 1970‟s, the vietnam war, civil unrest in east st. louis, jfk, bobby kennedy and martin luther king jr.‟s assassinations. before graduating from high school, my family moved to a town on the east side of st. louis where to this day there are no african-american families. the only cultural diversity in that asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 1-7 3 small village was the difference in christian faiths. i was once asked “aren‟t you afraid of going to hell?”, since i was not raised in the catholic church. needless to say, i was raised with limited cultural diversity and i feel that i grew up ignorant and wanting to know more about others and embracing human diversity. it wasn‟t until i was in my thirties and i found myself widowed, raising two small children by myself, that i found myself asking god; why? i ended up changing churches. i remember listening to missionaries‟ accounts of their travels to places like africa and russia. one person even talked about his work on native american reservations. one of the guest speakers suggested that if you were interested in working as a missionary, then ask god where he wanted to send you, to look at a globe and picture yourself traveling to such a place. he recommended that if i was serious about wanting to go, then i should get ready by getting a passport. the next day i filled out my first passport application. by this time, i had finished my undergraduate and master‟s degree and was teaching middle school mathematics. time passed, my children grew up, and i ended up going to graduate school. upon arriving at graduate school in central illinois, i remember thinking i was in a virtual melting pot of cultural diversity. my office mate told me that she did not consider this college town being anything near cultural diversity. she also said that she would never go home with me to meet my family because she would have been the only black person and she said, “i do not put myself in those types of situations”. i also remember telling her that i did not see color when i looked at a person and that i didn‟t care if they were pink, purple, or polka-dotted. she scolded me and told me that i needed to open my eyes and really look because she was a black woman and that it was important that i see her for who she was. i remember going with another african-american friend of mine to the university‟s black graduate association and being the only white person there. i felt very uncomfortable and out of place when people wouldn‟t sit by me and i could hear people whispering, “what is she doing here?” as time passed, i completed my doctorate, and took my first university teaching position in chicago. by then my passport had expired and i had pretty much forgotten about wanting to travel to work in another part of the world. in april 2015, i was at the national council of teachers of mathematics (nctm) conference walking through the exhibit booths and saw these brightly colored fabrics and wondered why they there being displayed at a math conference. being a quilter, my curiosity was peaked, so i started up a conversation with the person manning the booth. he told me about the organization teachers to teachers, international (t2t-i) that arranges for teachers in the u.s. to travel to other countries (usually during the summer) and work with teachers and their students through both professional development workshops and in-class collaboration and team-teaching. i updated my passport and decided to travel to guatemala during august 2015. the school that i worked in was new hope school in chinautla, guatemala, which is located just north of the capital city. new hope was built by an american sponsored organization, therefore, it felt “americanized”. although all the teachers and students were guatemalan, i was not sure if all guatemalan schools had access to the amount of technology and manipulatives that this school had. the class size was relatively small also, 25 students per classroom. i worked with the pre-k teacher that first year. she had just been asked to teach the four-year-old class after teaching kindergarten. i believe that she thought that she had been demoted and being asked to have a college professor observe her classroom did not assure her that her assumption was not correct. i was initially met with resentment. after my first trip, i came back so excited and on fire through my travel that i wanted all my students to experience what i had just been introduced to. several of my elementary math content students said that they were interested in studying abroad. i went to my department chair and she suggested that i contact the study abroad coordinator. it was suggested that i write and submit my own study abroad course. i went back to my students and asked them, “if you could design the study abroad experience that best meets your expectations, what would it look like?” i took their suggestions and wrote a study abroad course to guatemala and it was approved by the university. when i was planning on going back to guatemala the following year, i wanted to have a more realistic cultural experience and ended up spending three weeks. i went back to new hope to keep up the relationships i had with the teachers there and then chose to travel to santa avelina, a rural town in the department of el quiche. santa avelina is a two-day bus ride from guatemala city. it is a beautiful small town surrounded by mountains where coffee trees, bananas, and corn grow up the mountain sides. i volunteered for a week where we team-taught with the teachers, worked with the students, and did professional development with the teachers after school. our lodging consisted of cots placed in classrooms and we ate all our meals at the school. lunch and dinner were prepared by volunteers within the community and consisted of hand-pressed corn tortillas, fresh eggs, refried black beans, and plantains. to say the least, i was experiencing being steeped in the guatemalan culture, spending a week touring the cities of antigua and the cities surrounding lake atitlan. antiqua is a beautiful city where you feel like you have walked back into time to colonial 1770. the trip back to new hope meant that i was back in guatemala city with a population of 2.3 million people. in order to get to new hope, we traveled through what is called a “red zone”, which means the area experiences a great deal of violence through gang wars. as i continue to reflect on my own childhood and working in a third world country, my parents would tell my siblings and me how poor we were growing up. we grew our own food, home canned vegetables for the winter, and butchered our own meat. i empathize with people living in poverty and agrarian culture. i had to take a trip outside of myself to find another aspect of myself. i was raised in a black and white world, both literally and figuratively. now, i feel that i live my life in color, due to my cultural experiences. portrait 2 i was born the eldest child of three in the 1960‟s in a small town outside of chicago, illinois. my family has lived in the u.s. for a long time. in fact, we know of relatives that have fought in wars such as desert storm, the korean war, world war ii, world war 1 and the civil war. the main issue of diversity that separated the small farming town i grew up in was whether you were catholic or methodist. when i was young, we traveled to canada. i remember the feeling of being in another country. i am not sure if my parents were anxious or excited, however, i do remember the fear that we had to “cross the border”. my next memory of being outside of the united states occurred while i was an undergraduate. my friend was from puerto rico, a u.s. territory. however, with spanish being the main language spoken i felt very isolated on both of my visits there. even though i was learning spanish, i was not able to keep up with the conversations that were occurring around me. this was the first time i remember being the outsider and thinking, “are they laughing at me?”, as my friend and her grandmother started to laugh after a prolonged conversation in spanish. her grandma spoke no english, so they had to speak in spanish in order to communicate. as i spent more time in their presence, i grew to accept that they were not laughing at me...they were simply sharing a loving, funny memory with each other. i so longed to be able to communicate with her abuela. she had such asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 1-7 4 loving eyes and knowing that she had left cuba, i knew she had so many stories in her heart that i would never be able to know in her own words. i started teaching in an inner-city urban school of 2400 students. the student population was approximately one-third latino, one-third black and one-third caucasian. it was in the mid-eighties and there was a lot of gang violence occurring in the community. in fact, in the month i started, a police officer was shot and killed just blocks from the school where i taught. there were so many different cultures that i needed to be aware of … ethnicity, ses level, religion, and language just to name a few. in the midst of all of this, it was my responsibility to teach my students mathematics. i learned quickly that caring, fairness and fortitude were valued virtues in an urban high school teacher. the experiences i had during these years contributed to the teacher and person i am today. another culture that may be overlooked is the cultural of living in a single-parent home. the years when my children were younger and i was the main support for them were truly some of the most emotionally, physically, and economically-trying times of my life. anyone who has been a single-parent can relate to the evening when your child comes home with a school project that is due tomorrow, or even in two days and you do not have the poster, glue, markers, t-shirt, or craft-sticks needed to complete the project. you find yourself trying to figure out how you are going to get to the store to get the materials, and find the time to complete the project. i have been able to use these life-experiences in my classroom to encourage my students to keep in mind the real-world their students and parents are living. when i started teaching at the collegiate level, it was expected that i present at national and international conferences, so i obtained my first passport. since that time, i have presented in jyväskylä, finland; la manzanilla, mexico; singapore; and santa avelina, guatemala. in each of these experiences i learned invaluable lessons. in finland, i felt the total isolation of not understanding the spoken or written language around me. at least when i was in puerto rico, i could understand some of the spoken and written word. one story i love to share is when my colleague and i were exiting a taxi cab. she spoke fluent finnish and was conversing with the driver. when i exited the cab, the driver said, “tonks”. i thought, i can say that. so, i replied “tonks” (thinking this was finnish for thanks), to which he and my colleague broke out in laughter. my first thought was, oh no, now what did i say? after my colleague paid the driver, she explained that the driver was trying to speak english and his explicit of “tonks” was in fact, his version of “thanks”. when i learned this, i too, was able to laugh at the miscommunication. while in mexico, during our presentation, i learned another unforgettable lesson about communication. we were presenting on using body movements to accentuate number sense on the number line. during the presentation, we had participants create a number line where one participant was representing two, another representing zero and another representing negative two. we asked someone to go to negative two and one-third and the participant located herself between zero and negative two. i thought, how embarrassing for her and what do we do next? there was a buzz in the room where you knew that not everyone agreed with her placement on the number line. soon, one of the participants/interpreters stated, “i see what is going on.” he explained that for this spanish speaker the word „and‟ meant „to add‟. therefore, for her, negative two and one-third meant negative two add a positive one-third which summed to be negative one and two-thirds. this explained her moving to a position between negative two and zero (nugent and grant, 2011). in santa avelina, guatemala, i found myself in an environment where the teachers‟ and children‟s native language was ixil and spanish was their second language. because the children were working with addition and subtraction with numbers less than twenty, i was actually able to work one-on-one with students using spanish, the second language for both of us. it was an unforgettable, rewarding experiences. this experience confirmed the importance of a common vocabulary, and the universality of mathematics. add or mas, subtract or menos, they are the same concepts, just different names. i have learned what it feels to be the outsider, the one who doesn‟t understand what is being said, the person who pays for a bottle of water and not knowing what the price is just shows the clerk a wad of money and trusts that they will take the bill that is needed to pay. if i hadn‟t had the courage to step out of my little town, my safe environment, my cultural comfort zone, i would have missed out on so much. because of my courage and opportunities, i have seen pagan and catholic worshippers praying on the same church step, in guatemala. i have seen beautiful landscapes, heard melodic ocean waves and cultural music, smelled foods that i hadn‟t heard of, and walked paths to places of this earth that few have had the privilege to see. in addition to travels i have friends and students from other countries. during my junior year in high school, a family in my community was a host-family for a girl from sweden. we became friends and continued to write letters after she returned to her home country. during my doctorate studies, i had friends from mauritius, south africa, ethiopia, and portugal. due to the demands of the program and our nurturing natures we all became a family during our time together. i have also had the opportunity to teach students from laos, mexico, vietnam, east germany, and kosovo. i still remember distinct stories from the interactions and conversations i have had with each of them. i believe that they are all still a part of who i am, who i have become. i am able to take all of this and help the future teachers i work with see that their view is only one view. it is when we have multiple views of the same situation, same culture, same time that we can have a clearer view of what truly exists. we need to be aware and willing to acknowledge that each child that sits in our class has their own culture, their own experiences, their own influences that creates and influences who they are, who they want to be, and who they will become. portrait 3 as a naturalized u.s. citizen and a dual citizen with finland, an alien for many years, i have lived and taught early childhood in both countries and teachers in the u.s. in mississippi and illinois for close to three decades. professional visits to south korea, china, nicaragua, australia and many european countries have deepened my understanding of global issues within education. i have taken our university students on study abroad experiences to china and finland, a country currently known for its strengths in education and particularly in teacher preparation. international experiences in publishing, collaborative projects and presenting scholarly papers, workshops, conference presentations and other teaching experiences in various venues have enlarged my perspective in cross-disciplinary thinking and interactions (antola crowe et al., 2016). the variety of professionals i have taught (teachers at all levels, nurses, engineers, lawyers and medical doctors) and parents of children in various communities have given me tools to approach teaching situations that are less familiar to me but have excited me to work outside of my disciplinary, national and cultural boundaries. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 1-7 5 regardless of what teaching experiences i have had (including age level, profession, or geographical location), the issues of acceptance of differences, curiosity and respect for others are common in every workplace and institution regardless of the age, country or region of learners. my passion is helping university students to become cross‐culturally proficient and courageous in taking steps to find the urge to step outside of their comfort zones. as a teenager, i was an exchange student myself (in a chinese‐american family in california) creating lifelong relationships with chinese-american and african-american friends. i am a host-mother of eight full‐year students in my home from asian, european and south‐american countries, as well as many shorter term international students. i have helped international university students to acclimate in local communities in illinois. powerfully the early years lay the groundwork for the future. my children grew up bilingually and my tri-cultural grandchildren are growing up trilingually. today even more than before it is crucial for professionals to work together to help create environments for children where they can grow optimally in the cross-culturally vibrant world. the challenges facing educators in doing a good job in understanding the world are complicated and include familial and societal stresses, political tensions, economic hardships, difficulties in finding time to spend together, complicated relationships with nature and the environment, and our rapidly expanding knowledge of how our brains learn. i love collaborative projects. one such project brought together teacher education students with educators from south korea, finland and ghana in their teaching methods class. since then i have used videoconferencing regularly to bring interactions from other countries into my classrooms. as a teacher educator, i am most interested in pursuing teaching courses related to cross-cultural and international experiences promoting intercultural competencies while finding out about the host country‟s strengths, challenges and ideas. my husband, who taught in the czech republic and russia contributes to my life by sharing his missouri upbringing and joy of travelling. our home is a place for international gatherings and we have recently hosted educational groups from south‐ korea, belgium, and finland. my siblings (i am one of ten) and three daughters enrich my interactional and international awareness. our mutual interactions and questions about the world, cultural negotiations, bilingual punning, nonverbal diversity and our own rootedness while learning with others, inform my life. my extended family‟s cultural tapestry is varied: from research experiences in africa of my anthropologist sister, missionary brother in taiwan, another sister and her husband‟s pukhet tsunami experience, two other sisters‟ teaching experiences across cultures, my own daughter‟s experiences in the peace corp, and multicultural families, collaborative work with european union school partners and international students are examples of shared, ongoing and developing discussions. my family‟s get-togethers are complex cacophonies of sharing, laughter glued together with singing our hearts out in four-part harmony with always some international presence involved. regardless of many international experiences, being involved in my university‟s international efforts and global scholar program, i realize this is only a beginning in the palette of possibilities to feel connected with various parts of the world. i live between and among cultures in my heart and in my practical daily life. yet, it feels like i am just starting to understand the world, the connectedness among us all. in varied phases of my life i can see myself having moved back and forth in nurirobins et al. (2012) continuum from cultural pre-competence to cultural proficiency with the hope that as i grow in understanding the complexities of the world and people i interact with that integration would be more the context than anomaly in my everyday life. in thinking about this i created a term for my experience: a holographic self-identity which illustrates how the dimensions of life are sometimes apparent, sometimes hidden but still present. as in a hologram in a given cultural context the dimensions needed activate and become alive in that given context. as a young child, i had a reoccurring dream about building peace in the world while learning with and from others and immersing myself in languages and cultures of others. in the dream, dressed in white, i hold a bouquet of white roses. before me the rulers from all nations are lined up. i plead with each one, in their native language, that they would live in peace with all and hand them a rose. such a sustaining dream has framed and guided my life powerfully in my individual journey as a teacher, scholar and a developing person. as a result of writing this piece, i made a historical connection that prior to this moment was obscured from my view: this dream started occurring during the time of the cuban missile crisis when the american and soviet missiles were pointing at each other, right over the heads of my family members while i anxiously and actively feared for the wellbeing of my loved ones. this dream has just grown in depth in ways that, in retrospection i can say, built a vision for the purpose of my life. this dream consists of comfort, kinship and affection which reside in cultural proficiency. i often wondered why this dream had such a power over me, in its emotional depth, its eloquence and its piercing quality. today i know. the two events were tightly separated in their own memory compartments. not till the writing of this did i discover that all along, within me, the fearful child was reaching out to be a person of courage and the consolation was born through my dream of collaborative peace. 4. autobiography impacting instruction the three higher education colleagues, who found each other through serendipitous interactions, or what palmer (2007) terms through capacity for connectedness, discovered a shared interest in growing as cultural beings and in our capacity as teachers. not only our experience, but our interactions are helping us move towards who we want to be as teacher educators. from working on our own and grappling with issues related to identities as cultural beings, we have developed a collaborative voice that is more “plurivocal” (connelly and clandinin, 1990) than creating a single story (adichie, 2009) about teacher educators. as we have learned to know each other better, we have learned to appreciate the personal, professional, cultural knowledge we each bring to our dialoguing. we have been brave enough to voice our individual stories, and have gained cultural wisdom while working together. in our autobiographies, we represent many lenses; the female gender, mother, teacher, daughter, sister, grandmother, volunteer, colleague, collaborative, rural, urban, immigrant, professional, single-parent, counselor, religious believer, empowerer, alien, divorcee, widower and other voices. we participate in the role of traveler, early childhood educator, math educator, cross-cultural educator, planner, researcher, organizer, connector, advocate and communicator. these all intertwine to enable us to be cpis who are aware of culture, ours and our students‟ in the classroom. we have become more aware of how these cultures can impact an individual on a daily, or moment basis. this impact can be on the learning situation, learning environment or in the personal realm. we share the common culture of being women teaching in teacher education programs. however, we also have specificity in teaching mathematics and early childhood, each carrying a connotation of being “scary” and “easy”, respectively. this reflects our awareness of what our students‟ expectations are when they enter our classroom asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 1-7 6 culture. we each have pondered on the power of our interactions in becoming more aware culturally. participating in various professional endeavors has given us the opportunity to reflect on our experiences and see how they impact us. it has provided us with empowering opportunities. separately and combined we have written, presented, written course proposals and spent time pondering the possibilities. there is a humility that is born through experience that weaves together commonalities and curiosities of differences, both the outsider and insider experience. through this work we have broken the silence by sharing the experiences to weave a richer view, or sew a quilt of diversity that opposes the “robbing of dignity” (adichie, 2009) that our current political climate and the eroding of civility in public discourse with alternative facts, if not alternative realities, has shown to do. it is through these endeavors that we can hope to institutionalized the value of cultural competency. the authors create classroom environments where diversity is valued by encouraging cross-cultural collaborations between countries and cultures, and across linguistic and disciplinary boundaries. we use tools like dialogue journals, cultural autobiographies and manipulatives so teacher candidates can develop and find their own teacher voices. since we each have experienced the feeling of being the „outsider‟ we can encourage our students to consider multi-perspectives. we create a space where they are comfortable enough to share their fears of deportation. personal experiences shed light on our instructional decisions. we share previous teaching experiences with our students, children and grandchildren as examples with our teacher candidates. through our shared experiences, and those experiences we create for our students, we hope to create an environment where each culture is recognized, valued and encouraged to prosper. we have found that some of our students bring in stories of microaggressions, environmental indignities that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults toward groups of people (sue et al., 2007) these microaggressions, intentional or not, appear as microassaults, microinsults, and microinvalidations, experiences that the authors have also experienced. some tell stories of their educational journeys that clearly are intentionally inviting attitudes (purkey, 2002) and that is why they are in our teacher education programs. as teacher educators, you may ask, why should i care about the culture of my classroom? we, as teacher educators, need to remember that we are preparing teachers who will have students from many cultures in their classrooms. will they only see homogeneity? will they be blind to the diversity in their classrooms as has been the case in too many classrooms? we must prepare them to be efficient cpis. if our students are uncomfortable when cultural discourse is happening, when they may view the instructor as “crossing” the line in their own culture, we must recognize this and provide strategies to welcome the diversity. we must help our teacher candidates to value the context of language and cultural experiences, as this is where the richness of life is lived out. to preserve the public classroom, our teacher candidates must be prepared to recognize and address racial bias and cultural discomfort. it is imperative that as teacher educators we not only model the virtues of cpis, but we must also provide opportunities for our teacher candidates to discuss and reflect on their own cultural competence, perhaps through telling their own cultural story. noddings (2005) suggests we do this through an ethic of care, where each “living other is more important than any theory”. in the heart of caring is responsiveness which is crucial in raising a cadre of teachers who are culturally proficient. eisner (1985) suggests that our experiences are “the product of both the features of the world and the biography of the individual. our experience is influenced by our past as it interacts with our present”. the power is that when we meet our teacher candidates and try to move them on the continuum they need to see who they are so that they can go to be who they are meant to be. 5. conclusion the context of teaching matters. who we have as learners in our classes matters. the political climate of our society matters. our qualifications, depth of knowledge and self-efficacy beliefs matter when we teach. how pedagogically nimble we are, matters as we encounter autobiographies of our students that differ from our own. our sensitivities and hope matter. how and when to shift or to modify a methodology matters. movement toward more culturally proficient instruction, best practices and democracy matter because each person becomes more visible. caring about each learner matters. in doing so, we also respect and cherish our own growth as teachers who matter. it is our hope that our teacher candidates find their own way to flourish, to make sense of who they are and how they forge connections, in the political arena that schools are situated in. that they would find and embrace their best teacher voice, anchored into their authentic self, their life history, their culture and roots. that they in turn could touch others, inspire and grow continually. this is the beauty and privilege of being a teacher. references adichie, c.n., 2009. the danger of a single story [video file]. retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d9ihs241zeg. antola crowe, h., r. wolffe and j. hunzicker, 2016. synergistic benefits and cultural competencies in a multidisciplinary pds partnership. in b. cozza, b. & p. blessinger , p. (eds.). university partnerships for community and school system development. uk: emerald group publishing, 5[jb1]: 281-299. busse, s., c. ehses and r. zech, 2000. collective research in autobiography as a method of the science of the subject. forum: qualitative social research, 1(2): 4-22. view at google scholar connelly, m. and j. clandinin, 1990. stories of experience and narrative inquiry. educational researcher, 19(4): 2-14. view at google scholar | view at publisher darling-hammond, l., w.r. chung and a. andree, 2010. how high-achieving countries develop great teachers. stanford center for opportunity policy in education-research brief. retrieved from https://edpolicy.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/publications/how-high-achieving-countries-develop-great-teachers.pdf [accessed may 10, 2017]. eisner, e., 1985. aesthetic modes of knowing. in e. eisner (ed.) learning and teaching the ways of knowing; eighty-fourth yearbook of the national society for the study of education. chicago, 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http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189x019005002 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 1-7 7 palmer, p.j., 2007. the courage to teach: exploring the inner landscape of a teacher‟s life. san francisco: jossey-bass. pinar, w.f., w.m. reynolds, p. slattery and p.m. taubman, 1996. understanding curriculum. new york: peter lang. pipher, m., 2002. in the middle of everywhere. new york: harcourt. purkey, w., 2002. foreword. in schmidt, j. j.intentional helping: a philosophy for proficient caring relationships. upper saddle river, nj: merrill, prentice hall. pp: 5-6. schön, d.a., 1987. educating the reflective practitioner: toward a new for teaching and learning in the professions. san francisco: josseybass. sue, d.w., c.m. capodilupo, g.c. torino, j.m. bucceri, a.m.b. holder, k.l. nadal and m. esquilin, 2007. racial microaggressions in everyday life: implications for clinical practice. american psychologist, 62(4): 271-286. view at google scholar | view at publisher asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=racial%20microaggressions%20in%20everyday%20life:%20implications%20for%20clinical%20practice http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.62.4.271 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 1, 34-41, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 34 workload related stress and job effectiveness of university lecturers in cross river and akwa ibom states, nigeria abosede a. usoro 1* --grace r. etuk 2 1 department of business management, university of calabar, calabar, nigeria 2 department of sociology, university of calabar, calabar, nigeria abstract contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 35 2. literature review and theoretical framework ..................................................................................................................... 35 3. research methodology .............................................................................................................................................................. 38 4. results and discussion .............................................................................................................................................................. 39 5. conclusion and recommendations .......................................................................................................................................... 40 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 41 citation | abosede a. usoro; grace r. etuk (2016). workload related stress and job effectiveness of university lecturers in cross river and akwa ibom states, nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(1): 34-41. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.34.41 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/ acknowledgment: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 27 may 2015/ revised: 5 august 2015/ accepted: 18 september 2015/ published: 2 october 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group the strength of any organization largely depends on her workforce but work load related stress can affect the effectiveness of such organizational workforce. as an apex institution of knowledge, the nigerian university system has a lot to contribute towards the nation‟s manpower development, however studies have shown that there is a high level of workload related stress among university lecturers in nigeria. against this backdrop therefore, this study was articulated to determine the extent to which such work load related stress influences job effectiveness among university lecturers in akwa ibom and cross river states, nigeria. the job demand control theory of karasek and theorell (1990) provided the theoretical framework for the study, while the cross sectional survey research was deployed as the study design. samples were drawn from the two federal government owned universities in the states under study, namely: university of uyo and university of calabar. data were obtained through structured six (6) point likert scale questionnaires, while the one-way analysis of variance (anova) was utilized to test the study hypothesis. the results showed that, workload related stress significantly influence the job effectiveness of lecturers in terms of publication, community service and teaching effectiveness. appropriate recommendations are also made for improvement. keywords: workload, stress, job effectiveness, organization, lecturers, job demand, university. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.34.41 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.34.41 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 34-41 35 1. introduction the world is in an era known as the information age, when almost everything is driven by the need to generate information or acquire knowledge. universities belong to this knowledge sector, and are in fact the apex institutions in the knowledge sector. this makes it imperative for universities to excel especially if the quest for information and knowledge must be serviced. given the dynamism of knowledge, and knowledge needs, current knowledge quickly becomes obsolete. there is constant need to update existing knowledge and also to acquire new ones. consequently, new courses are constantly floated in universities being the principal institutions in the area of information and knowledge acquisition. besides, nigeria, a nation of over 160 million has a large youth population who view education in tertiary institutions generally and in universities in particular as the ticket to a good job and bright future. unfortunately, the rate at which teaching staff are recruited by universities does not appear to measure up with the work load created by this voracious search for knowledge via university education. the implication has been that of inadequate man power, and excess work load for those available. the strength of every organization lies primarily in her workers. this is acknowledged by elton mayo‟s hawthorne studies of the scientific management school. however, issues relating to excess work load can generate occupational stress for workers, and this will certainly tell negatively on the entire organization. clearly, high level of work load stress is present among university lecturers in nigeria, as identified by ofuegbu and nwadiani (2006). thus, the need to determine the extent to which this work load stress influences their job effectiveness provided the impetus for this study. 2. literature review and theoretical framework 2.1. the concept, nature and process of stress numerous scholars have attempted to define stress from different points of view. work-related stress as defined currently by world health organization (who) is “the response people may have when presented with work demands and pressures that are not matched to their knowledge and abilities and which challenge their ability to cope." melgosa (2004) views stress as a combination of physiological and psychological reaction of the body when it is subjected to heavy demands. based on the aforementioned definitions, this study views work-related stress as a phenomenon that is subjective, multi-faceted and occurs when workers‟ physical, emotional and attitudinal attributes do not match with the job demands, constraints and/or opportunities. according to fevre et al. (2003) there are two types of stress namely eustress (good stress) and distress (bad stress). eustress helps workers experiencing moderate or low stress level to increase positive work life. on the contrary, distressed workers have experienced high stress level and are not able to fulfill job demand since distress rather makes them to decrease quality of work life (leka et al., 2004; millward, 2005). there is need therefore to strike the proper balance if job effectiveness is not to be compromised or the health of the worker sacrificed. workload is the amount of work an individual has to do. it is of note that the actual amount of work (workload) and the worker's perception of the workload are two different things. workload can also be classified into quantitative (the amount of work to be done) or qualitative (the difficulty of the work). in an occupational setting, dealing with workload can be stressful and serve as a stressor for employees. jex (1998) identified three aspects of workload that can be stressful:  quantitative workload or overload: having more work to do than can be accomplished with ease.  qualitative workload: having work that is too difficult.  underload: having work that fails to use a worker's skills and abilities. it is true also that in the light of the increasing diversity and dynamic nature of modern day organizations, tertiary institutions inclusive, workers are increasingly exposed to pressure from diverse sources, prominent among which is workload stress. features of the nature of stress though ubiquitous, differ from person to person. it is observable that stress is cumulative, it builds up gradually with telltale symptoms that all is not well. while examining the nature of stress agulanna (2007) enumerated the following as the features of stress: it is universal, inevitable (unavoidable) and transferable. it is contradictory in presentation in person to person. for instance, some people under stress lose their appetite while some eat more, some become depressed while others become hyperactive. stress distorts the person‟s self-concept or self-esteem. stress changes human behaviour. stress modifies the person‟s pattern of thinking from divergent (consideration of many alternatives) to convergent (consideration of only one solution). stress causes physical, social and psychological changes. it is a cause and effect reinforcing and reciprocal phenomenon. stress can replicate itself. stress intensity differs from person to person. these researchers add that stress is not physiological in that we are not born with it but rather it is sociological and subjective because it comes as a result of the need to meet societal expectations and differ from person to person. stress could also be infectious. melgosa (2004) illustrated the three stages of the stress process as encapsulated in the general adaptation syndrome of selye in fig. 1. in the first stage which is the alarm stage, physical reactions are the first to warn the worker that there is need to be on guard. if at this stage measures are taken to resolve the problem(s), then stress will not materialize. however, by the time an unresolved stressful situation becomes overwhelming the worker may be classified as being in the alarm stage of stress. agulanna (2007) states that in the second stage called the resistance stage the worker involved tries to resist the stress by either a mental adjustment or a coping technique. at this stage the worker begins to adjust to the presence of a persistent stressor. if this worker fails in the attempt to adapt, he then enters into the final stage of stress. this last stage as elucidated by melgosa (2004) is characterized by fatigue, anxiety and depression which may occur sequentially or concurrently. at the exhaustion phase productivity of the worker will be low. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/stressor asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 34-41 36 figure-1. stages of stress as adapted from melgosa (2004) 2.2. elements of job effectiveness of lecturers from the terms of employment of lecturers, a lecturer can be said to be job effective if he/she can: effectively impart knowledge; be proficient in research and contribute to society. aregbeyen (2010) in a study on students‟ perceptions of effective teaching and effective lecturer characteristics at the university of ibadan, nigeria‟, ranked the first ten rated elements of effective teaching out of the thirty-five he listed. the order of ranking was: clear explanations, showing interest and concern in quality of teaching, knowing if the class is understanding or not, coming well prepared to class, having an interesting style of presentation, discussing recent developments in the field, respect for students as persons, identification of what is considered important in lectures, being careful and precise in answering questions and laying emphasis on conceptual understanding. aregbeyen (2010) in conclusion opined that teaching effectively depends on a lecturer properly balancing teaching methodology with his personality traits. colker (2008) observed that the four characteristics of an effective lecturer, from the point of view of teachers, consists of a good grasp of subject matter, being personally interested in every student, establishing cordial or caring atmosphere, as well as showing students enthusiasm. from the other side of the coin colker (2008) also reported twelve characteristics students believe to be fundamental to teaching effectively as: “passion, perseverance, willingness to take risks, pragmatism, patience, flexibility, respect, creativity, authenticity, love of learning, high energy and sense of humour” pp71. proficiency in research is the second job effectiveness requirement of academics. research, the end result of which is often publication, is the major criteria used in assessing lecturers for the purpose of career upliftment. the lecturer is appraised based on the number of published research and the quality of such publications. it takes a lot of time, energy as well as material and financial resources to complete a research work and have it published. this is a substantial part of a lecturer‟s work load. the university lecturer like other members of society is expected to be socially responsible. this is especially the case for lecturers because their raw materials consist of the crème de la crème of the youths and brains of society. this leads us to the third occupational function of lecturers, which is community service. service workload includes service to various university associations, the community and to the larger society. in the view of joshua (2012) socially, a university is expected to serve its immediate and adjourning communities in areas such as public enlightenment through public lectures, seminars, debates. joshua expanded further that the academic staff can be involved as an individual, or as a staff of the relevant unit of the university providing the service. joshua stated further that in times of national assignments where expert knowledge and skills and high levels of responsibilities and integrity are required, like national elections supervision and monitoring of national examinations etc., university academics are usually relied on to provide such community services. the current trend in developed nations is service learning in which community service is inbuilt into the university curriculum. 2.3. theoretical framework this study is underpinned by the job demand control theory of karasek and theorell (1990) who argued that stress emanate from effects of work demands (stressors) jointly with effects of environmental stress moderators. especially stressful according to karasek and theorell is extent to which the worker facing work demands has freedom to make decision that is has control. job demand control theory views environmental factors as the trigger, but the theory does not strictly proffer that personal factors are not important (karasek and theorell, 1990). in the job demand control model, workers in highly strenuous jobs (such as service based jobs like lecturing) experience the highest level of stress. they said further that despite popular suggestions high status workers do not belong to the high strain group. this might be because high status workers through control could moderate demands of high levels (karasek and theorell, 1990). they postulated that productivity will increase when jobs combine high control and high demands. karasek and theorell‟s model however, failed to address important personality and mediating variables which may hide the relationship between high demand (work load) and stress. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 34-41 37 job demand control theory is important in understanding this study because it indicates that there exists a relationship between the productivity of workers (job effectiveness) and stressors. also the theory is suitable for service based jobs, a categorization to which lecturing belongs. 2.4. workload and job effectiveness the sources and causes of work related stress are hydra headed, interwoven and overlapping. therefore, it is the view in this study that there is need to know these causes and their effects on job performance if stress is to be managed or prevented in individuals and organizations. some of the stress sources are intrinsic to work, while some are extrinsic to the job. robbins (1998) identified the three potential categories of sources of stress as environmental, organizational and individual. nelson and quick (2003) classified stressors into work demands and non-work demands. okwuagwu (2010) listed organizational factors that can induce stress to include task demands, role demands, organizational leadership, the organization‟s life style, physical conditions, processes, participation, intra and inter group relationships, organizational goal setting, organization politics, organizational culture, feedback system, career development and downsizing. common in all these classification of stressors is the identification of workload as a source of stress or what can be called task related stress. nelson and quick (2003) considered that task caused stress has direct bearing on the particular features of the job in question. task caused stress may have to do with change, new technologies, career progress, work overload or underload, absence of meaningful participative or insufficient control as well as job insecurity among others. according to denga and ekpo (1994) work related stress can emanate from physical exertion, too much mental activity or administrative overload such as the management of a myriad of visitors and phone calls. it is relevant to note here that one major job demand on a lecturer is a constant stream of drop in students, who require attention in one form or another. an extreme form of work related stress common in professions that focus on people is called burnout. according to schaufeli and marek (1993) as cited in schaufeli, (1993) studies on burnout generally revealed that job factors are more strongly indicated in burnout more than personal or biographical factors. robbins (1998) observed that burnout seems to occur most often among professionals whose jobs require them to deal with other people, these people according to him are: accountants, lawyers, managers, nurses, police officers and teachers. in onoh (2009) view, stress from work overload may involve unusual long hours of work, loss of sleep and relaxation. according to mcquillan (2008) initially pressures from demands on a person will yield an increase in performance up to a point. after the optimal point of performance however, additional demand pressures will bring a decline in that person‟s performance. this performancedemand relationship is illustrated by mcquillan (2008) as captured in fig. 2. figure-2. human performance curve (source: mcquillan (2008)) an extreme form of work overload „karoushi‟ is a japanese word that means „sudden death from overwork‟. however according to hellriegel et al. (1995) contemporary view is that karoushi is not just „death from overwork‟ but probably, it can be best described as death from intense feelings of depression and helplessness combined with overwork. on the other hand, work underload or job underutilization can be as stressful as work overload. work underload may take the form of inactive hours on the job or boring repetitive routine and uncreative functions. baron (1986) argued that under load or under-utilization leads to monotony and boredom which could be unpleasant and stressful. again work underload may arise as a result of job mismatch. there is job mismatch when an employee does not have the skill required on a job which leads to job incompetence and subsequently stress. another potent work related stress factor is change. globalisation is generating drastic work changes and producing job pressures and stresses (friedman, 2000). technological innovation and technology can render obsolete an employee‟s experience and skills. thus lecturers may need further education, training, and skills. although, actually meant to ease work life, the paradoxical effect of information technology is that if one is not adept at its usage it may be a stress-inducer rather than being a stress-reliever. lack of control is another major source of stress. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 34-41 38 baron (1986) concluded that there is a direct link between lack of participative decision making and job related stress. agulanna (2007) noted that behavioural symptoms of work related stress are high incidence of accident, declined performance, alcoholism and other substance abuses, absenteeism, high turnover rates, erratic behaviour and communication difficulties. the effects of occupational stress are not borne by stressed individuals alone but rather they spill over to affect the performance of the organizations where these individuals earn their living. nelson and quick (2003) classified the organizational effects of occupational stress into three, consisting of participation problems, performance decrements, and compensation awards. problems of participation are: absence at work, slowing of activities, turnover, refusal to work and disruptions. losses that emanate from low quality of production or poor quality, grievances and unplanned reduction in machine activity are the performance decrements. organizational expenses arising from court cases due to distress from the job make up compensation awards. heller and hindle (2000) analyzed the cost implications of stress on an organization as: low quality service, high staff turnover, poor reputation, poor organization image and dissatisfied staff. jaja (2003) noted that overtime reduces family and social time out thus reducing the favourable social interactions which help to buffer from stress. it also creates tension at home which compounds the problems caused by job stress. in the bid to be self-accounting, many tertiary institutions have floated part time programmes which have to be taught by academics. this has a similar effect as overtime by increasing workload and decreasing the number of hours available for recreation or relaxation or family life. furthermore the respondents in the survey stated that more administrative work and increase in number of students per lecturer contributed to the increase in workload. the situation in nigerian universities replicates the findings of the above survey as evidenced by the findings of the study done by ofuegbu and nwadiani (2006). the result is stress at a high level within the academic and this can engender poor job effectiveness. it may be important to note that most available studies done as reviewed were done outside nigeria and the ones done within nigeria merely assessed the level of stress experienced by lecturers. this study is therefore an endeavour to establish the influence of stress from workload on the job effectiveness of lecturers in federal universities in cross river and akwa ibom states. 3. research methodology the cross sectional survey research design was adopted in this study. the study area was akwa ibom and cross river states. akwa ibom and cross river states were once a single state, cross river state. universities in these states were the focus of this study. in cross river state these are two universities namely: university of calabar (owned by the federal government) and cross river state university of technology (owned by the state government). also two universities are functional in akwa ibom state and they are: university of uyo (federally owned) and akwa ibom state university (state owned). population of this study consists of the lecturers of the two federal government owned universities in akwa ibom and cross river states. the population figure was derived from lecturers on the payroll of these universities as at the time of the survey and the breakdown for each university is illustrated in table 3.1. the choice of tertiary institutions is to capture academics from federal government owned universities in both states studied, which are fully functional, accredited and recognized by the regulatory body; national universities commission (nuc). from table 1 it can be seen that at the time of the survey, a total of one thousand and two (1,002) lecturers were employees of university of calabar, while university of uyo‟s population of academic staff was one thousand one hundred and sixty six lecturers (1,166). the total population of lecturers for the two institutions was two thousand one hundred and sixty eight (2,168) lecturers. table-1. population of academic staff according to institution studied s/n institution population academics 1. university of calabar 1002 2. university of uyo 1166 total 2168 source: universities of calabar and uyo registries, 2011 in other to obtain a sample that properly represents the population; a stratified random sampling technique was used to select the lecturers involved. faculties of each institution were regarded as the strata. university of uyo had twelve faculties while university of calabar had ten faculties. given that the population under study is finite, the taro-yamen formula was used in determining the sample size. the sample size for university of calabar is two hundred and eighty six lecturers while university of uyo‟s sample size used for the study is two hundred and ninety eight lecturers. the total sample for the study was five hundred and eighty four lecturers drawn using stratified random sampling technique. the research instrument employed in this study was workload stress scale (wss) and job effectiveness questionnaires (jeq). the occupation stress and job effectiveness scale is divided into four sections a to d. section a, elicited for demographic information of the lecturers with regards to sex, age, educational qualification, marital status, work experience, rank and publication statistics. section b was a six (6) item likert type scale, designed to assess stress intensity experienced by lecturers in tertiary institutions. each item had four options: very stressful, stressful, mildly stressful and not stressful. section c was a twelve item likert type scale designed to measure the job effectiveness of lecturers in terms of research proficiency and community service. each item had four options: always, often, sometimes and never. section d was constructed to measure the teaching prowess of lecturers using two indices: teaching competence and teachers‟ competences. each index comprised of six items. each item on the questionnaire had four options: very good, good, fair and poor. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 34-41 39 thereafter, one-way analysis of variance (anova) was used in the analyzing the data and to test hypothesis using the statistical package for social sciences (spss) software. 4. results and discussion the hypothesis for the study is stated as: h0: stress arising from workload does not significantly influence the job effectiveness of university lecturers. ha: stress arising from workload has a significant influence on the job effectiveness of university lecturers. the hypothesis was to test if there is no significant influence of workload related stress on job effectiveness of university lecturers in terms of publication, community service and teaching effectiveness. the independent variable was workload related stress while the dependent variable was job effectiveness of university lecturers in terms of publication, community service and teaching effectiveness. the workload related stress was categorized into low, average and high based on the lecturers mean response score. lecturers who scored below the mean in their response were classified as low, those who scored within the mean range were classified as average and those who scored above the mean level were classified as assessing workload related stress as high. based on this the influence of workload related stress on job effectiveness in terms of publication, community service and teaching effectiveness was calculated using the one way analysis of variance. the analysis results are shown in table 2 and 3. table-2. descriptive statistics of influence of workload related stress on job effectiveness job effectiveness workload related stress n mean std. deviation publication low 132 15.73 2.21 average 163 16.98 2.28 high 264 18.72 2.11 total 559 17.14 2.20 community service low 132 15.24 2.38 average 163 15.93 3.29 high 264 16.96 2.19 total 559 16.04 2.62 teaching effectiveness low 132 15.84 2.18 average 163 16.72 2.11 high 264 18.23 2.02 total 559 16.93 2.10 table-3. one-way anova of influence of workload related stress on job effectiveness academic staff output source of variation sum of squares df mean square f sig. publication between groups 563.84 2 281.92 .002 within groups 8083.43 556 14.54 19.39 * total 8647.27 558 community service between groups 217.98 2 108.99 .020 within groups 9652.92 556 17.36 6.28 * total 9870.9 558 teaching effectiveness between groups 387.47 2 193.74 .007 within groups 8428.85 556 15.16 12.78 * total 8816.32 558 *significant at .05level (critical f2,556 =3.14), source: researcher‟s spss computation, 2012 examination of table 3 shows that there is significant influence of work load related stress on job effectiveness of universities lecturers in terms of publication (f=19.39, p<.05), community service (f=6.28, p<.05), and teaching effectiveness (f=12.78, p<.05). the null hypothesis was rejected and the alternate hypothesis accepted as the calculated f-ratios of 19.39, 6.28, and 12.78 were greater than the critical f-ratio of 3.14 at 0.05 significance level. since the f-ratios were significant a post hoc analysis using the fishers least significant difference (lsd) multiple comparison test was done. the lsd result is shown in table 4. the result displayed in table 4 indicates that in terms of the influence of workload related stress on job effectiveness in terms of publication, lecturers who perceived workload as high had significant higher mean score for publication than those who perceived it as low (t=-12.88) low and average (t=-7.88). similarly those who perceived influence of workload stress on publication as average had a significant higher mean score than lecturers who perceived it as low (t=-4.76). this result means that lecturers who perceived workload stress as high faced difficulty in publication than lecturers who perceived it as average or low. lecturers who perceived the influence of workload stress on job effectiveness in terms of publication as average also faced difficulty in publishing more than those who perceived it as low. table-4. fishers lsd multiple comparison test analysis of influence of workload related stress on job effectiveness. workload related stress low average high (n=132) (n=163) (n=264) publication low 15.73 -1.25 -2.99 average -4.76* 16.98 -1.74 high -12.88* -7.88* 18.72 continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 34-41 40 msw=14.54 community low 15.24 -0.69 -1.73 average -2.09* 15.93 -1.05 high -7.04* -3.54* 16.96 msw=17.36 teaching low 15.84 -0.88 -2.39 effectiveness average -3.49* 16.72 -1.51 high -10.54* 7.03* 18.23 msw=15.16 *significant at .05 (a. group means are placed on the diagonal; b. differences between group means are placed above the diagonal; c. fishers lsd t-value are place below the diagonal) source: researcher‟s computation, 2012 with regards to job effectiveness in terms community service lecturers who perceived workload related stress as high had significant higher mean score than lecturers who perceived it as low (t=-10.54) or average (t=-3.54). likewise, lecturers who perceived influence of workload related stress as average had a significant higher mean score than lecturers who perceived it as low (t=-2.09). this result means that lecturers who perceived the workload related stress as high faced more problems in performing their community service than those who perceived it as average or low lecturers who perceived the influence of workload related stress as average also faced more problems in facing their community service function than those who perceived it as low. with reference to the influence of workload related stress on job effectiveness in terms of teaching effectiveness, lecturers who perceived the workload related stress as high had significant higher mean score for teaching effectiveness than lecturers who perceived it as low (t=-10.32). on the other hand lecturers who perceived workload related stress as average had a significant higher mean score than lecturers who perceived it as low (t= -3.49). the analysis result indicates that workload related stress significantly influence the job effectiveness of lecturers in terms of publication, community service and teaching effectiveness. this is in consonance with the findings of agulanna (2007) and denga and ekpo (1994). this finding is also affirmed by jega (2002); nelson and quick (2003) and tiji (2000) that stress from workload adversely affects job performance. however, this result negates the finding of amalu (2004) that teachers are not affected by workload. a number of explanations may account for the present finding. first is the fact that lecturing – learning process involves a lot of energy sapping activities. given the nigerian situation in which lecturers do not have time for holidays to rest and relax the inability to recoup lost vigour and strength dissipates job effectiveness. another explanation is the fact that most of the tasks of a lecturer cannot be delegated; this therefore makes the workload almost entirely his/her responsibility. secondly the nigerian situation is compounded by the incessant strikes and the mandate from government to align the school calendar with the normal october – july school year. this has led to incessant deadlines and time pressures. okwuagwu (2010) is of the view that time pressures and deadlines lead to poor job performance. 5. conclusion and recommendations the following conclusion was reached from the research findings: stress arising from workload does affect the job effectiveness of university lecturers. in other words university lecturers‟ job effectiveness in teaching, publication and community service is affected by the stress from workload. given the result of this study these recommendations were made: i. nuc should ensure that internationally acceptable studentlecturer ratio is adhered to. additionally there should be a limit to the number of universities a lecturer can act as part time or adjunct lecturer. ii. universities that have a sink or swim approach to employees will have high labour turnover. however, effective recruitment of faculty, new hire orientation, mentoring and relevant training and retraining will produce employees that are well suited and prepared for their jobs. employees should also be encouraged to share experiences and support one another. iii. lecturers should learn to monitor their stress symptoms. effective self-monitoring will aid the imitation of combative behaviours at the early stage of the stress cycle. iv. periodic mandatory medical check-up should be initiated. health talks and relevant on the spot check-ups will also help in reducing stress. v. the management of universities should also provide recreational facilities in their staff quarters and not just open fields that have no recreation equipment. corporate bodies can be approached to finance such projects and these projects named after them. vi. annual leave should be made mandatory for all lecturers and the school calendar planned to make this possible. holiday packages subsidized or negotiated by the school should be made available to so as to encourage lecturers to enjoy going on holidays. vii. new lecturers must go through orientation and mentoring so that they will have adequate and reliable information about the demands of the work. this will help them to prepare well to meet the expected job situations and face the work stress. viii. management of universities should device a method of obtaining feedback from their workers regarding the work situation so as to be able to redesign jobs to enhance job performance effectiveness. ix. very importantly management should reduce the work load of academic staff by reassigning administrative tasks back to the non-academic staff who were ab ibnitio employed to carry out these tasks. x. asuu should also always bear in mind the after effects of lengthy strikes on lecturers and make compromises quickly where necessary. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 34-41 41 references agulanna, e.c., 2007. executive stress: managing the manager for survival. 3rd edn., owerri: joe mankpa publishers. amalu, m.n., 2004. marital stress and professional role performance effectiveness of women academics in tertiary institutions in cross river state, nigeria. an unpublished m.ed. thesis, faculty of educational, university of calabar. aregbeyen, o., 2010. students‟ perceptions of effective teaching and effective lecturer characteristics at the university of ibadan, nigeria. pakistan journal of social sciences, 7(2): 62-69. baron, r.a., 1986. behaviour in organisations: understanding and managing the human side of work. 2nd edn., boston: allyn and bacon. colker, l.j., 2008. twelve characteristics of effective early childhood teachers. journal of national association of young children, 63(2): 6873. denga, d.i. and t.n. ekpo, 1994. executive stress: its rape and management. calabar: rapid educational publishers. fevre, m.l., j. matheny and g.s. kolt, 2003. eustress, distress and interpretation in occupational stress. journal of management psychology, 18(7): 726-744. friedman, t.l., 2000. the lexus and the olive tree. new york: vintage anchor. heller, r. and t. hindle, 2000. essential manager‟s manual. london: dorling kindersley. hellriegel, d., j.w. slocum and r.w. woodman, 1995. organisational behavior. 7th edn., minneapolis, st paul: west publishing company. jaja, s.a., 2003. praxis of work behaviour. lagos: pinnacle publishers. jega, a.m., 2002. stress and conflict management among organisational heads in kebbi state. unpublished doctoral thesis, department of educational foundations, guidance and counseling, university of calabar, nigeria. jex, s.m., 1998. stress and job performance: theory, research, and implications for managerial practice. thousand oaks, ca: sage. joshua, m.t., 2012. lecturing, research publications and community service: the desired balance. paper delivered at workshop on professional values and empowerment for academic staff. by centre for teaching and learning excellence in collaboration with dagracem consult and services, university of calabar, calabar. karasek, r. and t. theorell, 1990. healthy work: stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. new york: basic book. leka, s., a. griffiths and t. cox, 2004. work, organisation and stress. nothingham: uk world health organisation. mcquillan, d., 2008. introduction to stress theory. available from http://www.wikieducator/stress_theory.htm. melgosa, j., 2004. new lifestyle: less stress. madrid: safeliz. millward, l., 2005. understanding occupational and organisational psychology. thousand oaks, california: sage. nelson, d.l. and j.c. quick, 2003. organisational behaviour. ohio: thomson learning. ofuegbu, f.o. and m. nwadiani, 2006. level of perceived stress among lecturers in nigerian universities. journal of instructional psychology, 33(1): 66-75. okwuagwu, o.k., 2010. evaluation of causes of job stress and prevention among nigerian managers: a study or selected commercial banks in okigwe, imo state. unpublished masters thesis, faculty of management, imo state university, nigeria. onoh, a.n., 2009. the dynamics of organisational behaviour. enugu: guzon ventures. robbins, s.p., 1998. organisational behaviour: concepts, controversies and application. new delhi: prentice-hall. schaufeli, m. and t. marek, 1993. professional burnout: recent developments in theory and research. washington, dc: taylor and francis. tiji, t., 2000. workplace stress and indication of coronary heart disease risk. academy of management journal, 9(1): 686-688. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.wikieducator/stress_theory.htm asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 1, 17-20, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 17 chinese cultural values as institutional forces in shaping board involvement boon-yeow lim 1 1 embry-riddle aeronautical university, florida, usa abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 18 2. literature review and critiques ......................................................................................................................................... 18 3. implications of chinese values for board involvement ..................................................................................................... 19 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 20 the paper examines the importance of chinese cultural values as a useful “societal-institutional” framework for understanding the patterns of involvement of board members in chinese firms and its performance. its richness are apparent at macro level, examining the relationship between chinese characteristics and organization structure, and at the micro level for investigating the similarities and differences in attitude of board members with given characteristics. the cultural perspectives at both micro and macro levels able to offer complementary views of chinese board behavior. this paper offers the first step in explaining the important role of cultural values as institutional forces in legitimizing the organization’s existence and its modes of functioning as well as the patterns of behavior of its board members. keywords: board involvement, chinese cultural values, respect for authority, interdependence, face, group orientation. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 17-20 18 1. introduction many prior studies fail to recognize the important role culture plays in shaping board involvement attitudes and behavior of individual members (lim, 1997; 2014). the behavior of individuals in the organization is influenced by the values, orientation, attitudes and beliefs individuals bring with them to their job (lachman et al., 1994). cultural values are an important part of organizational life (morgan, 1980) and the recognition of this is linked to organizational success (deal and kennedy, 1982). it is there crucial and beneficial to review and understand the chinese cultural values and their implications on board involvement (lim, 1997; 2014). researchers in the study of chinese cultural values find that chinese values have formed a clear and consistent framework or understanding organizational relationships for generations (hsu, 1983; lim, 1997). of course, it does not imply that the cultural values and the system have not been changed. in fact, the chinese cultural value systems have been undergoing change in countries such as taiwan, hong kong, and singapore in conjunction with the process of rapid social and economic change (redding, 1990; yang, 1993; lim, 1997). however, their findings also imply that some of the traditional chinese values are still held by chinese nowadays. according to lim (1997), the mentality of chinese-singaporeans is still shaped largely by the teachings of confucius, who lived more than 2,500 years old. he comments that confucianism is not so much a religion as it is a code for social conduct and its influence is so pervasive that chines function unconsciously in a confucian manner. yau (1988) and lim (1997) note that chinese cultural values are largely formed and created from interpersonal relationships and social orientations which as shown in the work of confucius, whose doctrine is still a basic pillar of chinese life today. the dimensions of the chinese cultural values can be identified with kluckhohn and strodbeck (1961)’s classification, and their potential board involvement implications in strategic decision-making process. 2. literature review and critiques researchers in the study of chinese cultural values find that chinese values have formed a clear and consistent framework for understanding organizational relationships for generations (hsu, 1983; schwartz, 2009). of course, it does not imply that the cultural values and the system have not been changed. in fact, the cultural value systems have been undergoing change in countries such as taiwan, hong kong, and singapore in conjunction with the process of rapid social and economic change (yau, 1988; redding, 1990; yang, 1993; lim, 1997). however, their findings also imply that some of the traditional values are still held by chinese nowadays. according to hinkelman (1994) and lim (1997), the mentality of chinese-singaporean is still shaped largely by the teachings of confucius, who lived more than 2,500 years ago. they comments that confucianism is not so much a religion as it is a code for social conduct and its influence is so pervasive that chinese function unconsciously in a confucian manner. according to yau (1988), chinese cultural values are largely formed and created from interpersonal relationships and social orientations which are shown in the work of confucius, whose doctrine is still a basic pillar of chinese life today. to describe the chinese culture values, i adopt the value-orientation model of kluckhohn and strodbeck (1961). the descriptions of the cultural values according to kluckohn and strodbeck’s classification is as follows: 2.1. respect for authority the chinese have a strong respect for authority and are prone to trust totally without questioning (hinkelman, 1994). the early root of the chinese respect for authority is in confucius’s five cardinal relations; between sovereign and minister, father and son, husband and wife, old and young, and between friends (hchu and yang, 1972). these relations have served effectively to control social behavior in society (yau, 1988). chinese have to observe and act accordingly to the norms prescribed for each instance of interpersonal relations (wimalasiri, 1988). it is not surprising to see that chinese today still prefer to address someone in more structural or hierarchical-type terms than westerners (yau, 1988). proposition 1: in a society in general there is a wider power and authority “gap” between seniors and juniors, the same pattern may be reflected in an unequal power relationship between chairperson and board members in work organizations in that society, in the form of high centralization and low consultation. these may imply that the preference for the chairperson’s decision-making is highly centralized with low consultation from the board. 2.2. interdependence the flexibility of the chinese in dealing with interpersonal relations comes from the principle of “doing favors and giving trusts”, which literally signifies one’s honor to another (tong, 1991). favors and trusts carried out for others carried out for others are often considered what may be termed “social investments”, for which handsome returns are expected (yau, 1988). almost every chinese is brought up to be highly conscious of “doing favors and giving trust” and to practice it heartily (yau, 1988). chinese believe that the reciprocity of doing favors and giving trusts between persons should be as certain as a cause-and-effect relationship and it should be continuous so that affinity for each other is well established (yau, 1988). the application of the principle of “doing favors and giving trust” has a tremendous influence on social as well as business behavior (tong, 1991). it maintains relations among chinese people by the presentation of favors and trusts which they regard as a form of “li” – propriety. small business people often believe that following the principle of “doing favors and giving trust” is of utmost importance in enabling the business to operate smoothly so as to earn more money (yau, 1988). they exchange their favors and trusts when supplying goods or credits without signing any legal documents, and believe that the signing of any legal document will terminate the reciprocity of doing favors and trusts (westwood and chan, 1992). 2.3. “face” “face” is a concept of central importance because of its pervasive influence in interpersonal relations among chinese (hinkelman, 1994). having “face” means having a high status in the eyes of one’s peers, and it is a mark of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 17-20 19 personal dignity. chinese are actually sensitive to having and maintaining “face” in all aspects of social and business life (hinkelman, 1994). hu (1944) examined 200 chinese’s proverbs and classified “face” into two types “lien” and “mien-tsu”. “lien” represents the confidence of society in the integrity of ego’s moral character, the loss of which makes it impossible for a person to function properly within the community (hu, 1944). “mien-tsu”, on the other hand, stands for the kind of prestige that is emphasized … a reputation achieved through getting on in life, through success and ostentation (hu, 1944). “mien-tsu” can be characterized in both quantitative and qualitative terms (ho, 1972). the amount of “mien-tsu” a person has is a function of his or her social status (yau, 1988). it varies accordingly to the group with which he or she is interacting. yau (1988) notes that “mien-tsu” may be claimed on a variety of grounds. it may be obtained either through personal qualities, or derived from non-personal characteristics, such as wealth, social connections and authority through personal efforts (ho, 1972). “mien-tsu” can be lost or gained when there are changes that constitute a departure from the quality or quantity of one’s claim. “mien-tsu” can normally be gained by obtaining favorable comments from the interacting group or community, through exemplary behavior, superior performance or knowledge, or enhancement of statue (yau, 1988). “mien-tsu” may be lost when conduct or performance falls below the minimum acceptable standard, or when some essential requirements corresponding to one’s social positions are not satisfactorily met (yau, 1988). since acceptable standards and requirements are social expectations held by the group with whom a person is interacting, the possibility of losing “mien-tsu” may not only come from his or her own actions or behavior, but from how he or she is expected to behave or be treated by other members in the group (yau, 1988). chinese are always under strong constraint to meet the expectations of others so as to maintain their “mien-tsu”, as well as to reciprocate a due regard for the “mien-tsu” of others (yau, 1988). the concern for “mien-tsu” exerts a mutual restrictive, even coercive, power on each member of the social network. thus, the chinese always try to avoid causing others to lose “face”, which is regarded as an aggressive act by those “face” has been discredited. instead, they should protect others from losing it, which is an act of consideration (yau, 1988). “lien” differs from “mien-tsu” in that “lien” is something that everyone is entitled to by virtue of his or her membership in society, it can only be lost through misconduct (yau, 1988). thus, it is meaningful to speak not losing “lien”, but not gaining it. the losing of “lien” is more serious that that of “mien-tsu”. this is because when “mien-tsu” is lost, it can more easily be regained (yau, 1988). but when “lien” is lost, an individual’s integrity of character is cast in doubt, or even destroyed (yau, 1988). the significance of “lien” cannot fully appreciated without realizing its close relationship with the concept of “ch’ih” which, in the chinese context has commented that the same meaning as the word “shame” in english. king and myers (1977) suggest that in chinese culture, “lien” is an incomplete concept. they demonstrate a dichotomy between the chinese “face-shame” complex, in contrast with the western sin-guilt complex. “lien” implies the presence of “ch’ih”, which fundamental requirement of being human. according to a chinese philosopher, mencius, “a man without sense of “ch’ih” (shame) is not a man.” proposition 2: to the chinese, doing favors and giving interpersonal trust is one of the ways to build up relationships with friends. the extent to which one is willing to ascribe good intentions to and confidence in the words and actions of the other people should be strong enough to match favors and trusts of the givers so that they are giving “face’ to those who receive their favors and trusts and that they gain “face” at the same time because they are thought of as being sincere. it suggests that the positions of trust to be given to the chinese chairperson by board members to run and manage the business. 2.4. group orientation hofstede (1980; 2001; 2003), a european scholar, used the term “collective” instead of “group oriented”. he indicates that the chinese, as well as other asians, are collectivistic, although his list of values was incomplete. the collectivistic nature of the chinese is reflected in the chinese family and kinship system (hsu, 1968; 1983; schwartz, 2009). hsu (1983) argues, “the primary concern of a majority of chinese was to protect and enhance their private kinship interests.” he notes that the chinese regard the kinship system as a basis for relating to others. he further comments that there exists in the family system dividing lines which made the boundaries clearly defined, and human ties supersede each other rather than being additive. yau (1988) cites that chinese may well be able to sacrifice themselves for benefits that largely accrue to a particular social unit, or even to a society as a whole. he also notes that when making decisions, an individual chinese should always take into account other members of the family. he points out that chinese are more motivated towards achieving the goal of the (extended) family or the group that they affiliated with than of individual selffulfillment. wilson and pusey (1982) have confirmed this in the investigation of achievement motivation and smallbusiness relationship patterns in chinese society. they found that group orientation correlates significantly with achievement motivation in the chinese sample. redding (1990) notes that chinese are only group oriented towards those social units with whom interactions have been established. he comments that the chinese follow the appropriate social norms regardless of their own private views. but they appear to be quite suspicious and cold towards strangers with whom relationships have not been established. proposition 3: chinese tending to be collectivistic may imply that informal channels of communications are important in chinese society and the chairperson engaging in decision-making may rely on personal networks and linkages for information. chinese are group oriented towards social units with close interaction. as such, it is expected that board of directors participate actively in the achievement of the collective goals of the group. strategic decision-making at both board and management levels may be confined to a small social circle. 3. implications of chinese values for board involvement from the above discussion, the value of respect for authority has particular implications for board involvement. it is argued that, if in a society in general there is a wider power and authority “gap” between seniors and juniors, the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 17-20 20 same pattern may be reflected in an unequal power relationship between chairperson and board members in work organizations in that society, in the form of high centralization and low consultation. these may imply that the preference for the chairperson’s decision-making is highly centralized with low consultation from the board. the values of interdependence and “face” are particularly meaningful to the study of board behavior. to the chinese, doing favors and giving interpersonal trust is one of the ways to build up relationships with friends. the extent to which one is willing to ascribe good intentions to and confidence in the words and actions of the other people should be strong enough to match favors and trusts of the givers so that they are giving “face’ to those who receive their favors and trusts and that they gain “face” at the same time because they are thought of as being sincere. it suggests that the positions of trust to be given to the chinese chairperson by board members to run and manage the business. finally, several aspects of the value of group orientation are noteworthy for the study. first, chinese tending to be collectivistic may imply that informal channels of communications are important in chinese society and the chairperson engaging in decision-making may rely on personal networks and linkages for information. second, chinese are group oriented towards social units with close interaction. as such, it is expected that board of directors participate actively in the achievement of the collective goals of the group. strategic decision-making at both board and management levels may be confined to a small social circle. in sum, cultural values have an important role of legitimizing the organization’s existence and its modes of functioning as well as the patterns of behavior of its members. references deal, t.e. and a.a. kennedy, 1982. corporate cultures. reading, ma: addision wesley. hchu and k.s. yang, 1972. symposium on the character of the chinese. taipei: institution of ethnology, academic sinica. hinkelman, e.g., 1994. singapore business. san rafael, california: world trade press. ho, d.y.f., 1972. on the concept of face. american journal of sociology, 81(4): 72-78. hofstede, g., 1980. culture’s consequences. england, london: sage. hofstede, g., 2001. culture’s consequences: comparing values, 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answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://crossculturalcentre.homestead.com/draftmanual_svs_14feb2009.doc asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 2, 35-39, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 35 stress, depression and organizational workplace syed muhammad javed iqbal 1 1 faculty of management (fm), universiti teknologi malaysia, johor (malaysia), lecturer, islamia university of bahawalpur, pakistan abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group 1. introduction depression is so much common disease now a day. everyone may have faced it, if not, may face in future, because this world is full of worries and tensions. the effects of depression may be sometime positive or negative. but it has been found that negative effects are found so common as compared to positive ones. even one can’t define exactly what the depression is. therefore it is necessary to define this term first before moving ahead. according to medilexicon's medical dictionary (williams and wilkins, 2006), depression is "a mental state or chronic mental disorder characterized by feelings of sadness, loneliness, despair, low self-esteem, and self-reproach; accompanying signs include psychomotor retardation (or less frequently agitation), withdrawal from social contact, and vegetative states such as loss of appetite and insomnia." according to (nordqvist, 2009) when someone feels sad we call the person depressed. the person got affected by depression will not only be harmful for him/herself but also effect to those who are close to him in daily life as well as in professional life. depressed person may not know that he or she is suffering from depression but the persons closed with, can identify them with the help of changing signs and symptoms. to better understand the signs and symptoms of depression someone should clearly know, in fact, what sign and a symptom stand for? nordqvist (2009) has been explained by with the help of an example that a symptom is that which is felt by the patient, such as a headache or pain, while a sign is prominent and other people can also detect in a person that they know well. according to nordqvist (2009) there are no universal symptoms of depression. and they vary from person to person but some common symptoms are: 1. feelings of hopelessness 2. feeling sad 3. lost interest in those things which are interesting before 2. literature review there are various sources of depression at work and off the work. anything can create depression for you. even if one might be depressed due to voice of fan, or anything the person don’t like but it happens continuously. now the person has two ways, either to become habitual of that thing or quit from the job to get rid of that thing. at work place depression ranges from reaching the office in time to completing the targets of the job. and this cycle remains continue. depression is most important factor in all psychological disorders. depressed people are low self-esteem, they perceived themselves as helpless and for them situations are hopeless (eriksson, 2004). change is also considered as a source of depression at work. according to some research studies there is negative relationship between change and employees perception (ostell, 1996). the major results concluded the purpose of this article was to squad different signs and symptoms of depression and how it affects the daily as well as professional lives of people and also an attempt was made to differentiate depression from stress, because some of the researchers and practitioners considered these two terms as synonym or reciprocal for each other especially in business organizations. this disease is so much common now a day that people don’t know that they are suffering from it. to help the people different signs and symptoms discussed in the paper. this study is conceptual one. and it will be helpful for the employees of the professional organizations, team leaders and managers that if they feel any changes in their subordinates or group members they should take corrective action immediately to maximize the output, because most of the organizations in advance countries are bearing their major expenses on employee medical expenses, sick leaves and workplace sickness. keywords: depression, signs and symptoms of depression. stress management. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 35-39 36 that if change is implemented then it is useless unless the employee accept it because they feel due to change in organization their jobs might be at risk which may make them depressed. if it is accepted by the people means that their receptibility (willingness to learn) and mobilization (efforts) will become a bridge between discrepancy and achievement of goals of the organization (ostell, 1996). talking about stress management ostell (1996) has discussed three situations of stress as anger, anxiety, and depression, and here it is interesting to note depression is part of stress but according to (zabielska, 2009) if stress continues for longer period it can become depression otherwise when the threat has gone life become normal again. depression victimizes the male and females in different way for example, when people are depressed they behave in different ways men use to 'explode' and women 'implode'(johnson and indvik, 1997) and this can helpful for organizations how to handle the gender in depression. according to evans and radunovich (2012) there are 9.1% adults that face depression in us and clinical cases are also increasing day by day. the exact causes of depression are difficult to state because these might be different for each person. depression also occurs due to genetic and if so, one can’t escape from it. or they become depressed due to other family member (especially closed one). it is also associated with disruption of the brain chemicals. hormones also contribute to depression e.g. thyroid hormones also cause depression in some people. stressful life events also become cause of depression (evans and radunovich, 2012) therefore it is better to understand depression from psychological point of view. according to (evans and radunovich, 2012) symptoms of depression are different in adults (male and female) and children. 2.1. symptoms of depression for adults 1. sadness, depressed mood, crying over on minor issues 2. much irritability, crankiness, not being satisfied easily 3. easily frustrated, gives up things quickly with initial failures 4. poor self-concept, having low self-esteem, confused toward attempting to endeavors 5. previous pleasure moments/activities have little or no interest 6. changes in food habits (mostly decreased appetite) rapidly gain weight or loss 7. little sleep or much sleep 8. slowed, unable to act in relaxed & natural way 9. fatigue, loss of liveliness and energy 10. thinking about death or suicides. table-1. different signs and symptoms of depression psychological signs & symptoms of depression physical signs & symptoms of depression social signs and symptoms of depression continuous sadness or dim mood slow body movement as compared to normal work underperformed thoughts of worthlessness problem in concentration and focusing not going well in studies at school feelings self-hatred speech is slower as compared to normal living alone ignoring friends feelings of hopelessness changes in eating pattern, changes in appetites, which weight increases or decreases losing interests and hobbies feeling helpless less sex drive having family or personal problems. feelings of crying less energy, feeling tiredness and fatigues feeling guilty menstrual cycle for women may change irritability even with minor things or incidents feeling restless and confused angry explosions having unexplained pains, like headache, backache and stomach problems no tolerance to others feeling insomnia (sleeplessness, wakefulness, restlessness. some of the medicines used for depression may also cause insomnia doubtful in decision making feeling difficulty to enjoy life thinking about self-harm thinking of suicide untiring worries consistent anxiety 2.2. symptoms depression for children 1. behave badly asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 35-39 37 2. show a lot of anger 3. more cranky than usual 4. selective about food 5. take less interest in their usual activities. most of the people face some of the above symptoms from time to time but this is not called a major depression. for major depression “one should be suffering from at least 5 symptoms stated above at the same time and from at least 2 weeks”. even depression is different from grieving. long period of grieving may cause an episode of depression, but it’s rare. grievance is part of normal life. and one should try to get out of it as soon as possible (evans and radunovich, 2012) and again these are close people who can help the person getting out of it quickly. nordqvist (2009) argued that even great personalities can’t escape from depression for example, “sir winston churchill suffered from bouts of severe depression” – “he used to call them” "black dog" and categorized signs and symptoms of depression in three major categories, i.e. psychological, physical, and social signs of symptoms of depression. 2.3. difference between stress and depression some of the researchers and practitioners use the term of depression and stress as reciprocal. selye (1976), a well-known stress researcher, also called father of stress management has defined stress as "non-specific response of the body to any demand made upon it". according to this definition, stress can be a result of any demand made to human body. when there is a stimuli definitely there will be a demand (also called stressors) behind it. even if demand is easy to be filled there will be stress as a result, and when job is done body get relief from that stress or demand. now it is easy to differentiate between these two terms, as, (zabielska, 2009) a well-known psychiatrist has differentiated stress from depression, in the light of her findings stress and depression may have some similarities but are not the same. the difference between stress and depression is formulated in tabular form for the convenience. table-2. difference between stress and depression stress depression nature and symptoms of each stress is physical, mental or emotional and it may resulted from routine life depression is a state of low/sad mood and is disliking to an activity resulted due to changes in brain chemicals. body responds as someone is in danger and due to this hormone are being alert and energized. this response is also called “flight or fight” in depression body does not being activated rather become slow initially stress is resulted in quick response while depression is proved in reduced activity when a threat has gone life again become normal depression has long lasting results it does not end easily if stress has prolonged then it can create serious health problems like ulcers and heart diseases it can damage the persons physical as well as mental state seriously that a person may not act like other normal persons when stress is prolonged then it can be a depression suicide and thoughts of death are symptoms of depression. normally these are not the symptoms of stress purpose stress may be useful and healthy activity like trying hard to finish a race, save something from being harmed and meeting a deadline. depression reduced the human activities. it can affect the work of own as well as others. and that can also cause harm to relationships causes stress is often caused by external activity/stimuli, like some domestic problems, general health problems and sometime due to busy schedule. death of some closed one, getting married, having divorce are also some causes of stress. while depression attacks due to changes in neurotransmitters of brain such as dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine or noradrenalin. these may be caused due to changes in genes, side effect of some medication, changes in hormones, age factor, brain injury, seasonal effects, and due to changes in social circumstances. remedies stress may be reduced or eliminated due to changes in one’s lifestyle, environment. depression usually requires some consultancy and medication by some professionals 2.4. causes of depression at work as discussed above the causes of depression and stress may be different for different person. for example this is not compulsory if one person feels depression due to situation, that other person also feel the same. there may be several causes of depression or stress at work. it ranges from person's biological predisposition, psychological tendency towards pessimism, feelings of low self-esteem and trauma, or long term stress and retirement and threat of unemployment are also the cause of depression. according to johnson and indvik (1997) this disease usually appears in the full swing youth i.e. between 20-30 years of age which can be best utilized in the workplace to get even synergic effect. if depression is due to genes, which is inherited by the parents into the children, then these children are at risk to be quickly victimized by the disease. in performance oriented organizations managers are supposed to asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 35-39 38 get work done efficiently and effectively to meet the targets and as well as to reduce the poor performance. managers have to be aware of how depression affects the productivity and how to reduce the workplace depression. the topic of ei (emotional intelligence) is one of the emerging issues in the organizations (dulewicz and higgs, 2000; dulewicz and higgs, 2005; geoghegan and dulewicz, 2008). this states that leaders or managers should be able to understand what others are feelings. empathy is the core of the ei which states that someone should be able to sense the needs of others and also to listen them for their problems (robbins et al., 2009).and depression is most likely associated for the subordinates and managers equally (vakola and nikolaou, 2005). especially in the organizations which are struggling for survival. they have to learn how to accommodate continuous restructuring, political and public pressure, facing resource deficit, professionally self-doubted with a lot of pressure from every level. this can result in shortfall in staffing, high turnover at managerial and practitioner level which may create depression among employees (eborall and garmeson, 2001). as per their survey findings 80% of the respondents reported some factors like domestic relationships, bereavement, physically ill, genetic and financial problem and the most important work as cause of their depression (eborall and garmeson, 2001). managers and practitioners are also depressed by experiencing lack of sympathy from their upper levels. poor pay and professional failures are also important factors for depression. research has shown that there is certain relationship between unemployment and depression. and both of these can cause problems at individual as well as at societal level. longitudinal studies have shown that this problem exists particularly among low income minority population. this study was focused on depressive symptoms in low income suicidal african american women mascaro et al. (2007). results show that for the selected sample population, symptoms of depression create vulnerability for job loss and some of them who try to reemployment are better ones. as per (bostwick and pankratz, 2000) 19% of individuals commit suicide due to severe depression. no doubt unemployment is major cause of depression but self-perpetuating cycle of poverty and psychopathology also dysfunction psychological status. unemployment is not a single source of depression; employment also contributes to the depression but with different causes. this study also shows that depression is found almost twice in women as men (mascaro et al., 2007). 2.5. positive and negative factors of depression depression if taken positively can produce the desired results most efficiently and effectively. but according to research most of people deal with depression negatively. according to (vakola and nikolaou, 2005) positive factors of depression are that it can result in:  increased understandings  better responsiveness and  searching and getting of survival skills. while the other side of picture states that when it attacks negatively it can produce (vakola and nikolaou, 2005):  low confidence  tiredness  irritability  lack of concentration.  lack of decision making skill  impact on other colleagues, and junior staff  conflict at work 2.6. how to manage depression at work mostly people have identified that gps (general practitioners) can be a source to manage depression. while some others have also contributed some factors like; support of friends and families, and medication. bevan and hayday (2001) have reported the organizational side effects of depression results in  high cost of staff sickness for social services  increased pressure on colleagues  workplace sickness mostly the managers receive depression at work from workplace pressure, less workload support, and less flexible hours as compared to practitioners. 2.7. jobs with high rates of depression worth (2012) selected 10 careers with high depression out of 21. but he argued that it doesn’t mean at all that due to these 10 careers someone may not leave his or her area of interest. according to him depression is majorly found in the followings: 1. child-care workers and nursing home 2. food serving staff. 3. people as social workers. 4. professional and workers of healthcare. 5. teachers 6. writers, artists and entertainers 7. supporting staff of administration 8. accountants and financial advisors 9. salespeople 10. low level workers asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 35-39 39 3. findings and conclusion the aim of the study was to differentiate stress from depression. after the completion of the study, it has been found these two terms may have some similar causes but are not the same. and that there are no universal causes, signs of symptoms of depression. these factors vary from person to person. depression attacks different people differently, e.g. male, female, adult, and children. but the suggestion is that if someone feels any of the signs and symbols discussed above should seriously discuss the problem with the psychiatrist especially those who are working in the organizations. as well as it is important for the managers and leaders if they found changings in the behaviors of their followers they should take corrective action quickly and advise them to go for some psychiatry treatment. it will be helpful for the employees that how to handle with stress at work for themselves and to become more productive member. because if you do not perform well, remember, there is a very long queue waiting for your post. systems are never stopped due to changing of people but people find a pause in their lives due to that change. 4. limitation and future suggestions because these terms are mostly related with medical therefore, some of the data has been retrieved from wellknown websites of medical. the source is internet so there can be an issue of reliability in it. very few studies have been found by explaining and combining the stress and depression with their different signs and symptoms. it will be helpful for future research if managers know about these different signs and symptoms of depression, it will be helpful for them to deal with stress and depression not only for themselves but also for others especially their subordinates. references bevan, s. and s. hayday, 2001. costing sickness absence in the uk. brighton: institute for employment studies. bostwick, j.m. and v.s. pankratz, 2000. affective disorders and suicide risk: a reexamination. american journal of psychiatry, 157(12): 1925-1932. dulewicz, v. and m. higgs, 2000. emotional intelligence–a review and evaluation study. journal of managerial psychology, 15(4): 341-368. dulewicz, v. and m. higgs, 2005. assessing leadership styles and organisational context. journal of managerial psychology, 20(2): 105-123. doi 10.1108/02683940510579759. eborall, c. and k. garmeson, 2001. desk research on recruitment and retention in social care and social work. london: department of health. eriksson, c.b., 2004. the effects of change programs on employees’ emotions. personnel review, 33(1): 110-126. doi 10.1108/00483480410510642. evans, g. and h.l. radunovich, 2012. signs and symptoms of job depression. department of family youth and community sciences department. document no. fcs2183. florida university of florida. available from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu. [acessed 14 november, 2012]. geoghegan, l. and v. dulewicz, 2008. do project managers' leadership competencies contribute to project success? project management journal, 39(4): 58-67. doi 10.1002/pmj.20084. johnson, p.r. and j. indvik, 1997. the scourge of the workplace: depression at work. journal of workplace learning, 9(1): 12-16 doi 10.1108/13665629710160403. mascaro, n., n.c. arnette, c.m. santana and n.j. kaslow, 2007. longitudinal relations between employment and depressive symptoms in low-income, suicidal african american women. journal of clinical psychology, 63(6): 541-553. nordqvist, c., 2009. what is depression? what causes depression? available from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/8933.php [accessed 15 november, 2012]. ostell, a., 1996. managing dysfunctional emotions in organizations. journal of management studies, 33(4): 525-558. robbins, s.p., t.a. judge and s. sanghi, 2009. organizational behavior. 13th edn., india: pearson education. selye, h., 1976. the stress concept. canadian medical association journal, 115(8): 718. vakola, m. and i. nikolaou, 2005. attitudes towards organizational change: what is the role of employees’ stress and commitment? employee relations, 27(2): 160-174. doi 10.1108/01425450510572685. williams, l. and wilkins, 2006. stedman's medical dictionary. uk: medilexicon international ltd. worth, t., 2012. 10 careers with high rates of depression. available from http://www.health.com/health/gallery/0,,20428990,00.html [accessed 08 november, 2012]. zabielska, e., 2009. the difference between stress and depression: knowing the facts from. available from http://www.beststressreliefactivities.com/difference-between-stress-and-depression/. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/8933.php http://www.health.com/health/gallery/0,,20428990,00.html http://www.beststressreliefactivities.com/difference-between-stress-and-depression/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 3, 173-181, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 173 analysis of life context of on-line group-buying population by dynamic decision shen-tsu wang1 1 department of commerce automation and management, national pingtung university taiwan, province of china abstract while it is difficult to avoid uncertainties when shopping on the internet, trust can reduce customers’ perceived uncertainties, and enhance their willingness and frequency to buy products and services. the difference in time and space information transparency between customers and on-line sellers, as well as the complex unpredictability of network structure, result in frequent uncertainty for on-line transactions. therefore, through text mining and integrating the genetic algorithm (ga) with the support vector machine (svm), this project classifies the data of on-line group buying community complaints according to the posts left on facebook and the three major group-buying websites of taiwan. the terms are selected based on term frequency, document frequency, uniformity, and conformity, while document classification effectiveness is calculated using precision, recall rate, and f-measure. community complaints are classified into the uncertain performance indicators that influence on-line group buying for integrated statistics, in order that specific performance indicators of community group-buying websites can be generated. afterwards, based on the on-line group buying community performance indicator sequence, as integrated according to the dynamic multicriteria optimization and compromise solution (vikor) method and prosperity countermeasure signals, grey correlation sorting is applied to analyze the dynamic performance indicator sequence of different communities, in order to determine the life context of different populations for the reference of on-line group buying providers. keywords: genetic algorithm, support vector machine, on-line group buying, life context, grey correlation sorting, dynamic performance indicator. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 174 2. research method ............................................................................................................................................................... 174 3. results analysis ................................................................................................................................................................. 180 4. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 180 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 180 citation | shen-tsu wang (2016). analysis of life context of on-line group-buying population by dynamic decision. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(3): 173-181. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.173.181 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 3 february 2016/ revised: 25 february 2016/ accepted: 29 february 2016/ published: 2 march 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.173.181 http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.173.181 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.173.181 http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.173.181 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):173-181 174 1. introduction the course of the real world and contexts of places of existence are the details of human life. the theory of humanistic geography opposes absolute objective and mechanized intuitionistic humanity, and places stress on the relative meanings, different values, and objectives of persons throughout the world. since the theory of humanistic geography pays great attention to the context of humanistic life, it is attracted and used by the theoretical concept of phenomenology, and its interesting subjects are examined, such as correlated place, mutual space, and life area (wen, 2005). scholars who think based on context not only consider the single development of users and the actual nature of products, they also emphasize interactions, constructed cultural aspects, and process values, and pay attention to the common structural relationship between multiangular sociocultural values and technology (dulk et al., 2013; trefalt et al., 2013). the uncertainties of life context include the constraints of innovation sources, as well as the differences between manufacturing and customer sides. the important findings regarding the constraints of innovation sources show that, the more accustomed individuals are to observing or using a tool in a particular way, the harder it is to escape the existing constraint architecture, and the harder it is to have innovative views of substantial content, thus, research processes are unlikely to propose novel views (hippel, 2011). while it is difficult to avoid uncertainties when shopping on the internet, trust can reduce customers’ perceived uncertainties, and enhance their willingness and frequency to buy products and services. the difference in time and space information transparency between customers and on-line sellers, as well as the complex unpredictability of network structure, result in frequent uncertainty for on-line transactions. therefore, through text mining and integrating the genetic algorithm (ga) with the support vector machine (svm), this project classifies the data of on-line group buying community complaints according to the posts left on facebook and the three major groupbuying websites of taiwan. the terms are selected based on term frequency, document frequency, uniformity, and conformity, while document classification effectiveness is calculated using precision, recall rate, and f-measure. community complaints are classified into the uncertain performance indicators that influence on-line group buying for integrated statistics, in order that specific performance indicators of community group-buying websites can be generated. afterwards, based on the on-line group buying community performance indicator sequence, as integrated according to the dynamic multicriteria optimization and compromise solution (vikor) method and prosperity countermeasure signals, grey correlation sorting is applied to analyze the dynamic performance indicator sequence of different communities, in order to determine the life context of different populations for the reference of on-line group buying providers (chen et al., 2010; cheng and huang, 2013; wang et al., 2013; liang et al., 2014; zhou and xie, 2014; hsu et al., 2015). 2. research method this project uses the chinese knowledge information processing (ckip) of academia sinica to analyze the word segmentation of chinese documents, and screens out the terms of on-line group buying community complaints. afterwards, the optimal term combination is selected by ga to train the svm of the existing types of documents, and the classificatory documents are classified by test file; then all other documents not classified into the existing types are clustered, and document clustering is optimized using ga (lo et al., 2008; trstenjak et al., 2014; erra et al., 2015). there are two major steps, as follows. 2.1. document pre-processing the document classification of this project can be divided into two parts, the original type of document cluster and new document cluster. the existing type of document cluster contains the existing architecture type of original documents, while the new document cluster contains partial existing type of documents, as well as any documents not belonging to the original type. as there is no appropriate decision-making approach for terms in chinese documents, word segmentation is required in order to recognize all terms in the documents. among the plans for chinese word segmentation, as constructed by the chinese knowledge information processing group (ckipg) of academia sinica, ckip is representative and practical. therefore, this project uses ckip, as provided by ckipg, to process the training documents and test documents of this project. 2.2. ga-svm model this project combines ga with svm to construct the ga-svm computational model, in order to determine better term combinations to train the existing type of classification model, and whether or not new documents can be classified into the original type is judged according to this architecture. in order to effectively determine better term combinations, important terms are selected using ga, where the term frequency-inverse document frequency (tfidf) values are calculated according to the selected terms (lo et al., 2008; trstenjak et al., 2014; erra et al., 2015) as the basis of training documents and create the vector values of the documents, and the obtained document vectors are used as the input vector values of svm to train the ga-svm model base. the term combinations, as selected by this model, correspond to the contents of new documents in order to calculate the tf-idf-based document vector matrices of the new documents, and the document vector matrices of the new documents are converted into the svm format and imported into the svm training model for classification. when new documents fail to be classified as the original type, they are extracted for second stage processing. however, when ga is selected, as it can implement efficient global search for a better solution to the problem, which can reduce the probability of obtaining a local optimal. where tf-idf is expressed as eq. (1).           , , , log i i i i i tf idf w m tf w m idf w d tf w m df w            (1) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):173-181 175 where,  ,itf idf w m : weight of term iw in m d : total number of messages in document  idf w : occurrence frequency of term iw in document set the message can represent the matrix m formed by the vector of a term, expressed as eq. (2). 11 12 1 21 22 2 1 2 p p m m mp w w w w w w m w w w             (2) where, ikw : weight of term k in document  1...i i m m d 1,...,k p p : number of terms extracted from all messages therefore, this project intends to use the characteristics of ga to determine the most representative terms to optimize the svm model, in order to classify the complaints of on-line group-buying communities. the execution flow of the ga-svm classifier is introduced below. this project uses the four functions of chou et al. (2007) as the basis for selecting terms, the term frequency, document frequency, uniformity, and conformity, described as follows: 1) select term (1) term frequency (tf) tf represents the term occurrence probability of term i in jk type, expressed as eqs. (3)–(4): 1 ij ij j ij j t f tf t f      (3) 1 ij ij i ij i a t f a     (4) where, i : term j : type jk ija : occurrence number of term i in jk type ijt f  : occurrence probability of term i in jk type if the occurrence number of a term i in jk type is greater than that in other types, and the calculated tf is large; this term i can represent type jk . (2) document frequency (df) df represents the occurrence probability in documents of term i in jk type, expressed as eqs. (5)–(6): 1 ij ij j ij j d f df d f      (5) ij ij j s d f s   (6) where, ijs : occurrence number of documents with term i in jk type ijd f  : occurrence probability of documents with term i in jk type if the number of documents with term i in jk type is greater than the number of documents in other types, then term i better represents jk type. (3) uniformity uniformity represents the occurrence probability of term i in all documents of jk type, expressed as eqs. (7)– (8): 1 log js ij ic ic c u b b    (7) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):173-181 176 1 j ic ic s ic c tf b tf    (8) where, c : document js : total number of documents within jk type ictf : occurrence number of term i in c documents icb : average occurrence probability of term i in document c if the occurrence number of term i in jk type documents is greater than the occurrence number of other terms in jk type documents, the larger the calculated uniformity, the better this term i represents this type than other terms. (4) conformity the conformity represents the probability of the occurrence of term i in all types, expressed as eqs. (9)–(10): 1 log j i ij ij j cf p p    (9) 1 ij ij j ij j s p s    (10) where, ijp : probability of occurrence of document s with term i in j type when term i occurs in all types, the icf value is large. contrarily, when i only occurs in one single type, the icf value is 0. therefore, the smaller the icf , the better the term i represents the type. 2) classifier training by svm each term will obtain four threshold values. this project selects the terms meeting the four thresholds as the basis of training documents, then the tf-idf value of the obtained term is calculated, and the document vector value is created for each document as the input vector of svm for the training classifier. (1) model parameter selection this project uses a library for support vector machines (libsvm) (chang and lin, 2001) for document classification, as libsvm provides multiple parameter settings, four core functions, four classifiers, and an important parameter search tool, thus, enabling the user to adjust parameters according to different problems in order to increase the efficiency of classification. however, as document classification is mostly a polytype classification problem, this project uses the c-support vector classification (c-svc) form, which supports the multi-classification model to train svm. the terms meeting the threshold set value are extracted, the document vector is created, and the vector value is imported into libsvm to train the svm classifier. (2) predict training data by svm when the svm model of some chromosomes is generated, the svm classification model can be used to predict the classification of training documents. as this project uses ga for continuous calculation to determine the representative term combination, the condition of calculation is to calculate the fitness value according to the mean f-measure of svm. afterwards, if the calculation reaches the stop condition, and the svm has good classification effectiveness, we can use this classification model to classify new community complaint documents. 3) ga-svm fitness function design in the course of document classification, document classification effectiveness is calculated based on precision, recall, and f-measure. the fitness function of this project uses the f-measure mean as the basis of evaluating classification. therefore, the larger the fitness function value, the better the extracted term classifies the document into the original type, where the fitness function is expressed as eqs. (11)–(14): , , 1 i i s p k i f fitness i   (11) f-measure: , , , , , , , , , , 2 i i i i i s p k s p k s p k s p k s p k p r f p r    (12) precision: , , , , , i i i i p k s k s p k s k n n p n   (13) recall: , , , , , i i i i p k s k s p k p k n n r n   (14) where, i : type ik asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):173-181 177 , is kn : number of documents classified as ik by classifier , ip kn : number of documents defined as ik by training document , ,i ip k s kn n : number of documents classified as ik by training document and classifier the aforesaid analyzed on-line group buying complaints are put in the classification influencing on-line group buying community uncertainty in table 1 and calculated. table-1. analysis of performance indicators influencing on-line group buying community uncertainty group-buying website performance aspect group-buying website performance indicator operational definition a. community word-of-mouth acceptance a1. consumption experience community experience in buying or using the goods. a2. specialty community word-of-mouth acceptor's awareness of the merchandise information. b. community word-of-mouth content b1. positive/negative word-of-mouth information positive/negative word-of-mouth type of commodity to be bought by community, including fully positive word-of-mouth, fully negative word-of-mouth, and half and half positive/negative word-of-mouth. b2. information quantity number of word-of-mouth comments on the commodity to be bought by community. c. master buyer reliability c1. reputation and evaluation whether the past evaluation of the master buyer is good, and whether the master buyer is reliable. c2. friendly interaction master buyer responds to members' questions, and informs members of the matters concerned with group buying. d. community perceived risk d1. financial risk probable monetary loss of community from on-line shopping. d2. social risk whether the community's shopping on the website is objected by peers. d3. psychological risk community has negative opinion after shopping or repents buying. d4. physical risk using commodity causes physical injury. d5. performance risk whether the function of a commodity bought from the internet meets the original expectations of the community. d6. time risk time spent searching for the desired commodity online and obtaining the commodity. d7. privacy risk identity data registered for on-line transactions are illegally used by others. e. community security e1. disturbance-free shopping environment take part in on-line group buying for disturbance-free shopping environment. e2. trust group-buying website take part in on-line group buying for trusting master buyer or group-buying website. e3. group-buying products are relatively quality take part in on-line group buying, as group-buying commodities have relative quality assurance. f. on-line group buying diversity f1. novel commodities take part in on-line group buying for extraordinary commodities that are unavailable on the market. g. on-line group buying price g1. lower price take part in on-line group buying for buying more commodities at lower prices. g2. free gift take part in on-line group buying for gifts. h. on-line group buying convenience h1. convenient receiving take part in on-line group buying for convenient receiving and delivery services. i. website design i1. clear information presentation take part in on-line group buying for explicit website information. i2. simple shopping process take part in on-line group buying for simple shopping process. source: (hsu et al., 2014; nepomuceno et al., 2014; see-to and ho, 2014; zhao and zhu, 2014) 2.3. dynamic performance indicator sequencing integrate grey correlation sorting with dynamic vikor asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):173-181 178 considering the prosperity countermeasure signal, the performance indicator influencing the uncertainty on-line group buying community is analyzed in table 1. the prosperity countermeasure signal uses five signal lights to represent a situation of prosperity. the cross-check scores are shown in the brackets following the light signal (ouyang and chuang, 2007) (1) red light (38-45 points) represents overheating; (2) yellow-red light (32-37 points) represents activated prosperity; (3) green light (23-31 points) represents stable prosperity; (4) yellow-blue light (1722 points) represents poor prosperity; (5) blue light (9-16 points) represents business recession (deng, 1982; golmohammadi and mellat-parast, 2012; zhu and hipel, 2012; chien, 2015). the evaluation process of this project follows the dynamic vikor multicriterion evaluation method, where iw considers the prosperity countermeasure signal, and performance is evaluated according to the weights of various phases and sequencing processes (hung et al., 2013). step1: evaluate the scores of ratees in various periods if each reviewer uses a triangular intuitionistic fuzzy number to represent the result of the criteria, according to the selection criteria of ratees, the denotation is  , , ; ,a b c x y , where , ,a b c represent the fuzzy value of a single criterion result of a ratee, the triangular fuzzy number display is flexible, ,x y represent the degree of consent and objection of the decision maker, respectively, and the best result of the assessment score (ideal solution) is represented by  10,10,10;1,0 . step 2: calculate the distance between each ratee's criteria results and the best score according to szmidt and kacprzyk (2000) when the distance between the criteria  1,2,...,id i n result in each phase  1,2,...,kt k p of each ratee  1,2,...,jd j m and the optimal value is calculated, the distance matrix   ~ 1,2,...,kg k p of various phases can be obtained. step 3: evaluation by the vikor multicriterion evaluation method (1) determine the best value and worst value in the criterion function each ratee  1,2,...,jb j m  is evaluated under evaluation criteria  1,2,...,id i n , under no. id evaluation criterion, the performance evaluation value of alternative jb is represented by ijr , the best value * ir and worst value ir of criterion function vary with the effectiveness (larger-the-better) criterion and cost (smaller-the-better) criterion, expressed as eqs. (15)–(16). if there are m alternatives  1,2,...,jb b j m  , the evaluation is implemented under n evaluation criteria  1,2,...,id d i n  , under no. i evaluation criterion, the performance evaluation value of alternative jb is represented by ijr . if the criterion is the effectiveness (larger-the-better) criterion, the best value * ir and worst value ir are expressed as eq. (15). * ax ,i ij i ij j j r m r r min r  (15) on the contrary, if the criterion is the cost (smaller-the-better) criterion, the best value * ir and worst value ir are expressed as eq. (16). * ,i ij i ij j j r min r r max r  (16) (2) normalization when the distance between the triangular intuitionistic fuzzy result value of each ratee under the selection criteria, and the best result  10,10,10;1,0 is obtained, the normalized value of ratees under criteria is calculated by eq. (17). the normalized value of jb scheme under id criterion is represented by  i jv b , expressed as eq. (17):   * * i ij i j i i r r v b r r    (17) (3) calculate ja and jc values the criterion normalized value of a ratee in each phase is multiplied by the weight of the criterion, according to eq. (18). finally, the weighted normalized values are summed up to obtain ja , and the criterion normalized weights of ratees are compared according to eq. (18) where the maximum value is jc , expressed as eq. (19).     * * 1 , n i ij j i i i i r r a w j r r       (18)     * * , i ij j i i i i r r c max w j r r         (19) (4) select * *, , ,a a c c  values asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):173-181 179 when ja and jc are obtained, *,a a are selected from ja of criteria, *a represents the minimum ja value  * j j a min a , a represents the maximum ja value  j j a max a  ; *,c c are selected from jc of criteria, *c represents the minimum jc value  * j j c minc , c  represents the maximum jc value  j j c maxc  . (5) calculate ju value the ju value of each scheme is calculated according to eq. (20). the decision mechanism coefficient  (weight) is set as 0.5, in order to simultaneously maximize group utility and minimize specific regret.           * * * * 1 , j j j a a c c u j a a c c                         (20) step 4: implement weighting and sequencing according to the weights of various periods chen and li (2011) proposed the multiple attribute decision making problem, with m decision making sides  1,2,...,jb j m and n evaluation attributes  1,2,...,id i n , where the weight  1,2,...,iw n of each attribute should be considered, and the probably of different performances in multiple phases  kt must be considered, in order to perfect the evaluation results of various proposals. in this project, as the ju value is smaller-the-better criterion (smaller is better), polarity inversion is implemented for the weight of period, and the converted actual weight is represented by  * 1,2,...,tkw k p , expressed as eq. (21):     * 1 1 1 tk tk p tk k w w w     (21) the ju value of various phases is represented by  1,2,...,jku k p , and multiplied by actual weight  * 1,2,...,tkw k p , in order to obtain the actual weight *jku of each period, expressed as eq. (22). * *jk tk jku w u  (22) the weighted *jku values of the phases are summed up to obtain the t value, expressed as eq. (23): * 1 p jk k t u   (23) when the smaller weighted sum t of the *jku value of various periods is better, the total sequence of the full phase can be obtained. this project is based on dynamic vikor, with the prosperity countermeasure signal and analysis results as shown in table 1. the degree of relationship among sub-systems or elements could be evaluated through grey relational analysis, and the important influential factors of the development trend are determined in order to learn the major features of the system through the following steps, as shown in eq. (24)-(29) (deng, 1982; chien, 2015). step 1: normalize original data. normalize by dividing the original data ( )ix k with the mean value of the sequence shown in eq. (1): 1 ( ) ( ) , ,..., ,..., ( ) i i n i k x k r k i a d k a n x k n     (24) step 2: designate the standard sequence and calculate the difference sequence. take the mean value as a standard sequence, i.e. sequence 0; the difference sequence 0 ( )i k indicates the absolute difference of elements k between the other sequence i and the standard sequence 0, as expressed in eq. (5): 0 0( ) ( ) ( ) , 1,2,3,... ,...,i ik r k r k i k a n     (25) step 3: calculate maximal difference max and minimal difference min , as expressed in eqs. (6) and (7). max 0 , ( )i i k max k   (26) min 0 , ( )i i k min k   (27) step 4: calculate grey relational coefficient: 0 ( )i k . the relational coefficient: 0 ( )i k is defined below, of which  is the adjustment factor, as shown in eq. (8). min max 0 0 max ( ) ( ) i i k k           (28) step 5: calculate the grey relationship 0i between each sequence and the standard sequence. the grey relationship 0i is defined as in eq. (9). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):173-181 180 0 0 ( )n i i k a k n     (29) step 6: conduct sequencing according to the grey relationship. 3. results analysis according to the 863 data collected from group-buying websites, as shown in table 2 the military, civil servants, and teachers account for a high proportion of group buying. the fitness values of various populations, as calculated by eq. (11) are greater than 95%, meaning the extracted term is well effective at classifying the document as the original type. the performance indicators of different populations are calculated using the dynamic vikor method. afterwards, the key performance indicator of each population is calculated by grey correlation sorting. students and homemakers care most about minimum price; the freelance and service industry care most about convenient receiving; the service industry cares most about simple shopping processes; the financial services/insurance industry cares most about financial risk; the military, civil servants, and teachers care most about reliable group-buying websites; the information industry cares most about the master buyer's reputation and evaluation. the analysis results fully show the life contexts of different populations, as well as the on-line group buying content they are most interested in. table-2. group buying population classification population type proportion fitness t(value, performance indicator) 0i (value, key performance indicator) students 4.53% 96.11% 0.26 g1,g2,f1 0.56 g1 homemakers 13.26% 97.18% 0.13 g1,e2,c2 0.58 g1 freelance 12.25% 96.21% 0.18 a2,h1,e2 0.66 h1 manufacturing industry 6.26% 95.13% 0.11 e2,h1,i2 0.71 h1 service industry 16.38% 98.32% 0.28 e2,i2,i1 0.68 i2 financial services / insurance industry 8.25% 95.29% 0.19 g2,d2,d1 0.79 d1 military, civil servants and teachers 28.69% 97.28% 0.09 e2,d2,d1 0.87 e2 information industry 10.38% 95.16% 0.27 d2,d1,c1 0.81 c1 source: this research 4. conclusion the life contexts and habits of different populations of on-line group buying match the results of this study; student and homemakers care most about minimum price, because the economic situation of this population is relatively controlled; the freelance and service industry care most about convenient receiving, because their work places are inconvenient for receiving; the service industry cares most about simple shopping 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41(7): 3306-3312. zhou, y. and j. xie, 2014. potentially self-defeating: group buying in a two-tier supply chain. omega, 49: 42-52. zhu, j. and k.w. hipel, 2012. multiple stages grey target decision making method with incomplete weight based on multigranularity linguistic label. information sciences, 212: 15-32. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 1, 21-24, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 21 the effect of employee turnover on organizations (case study of electricity company of ghana, cape coast) philipina ampomah 1* --samuel k. cudjor 2 1,2 department of secertaryship and management studies, cape coast polytechnic, ghana abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 22 2. review of literature ............................................................................................................................................................ 22 3. methodology......................................................................................................................................................................... 22 4. results .................................................................................................................................................................................. 23 5. discussion ............................................................................................................................................................................. 24 6. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 24 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 24 this study focused on the effect of employee turnover on organizations with reference to the electricity company of ghana (ecg). high employee turnover rates may jeopardize efforts to attain organizational objectives. in addition, when an organization loses a critical employee, the effects on innovation, consistency in providing service to customers and timely delivery of services to customers may be negatively affected. the research design used in this study was the quantitative approach, which allowed the researcher to use structured questionnaires in collecting data. the simple random sampling technique was used to select forty respondents from all levels of management in the company. a high response rate of 95% was obtained using the personal method of data collection, based on which the analysis was made using the frequency tables. the study found that lack of promotion was the primary cause of employee turnover in ecg. turnover, however, had dual effects on the organization; positive and negative effects. whiles employee turnover introduced new ideas and skill into the company; it’s also led to difficulties in attracting new staff. to reduce the rate of turnover, management should review condition of service for employees; and also ensure that the working environment is conducive. keywords: employees’ turnover, promotion, job security, skilled manpower, ecg, ghana. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1):21-24 22 1. introduction employee turnover is understood by human resources professionals to be the rate at which an organization’s work force terminates employment and requires replacement kreitner (2003) most organizations have been successful because of the organisation’s ability to retain employees. keeping staff rather than losing them, however, is not achieved on a silver platter. successful organisations in this area are the ones that are whose managements have identified and put in place measures such as reward, training and development and other forms of motivation so as to encourage the employees to work whole heartedly and stay in the organization for a longer period of time. this helps to ensure consistency in the output of work. contrary to this, organizations which cannot identify the effort of their employees and reward them as such end up in losing them to other organisation. this goes a long way to affect the productivity, growth and increases the organisation’s cost of recruiting new staff; and training and developing the new staff to occupy such vacancies. high turnover, therefore, naturally affects performance kreitner (2003) . furthermore, nugent (2009) concluded that employee turnover can be defined as a percentage figure which shows the rate at which employees move in and out of the organization. however, this figure most likely represents both controllable turnover (controllable by the organization) and uncontrollable turnover. controllable turnover is ‘’voluntary’’ by the employee, while uncontrollable turnover is ‘’involuntary’’ (for example, retirement, death, or spouse transfer). turnover may be functional, where the employee’s departures produce a benefit for the organization, or dysfunctional, where the departing employee is someone the organization would like to retain. high performers who are difficult to replace represent dysfunctional turnovers; low performers who are easy to replace represent functional turnovers. the crucial issue in analysing turnover, therefore, is not how many employees are leaving but the performance and replaceability of those who are leaving versus those who are staying. kreitner and kinicki (2007) also concluded that as a business manager, staff turnover is one area to keep an eye on throughout the year. 1.1. statement of problem according to grobler et al. (2006) a certain amount of turnover is expected, unavoidable and considered beneficial to the organization. new employees may inject fresh blood into the firm by introducing new ideas and methods and innovative, more effective ways of doing thing. in addition, turnover may help rectify poor hiring and placement decisions. such turnover is referred to as functional turnover. thus some turnover renews a stagnating organization. but excessive turnover creates an unstable workforce and increases human resources (hr) cost. this study seeks to assess the effect of employee’s turnover on organisations. 1.2. objectives of the study the research achieved the following objectives: 1. to determine the causes of employees turnover in organizations. 2. to analyse measures put in place by organizations to reduce employee’s turnover. 3. to assess the effect of employees turnover on organizations. 2. review of literature employee’s turnover can be very problematic for large, medium and small organizations. all organizations can expect some degree of employee’s turnover. indeed a certain degree of employees turnover may be desirable since it creates opportunities to the introduce competence, new ideas and experience to the organization, as well providing career development opportunities for existing workers. though employee’s turnover is however, is costly both to individual organizations and the economy as a whole. it also affects moral, profitability, efficiency and productivity as well. durbin (2000) meyer (2001) also said that employee’s turnover may be due to a particular cause but they can also be an indication of more fundamental organizational problems. establishing the cause and working out for a solution may, therefore, calls for re –examination of the organization policies and procedures. it may be difficult for those within the organizations to conduct this with the degree of rigour and objectives required, and therefore it is advisable to involve someone or a group of people outside the organizations to undertake this task. armstrong (2011), argues that the prospect of getting higher pay elsewhere is one of the most obvious contributions to turnover. this practice can be regularly observed at all levels of the economic ladder, from executives and generously paid professionals in high-stress positions to entry-level workers in relatively undemanding jobs. employees’ turnover tends to be higher in environments where employees feel they are taken advantage of, where the feel undervalued or ignored, and where they feel helpless or unimportant. clearly, if managers are impersonal, arbitrary and demanding, there is a greater risk of turnover (hom and griffeth, 2001). allen (2000) pointed out that employees turnover can be expensive, although the actual costs are difficult to estimate. to get indication, organisations can start adding up the most obvious expenses: those of advertising, recruitment and supervisory time. 3. methodology the research design of this study was through a case study approach, electricity company of ghana. the simple random sampling technique, which is a probability sampling technique, was used to select respondents from the various departments in the organization. the target population chosen by the researcher for this study was made up of management and both the senior and junior staff of electricity company of ghana. the total number of population that the questionnaires were administered was forty (40), of which thirty-eight (38) was retrieved. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1):21-24 23 4. results table-1. overview of respondents: details frequency percentage gender: male 22 57.89 female 16 42.11 age: 18 28 5 13.16 29 – 39 18 47.37 40 – 50 10 26.32 50 60 5 13.16 educational background: diploma / higher national diploma 14 36.84 frist degree 18 47.37 masters 6 15.79 status of respondents: top 6 15.79 middle 14 36.84 lower 18 47.37 work experience: below 5 years 18 47.37 5 – 10 years 10 26.32 10 – 15 years 8 21.05 15 and above 2 5.26 source: field data 2014. table-2.1. causes of employee turnover: details frequency percentage demographic and personal characteristics of employees 3 7.9 job dissatisfaction 9 23.7 organization and work environment 4 10.5 lack of promotion 11 28.9 alternative employment 5 13.2 job security 6 15.8 total 38 100 source: field data 2014. table 2.1 shows the causes of employee turnover in the organization. the causes includes; lack of promotion (28.9%), job dissatisfaction (23.7%), job security (15.8%), alternative employment (13.2%), work environment (10.5%) and personal characteristics (7.9%). table-2.2. measures adopted by the organization to reduce employees turnover measures adopted frequency percentage develop people 8 21.1 recognize good performance 16 42.1 build trust 13 34.2 others 1 2.6 total 38 100 source: field data, 2014. table 2.2 represents measures adopted by ecg to reduce employee turnover. the measures involves; recognizing good performance (42.1%), building trust (34.2%), developing people (21.1%) and other measures available to the company (2.6%). table-2.3. effect of employee turnover table-2.3.1. positive effect of employees turnover impact frequency percentage % opens up promotion channels for employee it helps in reducing redundancy in the organization new ideas and skills are introduced into the organization replacement of poor performers all of the above 38 100 total 38 100 source: field data 2014. table 2.3.1 depicts positive impact of employee turnover on the organization. all the respondents chose all the alternatives. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1):21-24 24 table-2.3.2. negative effects of employee turnover impact frequency percentage additional costs of replacement recruitment 8 21.1 poor quality of work 4 10.5 difficulties in attracting new staff organization 2 5.3 loss of skilled manpower 10 26.3 all of the above 14 36.8 total 38 100 source: field data 2014. table 2.3.2 also depicts the negative impact of turnover. the respondents chose all the alternatives (36.8%). 5. discussion  objective one was to find out the causes of employees turnover in organization’’. the study found out that, as indicated by table 2.1; (arranging from higher to lower percentage): lack of promotion, job dissatisfaction, job security, external environment (alternative employment), organization and work environment, and due to demographic and personal characteristics of employees cause them to leave the organization.  objective two was to find out measures being put in place by organization to reduce employees’ turnover”. the study found out that, as depicted by table 2.1; in order to reduce turnover, the organisation have to put in place the following measures: recognize good performance, build trust, and develop people and others (the organization should hold regular sessions).  objective three was to find out the effect of turnover; the study found out both positive and negative effects as showed by table 2.3.1 and 2.3.2. the positive effect includes: new ideas and skills are introduced into the company, it opens up promotion channel for employees, it helps in reducing redundancy in the organization and it also helps in replacement of poor performers. and the negative effect involves; loss of skilled manpower, additional cost of replacement recruitment, poor quality of work and difficulties in attracting new staff affect the organization most. all the respondents agreed to the positive effects but options were checked for the negative effects. 6. conclusion it can be said that employees leave or quit the organization simply because, they are not satisfied with their working conditions and this affect the organizational efficiency greatly in the sense that experienced workers leave and the organization has to spend money and time to hire, recruit, select and train new employees to replace those who have left. despite the fact that employees turnover has negative impact on the organisation, it also has a positive impact that should not be overlooked. the positive effects outweigh the negative effects based on the study. it brings certain benefits to the organisation so employee turnover should be allowed but kept at an average rate. 7. recommendation:  management should ensure that salaries polices are reviewed frequently to boost employees moral.  management should develop an overall strategic compensation package to employees to serve as a motivational tool for employees.  the organization should ensure that, there is conducive working environment to enhance efficiency. references allen, d., 2000. managing employee turnover: myths to dispel and strategies for effective management. journal of management, 6(2): 122123. armstrong, m., 2011. handbook of human resource management practices. 12th edn., new york: prentice-hall. durbin, h., 2000. applying psychology: individual and organizational. london, england: prentice hall. grobler, p.a., s. warnich, m.r. carrel, n.f. elbert and r.d. hatfield, 2006. human resource management in south africa. london: thompson. hom, p.w. and r.w. griffeth, 2001. retaining valued employees. ontario, canada: southwestern publishing. kreitner, r., 2003. human resources management. toronto: arizona state university: houghton mifflin company. kreitner, r. and a.j. kinicki, 2007. organizational behaviour. 7th edn., new york: irwin mcgraw hill. meyer, j.p., 2001. organizational commitment: personnel psychology and hrm. london, england: wiley. nugent, a., 2009. using voluntary benefits strategically can help employer’s goals of retaining employees and controlling cos t. benefits quarterly reviews, 25(2): 7-10. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 3, 214-221, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 214 implications of correlation between demographic dynamics to public trust in administration of pakistan ali abdullah bajwa1  zhou lu lin2 naveed ahmed wahla3 1,2,3 school of management, jiangsu university, zhenjiang, china ( corresponding author) abstract this paper highlights the issues facing the public administration of the government of pakistan by correlating public trust with multiple demographic variables. the aim was to determine the strength of the relationship between trust and demographic variables. a questionnaire distributed to the general public was used to judge the strength of the relationship between trust in government and different demographic indicators. cross tabulation was used to give a better description of the data. different measures of cross tabulation were used to determine the strength of the relationship between the variables. the performance on each variable was correlated with trust not only to determine the strength of the relationship between each demographic variable and trust, specifically for pakistan but also to highlight areas where administrative performance was lacking. the results showed that similar to research done in other countries most of the factors mentioned in literature, such as income and religion did have a strong relationship with trust, however, age seemed not to have a significant relationship with trust in pakistan. the research provides a general framework which will help increase trust of the public in the government, which is of utmost important to improve the ability of the pakistani public administration to deliver goods and services to the general public. keywords: public trust, demographics, income, age, education, religion, national pride, administration, cross tabulation, pakistan. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 215 2. methodology....................................................................................................................................................................... 216 3. results and analysis of data ............................................................................................................................................. 217 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 220 citation | ali abdullah bajwa; zhou lu lin; naveed ahmed wahla (2016). implications of correlation between demographic dynamics to public trust in administration of pakistan. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(3): 214-221. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.214.221 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/ acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 5 may 2016/ revised: 18 may 2016/ accepted: 25 may 2016/ published: 2 june 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.214.221 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ali abdullah bajwa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zhou lu lin https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=naveed ahmed wahla http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.214.221 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.214.221 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ali abdullah bajwa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zhou lu lin https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=naveed ahmed wahla http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.214.221 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.214.221 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ali abdullah bajwa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zhou lu lin https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=naveed ahmed wahla http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.214.221 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.214.221 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ali abdullah bajwa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zhou lu lin https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=naveed ahmed wahla http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.214.221 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.214.221 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ali abdullah bajwa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zhou lu lin https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=naveed ahmed wahla http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.214.221 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 214-221 215 1. introduction the term governance refers to the formal and informal processes that determine how public decisions are made and how administrative actions are carried out from the perspective of maintaining a country‘s constitutional values. public administration is considered a constituent pillar of governance. good administration is a model of administration. as a principle, good administration summaries the margins inside which the public administration activity should take place, by establishing, on the one hand, a set of ethical rules of behavior, and on the other hand, standards to be taken into account by the public administration activity (matei and băieşiu, 2014). therefore, the public administration activity should be developed efficiently, effectively and economically. good governance is focused on creating a consensus through negotiations and mediations among different stakeholders mainly the public. good governance has a major impact on administration by providing equity (i.e. all men and women have equal opportunities to improve or sustain their well-being and growth), effectiveness and efficiency (i.e. it achieves results that meet the need of the public while making the best use of the available resources) and last but definitely not the least accountability (i.e. all the decision makers in government administration, the private sector and the civil society are answerable to the general public and to the institutional stakeholders.) good governance has been suggested to lead to a more efficient division of labor, higher productivity of investment, and efficient implementation of social and economic policies. the results of study point to the importance of taking into account different segments of the public into confidence. in the past public administration has mainly used so-called ‗hard indicators‘, such as resources and outputs, to monitor performance (bouckaert and van, 2003). however, the increased attention on accountability and issues around social impacts and outcomes have stimulated the introduction of ‗soft‘ indicators—e.g. citizen and user satisfaction targets. moreover, there is a greater demand for information on performance in relation to ‗governance‘ as a whole, including multiple indicators such as quality of life. bouckaert and van de walle found that trust can be considered a sufficiently strong indicator of good governance. this study aims to pursue this line of analysis to determine the administrative performance of the government of pakistan. a study on administration (matei and băieşiu, 2014) found that it is useful that the administration to have the initiative in setting a trust based relation with the citizens. as this will give the administration greater stability. furthermore, a study on corruption and trust in asian countries (chang and chu, 2006) found that there is a strong trust-eroding effect of political corruption in asian democracies. therefore, corruption as an indicator of trust in the pakistani administration has been used in this study. multiple studies talk about the influence of demographic variables on trust in public institutions. one study illustrated that female show greater support for public institutions compared to men (lægreid, 1993). another found that, older people normally have greater trust in government institutions compared to the younger generation of people (christensen and per, 2005). in another research (bouckaert and steven, 2001) found that the higher a person‘s education level, the more trust he or she will have in the government. the role of media in shaping public‘s attitudes, including their trust in government has also been illustrated by researchers (miller et al., 1979). in addition to this, academics have also found that the extent of an individual‘s national pride is directly proportional with the trust in the political institutions (klingemann, 1999). therefore, in our study these dynamics will be taken as the independent variables while determining public support. discriminatory social institutions are also a major factor in gender disparities in the formal and informal sectors of the economy in countries likes pakistan. female enrolment in school for countries like pakistan is similar to the condition of the usa in 1810 (jawad and edwina, 2013). a lot of academics have come to the conclusion that trust in government represents an evaluation of government performance, demonstrating whether performance is in accordance with the normative expectations held by the public (miller and ola, 1999; levi and laura, 2000). this provides us with the basis of using public perception of performance as an indicator of performance. a study on the causal relationships between quality of governance and economic growth (wilson, 2016) at the provincial level in china during the post-mao reform era found that the observed positive association between governance and growth reflects the ability of provincial governments to harness the potential created by economic growth to implement subsequent governance improvements. both potential directions of causality between quality of governance and economic performance have support in the prior theoretical and empirical literature. looking first at the effect of governance on economic growth, there are several potential channels through which causality may operate. professionalization of the bureaucracy provides bureaucrats with predictable, merit-based career paths within the civil service, creating stability and longer time horizons that encourage investment in public infrastructure with long-term payoffs rather than present consumption. furthermore, the systematic rule-based decision-making should also increase the effectiveness of major infrastructure projects that involve collaboration between different government agencies (evans and rauch, 1999). a stable and trusted bureaucracy can promote long-term investment by private businesses, by reducing the perceived risk associated with changing government policies and bureaucratic turnover (evans and rauch, 1999). a study on the dynamics of public support for government policies in the us after 9/11 found that support from the public for allocating resources to address issues such as homeland security will be greater if increased trust in government can be sustained (chanley, 2002). therefore, the results of the research point to the significance of the level of public support and the importance of maintaining it. this indicated that to successfully tackle the outstanding administrative issues facing pakistan trust in the administration has to be developed to successfully overcome the problems facing the country. furthermore, in recent years, economists and economic historians have also begun to emphasize the importance of effective institutions—the ―rules of the game‖ that govern the interactions between economic actors and constrain the potential abuse of political power—in determining a country‘s prospects for economic growth (north, 1990). furthermore, a study on citizen participation in macroeconomic policy (brinkerhoff and goldsmith, 2003) found that asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 214-221 216 there is a very real need to invest in communication. the presentation of macroeconomic policy and the method of implementation for e.g. the time frame has a direct impact on the perceptions of policy stakeholders i.e. the public, and this directly determines whether a certain policy would be successful or not. hence, it is clear that the view of the public on this issue will have a direct impact on the success of any administrative action. a study on co-governance and accountability (ackerman, 2004) found that the best way to tap into the potential of society and to energize them is through ―co-governance,‖ which involves inviting social actors i.e. the civil society to participate in the core activities of the state. participation of society is mostly seen as a way to decrease cost of government usually through outsourcing tasks and jobs, an example of which would be ngo‘s and other organizations within communities and societies. however, this is not the true participation as has been envisioned by the undp and the world bank (undp, 2002; world bank, 2003). active engagement and participation is still rare in practice and would implementation of this principal would go a long way in ensuring effective administration. this can only be achieved by governments if they are aware of how best to interact with different sections of society by making polices to counter problems certain demographics face. in a paper on social impact assessment (sia) and public participation in china (tang, 2008) the importance of sia was discussed in great detail. the study highlighted the significance of sia‘s as a tool of measuring the impact of development and other such administrative efforts. the paper studied in detail how sia helps to address the social issues that arise out of planned administrative efforts and that this helps to maintain, sustain and develop an environment of contentment. sia in essence protects and helps involve the public in a dialogue, which has a direct effect on their future. all this highlights the importance of building public trust for effective governance and administration and this will be kept in mind while conducting this study. an article on the governance and conflict relapse (hegre and nygard, 2015) shows that the risk of conflict in countries characterized by good governance drops rapidly after a conflict has ended or after independence. in countries with poor governance, this process takes much longer. this only adds to the importance of building trust between the government and the citizens since pakistan is marred by conflict. furthermore, a study on trust in governments (suh, 2012) pointed to the possibility of interpersonal trust ―spilling up‖ to trust in institutions and the likelihood that trust in one institution ―spills over‖ to trust in other related institutions. therefore, build-up of trust between the government and the people will lead to a build-up of trust between the armed forces and the citizens, which will facilitate the military establishment to successfully tackle the problems it faces. in a study on reform in the public administration (aoki, 2015) it was recommended at a study of administrative reform must take into account how to best determine the priority of reforms, the outcomes of which must be identified. this leads to the conclusion that the sequences in which administrative reforms evolve have a direct bearing on the results. therefore, any reform should be subjective and based on the results of the demographic dynamics applicable to that particular area. keeping in mind the findings of this research, the results from the study will be used to determine the demographics that need to special attention and prioritize their reform in order to address the root cause of the problems of the people. 2. methodology results from the first part of the research, which involved collecting data from survey helped us build a clear picture of the situation. it is important to keep in mind that the factors used for this to determine administrative performance were mined from literature and they were chosen as such because all these factors were shown to have a significant relationship with trust in the federal government in research done by experts in the field in other developing countries. kendall tau-b and spearmen correlation coefficient were used to show the degree/strength of the relationship between trust the dependent variable and the independent variables. here we will breakdown the results and look at some statistical outliers. in order to determine, which issues are of pressing importance for the pakistani administration. hypothesis: h1: there is significant correlation between age of individual and his trust in federal government h2: there is significant correlation between income of individual and trust in federal government h3: there is significant correlation between education of individual and trust in federal government h4: there is significant correlation between religion of individual and trust in federal government h5: there is significant correlation between national pride of individual and trust in federal government the following measures were used in the study to determine the strength of the relationship between demographic variables and trust. 2.1. correlation coefficients the following correlation coefficient was used to determine the strength of the relationship between the two variables. kendall’s tau-b: white and korotayev (2004) define this coefficient as a, ―bifunctional correlation between two ordinal variables based on the number of agreements (p) and inversions (q) in the rankings. it discounts the number ‗to‘ of ties (which are allowed in functional correlations) so that a value of -1 or +1 can only be obtained from square tables. its square measures the proportion of variance explained in the ordinal rankings. tau-b = (p q)/ sqrt[((p + q + y0)(p + q + x0))]  |1.0| determinate  > |0.7| very strong  |0.5| – |0.7| strong asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 214-221 217  |0.3| – |0.5| medium  |0.2| – |0.3| weak*  |0.1| – |0.2| very weak  < |0.1| extremely weak the above written scale provides us with a guideline to determine strength of the relationship between variables after the analysis has been done. 2.2. measurement issues the performance of a demographic indicator can be judged by three criteria: validity, reliability, and precision (johnston, 2008). however, the process of approximating the unobserved dimensions is riddled with many issues and problems. to start with, there is the complicated problem of translating opinions and perception into measurable, mathematical quantities. this issue is further complicated by the fact that perceptions may or may not reflect the objective reality i.e. the opinion of the public and its perceptions regarding governance cannot be taken as the actual state of governance. there is a considerable difference between computing something and assessing the perceptions regarding the issue. firstly, public opinion can lag behind reality in a fluid and changing economic context, when the framework and policies of an economy are undergoing rapid changes. in conclusion, reliability remains an enormous issue: it is difficult for anyone other than the producers of these indicators to replicate the results, as many of the surveys with which these studies were carried out are not available to outsiders. thus, the problem of reliability increases as the number of surveys increases. finally, all demographic indicators are particularly vulnerable to various measurement errors as they are collected from many different types of data—surveys of different sizes with dissimilar contents. many of the surveys are seldom revised, whereas, many others are revised regularly every year. some indicators for a country are grounded on one or two sources of information while others are based on multiple sources of information. due to the heterogeneity of data, demographic measures tend to suffer from large errors in measurement, especially, in countries with low-incomes with very few sources of information. therefore, for the purpose of this research emphasis was put on using the most appropriate demographic indices for pakistan and to determine their significance using cross tabulation. 2.3. ethical issues in research research in the field of social science examines multifaceted problems which encompass cultural, legal, economic, and political phenomena (freed‐taylor, 1994). this means that research in the field of social science must concern itself with ―moral integrity‖ to ensure that research process and findings are ―trustworthy‖ and valid (biber, 2005). firstly, fitness for intended use is a consideration, which is of great significance, relates to the degree to which the data conforms to the essential requirements of the research for which it was carried out. sampling error has to be accounted for and is a big issue in this form of research. survey population which describes the actual population from which the survey data are collected is of great importance in order to obtain a clear picture of the issue at hand. 3. results and analysis of data this section highlights the findings from the data collected from survey respondents using the figure-1. histogram showing trust distribution source: spss table 1 shows the breakdown of trust and age; it is interesting to note that a majority of the respondents in the highest age bracket showed low trust in the administration. while the youngest were equally divided. the kendall tau-b measure showed a value of .173. the details of this have been discussed in the conclusion. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 214-221 218 table-1. crosstab count age total 18-25 25-32 32-39 39 and above trust very low trust 75 11 13 0 99 low trust 40 33 0 34 107 enough trust 57 34 33 3 127 very high trust 15 16 16 0 47 total 187 94 62 37 380 source: spss table-1a. symmetric measures value asymp. std. error a approx. t b approx. sig. ordinal by ordinal kendall‘s tau-b .173 .041 4.261 .000 spearman correlation .207 .048 4.109 .000 c interval by interval pearson‘s r .163 .043 3.214 .001 c n of valid case 380 a. not assuming the null hypothesis. b. using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis. c. based on normal approximation. table 2 shows the breakdown of income levels and trust in the administration. those with low level of income exhibit very or low trust and those with higher income exhibit more trust. however, a significant majority with relatively higher earning exhibit enough trust. the kendall tau-b value for this measure is .627 the implications of which have been discussed later on. table-2. crosstab count income 5,000-15,000 15,000-25000 25,00035,000 35,000 and above total trust very low trust 75 11 13 0 99 low trust 76 31 0 0 107 enough trust 12 33 67 15 127 very high trust 0 0 32 15 47 total 163 75 112 30 380 source: spss table-2a. symmetric measures value asymp. std. error a approx. t b approx. sig. ordinal by ordinal kendall‘s tau-b .627 .028 20.987 .000 spearman correlation .705 .031 19.303 .000 c interval by interval pearson‘s r .697 .028 18.896 .000 c n of valid case 380 a. not assuming the null hypothesis. b. using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis. c. based on normal approximation. table 3 deals with level of education of respondents and trust. it shows that those with higher education tend to have greater trust in the administrative machinery of the state. the kendall tau-b measure for this is .458, a detailed analysis of the implications has been done in the final section of this paper. table-3. crosstab count education total no education primary education high school university trust very low trust 28 58 13 0 99 low trust 16 76 15 0 107 enough trust 6 39 33 49 127 very high trust 0 16 16 15 47 total 50 189 77 64 380 source: spss asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 214-221 219 table-3a. symmetric measures value asymp. std. error a approx. t b approx. sig. ordinal by ordinal kendall‘s tau-b .458 .032 13.503 .000 spearman correlation .533 .035 12.251 .000 c interval by interval pearson‘s r .526 .033 12.036 .000 c n of valid case 380 a. not assuming the null hypothesis. b. using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis. c. based on normal approximation. table 4 deals with religion and trust. as muslims are a majority the column was divided into muslims and nonmuslims grouping the other non-muslim denominations together to gather a clearer understanding of the dynamics of trust. non-muslims without exception showed a lack of trust in the administration. the kendall tau-b measure for this is -.573, the reasons for the lack of trust shown by non-muslims and the implications of the significance of relationship have been discussed in the succeeding section table-4. crosstab count religion total muslim nonmuslim trust very low trust 29 70 99 low trust 89 18 107 enough trust 127 0 127 very high trust 47 0 47 total 292 88 380 source: spss table-4a. symmetric measures value asymp. std. error a approx. t b approx. sig. ordinal by ordinal kendall‘s tau-b -.573 .0277 -13.676 .000 spearman correlation -.623 .029 -15.480 .000 c interval by interval pearson‘s r -.617 .029 -15.249 .000 c n of valid case 380 a. not assuming the null hypothesis. b. using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis. c. based on normal approximation. table 5 deals with the correlation of national pride and trust. the table shows that those with enough trust in the administration also happen to have greater national pride. however, those with very low trust also happen to be very proud. the reason for such a disparity has been discussed below. the kendalltau b measure for these variables was .418. table-5. crosstab count national pride total not proud proud very proud trust very low trust 12 74 13 99 low trust 1 44 62 107 enough trust 2 11 114 127 very high trust 15 0 32 47 total 30 129 221 380 source: spss table-5a. symmetric measures value asymp. std. error a approx. t b approx. sig. ordinal by ordinal kendall‘s tau-b .418 .049 8.881 .000 spearman correlation .448 .056 9.742 .000 c interval by interval pearson‘s r .347 .065 7.197 .000 c n of valid case 380 a. not assuming the null hypothesis. b. using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis. c. based on normal approximation. 3.1. conclusion the results of the study showed that the with the exception of age the other variables have strong linkages to trust. interpreting the scale of relationship strength, you can see that age showed ‗very weak‘ linkages. this implies that age of individual is not an essential determinant of an individual‘s level of trust in the administration. therefore, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 214-221 220 policies targeting a specific age group while ignoring their income, education or religious affiliations will not lead to an increase in trust in the administration. at a time when trust is at an alarming low point among the youth it would be prudent to focus on their demographic dynamics that have strong linkages to trust, otherwise the administration and the public‘s trust deficit is bound to fall further. moving on to income it shows ‗strong‘ linkages to trust meaning that an individual income can be seen as a determinant of trust. this implies that economic policies aimed at improving the overall economic situation will have a strong impact on the level of trust individuals have in the administration. focusing on economic welfare by increasing minimum wage will lead to an increase in trust the public has in the administration. this in turn based on the results of previous studies will increase the administration‘s ability to make reforms and move towards the ideal of good governance. education showed ‗medium‘ strength relationship meaning that while education level of individual has an effect on trust it is not as pronounced as the level of income, this shows that individuals on both ends of the education spectrum have large levels of mistrust. however, a medium strength relationship is of enough significance for it to be taken seriously by the administration. policies have to be developed catering to individuals on both ends of the education spectrum, furthermore, the administration has to establish specifically designed outreach programs in order to better explain their policies to people from differing backgrounds. religion showed ‗strong‘ linkages on the kendall tau-b measure implying that religious affiliation of the respondent has great effect on the level of trust in the administration. from the results of the measure it can be concluded that muslims have greater trust in the administration than nonmuslims. this is an alarming situation as protecting the rights of minorities is of tantamount importance for a progressive state in the 21 st century. furthermore, in terms of numbers minorities in pakistan are in millions, therefore, the government has to ensure they are well integrated into the social fabric of society. as literature points out united public support for the administration allows for the administration to function freely (chanley, 2002) therefore, the pakistani administration should look to placate the minorities to get support across the board public support for its reforms and policies. lastly, national pride was shown to have a relationship of medium significance. in a review of lee's tactics in the 1913–1914 rate campaign (st. john iii, 2006) and the researchers made a case for ethical propaganda, which presents researchers with the opportunity to move beyond the progressive critique of propaganda and ask new questions about how propaganda can ethically contribute to dialogue and resolution within a democracy. keeping in mind that national pride of an individual was shown to have an effect on an individual‘s level of trust in the administration, it can be recommended that the government pay heed to the national morale and level of pride the public has in the country and to initiate campaigns and devise policies aimed at boosting national pride and subsequently the public trust in the administration. many scholars argue that citizens with higher levels of trust in the political establishment are more likely to grant bureaucratic discretion to public administrators than citizens with lower levels of trust. trust, therefore, can alleviate the friction between managerial flexibility and political accountability in the modern administrative state (cooper, 2008) and this is of utmost importance to pakistan which is marred by bureaucratic inefficiency as exhibited by the performance variable in this research. the degree of maneuverability political leaders have in the reform process is influenced by environmental factors (christensen, 2002). therefore, focusing on areas of weakness and improving performance standards and empowering citizens while allowing them express themselves freely will foster the building of trust in the pakistani government, which will facilitate an environment conducive to reform and development in the troubled region. overall, it can be said that the lack of trust in the government of pakistan especially within specific demographics like non-muslims, is a worrying indicator of poor administration. the government needs a cohesive response to counter all outstanding issues in order to build trust between different segments of the public and the government, which as history has taught us 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or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/courses asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 2, 57-61, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 57 the role of cooperative learning in the teaching of community and developmental subjects: the case of teaching history at secondary school level maxwell constantine chando musingafi 1* --shillah rugonye 2 1 zimbabwe open university, department of development studies, masvingo regional campus, 68 hellet street, masvingo zimbabwe 2 zimbabwe open university, department of counselling. mashonaland east regional campus marondera zimbabwe abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction .............................................................................................................................................................58 2. statement of motivation..........................................................................................................................................58 3. purpose of the paper ...............................................................................................................................................58 4. theoretical framework ..........................................................................................................................................58 5. the argument for cooperative learning .............................................................................................................58 6. benefits of cooperative learning in history ........................................................................................................59 7. drawbacks of cooperative learning in the teaching of history .......................................................................60 8. conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................60 references ....................................................................................................................................................................61 bibliography.................................................................................................................................................................61 in this conceptual paper we argue the case for cooperative learning. generally teachers have the option of structuring lessons competitively, individualistically, or cooperatively. students can compete to see who is best, or work individualistically toward a goal without paying attention to other students, or work cooperatively with a vested interest in each other's learning as well as their own. from our experience as teachers and lecturers in the humanities, we observe that, of the three interaction patterns, competition is presently the most dominant. in most cases, the world over, students view schooling as a competitive enterprise where one tries to out-compete other students. cooperation among students (celebrating each other‟s successes; encouraging each other to do homework; learning to work together regardless of their ethnic backgrounds), is still rare. in this paper we therefore examine the role and effectiveness of cooperative learning in the teaching of history at secondary school level showing both its strengths and drawbacks. we start by defining selected important concepts in the paper before making an exposition of cooperative learning and its effectiveness in the teaching of history at secondary school level. keywords: cooperative learning, teaching, history, students, secondary school. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 57-61 58 1. introduction as observed by keraro et al. (2007), the teaching approach that a teacher adopts is a strong factor that influences students‟ motivation to learn. generally, teachers have three options of structuring lessons: they may structure their lesson competitively, individualistically, or cooperatively. hence they motivate learners differently. it has been, however, argued that since society is highly competitive, learners must be educated to succeed in a “survival for the fittest” world. hence competition is presently the most dominant approach to teaching and learning. the danger with competition is that it creates winners and losers, thereby instilling a feeling of „them-us‟ within students. students are thus competitively divided along competitive and individualistic lines. yet knowledge is a social construction for it is socially constructed in collaborative groups (alexpoulou and driver, 1996; bianchin, 1997; kelly and green, 1998).this paper, thus argues the case for cooperative learning in the teaching of history at secondary school level showing both its strengths and drawbacks. the paper starts by briefly exploring the concept of competitive learning and other important concepts in the paper before making an exposition of cooperative learning and its effectiveness in the teaching of history at secondary school level. 2. statement of motivation from our experience as teachers and lecturers at high school, college and university level we observe that teaching is highly dominated by the competitive approach to teaching and learning. we also note with concern that this dominant approach to teaching and learning creates a few winners and countless losers. yet there is a better approach to teaching and learning in form of cooperative learning. cooperative learning with its constructivist approach to teaching and learning argues the case for students working together in their endeavours to solve their learning problems. we understand that this approach promotes innovation and creativity if properly administered in a social setting. it is this conflicting situation between practice in the classroom and the desired situation that triggers us into researching and writing this paper. the paper thus explores the value of cooperative learning, not only in the school setting, but in the total human universe. 3. purpose of the paper this paper sought to investigate the usefulness of cooperative learning as compared to traditional competitive approaches to learning. the paper argues the case for cooperative learning in teaching and learning, using history at secondary school as case study. 4. theoretical framework in this paper we are guided by the constructivist theory of learning as our conceptual framework. the theory is built on the belief that an effective teacher is nothing more than simply a facilitator. as a facilitator a teacher creates an environment in which learners organise meaning on a personal level. we believe that a teaching strategy that involves students actively is more likely to lead to socio-economic creativity and meaningful learning. this cannot be achieved through conventional approaches to learning. 5. the argument for cooperative learning competitive learning is an interpersonal, competitive learning situation characterised by negative goal interdependence where, when one person wins, the others lose (roger and johnson, 1994). ndividualistic learning situations are those situations where students are independent of one another and are working towards criteria where their success depends on their own performance in relation to established criteria. the success or failure of other students does not affect their score (ibid).cooperative learning is defined as involving the structuring of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other's learning (ibid). felder and brent (2007) say the term refers to students working in teams on an assignment or project under conditions in which certain criteria are satisfied, including that the team members be held individually accountable for the complete content of the assignment or project. thus in a cooperative learning situation, interaction is characterized by positive goal interdependence with individual accountability. positive goal interdependence requires acceptance by a group that they sink or swim together (roger and johnson, 1994). cooperative learning is one of the appropriate teaching techniques which lead to less anxiety and increase students‟ self-awareness from their learning procedure (powell and enright, 1990). cooperative learning offers a pleasant learning situation for all students, competition is amended as friendship, the spirit of cooperation and participation is reinforced, and all students are entitled to be thoughtful and creative (keramati, 2001). in this technique students are gathered within small, peculiar groups in which they work together to reach their objectives and are responsible for their learning (johnson and johnson, 1994). in fact cooperative learning is organised and managed group work in which students work cooperatively in small groups to achieve academic as well as affective and social goals. in hundreds of studies, cooperative learning has been associated with gains in such variables as achievement, interpersonal skills, and attitudes toward school, self, and others (sharan, 1980; johnson and johnson, 1989; slavin, 1990; cohen, 1994). beyond these overall gains, research also suggests that cooperative learning may lead to gains in thinking skills (johnson and johnson, 1990; qin et al., 1995). therefore, as a classroom organisation and instructional method, cooperative learning merits serious consideration for use in history lessons. cooperative learning is designed in such a way that it actively involve students in the learning process. this, in most cases, may not possible in a lecture format. its foundations are therefore founded in constructivist epistemology. cooperative learning is thus a process that requires knowledge to be discovered by students and transformed into concepts to which the students can relate. the discovered knowledge is then reconstructed and expanded through new learning experiences. all the learning is thus experienced through dialogue among students in a social setting. cooperative learning employs various learning activities so as to improve students' understanding of concepts and new ideas by using a structured approach involving a series of steps. according to kagan (1994), this asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 57-61 59 requires students to create, analyse and apply concepts in their everyday life experiences. in cooperative learning both the individual and the social setting are active dynamics in the learning process as students attempt to imitate real-life learning. in fact, by combining teamwork and individual accountability, students work towards acquiring both knowledge and social skills. cooperative learning is therefore a teaching strategy which allows students to work together in small groups with individuals of various talents, abilities and backgrounds to accomplish a common goal. every member is responsible for learning the material and also for helping the other members of the team learn. students have to work until all members successfully understand and complete the assignment. thus creating an atmosphere of achievement (panitz, 1996). it is argued that this process results in a deeper understanding of the material and more potential to retain the material. according to roger and johnson (1994), there is a difference between simply having students work in a group and structuring groups of students to work cooperatively. students who sit at the same table where they do their own individual work, but free to talk with each other as they work, cannot be said to be in a cooperative group as there is no positive interdependence. this scenario could best be described as individualistic learning with talking. for this kind of setting to turn into a cooperative learning situation, there is need for an accepted common goal on which the group is rewarded for its efforts. if a group of students has been assigned to do a report, but only one student does all the work and the others go along for a free ride, it is not a cooperative group. a cooperative group has a sense of individual accountability that means that all students need to know the material or spell well for the whole group to be successful. putting students into groups does not necessarily gain a cooperative relationship; it has to be structured and managed by the teacher (roger and johnson, 1994). according to adams and hamm (1990) a cooperative learning lesson often begins with some direct instruction where the teacher presents new material. next comes cooperative group work. during this group work, students have to take observable roles so as to help them feel responsible for participating and learning. the role of the teacher is to monitor cooperative groups to ensure that students are learning and functioning smoothly. thus the key to cooperative learning is team spirit which is stressed with students learning how to learn by participation with their peers (kagan, 1994). according to jacobs et al. (1997), teachers who use cooperative learning have learning objectives that are academic, affective and social. they argue that in this scenario, students are encouraged not to think only of their own learning but of their group members as well. as such, cooperation becomes a theme, not just a teaching technique (jacobs, 1997). further, cooperation features throughout the school like in teachers cooperating with one another and letting their students know about this collaboration (jacobs et al., 1997). in cooperative learning classes, communication is structured very differently. for the reason that students learn in collaboration in cooperative learning, they consequently engage in extensive verbal negotiations with their peers. their cooperative group provides them with a more intimate setting that permits direct and unmediated communication (shachar and sharan, 1994). it is believed that such a context is key to students engaging in real discussion and wrestling with ideas. it is thus argued that in this setting, students are be given opportunities to stretch and extend their thinking. 6. benefits of cooperative learning in history above all, history is an interactive subject about life, especially life as influenced by human beings. as such history can simply be seen as nothing else but reality. the best teacher of reality is experience. this is what cooperative learning offers to history students. panitz (1996) came up with over 50 benefits from the use of cooperative learning. these benefits can be categorised social, psychological, academic and assessment categories. cooperative learning promotes social interactions; thus students of history benefit in a number of ways from the social perspective. by having the students explain their historical reasoning and conclusions, cooperative learning helps develop oral communication skills. because of the social interaction among students, cooperative learning is not only used to help students empathize with the people that lived on earth before them, but also to model the appropriate social behaviours necessary for employment situations. by following the appropriate structuring for cooperative learning, students are able to develop and practice skills that will be needed to function in both their communities and the workplace. as already alluded to above, these skills include: leadership, decision-making, trust building, communication and conflict-management. it has also been found that the cooperative learning environment develops a social support system for students. in a history lesson setup this would not only refer to other students, the history teacher, administrators, other school staff and parents but also those who lived long back become integral parts of the learning process supplying multiple opportunities for support to the students (kessler and mccleod, 1985). students also get psychological benefits from cooperative learning. johnson and johnson (1989) claim, "cooperative learning experiences promote more positive attitudes" toward learning and instruction than other teaching methodologies. this would mean students develop positive attitudes towards history as a subject. also, for the reason that students play an active role in the learning process in cooperative learning, their satisfaction with the learning experience is likely to be enhanced. cooperative learning has been found to help in the development of interpersonal relationships among students (kessler and mccleod, 1985). these authors argue that the opportunity to discuss their ideas in smaller groups and receive constructive feedback on those ideas in cooperative groups helps to build student self-esteem. in lectures, individual students are simply called upon to respond to a question in front of the class without having much time to think about their answers. cooperative learning makes students feel secure and protected as solutions come from the group rather than from the individual. any mistakes that are likely to occur in conclusions are corrected within the group before they are presented to the class. students also tend to be inspired by instructors who take the time to plan history activities which promote an encouraging environment (janke, 1980). it has also been argued that receiving encouragement in a cooperative and supportive setting from both the instructor and peers helps to develop higher self-efficacy. as a result of higher selfasian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 57-61 60 efficacy, student grades tend to increase; thus, cooperative learning methods provide several academic benefits for history students. according to johnson and johnson (1990), several studies have shown that students taught by cooperative methods learn and retain significantly more information than students taught by other methods. it is argued that requiring students to verbalise their ideas to the group helps them to develop more clear concepts. as such the thought process becomes fully embedded in the students' memory. cooperative group discussions lead to more frequent summarisation as the students are constantly explaining and elaborating their line of thought. this in turn validates and strengthens thoughts (ibid). students also benefit from cooperative learning academically in the sense that there is more of a potential for success when students work in groups. individuals tend to give up when they get stuck, whereas a group of students is more likely to find a way to keep going (ibid). it is also important to note that cooperative learning calls for self-management from students as they must not only come prepared with completed assignments but they must also understand the material which they have compiled. as a result, a more complete understanding of the historical material is developed. cooperative learning has been found to be of great benefit to both students and their teachers. it provides instant feedback to the students and teachers. this is so for the effectiveness of each class can be observed. as teachers move around the classroom and observe each group interacting and explaining their theories, they are able to detect misconceptions early enough to correct them. only a few minutes of observation during each class session can provide helpful insight into students' abilities and growth. cooperative teaching methods also utilise a variety of assessments. according to johnson and johnson (1990), grades are not dependent solely on tests and individual assignments which only allow for right or wrong responses, leaving no room for reflection and discussion of error or misconceptions. with cooperative learning, history teachers can use more authentic assessments such as observation, peer assessment and writing reflections. 7. drawbacks of cooperative learning in the teaching of history history teachers who are unfamiliar with cooperative learning are likely to face a number of challenges, some of which include loss of control of their classroom, being unsure of the techniques used or possibly even think that it is too time consuming. it is also believed that to avoid drawbacks of cooperative teaching it is important to recognize what has been said against it. many researchers have proved that cooperative elements alone do not ensure maximal productivity from a learning group; there has to be both cooperation and conflict (johnson and johnson, 1991). group work practices have been criticized as being ineffective because many problems like conflicts of ideas, disagreements, misunderstanding and free riders can be found during the processes of the strategy. as put forward by johnson and johnson (1990), it has been viewed that when students interact conflicts among their ideas, conclusions, theories, information, views, opinions and preferences are obvious. furthermore, when cooperative groups fail, there is the tendency to fix blame on others and the weaker group members become the scapegoat. this is likely to result in unwarranted misunderstandings. it has also to be noted that cooperative learning is not a panacea to all learning situation problems. there are some cases where pupils, even in small groups, tend to be silent participants and depend on the thinking of other students. as already seen above cooperative learning is a structured approach that requires instructor support and guidance. in order for cooperative learning to be utilized in the classroom, history teachers must receive training to be proficient in implementing the techniques. without proper training history teachers may resist using cooperative learning techniques in their classroom because they are afraid they may lose control of their teaching routine. teachers may have a difficult time giving up their control of the content that is being covered (panitz, 1996). these teachers have been accustomed to presenting the curriculum to the students and thus they are unable to give students the freedom to learn on their own. showing their expertise in history is important for some teachers. giving up the opportunity to show off this expertise may deter them from using cooperative learning in their classrooms. also, if students are expected to explore on their own, then they may have questions that the teacher cannot answer. both of these possibilities may cause a teacher to lose confidence in her/his teaching abilities. history teachers can still be experts, but they will be using their knowledge as a facilitator rather than a giver of information. depending on the age level, history students may resist using cooperative learning in their classrooms. the lecture method does not require much interaction and participation from and among them as students. in fact, they can get as much or as little from the class as they like. being required to work in a group may ruffle a few feathers with the students because now they are being asked to participate and contribute to their learning. in addition, they are also asked to learn new concepts and taught how to work in a group. they may not be accustomed to working in a group, and therefore, may be unsure of the dynamics involved in group work. since cooperative learning is centred on group work, history students may be concerned that other members of their group are going to bring their grades down. this is most likely when students are grouped by mixed ability, requiring higher ability students to guide lower ability students. note that deciding how groups should be formed is an important part of the cooperative learning planning process. mixed ability grouping allows for all group members to be involved, though the type of involvement differs. advanced students can teach struggling students, but concerns arise about advanced students doing all the work and struggling students not being motivated to be involved at all. there are also concerns that gifted students are held back by the lower ability students in their group. if students are grouped with others of the same ability level, then the lower ability group may feel frustrated and unmotivated to try. also when cooperative groups fail, there is the tendency to fix blame on others and the weaker group members become the scapegoat. therefore, misunderstanding might rise up. there are still some cases where pupils, even in small groups, tend to be silent participants and depend on the thinking of other students. 8. conclusion it is thus concluded that cooperative learning is very useful and very effective in teaching history depending on the expertise of the teacher and orientation of the students. the most important requirement for an effectively asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 57-61 61 structured cooperative history lesson is that students believe that they sink or swim together. within cooperative learning situations, students have two responsibilities: learn the assigned historical material, and ensure that all members of the group learn the assigned material. this has been found to promote positive interdependence. positive interdependence exists when history students perceive that they are linked with group mates in such a way that they cannot succeed unless their group mates do (and vice versa) and/or that they must coordinate their efforts with the efforts of their group mates to complete a task. the argument is that positive interdependence promotes a situation in which students see that their work benefits group mates and their group mates' work benefits them; and work together in small groups to maximize the learning of all members by sharing their resources to provide mutual support and encouragement and to celebrate their joint success. like any other teaching methods, cooperative learning has its own peculiar weaknesses but these can be effectively handled with proper orientation and expertise. references adams, d.n. and m.e. hamm, 1990. cooperative learning critical 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learning. new york: cambridge press. pp: 36 48. johnson, d.w. and r.t. johnson, 1987. learning together and alone: cooperative, competitive, and individualistic. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice hall. johnson, d.w., r.t. johnson and e.j. holubec, 1986. circles of learning: cooperation in the classroom. edina, mn: interaction book company. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/collaborative-learning/panitz-paper.cfm asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 3, 191-197, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 191 industry type and accounting numbers relevance: the case of jordan dhiaa shamki1 hasan mohammed bamahros2 1 managerial and financial sciences department, al zahra college for women, muscat, sultanate of oman 2 school of accountancy, college of business, university utara malaysia, kedah, malaysia and university of aden ( corresponding author) abstract the paper examines the impact of industry type on the accounting numbers relevance regarding three measures for security price known as average security price, closing security price and after three months security price for jordanian service and manufacturing sectors within 2004-2013. three regression models are used with and without control variables. the outcomes of the pooled sample are used in evaluating our hypotheses to reveal which security price is the most dependable. influenced by the industry type, the relevance of book value regarding the three security measures and that of earnings regarding closing security price are greater in services sector than that in manufacturing sector. cash flows are irrelevant regarding the three security measures. our results reveal that closing security price is the most dependable in detecting the value relevance of the accounting numbers. taking our findings in consideration could enable market participants to better extract the firm’s value through the type of industry that they invest in. our conclusions regarding the importance of book value is supported by many studies making it being new evidence related to jordan as one of the middle eastern region. keywords: earnings, book value, cash flows, security price, services sector, manufacturing sector, jordan. citation | dhiaa shamki; hasan mohammed bamahros (2016). industry type and accounting numbers relevance: the case of jordan. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(3): 191-197. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.191.197 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/ acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 4 february 2016/ revised: 14 march 2016/ accepted: 18 march 2016/ published: 21 march 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.191.197 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=dhiaa shamki https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=0000-0002-8260-6393 http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.191.197 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.191.197 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=dhiaa shamki https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=0000-0002-8260-6393 http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.191.197 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.191.197 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=dhiaa shamki https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=0000-0002-8260-6393 http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.191.197 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.191.197 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=dhiaa shamki https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=0000-0002-8260-6393 http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.191.197 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.191.197 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=dhiaa shamki https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=0000-0002-8260-6393 http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.191.197 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 191-197 192 1. introduction in the valuation research, testing the association between accounting numbers and security price is a basis in determining the accounting numbers relevance. to extend the research, employing different accounting variables and security price measurements is required. this extension also might be touched through indicating whether or not this association is impacted by the non-accounting variables such as industry type. does industry type impact the accounting numbers relevance? to answer this question, a deep understanding to indicate whether different industries could provide different levels of financial information is required. since companies operate within different types of industry, they might announce different financial disclosure levels for the same item as such is the firm value. in the literature, a lot of papers have investigated the accounting numbers relevance such as earnings, book value or cash flows in services and manufacturing companies and provided mixed results, while limited studies have investigated the impact of the industry type on those accounting variables relevance. since no study on the impact of industry type on earnings, book value and cash flows relevance has been found particularly in jordan, the present study attempts to examine whether listing a company in jordanian services or manufacturing sector has affected the relevance of its accounting numbers within the selected period and regarding to the three aforementioned security price measures. the paper also objects to distinguish which among the three security price measures could be the most dependable in reflecting the relevance of those accounting numbers. regarding the valuation research in jordan, the current paper adds new empirical evidence to find how the accounting numbers relevance varies according to different financial markets and economic sectors. considering that the impact of industry type on the relevance of earnings, book value and cash flows is rarely examined in literature, this paper attempts to fill this gap by adding new evidence and assist investors by providing them the relevant information related the industry type that they can invest in. 2. literature on value relevance and industry type in a country, information disclosure practices could vary according to the industry nature and importance (owusu-ansah, 1998). this might explain why some accounting standards are specified or more common for some industry types (gallary et al., 2008). in literature, many studies found a positive and significant impact for industry type on the disclosure level in service sectors (street and gray, 2001; gallary et al., 2008) while no clear or significant impact has been found in other studies (street and bryant, 2000; glaum and street, 2003). definitely, different industries provide different levels of financial information. this is due to that each industry has its own characteristics in terms of growth, competition and risks. a difference in these characteristics will result in differences in disclosure policies among companies (dye and sridhar, 1995). bartram (2007) showed that industry classification is an important factor in determining the relationship between earnings and cash flows, and stock prices. furthermore, recent findings by malaysian studies show the association between industry type and earnings management is significantly negatively associated (bamahros and wan-hussin, 2015a;2015b). relative to valuation research, prior studies have concluded that the accounting numbers are value relevant in manufacturing business (harris et al., 1994; vardavaki and mylonakis, 2007; gee-jung, 2009) while they are irrelevant or having declined value relevance in this sector (francis and schipper, 1999; shamki and abdul rahman, 2011). other value relevance studies have concluded that the accounting numbers are value relevant in services sector (harris et al., 1994; ely and waymire, 1999; dastgir and velashani, 2008; gee-jung, 2009; shamki and abdul rahman, 2011) while they are irrelevant or declined in their relevance in this sector (amir and lev, 1996; bao and bao, 2001). the all mentioned studies have examined the accounting numbers relevance in different sectors, while the impact of industry type on this relevance has been examined in limited papers such as (abayadeera, 2010). abayadeera (2010) tested the impact of industry type on the earnings and book value relevance for australian companies. her sample included 91 companies from different sectors including different medical, technological and communication services. she argued that manufacturing sector has affected only the value relevance of book value, while services sector has affected those of both book value and earnings. since the accounting numbers are positively or negatively associated with security price in different industry types, we expect to find a significant impact for industry type on earnings, book value and cash flows relevance in jordan. due to the rare in studies on this area and the mixed results in the previous studies, it is difficult to predict which sector more impacts the accounting numbers relevance. we measure industry type by differentiating the manufacturing and services companies. while the relationship between accounting numbers and security price can be explained by the valuation theory, it is beneficial to include different accounting numbers and security price measurements in the price model. to indicate whether this relationship could be impacted by industry type, a better understanding of firms’ economic activities is required. theoretically, firms’ economic activities types have been studied by business entity approach. this approach is used in classifying firms based on their economic activities types (american accounting association (aaa), 1964; holmes and stevens, 2004; office for national statistics (ons), 2009). according to aaa (1964) a business entity is an enterprise unit that is organized to achieve specified express or implied purposes. profit objectives, goods and services acquisition, transferring these acquisitions and delivering the resulted outputs to the market are the usual activities of an entity. entity’s accounting includes accumulating information about this area and communicating this information to the interested parties. in most stock markets, companies have been classified based on their economic activity structure. this classification includes sectors and products. it can be sub-classified to cover the different economic activities such as distribution, transportation and services (ons, 2009). classifying country’s companies according to their economic activities forms an important step in building tools to obtain information that can assist in performing the economic activities statistical analyses. relative to business entity theory and according to amman stock exchange (ase) activities classifications, jordanian manufacturing and services sectors include companies under different activities as stated in table 1. according to business entity approach, the entity concept is essential to accounting. in accounting, the role of the financial reports that are interested in business entities and their activities is to distinguish the information that is relevant and the information that is not (aaa, 1964). it is clear that the business entity asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 191-197 193 approach is related to the relevant information of the financial reports. since the business entity theory plays a real role in distinguishing the relevant accounting numbers and then the firm value, this is of interest to indicate company’s industry type in the market. to test the impact of industry type on the earnings, book value and cash flows relevance, linking the business entity theory with the valuation theory is relevant to be adopted in this paper. table-1. companies regarding their activities in ase service sector manufacturing sector  health care services  educational services  hotels and tourism  transportation  technology and communications media  media  utilities and energy  commercial services  financial services  chemical products  electrical products  engineering and construction  food and beverage  glass and ceramic products  extraction and mining products  cartoon and paper products  medical and pharmaceutical products  printing and packaging  textile, leather and clothing  tobacco and cigarettes resource: jordan securities commission (jsc) (2014). as company’s size plays an important role regarding accounting numbers availability and companies are considered to be highly leveraged when they are financed via debts, companies size and leverage have to be controlled when investigating the relevance of their accounting numbers. following shamki (2013) and shamki and abdul rahman (2013) we measure companies size by the logarithm of total assets and their leverage by debt to total assets ratio. industry type with three accounting variables namely earnings, book value of equity and operating cash flows are linked to three different measures for security price after controlling company’s size and leverage and diagramed as our framework in figure 1. figure-1. conceptual framework 3. jordanian accounting environment several reasons have been taken in consideration when choosing jordanian companies as our sample. since jordan has long period stability in accounting policies and practices (jordan central bank, 2013) which might increase the reliability of the results, the current paper adds confident evidence to the valuation research in this country. this paper enriches the limited studies on accounting disclosure in ase and its results might cover the needs of financial statements users regarding the accounting numbers that are influenced by the changeable economic and technologies. many important economic developments have been occurred in ase within 2004-2013. in million jordanian dinars, the market capitalization has grew from 13033.8 to 18233.5, value traded revolves between 3793.2 and 3027.3, average daily trading between 15.4 and 12.4, number of transactions between 1178.1 and 1074.4 (thousand) and the number of companies grew up from 192 to 240 (jsc, 2014). ase services and manufacturing sectors frequency and percentage within the researched period are summarized in table 2. as shown in table 2 and according to ase annual reports, while ase listed 2 new companies, 32 companies has been delisted in 2011from this market as a result of the amendment of listing securities directives in ase, which resulted in delisting the shares of companies subjected to mandatory liquidation upon a court sentence, and the companies whose general assemblies have approved the acceptance of its voluntary liquidation, in addition to delisting the companies that were suspended from trading for a period that exceeded two years. one-third of jordan's rapid economic growth is addressed to the manufacturing sector indicating that this sector plays a major role in jordanian economy. this might explain how the gross domestic product growth of 35% in the 1970s has doubled in the last two decades. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 191-197 194 table-2. research populations’ frequency and percentage in ase yrs. total number in ase 1 srv mnf srv and mnf no. 2 % 3 (2/1) no. 4 % 5 (4/1) no. 6 (2+4) % 7 (6/1) 2004 192 66 34 84 44 150 78 2005 201 73 36 87 43 160 79 2006 227 95 42 88 39 183 81 2007 245 110 45 90 37 200 82 2008 262 121 46 96 37 217 83 2009 272 129 47 95 35 224 82 2010 277 133 48 96 35 229 83 2011 247 118 48 80 32 198 80 2012 243 115 47 69 28 184 75 2013 240 114 48 68 28 182 76 resources: annual reports of ase and jsc for 2004 to 2013 srv: services companies. mnf: manufacturing companies. despite this growth, services sector’s stock was even higher than that of manufacturing sector due to the increased activity in the real estate market (alakra et al., 2009). 4. hypothesis development and models the paper attempts to determine whether the earnings, book value and cash flows relevance has been impacted by the industry type and which security price among its three selected measures could be the dependable one in presenting this value. in jordan, services sector is larger in number of companies table 2 and total shareholders’ equity and greater in total number of shares traded and their values than those manufacturing sector (amman stocks exchange (ase), 2010). therefore, the paper hypothesizes the impact of industry type on accounting numbers relevance as: h1: earnings, book value and cash flows relative to average security price are more relevant in services than in manufacturing companies. h2: earnings, book value and cash flows relative to closing security price are more relevant in services than in manufacturing companies. h3: earnings, book value and cash flows relative to after three months security price are more relevant in services than in manufacturing companies. examining the association between accounting numbers and market values of equity such as security price is the main objective of value relevance research. this association is typically examined using regression analysis. the price valuation models are used to regress security price on accounting numbers in value relevance literature (ely and waymire, 1999; francis and schipper, 1999; shamki and abdul rahman, 2013). as done by previous value relevance studies, this study examined (1) how accounting variables affect security price, (2) how accounting numbers are significantly related to security price or (3) how much the variance in security price can be explained by the selected accounting numbers to indicate the value relevance of those numbers (ely and waymire, 1999; francis and schipper, 1999; bao and bao, 2001; vardavaki and mylonakis, 2007; dastgir and velashani, 2008; gee-jung, 2009; shamki and abdul rahman, 2011; shamki, 2013; shamki and abdul rahman, 2013). the significant level of individual coefficient of price regression model can address the first and second questions, while by having a look at betas values, one can immediately notice which accounting numbers explains more the variation in the security price. in order to test the impact of industry type on the earnings, book value and cash flows relevance, we categorized our companies based on whether they are in services or manufacturing sectors. since abayadeera (2010) interacted industry type with earnings and book value to capture its impact on these accounting variables relevance, the paper extends her study to include cash flows. regarding the three security price measures, our models with and without control variables are: ap = μ0 + μ1 ind + μ2 e + μ3 e*ind + μ4 bv + μ5 bv*ind + μ6 cf + μ7 cf*ind + e (1a) ap = μ0 + μ1 ind + μ2 e + μ3 e*ind + μ4 bv + μ5 bv*ind + μ6 cf + μ7 cf*ind + μ8 siz + μ9 lvg + e (1b) cp = μ0 + μ1 ind + μ2 e + μ3 e*ind + μ4 bv + μ5 bv*ind + μ6 cf + μ7 cf*ind + e (2a) cp = μ0 + μ1 ind + μ2 e + μ3 e*ind + μ4 bv + μ5 bv*ind + μ6 cf + μ7 cf*ind + μ8 siz + μ9 lvg + e (2b) atmp = μ0 + μ1 ind + μ2 e + μ3 e*ind + μ4 bv + μ5 bv*ind + μ6 cf + μ7 cf*ind + e (3a) atmp = μ0 + μ1 ind + μ2 e + μ3 e*ind + μ4 bv + μ5 bv*ind + μ6 cf + μ7 cf*ind + μ8 siz + μ9 lvg + e (3b) where for a company at a year: ap: average annual security price; cp: annual closing security price; or atmp: security price after a three-month period following the financial year-end. ind: industry type as a dummy variable with value 1 for services companies, 0 otherwise. e: earnings per share. bv: book value of equity per share. cf: cash flows from operation per share. siz: log of total assets. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 191-197 195 lvg: ratio of debt to total assets. e: error term. coefficients μ1 represent the industry type relevance in its own right. excluding industry type impact, coefficients μ2, μ4 and μ6 point to the earnings, book value and cash flows relevance respectively, while coefficients μ2 + μ3, μ4 + μ5 and μ6 + μ7 represent the response of security price to those accounting variables impacted by industry type respectively. the paper hypothesized the impact of this factor as μ3 > 0, μ5 > 0, and μ7 > 0. the differences in our models outcomes regarding the three price measures revealing which measure is the best to be depended on when determining accounting numbers relevance. since there are limited studies that examined the impact of industry type on the accounting numbers relevance, a weak comparison could be made and needs to be more supported by future research. following abayadeera (2010); shamki (2013) and shamki and abdul rahman (2013) the paper depends on its regression models outcomes for the pooled sample in evaluating its hypotheses. 5. findings and discussion since the current paper deals with financial statements and ase data, our sample companies have to be registered in ase within the selected period ignoring data related to companies that registered after 2004 or those with incomplete information regarding study’s variables. we gathered our historical data from the annual financial statements and ase database for companies correspond to services and manufacturing sectors for the years from 2004 to 2013. since limited financial information could be presented by banking compared with services and manufacturing sectors, banks has been excluded from our sample due to the specific accounting practices nature and it is controlled by specific regulations. the paper tested 87 of ase companies including 38 companies related to services sector and 49 ones related to manufacturing sector for the selected ten years period with total observations of 7830 (87 companies * 9 variables * 10 years). the raw data and variables quality are tested and some variables show a non-normal distribution which leads to miss some observations regarding earnings and cash flows within transformation process. standard deviation values are well below 3 indicating the absence of outliers that are significantly affected the results. finally, as all skewness and kurtosis values are within ± 2, no violation has been detected for regression assumptions that might influence our analysis. table-3. descriptive statistics panel a ap cp atmp e bv cf n valid 870 870 870 633 866 553 missing 0 0 0 273 4 317 mean -.3989 -.3722 -.3878 -.8975 -.1723 -.7568 median -.3665 -.3394 -.3375 -.8693 -.1386 -.7003 std. deviation .33713 .35824 .35691 .50301 .22389 .55311 skewness .511 .352 .497 -.036 .604 -1.147 kurtosis .439 .667 .708 .138 3.143 5.677 minimum -.49 -.87 -.51 -1.59 -.91 -4.29 maximum 1.45 1.47 1.79 .53 1.05 .78 panal b(cont) ind siz lvg n valid 870 870 870 missing 0 0 0 mean .41 7.2988 .3140 median .00 7.2510 .2812 std. deviation .513 .56887 .20383 skewness .311 .463 .914 kurtosis -1.935 .212 .653 minimum 0 5.83 .00 maximum 1 8.81 1.03 all variables are previously defined. for the pooled sample, table 4 reveals our regression models outcomes including and excluding the control variables regarding the three security measures. without control variables and relative to those measures, the table shows that industry type factor is irrelevant in its own right reflected by the insignificant coefficient (μ1), while earnings, book value and cash flows are relevant as reflected by μ2, μ4 and μ6 (significant at 0.01 level) respectively demonstrating their value relevance in the absence of the impact of the industry type. for earnings and only regarding closing security price, industry type factor shows significant positive impact reflected by (μ3). in services companies, closing security price responded to earnings and its reaction increased from 0.53 (μ2) to 0.72 (μ2 + μ3) with the impact of industry type factor. this result is supported by what abayadeera (2010) has found. average and after three months security price measures didn’t respond to earnings when the impact of this factor has been included as reflected by the insignificant coefficient (μ3). this result is inconsistent with that from abayadeera (2010) who concluded significant impact for this factor on earnings relevance. this result is inconsistent with other studies that found earnings to be value relevant in the services sector (harris et al., 1994; ely and waymire, 1999; francis and schipper, 1999; bao and bao, 2001; vardavaki and mylonakis, 2007; dastgir and velashani, 2008). for the three security price measures, industry type factor appears to have significant positive impact on the book value relevance reflected via the significant positive coefficients (μ5). average security price, closing security price and after three months security price reactions to book value went up from 0.59 (μ4) to 0.86 (μ4 + μ5), 0.60 to 0.88 and from 0.56 to 0.85 respectively in the presence of the effect of industry type. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 191-197 196 table-4. industry type and earnings, book value and cash flows relevance p = μ0 + μ1 ind + μ2 e + μ3 e*ind + μ4 bv + μ5 bv*ind + μ6 cf + μ7 cf*ind + e p = μ0 + μ1 ind + μ2 e + μ3 e*ind + μ4 bv + μ5 bv*ind + μ6 cf + μ7 cf*ind + μ8 siz + μ9 lvg + e p measure statistics ap cp atmp without cvs with cvs without cvs with cvs without cvs with cvs μ1 t-test 0.15 1.45 0.09 0.71 0.21 1.45 0.17 1.23 -0.02 -0.09 -0.08 -0.49 μ2 t-test 0.49 11.12 *** 0.44 10.30 *** 0.53 12.19 *** 0.50 11.43 *** 0.36 7.63 *** 0.31 6.52 *** μ3 t-test 0.13 1.39 0.14 1.51 0.19 1.82 * 0.19 1.94* -0.03 -0.21 -0.02 -0.13 μ4 t-test 0.59 15.76 *** 0.61 15.21 *** 0.60 15.95 *** 0.61 15.51 *** 0.56 14.37 *** 0.55 13.57 *** μ5 t-test 0.27 3.05 *** 0.24 2.87 *** 0.28 3.04 *** 0.24 2.89 *** 0.29 3.23 *** 0.28 3.28 *** μ6 t-test 0.23 4.92 *** 0.22 4.89 *** 0.24 5.73 *** 0.28 5.99*** 0.23 4.74 *** 0.22 4.89 *** μ7 t-test 0.02 0.39 0.05 0.79 0.03 0.39 0.05 0.88 0.06 0.97 0.10 1.47 μ8 t-test 0.08 1.61 0.04 0.63 0.17 3.42 *** μ9 t-test 0.07 1.43 0.06 1.27 0.03 0.51 adj. r 2 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.63 0.65 f 44.91 *** 41.83 *** 44.74 *** 40.89 *** 42.02 *** 41.13 *** notes: *, ** and *** significant at 10%, 5% and 1% levels. all variables are previously defined. this result is supported by abayadeera (2010) and it is consistent with previous studies that found book value to be relevant in services sector (ely and waymire, 1999; dastgir and velashani, 2008; gee-jung, 2009) while it is inconsistent with the study of amir and lev (1996). regarding the three price measures, the interaction terms coefficients (μ7) are insignificant reveals that industry type factor has no impact on cash flows relevance and the three price measures did not respond to cash flows when the impact of this factor is included. this result is inconsistent with gee-jung (2009). since our hypotheses assumed that the industry type impacts the accounting numbers relevance, the results came out of expectations for both earnings and cash flows. these results might be explained by that regardless to the industry type effect, jordanian investors, like others anywhere, direct their investments relying on brokers who might not be able to fully extract the relevant information (francis and schipper, 1999). also, these results might be related to the characteristics of each industry where services companies have more growth, competition, and then risks than manufacturing business. this leads the former to disclose more relevant information to reflect the variance in their security prices (dye and sridhar, 1995). referring to business entity approach and the valuation theory, in the absence of earnings relevance their reliability is reduced or lacked. as stated in table 4, the earnings, book value and cash flows relevance regarding closing security price is greater than that regarding other security price measures when the impact of industry type is not included. including this impact, closing security price responded more to earnings and book value than the other two security price measures in terms of coefficients and significance levels. making a comparison among the results through the three security price measures in terms of coefficients significance and models’ adjusted r2 reveals that closing security price is the most dependable in reflecting the accounting numbers relevance. after a deep searching, no study on the superiority among the selected security price measures has been found in literature which making results comparison seems to be unavailable. table 4 points out that including company’s size and leverage in our regression models fortify their adjusted r2 and the interaction terms’ importance and significance remain the same. the adjusted r2 values are slightly increased and this increase is strongly ascribed to the involvement of the control variables. 6. conclusions and future research the paper concluded that, for the three security prices, earnings, book value and cash flows are relevant regardless the impact of industry type factor. including this impact influenced the book value relevance but not that of cash flows. regarding closing price, earnings and book value are more relevant in services companies than in manufacturing ones. therefore, we concluded that among the three prices measures, closing security price is the best in detecting the accounting numbers relevance. hence, we adopted our three hypotheses for book value but not for cash flows, while earnings correspond to h2 only. as this paper contributes in providing evidence referring to the impact of industry type on the accounting numbers relevance, our findings imply the potential error in valuation literature due to fixation on earnings. the results of this paper reveal that there is a shift away from earnings towards book value as the basis in firm valuation. taking our findings in consideration could enable market participants to better extract the firm’s value through the type of industry that they invest in. also, the paper contributes to the literature by adopting data from jordan as a developing country and concluding findings similar to that from us, uk and other developed countries could generalize them to different markets. our models might present a tool to whether or not we could predict firms value through their accounting numbers or the industry that they are belong to and distinguishing the measure for security price that is the best to be adopted in the valuation models. our paper could serve as a primary fundamental to assess the financial statements quality. earnings are the figure that financial analysis courses concentrated on and the one that valuation models mainly used. our conclusions regarding the importance of book value is supported by many studies which making it being a new evidence related to jordan as one of the middle eastern region. book value shows significant positive association with our three selected measures asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 191-197 197 for security price bringing in the light that the integrity in accounting information is significantly correlated to information usefulness to interest parties in stock market. the limited number of companies sample and their observations, that is considered as paper’s limitations, are dealt by evaluating the pooled data. however, as long as this research employed precision analyses to accomplish its objectives, the paper’s value has not been underestimated and its importance and usefulness have not been questioned. for the previously mentioned reasons, the completeness of the gathered data limited the research period. therefore, future studies are encouraged to extend testing period and companies’ sample size to capture the effect of this extension on the value relevance trend and determining whether it could moderate the results reliability. also, researchers are invited to generalize our findings by investigating the impact of industry type in many markets across the world. references abayadeera, n., 2010. value relevance of information in high-tech industries in australia: financial and non-financial. phd thesis. victoria university. melbourne, australia. alakra, m., m. ali and o. marashdeh, 2009. development of accounting regulation in jordan. international journal of accounting, 44(2): 163186. american accounting association (aaa), 1964. concept and standards research study committee – the business entity concept (1965). the entity concept. accounting review, 40(2): 358-367. amir, e. and b. lev, 1996. 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a. and j. mylonakis, 2007. empirical evidence on retail firms equity valuation models. international research journal of finance and economics, 7: 104-119. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.cbj.gov.jo/arabic/index.php asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no.2 , 102-107, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 102 the moderating role of personal trust on the relationship between nurses’ social skills and need for achievement in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals in 2014 malikeh beheshtifar 1* --mahmood nekoei moghadam 2 1 assistant professor, management department, rafsanjan branch, islamic azad university, rafsanjan, iran 2 research center for health services management, institute for futures studies in health, kerman university of medical sciences, kerman, iran abstract contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 102 2. method ............................................................................................................................................................................... 104 3. results ................................................................................................................................................................................ 104 4. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................... 106 5. research proposals ............................................................................................................................................................ 107 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 107 bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................................... 107 citation | malikeh beheshtifar; mahmood nekoei moghadam (2016). the moderating role of personal trust on the relationship between nurses’ social skills and need for achievement in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals in 2014. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(2): 102107. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.102.107 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 18 august 2015/ revised: 24 september 2015/ accepted: 20 october 2015/ published: 19 november 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group employees who are motivated by success, enjoy challenging objectives, have good practice and perseverance and competitive spirit is evident in their business activities. social skills needed to achieve success factor that can increase trust in people, can exacerbate this relation. hence, the aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between nurses social skills and need for achievement, according to a moderating role of personal trust in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals in 2014. in this study, correlational and cross-sectional method was used. the population of this study, consisted of nurses in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals that the total number is 142 people. to determine the sample size of 100 people were chosen based on morgan table. the study used three questionnaires: social skills questionnaire validity 0.98 and reliability 0.95 questionnaire need for achievement with validity 0.98 and reliability 0.93 and the questionnaire individual trust with reliability 0.96 and validity of 0.95. for data analysis, the approach of partial least squares (pls) with software smart pls 2. used. the results showed that there is no relationship between the nurses social skills and need for achievement (and all its components) in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals. also, comparative ability component predict negative negligence. also, there is no relationship between the nurses social and need for achievement (accountability component), due to the moderating role of individual trust in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals, but there is relationship between nurses social skills and competitiveness, hard work and purpose oriented due to the mediating role of individual trust in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals. social skills are the ability to create constructive interactions among nurses that makes their relationship work better under its control and therefore committed to the progress and success, and confidence in the relationship can sometimes moderated. therefore, the promotion of social skills and trust in the workplace considered. keywords: social skills, need for achievement, personal trust. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.102.107 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.102.107 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 102-107 103 1. introduction one of the main goals of any organization is improve efficiency and effectiveness, leading to organizational success. studies show that if corporate strategy and technology to be complex, a key success factor is the human factor (beheshtifar and norozy, 2013). that's why successful managers are constantly trying to develop incentives for their employees in order to provide success and progress. employees who are motivated by success, enjoy challenging objectives, have good performance and perseverance and competitive spirit is evident in their business activities. a study showed that people with high levels of achievement motivation are very diligent to solve problems and achieve success. even after it failed to do something that they do not continue to work to achieve success (beheshti far, 2013). employees who have low motivation for success and progress, can not meet your expectations. the staff in the performance of their duties and the lack of career success and organizational failed them. undoubtedly, many factors could motivate employees to progress. among these factors can be noted on behavioral factors. social skills are a factor that can improve motivation in people. social skills is ability to establish interpersonal relationships with others so that in the community accepted, valued, consistent and at the same time for the person, family and community is effective and have a mutual interest. a sign of social and mental health is the social connection. having such a warm and sincere relationship with other people is a safety, reliability, comfort source of every human, community, organization (harjy, 2003). learn social skills, including verbal and nonverbal behaviors have plans, intentions, reactions and proportionate responses require appropriate time and control their own behavior, are influenced by environmental factors, other social strengthened to maximized (livarjany et al., 2009). social skills are behaviors that enable people to interact effectively and to avoid inappropriate responses and showed behavioral and social health of individuals. these skills are rooted in social and cultural contexts and includes behaviors such as being a pioneer in a new relationship, ask for help and to offer to help others (gresham and elliot, 1990). frostad and pijl (2007) in his review found that between 20 and 25 percent of people do not have the necessary social skills. also, there was a weak association between social status and social skills. tiraieyari and uli (2011) in his study age groups mediating role in the relationship between social skills and job performance, found that younger age groups than older age groups a greater role in moderating the relationship between social skills and performance they do play. on the other hand, it proven that the trust between people to be more and each organization or community more adhere to ethical principles of economic power will be better. in most cases, trade or business relation based on mutual trust and respect (david, 2009). the results of this study because it is important for nurses in hospitals that social skills in the workplace to create and maintain positive interpersonal relationships and work-related over time. in other words, this factor makes inter-dependence and cooperation between managers and nurses are doing more. however, this behavior leads to respect and trust each other and, ultimately, strong communication between the members and staff of the organization will be more successful in the workplace is important to pay attention to it. it also reflects the need to achievement excellence in staff performance. people who have this feature have the challenging objectives and have assiduous and competitive spirit in work activities. on the other hand, trust, resulting in increased organizational power in responsiveness to environmental needs, because trust will create synergy in the organization. the employees trust to managers and organizations become more, certainly in the process of growing the organization will have a significant impact. it is obvious that there is trust in the workplace can provide the impetus for the development of staff. given the above, the following questions arise: 1. how is the relationship between social skills and need for achievement in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals in 2014? 2. how is moderating role of personal trust in the relationship between social skills and need for achievement in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals? 1.1. the theoretical framework of research social skills, appropriate behavior in a situation that is used for business purposes (wu, 2008). the world health organization has identified social skills with the following ten categories: self-awareness, empathy, effective relationship skills, interpersonal skills, decision making skills, problem solving skills, critical thinking skills, creative thinking skills, skills coping with emotions and coping skills with stress. to study need for achievement clearer variables such as accountability, competitiveness, hard work and porposeoriented took advantage and the main factors considered need for achievement (jafari, 2009): according to the panahi (2008) component of organizational trust are: 1. honesty 2. competence 3. stable 4. loyalty. thus, according to the above models, conceptual model is designed as follows: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 102-107 104 2. method in this study, correlational and cross-sectional method was used. correlational method is generally one of the methods described. the study population included nurses in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals are 142 people. to determine the sample size of 100 people elected based on morgan. a sample of 51 nurses in arjomand hospital and 40 nurses in razieh-firoz hospital. the study used three questionnaires: social skills questionnaire from the world health organization, has ten components: self-awareness, empathy, effective relationship skills, interpersonal skills, decision making skills, problem solving skills, critical thinking skills, creative thinking skills, skills coping with emotions and coping skills with stress. these components are made using a questionnaire with 36 questions. success motivated questionnaire to measure the staff need for achievement that is one of the essential factors need to be successful in motivating the employee is employed. the success motivated questionnaire contains 25 questions that 1-5 questions responsibility, questions 6 13 competitiveness, questions 14-19 hard work and questions 20-25 goal-oriented need for achievement. the trust questionnaire has 22 questions. questions 1 to 7 related to integrity, 8 to 12 on the merits, 13 to 17 stability and 18 to 22 loyalty in the questionnaire likert scale measurement is used. expressions used three questionnaires: strongly agree, agree, somewhat agree, disagree, strongly disagree is designed as a value of 5 to 1. confidentiality of questionnaire data and respondent’s withdrawn are ethical considerations of survey. using content validity, validity of social skills questionnaire 0.98, and reliability needed to achievement 0.98 and validity of the trust 0.96 calculated. in addition, using cronbach's alpha test reliability 0.95 social skills questionnaire, and need for achievement 0.93 and trust 0.95. for data analysis, the approach of partial least squares (pls) with smart pls 2 software, also kolomogrov smirnov test for normality of variables from one sample used and the significance level was set at 0.05. 3. results demographic description of the nurses of arjomand and razieh-firoz hospital specified in table 1. table-1. frequency distribution of surveyed samples according to demographic index frequency frequency% responsive man 7 0/7 sex female 91 0/91 no reply 2 0/2 single 13 0/13 marital status married 84 0/84 no reply 3 0/3 diploma 4 0/4 associate degree 12 0/12 education bs 74 0/74 ma 7 0/7 ph.d. 2 0/2 no reply 1 0/1 30 years and under 18 0/18 age 40-31 years 42 0/42 41 years and more 38 0/38 no reply 2 0/2 less than 10 years 57 0/57 20-10 year 30 0/30 years of service 21 years and more 7 0/7 no reply 6 0/6 to check the status of variables from one sample t-test was used (normal qualitative variable). the results of this test given in table 2. table-2. one-sample t-test to check the status of variables variable theoretical mean = 0.3 average observed standard deviation t-statistic degrees of freedom significant social skills 60/3 53/0 207/11 99 * 001/0> the need for achievement 64/3 58/0 916/10 99 * 001/0> individual trust 62/2 76/0 941/4 99 * 001/0> * at the level 0.05 significant the results of one sample t-test showed that the mean social skills variables scores and the need to achievement are more than desirable average and average trust is lower than average undesirable individual. (0.05> p). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 102-107 105 3.1. analyze data using structural equation modeling in this section, it is used structural equation modeling (sem) approach partial least squares (pls) by smart pls 2 software a used. figure-1. the model runs with coefficients of factor loadings after removing the factor loadings less than 4.0 table-3. cronbach's alpha and composite reliability and ave values for the variables studied variable cronbach's alpha reliability combined ave r 2 social skills 930/0 938/0 449/0 individual trust 938/0 946/0 640/0 the need for achievement 779/0 860/0 615/0 485/0 acceptable value ≥0.7 ≥0.7 ≥0.4 table-4. check the validity of the variables studied variable social skills individual trust need for achievement social skills 670/0 individual trust 229/0 800/0 the need for achievement 604/0 147/0 784/0 cronbach's alpha and composite reliability of study variables is greater 0.7, showed good reliability of research variable showing good convergent validity and validity of the results of the model. figure-2. drawing model with significant coefficients z asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 102-107 106 structural model fitness using the coefficients z in this case the ratio should be more 1.96 so at 95% their significant confirmed. as is clear from figure 4-2. all the significant coefficients z are more 1.96 the significance of all the question of relations between variables in the level of 95% approved. however, significant coefficient z of social skills variable * personal trust, 1.108 calculated because less than 1.96 indicates that the effect of individual trust at level of 95% as modified variable not approved. the main hypothesis 1: how is the relationship between social skills and need for achievement in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals in 2014? as indicated in figure 2 significant factor z among the nurses social skills and needed to achievement variables is 5.552 that is more than 1.96 that show the relationship between nurses ‘social skills and need for achievement. as figure 1 shows that standardized coefficient between the social skills and needed to achievement variable 0.578 shows the relationship between these two variables, and suggest that social skills as much as 57 percent of the changes needed to achievement directly explained. the main hypothesis 2: how is moderating role of personal trust in the relationship between social skills and need for achievement in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals? as indicated in figure 2 significant factor z social skills * personal trust variable, 1.108 calculated because less than 1.96 indicates that at the 95% confidence level effect the personal trust moderating variable is not approved. in other words, at 95% cannot confirm that the personal trust variables, the relationship between social skills and the need to achievement adjusted. table-5. results of testing hypotheses hypothesis coefficients z standardized coefficient result type of relationship 1. there is relationship between the nurses social skills and needed to achievement in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals. 552/5 578/0 confirmed direct relationship 2. there is relationship between the nurses social skills and needed to achievement due to the moderating role of individual trust in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals 108/1 230/0 disapproval 3. there is relationship between the nurses social skills and responsibility in arjomand and raziehfiroz hospitals. 482/6 612/0 confirmed direct relationship 4. there is relationship between the nurses social skills and responsibility due to the moderating role of individual trust in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals 215/1 210/0 disapproval 5. there is relationship between the nurses social skills and competitiveness in arjomand and raziehfiroz hospitals 117/10 578/0 confirmed direct relationship 6. there is relationship between the nurses social skills and competitiveness due to the mediating role of individual trust in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals 417/5 485/0 confirmed direct relationship 7. there is relationship between the nurses social skills and hard work in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals 339/9 518/0 confirmed direct relationship 8. there is relationship between the social skills and hard work of nurses due to the moderating role of individual trust in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals. 953/5 411/0 confirmed direct relationship 9. there is relationship between the nurses social skills and goal-oriented in arjomand and raziehfiroz hospitals. 051/7 475/0 confirmed direct relationship 10 there is relationship between the nurse’s social skills and goal-oriented due to the moderating role of individual trust in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals. 038/4 375/0 confirmed direct relationship 4. discussion the results showed that there is a relationship between the nurse’s social skills and needed to achievement in the arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals. social skills is the ability to establish interpersonal relationships with others in a way that is acceptable in terms of society and at the same time is beneficial to society and have a mutual interest (wu, 2008). people who have these skills can be successful in the affairs of their organization and the accountability, competitiveness, hard work and goal-oriented work better than others. employees with potentially high need for achievement are good people who want to be in the top competition, tend to independence, and the desire to have merit and excellence (ward, 1993) and the strengthening of skills, including social skills improved. the results of these findings are consistent with the findings of song (2009) and shokrkon et al. (2006). song (2009) on the impact of social skills on academic progress of the students founded that whatever social skills is more, academic progress of students is more than others. shokrkon et al. (2006) study also found that success depends on the development of social skills. so expect to increase social skills through self-awareness, empathy, communication skills, effective interpersonal communication skills, decision making skills, problem solving skills, critical thinking asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 102-107 107 skills, creative thinking skills, skills to deal with emotions, and skills coping with stress will increase nurses need for achievement. the results showed that there is no relationship between the nurses social and need for achievement (accountability component), due to the moderating role of individual trust in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals, but there is relationship between nurses social skills and competitiveness, hard work and purpose oriented due to the mediating role of individual trust in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals. the results showed that there is a relationship between the social skills with competitive, hard-working and goaloriented nurses due to the moderating role of individual trust in arjomand and razieh-firoz hospitals. that means individual confidence of nurse’s increases relationship between social skills with competitive, hard work and goal orientation. the nurses have higher interpersonal trust, the relationship between social skills and competitiveness, hard work and goal-oriented escalated. erikson (1950) states that a person of your trust through improved communication. dupont (2011) also pointed out in his article that trust could enhance social skills. wayne (2012) in a study among students get the trust people more, they also need to be more successful. the interaction between these two variables approved. thus, by increasing individual confidence through honesty, competence, loyalty, with competitive relationship between social skills, hard work and goal-oriented nurses escalated. 5. research proposals  according to the results of research and more attention to the need for achievement, nurses, hospitals needed to provide individual measures such as social skills and confidence in order to increase personal and organizational success and take steps.  it is recommended to improve social skills through self-awareness, empathy, communication skills, effective interpersonal communication skills, decision making skills, problem solving skills, critical thinking skills, creative thinking skills, skills to deal with emotions, and skills coping with stress the need for nurses will increase success. references beheshti far, m., 2013. investigating the relationship between negative perfectionism and need for achievement, personnel of islamic azad university of kerman, islamic azad university of rafsanjan. beheshtifar, m. and t. norozy, 2013. social skills: a factor to employees' success. international journal of academic research in business and social sciences march, 3(3): 74. david, f., 2009. strategic management, translation seyed mohamad arabi and davood izadi. 13th edn., tehran: the cultural research bureau. dupont, p., 2011. skills and trust: a tour inside the hard drives of computer hackers, school of criminology. canada: university of montreal. erikson, e., 1950. childhood and society. new york: norton. frostad, p. and s. pijl, 2007. does being friendly help in making friends? the relation between the social position and social skills of pupils with special needs in mainstream education. european journal of special needs education, 22(1): 15-30. gresham, f. and s. elliot, 1990. social skills rating system (manual). usa: american guidance service. harjy, f., 2003. social skills, interpersonal communication. 3rd edn., tehran: growth. jafari, s., 2009. review the interactive relationship between organizational culture and job stress and job satisfaction tabriz oil refining company. general psychology master's thesis, university, faculty of education and psychology. livarjany, n., g. gol mohammad nejad and m. shahaqi, 2009. investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence and social skills of high school students in gifted and ordinary city of khoy in the academic year. journal of education, 5(5): 186-190. panahi, b., 2008. trust and confidence in the organization. light courier journal, 7(4): 88-103. shokrkon, h., m. khasteh, y. reza attari, j. haghighi and m. shahani yeilagh, 2006. studying personality, social skills, cognitive attachment styles and population characteristics as predictors of success and failure of couples seeking marital relationship and divorce in ahvaz. journal of education and psychology, 3(13): 14-16. song, y., 2009. the effect of social skills on academic achievement of linguistically diverse elementary students. usa: faculty of the virginia polytechnic institute. tiraieyari, n. and j. uli, 2011. the moderating role of age groups on the relationship between social competencies and work performance. african journal of agricultural research 6(16): 3660-3664. ward, e., 1993. generalizability of psychological research from undergraduates to employed adult. journal of social psychology, 133(4): 513519. wayne, h., 2012. school characteristics that make a difference for the achievement of all students: a 40-year odyssey. journal of educational administration, 50(1): 76 97. wu, y., 2008. social skill in the workplace: what is social skill and how does it matter?, faculty of the graduate school. university of missouri – columbia, 6. bibliography johnston, l.d., j.g. bachman and p.o. malley, 1993. monitoring the future: questionnaire responses from the nation’s high school seniors 1991. ann arbor. mi: institute for social research. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 3, 83-86, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 83 impact of role overload on job performance among construction workers manasseh n. iroegbu 1* 1 university of uyo and imo state univeristy, nigeria abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 84 2. statement of the problem ......................................................................................................................................................... 85 3. methodology .............................................................................................................................................................................. 85 4. results ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 85 5. discussion ................................................................................................................................................................................... 85 6. recommendations ..................................................................................................................................................................... 86 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 86 this research examined the impact of role overload on job performance among construction workers. 103 junior workers selected via simple random sampling were used for the study. they were all males and have a mean age of 31 years. two instruments were used: rizo et al (1970) role conflict scale measured role overload while the annual performance ratings of the organization measured workers performance. the results showed that the low performance workers experienced greater role-overload than the moderate and high performance workers. thus, the hypothesis that role overload affects workers performance negatively was accepted. it is recommended that organizations should reduce work load in line with human capacity, redesign jobs and employ more workers to reduce role overload. keywords: role overload, role conflict, job performance. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 83-86 84 1. introduction in nigeria today, employees are highly exploited and underpaid due to the high level of unemployment in the economy. many organizations such as banks, oil companies, private industries and businesses, and even some government organizations place workers on contract and temporary status in order to make maximum use of them as well as overloading them with work beyond human capacity. these they do because the workers have no choice, since they cannot guarantee finding another job if they leave. role overload has been defined as a situation in which the various roles, assignments or work required of a role occupier exceed the amount of time and resources and energy available to the individual for their execution (iroegbu, 1988). this results in stress, dissatisfaction and shoddy/poor work performance. furthermore, rizo et al. (1970) while distinguishing the various types of role conflicts conceptualized role overload as a conflict situation in which the directives, demands, instructions, roles communicated to a role occupant exceed the amount of time and resources available for the accomplishment of the entire demands. kahn et al. (1964) concluded by adding that when situations such as this arise, the individual will experience stress, become dissatisfied with the job and perform less effectively. several studies have been carried out on the effect of role overload on performance. salam (2014) investigated the impact of work overload, work-family conflict and family-work conflict on job embededness. for the analysis of the study an aggregate of 250 responses were chosen. analysis was made through simple, multiple and moderating regression. results showed a substantial influence of work overload and family-work conflict towards job embededness. vanishree (2014) carried out a research on the impact of work stressors on job stress of small and medium-sized enterprises (smes). in carrying out the study, random sampling technique was used to select 200 employees who have worked at least 3 years in an sme. the findings showed that work overload, work ambiguity and work conflict brings about job stress among workers resulting in poor concentration, mental block and poor performance/decision making skills. karimi (2014) investigated the level of occupational stress and the influence of role overload, role conflict, and role ambiguity on occupational stress among iranian nurses. this study adopted a quantitative correlation study methodology. the study sample comprised of 135 nurses selected randomly from hospitals in south west of iran. the result also showed that there was a significant, linear and positive relationship between role overload, role conflict, role ambiguity and occupational stress. fiona (2013) investigated the effects of polychronicity on job performance and job satisfaction. the sample for the study was drawn from a diverse workers pool consisting of 100,000 users from over 100 different countries. the final sample size was 194 participants who completed the posted survey. hierarchical regression analyses were used to test for the moderating effects of role overload on the polychronicity-job performance relationship and the polychronicity-job satisfaction relationship. the results indicated that polychronicity was significantly and positively related to job performance, job satisfaction, and role overload. aminah (2010) investigated (1) the direct effects of perceived organizational support and role overload on work family conflict and (2) the mediating role of role overload in the relationship between perceived organizational support and work-family conflict using a turkish sample. the hypotheses were tested with a sample of 344 employees from small and medium-sized enterprises in turkey. the results demonstrated that perceived organizational support was negatively related to both families to work conflict and work to family conflict of employees. role overload was also positively related to both families to work conflict and work to family conflict. in addition, the results indicated that role overload did not have a mediating role between perceived organizational support and work-family conflict. dorota and annekatrin (2014) carried a study on, a meta-analysis of work demand stressors and job performance: examining main and moderating effects. they quantitatively integrated 169 samples (n = 35, 265 employees) that were used to investigate the relationships of the following 7 work related stressors with job performance: role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload, job insecurity, work-family conflict, environmental uncertainly, and situational constraints. overall, a negative mean correlation was obtained between each job performance measure and each stressor included in their analyses. jex and bliese (2000) carried out a research on, the relationship among role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload and job stress of chinese middle-level cadres. through a questionnaire survey of 220 cadres, the results showed that time pressure was significantly correlated with role conflict and role overload; job anxiety and job stress were significantly and positively correlated with role ambiguity, role conflict and role overload; role ambiguity had a significant and positive effect on job anxiety and job stress; role conflict and role overload had a significantly and positive effect on time stress, job anxiety and job stress. osman (2013) carried out a study on the effects of work overload and work-family conflict on job embededness and job performance. the study evaluated the aforementioned relationships using lisrel 8.30 through structural equation modeling (sem) based on data collected from 110 full-time frontline hotel employees and their managers in romania. the results of sem suggest that emotional exhaustion functions as a full mediator of the effect of work overload, work-family conflict and family-work conflict on job embededness and performance. judy morter (2010) investigated the relationship of role overload to job satisfaction and intent to leave of registered nurses in acute care settings. data were collected using a structured questionnaire, which included five instruments and the demographic form. descriptive statistic, correlation analysis, and multiple regressions were used to analyze the data. the research indicated significant correlation between role overload and two job satisfaction facets (job satisfaction with scheduling and job satisfaction with work-family balance), a significant correlation between role overload and intent to leave, and a significant correlation between role overload and level of education. martha (2009) in a study used a sample of 159 employees from a pharmaceutical manufacturing facility. empowerment and informational justice were conceived of as high control and low control, respectively and were examined for their moderating effects on two relationships: 1) the relationship between role overload and job asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 83-86 85 satisfaction. the data were collected on site from 159 employees of a pharmaceutical manufacturing firm located in the eastern united states. findings indicate empowerment weakens the positive role overload-burnout relationship and the negative overload-job satisfaction relationship. informational justice strengthens the positive role overloadburnout and negative role overload-job satisfaction relationships. 2. statement of the problem the problem to be investigated in this research is to find out if role overload i.e. overloading an employee with tasks actually leads to higher efficiency, and better performance or leads to how and poor performance. 2.1. hypothesis there would be a statistically significant effect of role overload on job performance with the low performance workers experiencing a higher degree of role overload than the high performance group. 3. methodology a. participants subjects used for this study were 103 junior workers drawn from the federal ministry of works of nigeria. their work involved road construction and maintenance, having a mean age of 31, and all males. b. instruments rizo et al. (1970) role conflict scale was used to measure role overload. it consists of 18 items divided into three parts – inter sender conflict (items 1-6); role overload (items 7-12) and person role conflict (items 13-18). only the section on role overload was administered to the respondents. the scale was designed on a five point likert form (1 = “very false” to 5 = “very true”). a high score indicated role overload while a low score meant no role overload. the reliability of the scale “r” = .85 job performance was obtained from the organization’s annual performance ratings of the workers. a score of 80% and above represented high performance, 50%-70%, average performance and scores below 50% low performance. c. procedure the study utilized the stratified random sampling technique. subjects were first assigned to one of three groups in line with their job performance ratings i.e. low performance group (<50%); average performance group (50% 70%), and high performance group (≥80%). then within each of the groups, a simple random sampling procedure was used to select the 103 participants i.e; low performance group (33) average performance group (35), high performance group (35). the instruments administration and subjects selection was carried out in the organization’s offices. d. design sxt design (one-way anvoa design) was employed in order to compare the three groups on role overload. e. statistics a one way analysis of variance was adopted for data analysis. the f-test was used for result interpretation. 4. results table-1. summary of results of one-way anova calculated for the high, moderate and low performance groups’ responses to role overload sov ss df ,ms fo fc p comment between groups 1200.94 2 600.47 31.88 3.09 <.05 s ig n if ic an t within groups 1883.84 100 18.83 total 3084.78 102 table 1 shows the results of a one-way anova calculated for the high, moderate and low performance groups responses to role overload. this was to discover if there were significant differences among the three groups in the degrees of role overload they variously experienced on their jobs. the table showed that the result is statistically significant [f(2, 100) = 31.88, p < .05], with the low performance workers having the highest degree of role overload compared to the moderate and high performance workers. the hypothesis which stated that there would be a statistically significant effect of role overload on workers performance was therefore accepted. 5. discussion in deed and in truth, this research has shown that overloading workers with tasks i.e. role overload will only lead to lower efficiency and poor and shoddy job performance. the desperation of organizations and production managers to meet targets would be fruitless if the end result would be poor job performance as this would lead to bad and substandard products and services. in addition, it will also lead to stress, ill health and lack of job satisfaction and morale. thoroughness, adequacy and quality are what gives credibility to an organization rather than the quantity of goods and services produced. the finding of this research is in line with the work of salam (2014) which found asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(3): 83-86 86 substantial influences of work overload on job performance. it is also in agreement with the findings of vanishree (2014) that work overload brings about job stress among workers resulting in poor concentration, mental block and poor performance. 6. recommendations 1. reduce role overload by assigning tasks commensurate with human energy levels and physiological limitations in line with hath worn studies and ergonomics 2. re-design jobs to make it less stressful and time saving 3. employment of more hands is very urgent and cogent to stop over loading employees 4. government legislation is necessary to curtail the excesses of organizations in abuse of human labour and over exploitation of workers due to the high level of unemployment. references aminah, a., 2010. work family conflict among junior physicians: its mediating role in the relationship between role overload and emotional exhaustion. journal of social sciences, 6(2): 265-271. dorota, t. and h. annekatrin, 2014. change in affective well-being on change in perceived job characteristic: the mediating role of hope. journal of occupational and organizational psychology, 87: 3. fiona, l.s., 2013. the effects of polychronicity on job performance and job satisfaction. journal of managerial psychology, 25(7): 764-776. iroegbu, o.n., 1988. the relationship of organizational role conflict to employee satisfaction and performance. m.sc thesis. university of lagos. nigeria. jex, s.m. and p.d. bliese, 2000. efficacy beliefs as a moderator of the impact of work-related stressors: a multilevel study. journal of applied psychology, 84: 349-361. judy morter, r., 2010. relationship of role overload to job satisfaction and intent to leave among acute care nurses. journal of managerial psychology, 17(4): 200-207. kahn, r., d. wolfe, r. quinn, j. snock and r. rosenthal, 1964. organisational stress: studies in role conflict and ambiguity. new york: john wiley & sons. karimi, r., 2014. the influence of role overload, role conflict and role ambiguity on occupational stress among nurses in selected iranian hospitals. international journal of asian social science, 4(1): 34-40. martha, c.a., 2009. easing employee strain:the interactive effects of empowerment,informational justice,burnout,job satisfaction,role overload. available from www.ibam.com/pubs/jbam/articles/vol. osman, 2013. the effects of work overload and work-family conflict on job embeddedness and job performance: the mediation of emotional exhaustion. international journal of contemporary hospitality management, 25(4): 614-634. rizo, j.r., r.j. house and s.l. litzman, 1970. role conflict and ambiguity in complex organizations. administrative science quarterly, 15: 150-153. salam, f., 2014. work overload, work-family conflict, family-work conflict and their effects on job embeddedness. journal of business and management, 16(1): 75-80. vanishree, p., 2014. impact of role ambiguity, role conflict and role overload on job stress in small and medium scale industries. journal of management science, 3(1): 10-13. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.ibam.com/pubs/jbam/articles/vol 40 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 2, 40-45, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.51.40.45 challenges and strategy design for the globalization of traditional chinese drugs haitao tang1 jimei ma2 li liu3 wenlong huang4  ( corresponding author) 1school of international pharmaceutical business, china pharmaceutical university, china; jiangsu suzhong pharmaceutical group co., ltd., china 2jiangsu suzhong pharmaceutical group co., ltd., china 3,4school of international pharmaceutical business, china pharmaceutical university, china abstract as economic exchange has deepened in the international community, traditional chinese drugs have gone global and gained a share in overseas markets. however, due to internal and external restrictions, only a small proportion of traditional chinese drugs can gain access to mainstream drug markets in foreign countries. this article designs strategies and provides suggestions for globalizing the presence of traditional chinese drugs based on an analysis of the current conditions and challenges of this globalization process. keywords: globalization of traditional chinese drugs, challenges, strategy design. jel classification: f407.7. citation | haitao tang; jimei ma; li liu; wenlong huang (2018). challenges and strategy design for the globalization of traditional chinese drugs. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(1): 40-45. history: received: 26 january 2018 revised: 27 february 2018 accepted: 2 march 2018 published: 5 march 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. internationalization status of tcm............................................................................................................................................. 41 2. existing problems in the internationalization of tcm .......................................................................................................... 42 3. design, selection and guarantee of tcm internationalization strategies......................................................................... 43 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 45 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.51.40.45&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=haitao tang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jimei ma https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=li liu https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=wenlong huang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=haitao tang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jimei ma https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=li liu https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=wenlong huang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=haitao tang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jimei ma https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=li liu https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=wenlong huang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=haitao tang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jimei ma https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=li liu https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=wenlong huang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=haitao tang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jimei ma https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=li liu https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=wenlong huang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=haitao tang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jimei ma https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=li liu https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=wenlong huang asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 40-45 41 as a traditional medical system that has endured for thousands of years in china, traditional chinese medicine (tcm) is well preserved and extensively influential. tcm internationalization has a solid international background, and traditional medicine has attracted more and more attention from governments worldwide (balunas and kinghorn, 2005). the europe union (eu) directive for registration procedure of traditional herbal medicine and the united states (us) guide to herbal medicine products indicate that the eu and the us have already recognized herbal medicine as a type of medicine. generally speaking, tcm currently has the scale and conditions to expand globally. 1. internationalization status of tcm 1.1. import and export status of tcm products of china according to export data from 2013-2016, the import and export status of tcm products (including extracts, chinese patent medicines, tcm materials, herbal medicine and slices for decoction; see fig. 1 to fig. 3). for these four years, the export amount of tcm products exported from china was 30 billion us dollars. from 2013 to 2015, it displayed a trend of rising slowly. in 2016, it declined slightly, by 8.8%, compared with 2015. in 2016, the import amount of tcm products grew by 13.7%. overall, the export amount of tcm products of china is far higher than the import amount, which reflects the advantages of the tcm materials in china. however, the analysis of the gap between imports and exports (export amount and import amount) reveals a trend of a modest increase from 2013 to 2015, and a slight decline of 16.2% is observed in from 2015 to 2016. fig-1. export statistics of tcm products source: statistical data of china chamber of commerce for import& export of medicines and health products fig-2. import statistics of tcm products source: statistical data of china chamber of commerce for import& export of medicines and health products fig-3. gap between imports and exports of tcm products source: statistical data of china chamber of commerce for import& export of medicines and health products the literature and statistical data indicate that china mainly exports products such as extracts, herbal medicine and slices for decoction (martins, 2014). the statistical data in figs. 4 and 5 show that the export amount of chinese patent medicine accounts for only 7%, medicinal herbs and medicinal slices approximately 30%, and exports 60%. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 40-45 42 fig-4. proportions of exports of extracts, medicinal herbs and slices, and chinese patent medicines source: statistical data of china chamber of commerce for import& export of medicines and health products fig-5. proportions of imports of extracts, medicinal herbs and slices, and chinese patent medicines source: statistical data of china chamber of commerce for import& export of medicines and health products 1.2. registration and approval status of tcm abroad although tcm has spread from china to many countries and regions, its share of the global market is still less than 5%. only a limited number of tcm products have entered the global mainstream medicine markets as medicine (ya et al., 2011). at present, nine kinds of tcm products from china have been registered with fda, including compound danshen dripping pills, which have completed a stage iii clinical test and witnessed the fastest internationalization; xingling granules and kanglaite injection, which are undergoing a stage iii clinical test; and six other products, such as xuezhikang, guizhi fuling pills and chuanxinlian capsule, which are undergoing a stage ii clinical test. in the eu, di’ao xinxuekang and danshen tablets have been registered successfully in holland. danggui concentrated pills are applying for registration in sweden. ginkgo leaf tablets and pill of six ingredients with rehmannia are under registration in holland. 2. existing problems in the internationalization of tcm according to a comprehensive analysis, the problems to be solved in the internationalization of tcm lie in the following seven areas. 2.1. it is difficult for tcm culture to be recognized tcm and western medicine are different medical theoretical systems with different modes and substantial differences in such aspects as theoretical foundations, methods of thinking, and diagnostic and treatment approaches. in the latter, the treatment are partial; in the former, symptoms and root causes are treated simultaneously. tcm works slowly and requires a long course of treatment. due to differences in cultures and languages, the concept of tcm has not been globally recognized and accepted (van et al., 2010). 2.2. unclear material basis and function mechanism tcm contains complex contents, so it difficult to identify its composition. as a result, the effective contents of tcm are not clear. we cannot confirm the specific mechanisms and pharmacologic actions. due to this uncertainty, quality control indicators may be irrational and even fail to display the relevance of the curative effects (wagner et al., 2016). as a result, the medicine quality testing standards cannot correctly reflect the specific clinical effects of the medicine. medicine has long been used based on tcm theory and experience. basic research on tcm has lagged behind, relatively speaking. there are no clear effective component contents or regular testing methods. no studies have asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 40-45 43 been conducted in such areas as pharmacological toxicity, standardization or regulation, and research has not caught up with the international technological levels (wagner et al., 2016). 2.3. singular product indicators cannot guarantee the evenness and effectiveness of medicine though the standards of tcm products in china have been enhanced to some extent, the product indicators are still singular, which makes it difficult for other countries to accept and recognize the curative effects of tcm. tcm contains many chemical components. the key components of some tcm may not be the effective components; the trace components may be the important curative effect components. due to their herbal materials and the technologies for processing tcm, quality consistency across different batches of tcm may be relatively low (wang et al., 2005). some quality cannot be truly reflected by adopting one or several component indicators. 2.4. lacking persuasive clinical data tcm clinical care in china still mostly stops at medical experience, but scientific clinical pharmacological data are lacking. meanwhile, the basic matters of the curative effects of tcm have not been identified. it is difficult to identify the components that play a leading role in the medicine or to make a scientific interpretation of the treatment mechanism of such components (normile, 2003) in recent years, china has just begun to formulate and implement standards and regulations, such as good clinical practice and good laboratory practice (glp), which are still different from the globally prevailing standards. therefore, in evaluating the pharmacology, curative effects and toxicity of tcm, the global community has not quite recognized related testing data. 2.5. planting of crude herbal materials to be regulated in each link of herbal material planting, most tcm materials in china lack professional management and unified standards and testing methods. medicinal herb planters still cannot control the quality of herbal materials. therefore, excessive residue of pesticides, heavy metal content, and differing contents of effective components commonly occur. generally, the heavy metal content indicator specified by foreign countries is stricter than the range of heavy metal content permitted in china (liang et al., 2004). therefore, the tcm products that are produced and tested following the standards of china will face obstacles in exportation. 2.6. the production process control is extensive though the tcm industry in china has developed rapidly in recent years and passed the domestic good manufacturing practice (gmp) certification, some enterprises have still lagged behind in the specific implementation of the production process management of medicines and cannot meet the requirements of the international market regarding the production quality of medicines. in tcm quality testing and control, most enterprises are still at the qualitative testing level and conduct quantitative tests on only some indicators (martins, 2014). in addition, the quality control system is far from complete, without very strict requirements on such aspects of medicines as quality control, the monitoring of adverse reactions and gmp requirements. 2.7. intellectual property protection issue although the protection of intellectual property for tcm in china has been increasingly regular and legal, there are still many problems related to how to apply the protection. on one hand, enterprises have not paid enough attention to the protection of their intellectual property and have not made any corresponding attempts to protect their intellectual property. since china has long lacked awareness of and systems for the protection of intellectual property for tcm, our scientific and technological fruits have gone unprotected. many classical tcm prescriptions and other proven prescriptions have been utilized by foreign pharmacy companies for free. on the other hand, the protection system for intellectual property of tcm is not complete enough. in contrast to western medicine, each batch of tcm is unique; it has a medicinal formula but not specific chemical structural formula. the adjustment of the dosage of any medicinal material in the formula may form a new formula. if there is any imitation, in judging whether there is infringement, all components and specific dosages of each component must be confirmed. therefore, it is rather difficult to identify infringement, and infringement is very easy. 3. design, selection and guarantee of tcm internationalization strategies certain problems hinder the internationalization process of tcm products. therefore, this paper offers suggestions based on actual situations so that more enterprises can internationalize tcm smoothly. 3.1. cultural strategy for national competition: promote the spread and communication of tcm culture 3.1.1. strengthening the international communication on tcm culture developing tcm requires the publicity of tcm culture. to strengthen cultural exchange and reduce the factors that hinder the exchange between eastern and western cultures, we must constantly promote tcm culture, adopt scientific methods to exhibit the action mechanisms and cultural connotations of tcm and break the conventional thinking limitations of western medicine theories. 3.1.2. promoting the international demonstration exchange and cooperation of tcm we should make full use of related resources at home and strengthen the international exchange and cooperation related to tcm, thereby promoting the development of tcm culture. cooperation and exchange include strengthening the policies and regulations for traditional medicine, herbal medicine quality standards and control indicators and the formulation of various management regulations. we should strengthen the exchange between the chinese government, the leadership of international organizations and the cooperation with foreign institutions of higher learning and hospitals and co-establish clinical research centres or groups to make more academic authority institutions accept and recognize tcm. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 40-45 44 3.2. support strategy for national competition: step up the governmental support 3.2.1. strengthening the coordination mechanism at the government level in the course of tcm internationalization, there are many qualifications, procedures and departments involved as well as strict requirements on the time and procedure of review and approval. the government should adopt corresponding encouraging policies, including support such as funds and technologies for export enterprises, policy support for domestic review and approval procedures, promoting qualified enterprises to carry out related work on tcm internationalization, and providing effective information consultation and suggestions for domestic enterprises to find the best routine and method for internationalization. 3.2.2. establishing a compensation mechanism for tcm internationalization the government should pay attention to and support tcm enterprises. for example, appropriate policy support may be offered to enterprises that have passed the eu or american fda certification and embarked on tcm internationalization. the internationalization process of tcm is long and costly, so if the government can offer financial support to smoothen this process, it will effectively enhance the international competitiveness of chinese tcm enterprises and stimulate their activeness, thereby promoting the internationalization process of the whole tcm industry. 3.3. innovation strategy: increase scientific research efforts in tcm 3.3.1. increasing the input into tcm research it is an important foundation for tcm internationalization to enhance its international competitiveness and establish the value of its use. the fundamental reason why tcm encounters all sorts of difficulties in internationalization lies in the fact that tcm is a summary of clinical experience, and micro-studies on the medicine itself are lacking. the state and enterprises should increase investment in the studies on tcm, speed up the tcm research and the renewal and upgrade of production equipment, produce tcm products with a high added-value and meet the international requirements. only in this way can tcm be competitive in the world. 3.3.2. referring to foreign natural medicine regulations, doing well in structural adjustment of natural medicines to align the foreign regulations concerning natural medicines, tcm can start with individual herbs. for example, enterprises can take some formula of tcm with specific curative effects and the effective part as an effective body, control the composition and contents of the “effective body”, and gradually reach the purposes of “safety, control, stability and effectiveness”. the “effective body” in individual herbs can also be analysed and summarized with the “assistant and guide” theory of tcm. 3.3.3. developing new dosage forms and products for the demands of the global market we should break the limits of the traditional tcm dosage forms of china and develop dosage forms and products that meet the demands of international market and are accepted by the consumers. the tcm industry should increase the input of manpower and materials, break the limits of conventional production methods, and renew and upgrade the production process towards the process of extraction and refinement in order to enhance the scale and level of the production process. with advantages such as few toxic side effects and enduring curative effects, tcm is expected to make further breakthroughs in the treatment of cancer, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (aids), cardiovascular diseases and chronic diseases. therefore, we should explore and study the traditional formulas and carry out secondary development with modern innovative technologies to develop and produce new products, which will play a huge role in spreading tcm into the global market. 3.4. standard strategy: enhancing the standardization and modernization of tcm quality 3.4.1. enhancing the standardization of tcm quality regarding medicine standards, many countries have specified the limits of heavy metals and residues of pesticide of tcm and begun to enhance the standards. we should release tcm product quality standards that are applicable to both china and the world as soon as possible. establishing an international standard system for tcm and unifying the tcm standards will also influence the global market to a certain extent, including strict management of planting and production, thereby guaranteeing that the consistency of tcm quality can be controlled. 3.4.2. enhancing the modernization of tcm quality tcm modernization is critical, and adopting advanced technologies is a necessary step in modernization. we should regulate each node of the tcm industry, apply high and new technologies, use advanced equipment and adopt strict standards to transform the tcm production and reach the goals of modernizing the technologies for the extraction, analysis and production of tcm based on related conventional theories. 3.5. talent strategy: cultivation of high-quality tcm talent 3.5.1. striving to cultivate cross-disciplinary academic leaders talented individuals should not only be equipped with rich tcm knowledge but also understand modern sciences and technologies and have an innovative spirit. only these types of composite talents can become academic leaders and play a major role in the internationalization and development of tcm from china. 3.5.2. cultivating composite talents that meet the needs of tcm internationalization we should try to cultivate professional tcm talents and composite talents who understand international quality standards, are familiar with tcm trade knowledge, are equipped with production and operation asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 40-45 45 management capacities, understand research and development, know the requirements at home and abroad on the protection of intellectual property, keep a close watch on the dynamic progress of tcm scientific studies, and search for professional foreign language talents. 3.6. intellectual property strategy: strengthen intellectual property protection of tcm 3.6.1. enhancing the awareness to protect tcm intellectual property as intangible assets, intellectual property can effectively protect tcm inventions and creations. we must carry out intellectual property protection training among the practitioners of the tcm industry and enhance the awareness of the whole industry regarding the protection of intellectual property. we must learn the domestic and international regulations on the protection of intellectual property, which not only can protect the management performance of tcm enterprises but also can enhance their awareness of product protection. therefore, in the internationalization of tcm, we must strengthen the protection of intellectual property and realize the purposes and significance of internationalization. 3.6.2. stepping up protection efforts for tcm intellectual property we must strengthen the efforts to protect tcm intellectual property. based on the current situation in china, we can make efforts in four areas. the first is to establish fast review and approval channels for tcm invention patents, accelerate the review and approval process and reduce the time needed. the second is to accelerate the handling of patent infringement lawsuit cases and significantly increase the amount of compensation to avoid wilful infringement. the third is to establish an arbitration institution for the tcm industry in order to reduce patent disputes. fourth, we may also achieve effective protection through the core technologies, trademarks, essence and works in tcm intellectual property. references 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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=metabolomics%20in%20the%20context%20of%20systems%20biology:%20bridging%20traditional%20chinese%20medicine%20and%20molecular%20pharmacology http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1624 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=analysis%20and%20thinking%20on%20the%20current%20status%20of%20traditional%20chinese%20medicine%20standardization http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1876-3553(12)60015-5 8 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 1, 8-15, 2018 issn (e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.51.8.15 social exclusion of farmers of arid areas uzooba hureem1  zainab butt2 1staff-sociologist at punjab economic research institute (peri), lahore, pakistan 2lecturer at government degree college for women, mustafabad, lahore, pakistan ( corresponding author) abstract in the arid parts of pakistan, the farmers are socially excluded owing to their lack of access to technology and unaffordability of farm inputs. two thirds of pakistan is arid and dependent on rain. irregular patterns of rainfall also play havoc with agricultural productivity and ultimately affects gdp & food security. the purpose of this research was to observe the existence of social exclusion of the small farmers from different dimensions and to study their neutral relationship. case studies of 15 farmers were conducted to get information about social exclusion from different dimensions and their relationship. analysis of the data supports the hypothesis of farmers’ social exclusion along a host of dimensions such as education, infrastructure and technological access. the extent of social exclusion is significantly more in the case of farmers living in disadvantaged areas. most of the farmers do not have enough means to enhance their yield; lack of education, lack of access to adequate water resources and unawareness about modern technologies which is the major contributor to their exclusion. keywords: exclusion, farm inputs, yield, productivity, gdp, food insecurity, arid area. citation | uzooba hureem; zainab butt (2018). social exclusion of farmers of arid areas. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(1): 8-15. history: received: 11 december 2017 revised: 15 january 2018 accepted: 22 january 2018 published: 26 january 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 9 2. theory of social exclusion ............................................................................................................................................................... 9 3. research locale ................................................................................................................................................................................ 10 4. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 10 5. respondent profile .......................................................................................................................................................................... 10 7. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 8. suggestions ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 15 bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.51.8.15&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2108-1703 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8438-8422 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2108-1703 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8438-8422 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2108-1703 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8438-8422 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 8-15 9 1. introduction social exclusion is a broader concept, encompassing not only low material means but also the inability to participate effectively in economic, social, political and cultural life and in some ways alienation and distance from main stream of society (atkinson and hills, 1998). in the arid parts of pakistan, the farmers are socially excluded owing to their lack of access to technology and high prices of pesticides which results in less productivity and ultimately causes food insecurity. this also affects the gdp. two third land of pakistan is arid and dependent on rain. irregular patterns of rainfall also play havoc with agricultural productivity. the purpose of this research was to observe the existence of social exclusion among small farmers from different dimensions and to study their neutral relationship. the key question is to determine the extent to which social exclusion and the problems confronted by the small farmers of pakistan prevail? in the past, researches have conducted on the role of farmers in agricultural and economic sector of several countries. abbas et al. (2003) identified that education had a highly significant relationship with farmer’s awareness about pesticides and its usage to enhance productivity. badar et al. (2007) conducted a study analyzing small farmers and the study results showed that agriculture labour of punjab is playing a significant role in increasing agricultural production. however, there is need to equipped them with modern technologies and relevant agricultural trainings to enhance more productivity in agriculture sector. given this brief introduction, the following are the objectives of the case study: 1. to observe the existence of social exclusion in the five villages of chakwal district. 2. to identify different dimensions of social exclusion of farmers, and 3. to determine the extent of different elements of exclusion. 2. theory of social exclusion arjan de haan1 states that, exclusion can be social, political, cultural, or emotional. these forms of exclusion may frequently interact: racial minorities are commonly economically disadvantaged as well as being politically and culturally marginalized. here the theory is included for the exclusion of social and economic opportunities of the farmers. economically they do not have sufficient production for sale. socially they are not connected to agricultural organization, lacking education and means of communication. 2.1. conceptual model the basic conceptual model as shown below is structured by using the concepts of social exclusion of farmers by elaborating how social exclusion takes place in socio cultural context of our society. social exclusion is viewed as multi-dimensional concepts such as social, cultural, economic and political with reference to the small farmers. table-1. conceptual model source: authors contribution based on review of literature social exclusion of farmers is occurring due to different elements. these elements are sub concepts which are stated as under & described in table 1.these include exclusion from: i. education ii. agricultural assets iii. modern technologies iv. resources v. physical infrastructure vi. access to information 1 social exclusion: enriching the understanding of deprivation asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 8-15 10 table-2. indicators to measure social exclusion dimensions dimensions indicators exclusion from modern technologies (pesticides, chemicals, fertilizer and biotechnology) exclusion from resources (electricity, water) exclusion from physical infrastructure (roads, transport, motors and turbines) exclusion from access to information (newspapers, radio, tv and phone) exclusion from education (below primary, primary, middle, metric and higher) exclusion from agricultural machinery (tractors, thrashers, sheller, seed graders drills, hand sprayers, trailer & cutter etc.) farm size (from 1 acre to 20 acres.) note: 1 acre (b) = 8 kanal = 8 x 5444.8 ft.2 = 43558.4 ft.2 (since, 1 kanal = 5444.8 ft.2) source: http://pakagrifarming.blogspot.com/2012/09/agricultural-land-measuring-units-in.html 3. research locale chakwal is an arid district and the land is mainly hilly, this area has a shortage of irrigation systems and water sources for agriculture. more than half of the population is involved in agriculture. mustard, wheat, grains, sesame, peanuts and tara mira are major crops of this area. mostly agricultural subsistence dependent on rainfall; and villages do not have any irrigation system. 4. methodology case studies were conducted in five villages/tehsils of chakwal: i. mureed ii. balkassar iii. dhakko iv. maingan v. dhokdandi researchers have used purposive sampling because this sampling framework is broadly used for the identification and selection of information-rich cases in the qualitative research. it also identifies particular types of cases on judgment bases. sample size of the research is 15 farmers from the rural areas of chakwal. case studies were conducted to measure the social exclusion of farmers. case study method was selected because  it helps researcher to connect the micro level, or the actions of individual people.  it is useful for both educated and uneducated person.  respondent is not bound in particular options.  respondent can easily express what he wants to convey. problems of the rural farmers related to the field cannot be understood without case studies. that is why case studies of the farmers was conducted to understand their activities related to the cultivation and production of their lands in detail by using the open-ended questionnaire. researchers used the interview guide and developed themes to examine and measure common features at one period of time. the semi structured interview guide provides in depth information of the data and comprised of 40 questions. 5. respondent profile 5.1. demographics of the farmers all farmers were male and were married. average number of children was 7. all farmers cultivated their own farmland. the land holding criteria was 1 acre to 20 acres. the major crops are wheat, pulses, gram, peanuts and melon. ten respondents cultivated half of their total land. most of the farmers cultivated wheat. pakistani rural sector has joint and extended joint family system. it means more than one family is living together. according to the data (see figure 1) 67 percent respondents are living in joint family system. food requirement of all the family members is fulfilled by the gained production. everything is shared between all family members including household expenditures and cost of production. they practice agriculture subsistence together to produce enough yield. only 33percent farmers belong to nuclear family system compromised on married couple and their children and solely responsible for their own subsistence. figure-1. family structure asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 8-15 11 data (see figure 2) depicts that most of the respondents have big family size of more than 9 children. while only 2 farmers have small family size below 4 number of children. average household size of farmers is 8. the smallest household size is 4. one respondent had 15 children. figure-2. family size larger family sizes forces farmers to enhance their crop productivity so that they can meet needs of their family and bear cost of production as well. but due to small land holding, little cultivated area and paddy productivity they have to face many difficulties to satisfy the necessities of their families. figure-3. age composition the age of the respondents was from 35 to 55 years (see figure 3). however most of the farmers belongs to above 40 age group. only 5 respondents fall between 35-40 age group. data illustrates that majority of the farmers are middle age. still they want to get trainings and scientific knowledge to enhance crop productivity. they don’t have enough energy and capacity to use traditional farming methods and enhance productivity. education is necessary to understand the latest farming techniques, to adopt modern technology and to move from traditional farming practices to modern farming methods. but the data (see figure 4) depicts that most of the respondents were uneducated and four had only passed primary. these respondents do not have enough education to understand biotechnology, latest farming techniques and to apply these methodologies. lack of education is an obstacle in learning new skills and trainings. only two respondents have completed their high school and they were using chemical seeds, pesticides and fertilizer to some extent. but rest of the farmers were reluctant to adopt latest farming methods. figure-4. level of education of respondent 5.2. farming patterns of the farmers data is gathered from the small farmers of land holding ranges from 1 acre to 20 acres. most of the cases are the owners of 11 to 15 acres of land (see figure 5). only one farmer had land holding area of above 16 acres. moreover, holding large area of land does not mean that it will yield higher productivity. total production is dependent on how much land is cultivated from the total land and how many times per year? majority of the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 8-15 12 respondents cultivated only half area of their land and half remained uncultivated due to scarcity of water resources and high cost of production. figure-5. land holding size figure-6. cultivation trends data illustrates that (see figure 6) most of the farmers cultivated their land two times per year. most of the respondents cultivated wheat, peanut, gram and pulses. these are seasonal crops which are cultivated in rabi2 and kharif3 season. ten respondents cultivated both rabi and kharif crops. this raised their intensity of cultivation to twice a year as compared to those who cultivated single season crop. figure-7. crop production trends data (see figure 7) highlights that most of the farmers have gained 15 to 30 maund of their production which can be one of the wheat, pulse, gram and peanut. few respondents have below 15 maund crop production per acre. a single farmer had 55 maund production of wheat and gram per acre because his land holding size was 17.5 acres. but he cultivated 9-acre land. only those farmers who have large land holding, use good quality seeds, fertilizer and pesticides thus yielding higher production as compare to others. besides all these factors, lack of water resources played a big role in low productivity of this area. figure-8. seed usage the use of farm inputs particularly hybrid seeds is very effective in enhancing productivity. however, data shows that (see figure 8) 87 percent respondents used domestic seeds for sowing which cannot combat pest attacks and enhance productivity. they also have to reserve half of the production for the sowing of next crop; resulting in 2the term rabi means "spring" and the rabi crops are grown between the months mid-november to april. major rabi crop is wheat. source: http://agrinfobank.blogspot.com/2013/04/rabi-and-kharif-crops.html 3 kharif crops are usually sown with the beginning of the first rains towards the end of may. major kharif crops are maize, pulses and peanut. source: http://agrinfobank.blogspot.com/2013/04/rabi-and-kharif-crops.html asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 8-15 13 less production that cannot move to market for sale. majority of the respondents don’t have financial capacity to purchase chemical seeds and they also lack understanding of the importance of hybrid seeds in the productivity perspective. it is a form of exclusion from access to chemical seeds and lack of awareness about their benefits related to crops ‘productivity and food security. only 13percent farmers use chemical seeds and they also lack understanding about various types of seeds, quantity and quality of seeds, optimal timing to sow seeds and all those factors which can contribute to higher productivity. figure-9. usage of pesticides despite the fact that pesticides play vital role in crop protection 67 percent respondents don’t use pesticides to protect crops against pest attacks (see figure 9) farmers also complain about the absence of any awareness campaign on behalf of agricultural department and pesticide companies in their area to create awareness about protection of crops from harmful insects. owing to lack of training farmer don’t know about the proper dosage of pesticide, crops diseases and best fitted pest and time for the protection of their crops. that’s why they avoid using it and stick to traditional farming methods which ultimately affect the average yield productivity. data also demonstrates that very few farmers use pesticides to protect their crops and that too without any training or accurate knowledge. meanwhile, farmers also complained about the non-availability of spray and high prices of pesticides. figure-10. usage of fertilizers fertilizers are not widely used by the farmers, as illustrated by the data (see figure 10) 53 percent respondents do not use fertilizers like potash, urea and phosphorus etc. they reported their lack of affordability as the major reason behind it. those who sow, also complained about its non-availability and high prices. one of the factors of not using of fertilizer was that, it needs water otherwise it causes damages crops. hence, they use fertilizer in the rainy season. furthermore, farmers don’t have training or enough knowledge about the proper use of fertilizer because imbalanced use of fertilizer not only reduce the crops yields but also leads to excessive economic loss. few respondents have used fertilizers & reported awareness about its proper usage. figure-11. water resources analysis depicts that (see figure 11) water resource is a hot issue for farmers which was a major cause of low level food production and food insecurity amongst them. most of the respondents explained that their utmost problem is lack of water resources. given this water scarcity their crops remain at risk of being ruined. when asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 8-15 14 farmers sow fertilizer they need water immediately otherwise crops gets destroyed if sufficient water is not available in a timely manner. that’s why farmers neither use fertilizer widely nor cultivate their whole land. majority of the farmers are dependent on wells, tube wells and rain water for irrigation. meanwhile lack of water resources adversely effects average yield productivity. figure-12. possession of agricultural machinery rent a tractor, drill machine, cutter, thresher, turbine, motor and trailer are very common amongst farmers which is the exclusion from basic cultivation implements. data reveals that (see figure 12) very few farmers have their own tractor, drill machine and cutter for cultivation. the farmers reporting lack of availability of these implements are small landholders. whereas 93 percent farmers don’t have agricultural machinery for cultivation purposes. results reveal that those farmers who do not have their agricultural machinery report lower level of production. when farmers do not have their own tractors, drill machines and trailer chances to get sufficient production decreases that cannot meet the needs of market. furthermore, due to the absence of these assets they have to face difficulty to access the market to sell their yield. figure-13. awareness about modern technology most of the farmers do not understand the importance of modern techniques in agriculture sector see figure 13. only 20 percent of the farmers have information about latest farming methods or bio technology but lack awareness of its application. they are excluded from scientific training, latest farm practices and information to produce more food and achieve maximum yield. very few farmers have knowledge about progressive farming techniques, modern machinery, certified seeds, hybrid seed varieties, pesticides and fertilizer. while, majority of the farmers indulge in traditional ways of farming and remain unaware of latest soil management, water management techniques and technological methods of farming. 6. issues & challenges encountered by farmers themes responses non-availability of electricity and usage of turbine most of the cases reported that they had the facility of electricity and used it from 6 to 10 hours on average. but they were not allowed to use it for irrigation. turbine is necessary for irrigation. although electricity is available to them but the inability to use turbine is making it unfeasible. in sufficient production and access to market analysis high lights the social exclusion of farmers economically. only few farmers have adequate production & have capacity to sell their yield in market. however majority of respondents have to face this crucial issue of low productivity & market access. interconnectedness with government and ngos all the farmers reported dissatisfaction when asked about the government and ngos role and having its membership. they said that they were poor, due to which there is no one to ask about their problems. different organizations are working for farmers but they do not come to their villages although their villages are a short distance from city. several farmers were familiar with the working of agricultural organization but no one of the respondent was connected with any agricultural institution for enhancing productivity. they were dissatisfied with their performance too. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 8-15 15 7. conclusion the present research was conducted to understand the existence of social exclusion of farmers in arid area of chakwal district and to find out the dimensions in which they are excluded. on the basis of analysis, we conclude that most of the respondents are excluded from water resources, education to apply modern scientific methods, possession of agricultural machinery & access to market. the study concluded that farming community lacks proper knowledge and is not properly equipped to meet the challenges of modern agriculture. majority of the farmers are illiterate and unable to make rational decisions on their own and need institutional support. moreover, market mechanism is not well established and incapable of providing proper economic signals to all stakeholders. analysis also depicts that exclusion from one dimension is ultimately making farmers more excluded in other way around. one exclusion is becoming the cause of another for instance farmers lacking sufficient production to sell in the market, results in their inability to purchase essential instruments for sowing, cultivating & harvesting. researchers also conclude that if 41 percent of the peoples related to agricultural sector are not in good condition how they will bring forth high production in the modern world to fulfill the need of growing population. the research is very specific to the arid area of chakwal. it is not for generalization because there can be other factors that are not covered in the context of social exclusion of the farmers like poverty, credit and loan facility and mismanagement in the implementation of policies. 8. suggestions the importance of social exclusion of farmers can be supplemented by other researchers. the suggestions include:  this type of research can encourage the government to take reforms regarding awareness campaigns with regards to adopting modern technology and arrange agricultural trainings to enhance the capacity of the farmers.  the officials of government and nongovernmental agricultural societies can also be interviewed about their ongoing agricultural projects and policies to empower the small farmers.  the present research was conducted on the exclusion of the rural farmers. it can be used for comparative study by comparing the exclusion of small city farmers with capital city to see who are the most excluded? references abbas, m., s. muhammad, i. nabi and m. kashif, 2003. farmers' information sources, their awareness and adoption of recommended sugarcane production technologies in the central punjab. pakistan journal of agricultural sciences, 40: 202-206. view at google scholar atkinson, a.b. and j. hills, 1998. exclusion, employment and opportunity. london school of economics. london: centre for analysis of social exclusion (case). badar, h., a. ghafoor and s.a. adil, 2007. factors affecting agricultural production of punjab (pakistan). pakistan journal of agricultural sceinces, 44(3): 506-510. view at google scholar bibliography de haan, a., 2000. social exclusion: enriching the understanding of deprivation. studies in social and political thought, 2(2): 22-40. view at google scholar harrison, p., 1981. the third world tomorrow. harmondsworth: penguin. jamil, m., 1985. socioeconomic status of the farmers and their aspiration for the education of their sons. master’s thesis of sociology department: main library, university of the punjab. khalil, r., 1973. a study of the attitude of the farmers to cooperate agricultural society in dg khan. master’s thesis of soc iology department: main library, university of the punjab. sen, a., 1981. poverty and famines: an essay on entitlement and destitution. oxford: oxford university press. silver, h., 1994. social exclusion and social solidarity: three paradigms. iils discussion papers no. 69. geneva: ilo. webster, a., 1990. introduction to the sociology of development. london: british library. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=farmers'%20information%20sources,%20their%20awareness%20and%20adoption%20of%20recommended%20sugarcane%20production%20technologies%20in%20the%20central%20punjab https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=farmers'%20information%20sources,%20their%20awareness%20and%20adoption%20of%20recommended%20sugarcane%20production%20technologies%20in%20the%20central%20punjab https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=factors%20affecting%20agricultural%20production%20of%20punjab%20(pakistan) https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=social%20exclusion:%20enriching%20the%20understanding%20of%20deprivation https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=social%20exclusion:%20enriching%20the%20understanding%20of%20deprivation asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 3, 82-88, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 82 regional organizations and response to political threat: a review of the role of ecowas in ebola and boko haram crises edward brenya 1* --owura kwabena kuffuor 2 1 lecturer, history and political studies department, kwame nkrumah university of science and technology, ghana 2 teaching assistant, history and political studies department, kwame nkrumah university of science and technology, ghana abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 83 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 88 the economic community of west africa like all regional and international bodies takes priority in promoting peace and security for their members. however, the responses by ecowas have been contradictory in many cases where they have been confronted with issues of security in the region. this paper examines the response of ecowas‟ to the issues of ebola outbreak and boko haram crises. it delves into the origins of both ebola and boko haram and assesses the damage it has caused the west african sub region. the paper further critically analyses the response of ecowas to these two issues in the context of the protocol established to deal with issues of regional security threat. the paper finds that even though the regional body‟s response to ebola was unduly delayed, its actions contributed to the curtailing of the spread of the deadly disease. however, ecowas‟ response to the activities of boko haram has not been encouraging as the protocol established by the ecowas to deal with issues of terrorism relating to regional security threat has not been invoked to deal with the security threat posed by the members of boko haram. therefore, the paper concludes that the regional body‟s response to boko haram has been poor and disappointing and calls on the governments of the countries in the ecowas region to take proactive steps to curtail the boko haram issues so as to bring lasting peace in nigeria and the region. keywords: ebola, boko haram, ecowas, regional threat, security, nigeria. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 82-88 83 1. introduction right after the first world war, the desire by states to achieve global peace has been unwavering. it started with the formation of the league of nations, led mostly by president f.d roosevelt of the united states of america. the league was tasked to ensure the non-occurrence of a global scale of violence. the league failed to achieve this mandate, which led to the second world war. subsequently, the united nations was formed after the second world war to among others: a. maintain international peace and security and to that end, to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of peace (article 1 of the un charter) the effort of states in promoting global peace is also championed at the regional or continental level and supranational bodies such as the ecowas is known for that purpose in western african region. economic community of west african states (ecowas) the economic community of west african states (ecowas) formed on 28 th may 1975 is made up of 16 member states to among other things; 1. promote cooperation and integration leading to the establishment of an economic union in west africa in order to raise the living standards of its people and to maintain among and enhance economic stability among member states and contribute to the progress and development of the african continent article 3:1 of ecowas treaty (ecowas commission, 1975). the means of achieving the objectives was through the implementation of the provisions outlined in the subsections of the treaty. to that effect, ecowas signed a protocol on non-aggression on 22 nd april, 1978. on 22 nd april 1978, it signed another protocol on mutual assistance in defense which basically aimed at giving mutual aid assistance for defense against any armed threat or aggression on a member state. ecowas further deepened its resolve in promoting the above protocol by signing another protocol that stipulated mechanism for conflict prevention, management, resolution, peace keeping and security. the protocol on mutual assistance in defense seeks to among other things implement the relevant provisions of the protocol on non-aggression, mutual assistance in defense, free movement of persons, the right of residence establishment, strengthen cooperation in areas of conflict prevention, early warning, peace keeping operations, control of cross border crime, international terrorism and proliferation of small arms and anti-personnel monies. it also seeks to maintain and consolidate peace, security and stability within the community (ecowas commission, 1999). the ideals of the protocol are mouthwatering however; its implementation has been quite problematic. the protocol on mutual assistance in defense anticipates three types of aggression namely: 1. an internal armed conflict in a member state organized and actively supported from without and likely to endanger the peace and security of the entire community 2. an armed conflict between two or more member states or 3. or an external armed threat or aggression. the protocol further outlines how to deal with these types of aggressions, as follows: 1. an ecowas authority to act as the supreme organ to determine when to invoke the protocol and determine the necessity for military action. 2. a defense council composed of foreign and defence ministers of member states to assist the authority in this function. 3. a defense commission of chiefs of defence of member states responsible for examining the technical aspects of any defence issue and implementing any duties assigned to the defense council. 4. a deputy executive secretary (military who would be a senior serving military officer to take charge of the administration and implementation of defence; and (a) allied armed forces of the community consisting of designated units of armed forces of member states, under a force commander appointed by the ecowas authority on the advice of the defense council. 1.1. regional security threat in modern times, the world faces little danger from direct military assault from opposing states. rather the threats the world faces today ranges from environmental degradation, terrorism and drug trafficking. this has generated an argument as to the right definition of security in the 21 st century. lake and morgan (1997) defines security as being free from deliberate man made violence. they explain further that security deals with the maintenance, use and management of capacities either to inflict or to defend against man made violence, especially war and by extension the conduct of political relationships. according to them, anything that affects these capacities or likelihood of their use may have an impact on security affairs and security concerns. on the other hand believes that state centric models of security are ineffective in coping with issues such as the spread of diseases that originate with sovereign boundaries but have effects that is felt regionally and globally. he agitates for focusing on human security which defines security in relation to the individual and not the state. the definition offered by lake and morgan (1997) suggests that anything that reduces one‟s capability to be free from man-made violence is a security threat. however, the definition is quite ambiguous and makes it difficult in finding a place for it in modern security analysis. this is because issues such as drug trafficking and disease spread does not necessarily inhibit one‟s ability to be free from man-made violence. yet, drug trafficking and disease spread has become a major security challenge in modern times. in light of this brower‟s definition will be more appropriate in the context of this article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 82-88 84 1.2. region lake and morgan (1997) defines a region as a set of states affected by at least one trans-border but local externality that emanates from a particular geographic area. in a case where this externality is a security threat, it becomes a regional security threat. therefore, by these definitions ebola and activities of the boko haram can be considered as serious security threat to west african countries. 1.3. ebola ebola is a virus disease spread through contact with body fluids of symptomatic patients. before its outbreak in west africa, ebola broke out in central africa in limited size and geographic spread. the largest previous outbreaks occurred in the districts of gulu, masindi and mbarara in uganda. the outbreak generated 425 cases over the course of three (3) months from october 2000 to january 2001. additionally there was an outbreak of ebola in west africa which began in guinea in december 2013. by september 14th 2014 there was a total of 4507 confirmed and probable cases of ebola virus disease (evd) as well as 2296 deaths from the virus had been reported from five countries in west africa, namely; guinea, liberia, nigeria, senegal and sierra leone. according to the who ebola response (2014); the morbidity and mortality rate of evd is far larger than all previous epidemic combined. the map below in figure 1.0 shows the districts that have been affected by ebola virus disease in guinea, liberia, and sierra leone. the gray circles indicate the total numbers of confirmed and probable ebola cases reported in each affected district, and the red circles are the number cases reported during the 21 days leading up to september 14, 2014. the ebola virus disease was declared an epidemic with a “public health emergency of international concern” by the who in 8 th august, 2014. because of the means of transmission, it became a regional security issue as it was considered that the disease could be transmitted into any country and causes an epidemic. figure-1.districts affected by ebola virus disease in three countries in africa source:who ebola response (2014) 1.4. ecowas response to ebola as a result of the seriousness and rate of fatality of the disease, an emergency ecowas ministerial meeting on evd was held in accra from july 2-3, 2014 involving 11 countries and a number of key international partners. in a communiqué issued at the end of the meeting, the ministers agreed that the evd poses a serious threat to all countries in the ecowas sub-region and called for immediate action (gna, 2014). they intimated that there has been adverse social and economic impact of the ebola outbreak. they further called for coordinated actions by all stakeholders, national leadership, enhanced cross border collaboration and community participation in the response. the ministers called on the who to lead an international effort to promote research on evd and other hemorrhagic fever (gna, 2014). following this meeting, the 45 th ordinary session of ecowas heads of states and government was held in accra at which the chairman of the ecowas called on presidents in the west african sub region to as a matter of urgency pull resources together to fight the ebola virus. he challenged medical research institutions in the sub region to find a cure or vaccines for the disease. the chairman also took advantage of the opportunity to call on international partners to help with the fight against evd. prior to this meeting, the who had been invited to the emergency meeting of health ministers at which dr. luis gomes sambo, regional director, who regional office for africa, outlined the recommendations that who had made to west africa member states. the recommendations were as follows; 1. the head of state of an affected country should declare a national emergency; personally address the nation to provide information on the situation, outline the steps being taken to address the outbreak and critical role of the community in ensuring its rapid control, provide immediate access to emergency financing to initiate and sustain response operations and ensure all necessary measures are taken to mobilise and remunerate the necessary healthcare workforce, 2. in areas of intense transmission (e.g. the cross border area of sierra leone, guinea and liberia) the provision of quality clinical care and material and psychological support for the affected populations should asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 82-88 85 be used as the primary basis for reducing the movement of people, but extraordinary supplemental measures such as quarantine should be used as considered necessary. 3. states should conduct exit screening of all persons at international airports, seaports and major land crossings, for unexplained febrile illness consistent with potential ebola infection. the exit screening should consist of, at least, a questionnaire, a temperature measurement and, if there is fever, an assessment of the risk that the fever is caused by evd. any person with an illness consistent with evd should not be allowed to travel unless the travel is part of an appropriate medical evaluation. 4. there should be no general ban on international travel or trade, restrictions outlined in these recommendations regarding the travel of evd cases and contacts. dr. sambo further indicated that the who was working with various important partners through the ecowas sub regional ebola outbreak coordinating center based in conakry, guinea to manage the response of the outbreak. he further stated that he had signed an agreement for usd 60 million ebola grants, flexible money, to boost the immediate response capacity of health services in affected countries. the chairman of ecowas additionally embarked on a one day tour of sierra leone, liberia and guinea to show solidarity to these countries because they were the worst hit of the evd. he took advantage of this tour to condemn the isolation and discrimination against ebola affected countries. the chairman also called on donors to fast track promises and pledges for the affected countries. due to these efforts by ecowas, nigeria, a country that contracted the disease on 20th july, 2014 was able to effectively fight the spread of the disease such that it was declared ebola free country on 20 th october 2014 (who ebola response, 2014). table 1.0 below outlines the chronology of some of the activities of boko haram. table-1.a sequential table of activities of boko haram date event december 2003 first known attack by boko haram at multiple police stations in the state of yobe near the niger bushes july 2009 boko haram uprisings at bauchi and spreads to the states of borno, kano and yobe. the militant group kills scores of police officers september 7, 2010 in the state of bauchi, 50 boko haram militants attack a prison killing the people and releasing more than 700 inmates may 29, 2011 on the day of president goodluck jonathan‟s inauguration. boko haram detonates 3 ieds near a military barracks in the city of bauchon in bauchi state. at least 10 people die in attacks. august 25, 2011 12 people die after boko haram militants attack a police station and two banks in the city of gombi adamawa august 26 2011 boko haram attacks the un compounds in abuja. a car bomb kills 23 people and injures more than 75 others november 4 2011 more than 100 die in multiple attacks in yobe, damaturo and borno states. boko haram militants utilize ied‟s and vehicle borne ied‟s to target security forces and other offices, markets and churches january 20 2012 more than 200 people are killed when boko haram launches coordinated attacks targeting police, military a prison and other target s in the city of kano in kanu state april 19 2013 boko haram battles with multinational security forces from niger, nigeria and chad in the city of baga in borno state leaving nearly 200 people dead including many civilians june 2013 boko haram targets churches in various states on three sundays in a row leaving more than 50 people dead september 17 2013 boko haram gunmen dress in military uniforms and stage a checkpoint near benisheik in borno, executing travelers and burning vehicles leaving at least 143 people dead. january 26, 2014 at least 45 are killed in kanuri in borno after boko haram militants open fire february 11, 2014 at least 23 people are killed when suspected boko haram militants torch houses in the village of konduga according to governor of borno state april 14 2014 boko haram militants kidnap approximately 276 teenage girls from a boarding school in chibok in borno may 13 2014 hundreds of boko haram militants storm three villages in the state of borno. villagers resist, killing more than 200 boko haram fighters may 20 2014 town blast in the city of jos kill 118 people at a market. june 3-4 2014 hundreds of people are killed in raids by boko haram militants in the state of borno with some sources putting the death toll at 400 to 500 june 7-8 2014 suspected boko haram militants kidnap at least 20 young women over a weekend in the north eastern nigeria village of garkin fulani 8 kilometers from a town where more than 200 school girls were taken nearly two months earlier june 18-22 2014 boko haram militants hold the village of kummabza in borno state northeastern nigeria hostage for four days. the abduct more than 60 females including children and kill 30 men in the raid july 17, 2014 boko haram raids the nigerian town of daboa. by the time the raid ends, 66 residents have been killed and more than 15000 fled january 3 2015 a multi day raid begins where hundreds of boko harm gunmen seize the town of bage and neighboring villages in northern nigeria as well as multinational military base, leaving bodies scattered everywhere and as many as 2000 people feared dead january 10-11, 2015 at least 20 are killed and 18 injured in maidugri after explosives strapped to a girl were detonated at a market place screening checkpoint. at least three are dead and 43 injured after two suicide bombs strapped to girls detonate in a mobile phone market in potiskun. boko haram is suspected as being behind the attacks source: cable news network (cnn)and irinnews.org 1.5. boko haram 1.5.1. origins the origin of boko haram seems to lie in a group of radical islamist youth who worshipped at the alhaji muhammah ndimi mosque in maidugri in 2002 (anyadike, 2013). an offshoot of this youth group declared the city asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 82-88 86 and the islamic establishment to be intolerably corrupt and irredeemable. the group moved from maidugri to a village called kanama, yobe state near the border with niger to set up a separatist community run on hard line islamic principles (adesoji, 2010). its leader mohammed ali, espoused anti state ideology and called on other muslims to join the group and return to a life under true islamic law with the aim of making a more perfect society away from corrupt establishment (anyadike, 2013). boko haram is a term taken from the hausa language for „the boko is a sin‟ which has the connotation that “western education is forbidden”. this terminology is derived from the public perception of the ideology and operation of the group and clearly shows the groups anti-western nature (adesoji, 2010). this public perception is closely connected to the group‟s outright opposition to darwinism and the position of its founder mohammed yusuf, that the teaching and acquisition of the knowledge of this philosophy is sinful for muslims. yusuf saw darwinism as an absolute contradiction to the islamic philosophy of existence and therefore advanced the belief that any knowledge that contradicts the principles of islam is not allowed by allah. the group‟s ideology is not limited to its opposition to western education, but it abhors western liberalism as a whole. its founder maintained that “democracy and the current system of education must be changed otherwise this war that is yet to start will continue for long (salkida, 2009). the group declared in a statement released to the press in 2009 that they are opposed not to formal education but to: western ways of life which include constitutional provision as it relates to for instance the rights and privileges of women, the idea of homosexualism, lesbianism, sanctions in cases of terrible crimes like drug trafficking, rape of infants, multiparty democracy in an overwhelmingly islamic country like nigeria, blue films, prostitution, drinking beer and alcohol and many others that are opposed to islamic civilizations. (vanguard, 2009). 1.5.2. membership in the early stages, the boko haram sect was widely known to have mobilized its membership from women and children „school drop outs‟ and unemployed university and polytechnic graduates (danjibo, 2009; alozieuwa, 2012; hussein, 2012). these recruits were indoctrinated to believe that their state of hopelessness was caused by government which imposed western education on them had failed to manage the resources of the country to their benefits. serious concerns over the violent tendencies grew after the open confrontation between the sect and the government in july 2009 (uzodike and maiangwa, 2012). aside the local members of boko haram mentioned above, a number of its members were recruited from nigeria‟s neighboring states especially mali, cameroon and republics of chad and niger (omonobi, 2011). 1.5.3. international links boko haram by compelling indicators is believed to have substantial connections with individuals and organizations outside nigeria. (onapajo et al., 2012). the groups association with international organizations started with mauritania after the fall of the states country‟s democratic government in 2005. boko haram was contacted by mauritanian warlords who were to recruit mercenaries from among boko haram members to fight in the conflict that ensued after the military coup in the state. some members of boko haram accepted the offer and received military training in the country (sahara reporters, 2011). the group realized the need to establish networks with transnational groups. following this, they employed the tactic of publicly identifying itself with al qaeda and osama bin laden (vanguard, 2009). in other instances, leaders of boko haram have claimed connections with al qaeda in the mahgrib (aqim) and al shabab in somalia. this was authenticated by a claim first raised by a top us military commander, general carter ham, who hinted that boko haram was in the process of establishing cooperation with aqim and wanted to have a loose partnership with al shabab (adeyemi and chukwu, 2011). the un security council has reported that it received information that boko haram members had also trained in aqim camps in mali (brock, 2012) and there are reports that further link boko haram to the insurgency in northern mali. figur-2.a map of north-eastern nigeria where boko haram attacks has been intense source: irinnews.org the activities of boko haram has spanned from december 2003 to date. however for analysis purposes and for the fact that their activities are in continuum, this study will limit itself to the period from december 2003 to january 2015. undoubtedly the activities of boko haram are causing a lot of distress to the people and government of http://www.irinnews.org/photo/details/201110071104070629/cities-in-north-where-boko-haram-has-focused-its-attacks asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 82-88 87 nigeria. but the consequence of these attacks on other west african countries is quite telling. the attacks of boko haram have spilled over the borders of nigeria to other west african states like chad, niger and cameroon (www.unhcr.org/546228896.html, 2014). on february 13 2015 boko haram attacked civilians in ngouboua, chad where many persons including the local traditional leader and several others were injured (www.unhcr.org/546228896.html, 2014). on february 6-8 2015 similar attacks were carried out by boko haram in kerewa, cameroon and diffa in niger (www.unhcr.org/546228896.html, 2014) more important of the effect of boko haram activities on other west african is the displacement of persons and refugee situations. according to the unhcr about 90,000 people including niger nationals had found refuge in niger‟s diffa region since may 2013. it also reports that 200, 000 people have fled nigeria to neighboring countries including chad cameroon and niger, according to figures from the un office for the coordination of humanitarian affairs (ocha), due to ongoing violence in nigeria‟s adamawa, borno and yobe states caused by armed insurgents reportedly associated with extremist group boko haram. the unhcr on 9 th january 2015 further reported that attacks in borno have uprooted about 300 nigerians forcing them into western chad where most are staying with local communities in villages around 450 kilometers north west of the capital, ndjamena. clearly the boko haram attacks have gotten to proportions of international threat to security and humanity. 1.6. discussion in order to assess the response of ecowas towards these two issues, one will have to conduct a comparative analysis of the steps ecowas took to address these issues. outbreaks of ebola in west africa began in december 2013. by september 2014 a total of 4507 had been confirmed dead. ecowas as a regional body responded to the ebola disease officially by july 2 2014 barely a year after the breakout of the evd. the attention of ebola continued persistently from july to november 2014 when the morbidity rate of ebola had dropped drastically for instance, both nigeria and senegal were declared ebola free countries in october 2014.clearly there is no specific treaty or protocol that deals with the outbreak of diseases. however the outbreak was considered a regional security threat as stated by the council of chiefs of defence staff of the ecowas. by this description, one would have expected that the ecowas protocol on mechanism for conflict, prevention management, resolution, peace-keeping and security should have been enforced. the provisions of the said protocol do not make any explicit provisions for the fight against an epidemic disease. however, its security implications necessitated a response from the regional body and be it as it may, the response of ecowas towards ebola even though reactionary could be said to be appreciable. in the case of boko haram insurgency, the attacks started as far back as december 2003. from a face count of the timeline activities by cnn a total number 3400 people killed by january 11, 2015. their actions fall directly in the provisions of the protocol on mechanism for conflict, prevention management, resolution, peace keeping and security, anticipation of the types of aggression. for emphasis purposes this study will restate the anticipation of the protocol. the three types of aggression anticipated by the protocol are: 1. an internal armed conflict in a member state organized and actively supported from without and likely to endanger the peace and security of the entire community 2. an armed conflict between two or more member states or 3. or an external armed threat or aggression. clearly, boko haram is an internal armed conflict in a member state organized and actively supported from without and likely to endanger the peace and security of the entire community. as mentioned earlier, the activities of boko haram has spilled over the borders of nigeria into neighboring countries like chad, cameroon and niger. on june 4, 2013 president goodluck jonathan approved the proscription of boko haram and splinter group ansaru as a terrorist organization. again on november 13, 2013 u.s state department added boko haram and ansaru to its list of terrorist organizations (cnn, 2014). unfortunately ecowas has failed to designate boko haram as a terrorist organization, which makes it extremely difficult to understand why ecowas up until now has not been able to do same nor put in force the implementation of the protocol stated above, which will have enabled member states to join force in fighting the boko haram insurgency the protocol outlines how to deal with these types of aggressions, should it occur as follows: 1. an ecowas authority to act as the supreme organ to determine when to invoke the protocol and determine the necessity for military action. 2. a defence council composed of foreign and defence ministers of member states to assist the authority in this function. 3. a defence commission of chiefs of defence of member states responsible for examining the technical aspects of any defence issue and implementing any duties assigned to the defence council. 4. a deputy executive secretary (military who would be a senior serving military officer to take charge of the administration and implementation of defence; and (b) allied armed forces of the community consisting of designated units of armed forces of member states, under a force commander appointed by the ecowas authority on the advice of the defence council. it also becomes unconscionable to think that activities of boko haram started as far back as 2003 and yet as at 2015 not even an emergency meeting of the authority of heads of states had been convened to deliberate on boko haram insurgency as a regional security threat. clearly the designation of boko haram as a terrorist organization by ecowas and the invocation of the above stated protocol will have enabled the allied forces to mobilize to curtail the activities of boko haram in the ecowas region. 1.7. conclusion this paper has broadly examined the response of ecowas to the ebola outbreak and boko haram issues. the paper finds that even though both issues qualify as a security threat to the west african sub region, the response by asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(3): 82-88 88 ecowas has not been encouraging. in the case of ebola, even though the regional body did not respond in time, it has been able to help in curtailing the ebola issue. unfortunately, ecowas has failed considerably in addressing the boko haram issue, in spite of the fact that the activities of the insurgent group serves as a great security threat to the region. ecowas has failed to invoke the ecowas protocol on conflict prevention management that empowers them to act in case of any action that threatens the peace of the people in the region. based on this analysis, this paper safely concludes that ecowas has been nothing but lackadaisical and lazy about the issue of boko haram. ecowas continues to underrate the terrorist group boko haram and the security challenges it poses to the region. even though ecowas has performed creditably well in dealing with ebola, it has failed woefully in combating terrorist activities in the case of boko haram. it is hoped that the head of states of member countries will take the necessary steps to bring an end to the activities of boko haram in the region. references adesoji, a., 2010. the boko haram uprising and islamic revivalism in nigeria. africa spectrum, 45(2): 95-108. adeyemi, m. and l. chukwu, 2011. u.s army chief links boko haram to al-qaeda, others. the guardian, 18. alozieuwa, s.h.o., 2012. contending theories on nigeria‟s security challenge on the era of boko haram insurgency. peace and conflict review, 7(1): 1-8. anyadike, n.o., 2013. boko haram and national security challenges in nigeria; causes and solutions. journal of economics and sustainable development, 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[accessed 24th february 2015 at 12:00pm gmt]. views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/31/us-nigeria-bokoharam-idustre80u0lr20120131 http://www.comm.ecowas.int/sec/?id=treaty&lang=en http://www.comm.ecowas.int/sec/?id=ap101299 http://www.ghananewsagency.org/print/76818 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/ebola/20-october-2014/en/ http://www.vanguard.com/2011/10/bombing-military-authorities-arrest-950-chadians-nigeriens-sudanese/ http://saharareporters.com/interview/punch-interview-i-told-inspector-general-policeadvanceabuja-would-be-bombed-says-boko-ha?page_2 http://saharareporters.com/interview/punch-interview-i-told-inspector-general-policeadvanceabuja-would-be-bombed-says-boko-ha?page_2 http://www.vanguardngr.com/2009/68/boko-haram-resurrects-declares-total-jihad/#/ http://www.vanguardngr.com/2009/68/boko-haram-resurrects-declares-total-jihad/#/ http://www.unhcr.org/546228896.html http://www.irinnewws.org/report/93909/nigeria-timeline-of-boko-haram-activity http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?newid=497664.voviz-mucr4 http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?newsid=5009vovca/amuerr4 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 1, 56-74, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 56 corporate social responsibility and the evolution of internal corporate social responsibility in 21 st century mei peng low 1 1 universiti tunku abdul rahman, malaysia abstract contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 2. the development of csr ............................................................................................................................................................................... 57 3. definition of corporate social responsibility .............................................................................................................................................. 58 4. csr related themes ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 62 5. csr and employees ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 63 6. theories underpinning csr and employees ............................................................................................................................................... 64 7. the evolution of internal csr and its practices ......................................................................................................................................... 67 8. benefits of internal csr practices ................................................................................................................................................................ 70 9. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70 references ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70 bibliography ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 73 citation | mei peng low (2016). corporate social responsibility and the evolution of internal corporate social responsibility in 21st century. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(1): 56-74. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.56.74 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 3 september 2015/ revised: 28 september 2015/ accepted: 16 october 2015/ published: 26 october 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group corporate social responsibility (csr) received substantial attention since 1950s. the development of csr subsequently gain a foothold in both business and academic arenas. the wide acceptance of csr is due to its chain benefits toward both shareholders and stakeholders. as the business world evolves with globalisation and advanced technology, csr has developed into a multi-facet disciplinary subject. consequently, csr themes emerged from its development. the literatures reveal that there are many csr themes developed in the human resource with employees being the stakeholder. researcher further explained the evolution of employee focused csr by relating to relevant theories namely stakeholder theory, social exchange theory and social identity theory. this paper aims to study the evolution of internal csr by reviewing past and current literatures in order to provide an overview of internal csr and shed light for a better understanding of its current vague definition. the paper concludes with the benefits of implementation internal csr practices to enhance organisation performance through influencing employees’ behaviour. keywords: csr, csr themes, evolution of internal csr, employees, stakeholders, organisation performance, organisation sustainability. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.56.74 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.56.74 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 57 1. introduction the concept of csr can be traced back since 1950s. since then, csr has undergo a vast development and evolution. csr begins as the topic of charitable giving, which had been in existence since 1980s. to date, csr is not a new concept in the field of management. csr has evolved to a business concept that had been accepted widely. business corporations are focusing on csr due to tremendous pressures from the public. in the society, for instance, consumers are getting more demanding as a result of increased awareness of green product and buying from companies that demonstrate social responsibility by not harming the environment. therefore, when companies able to deliver what are needed and required by consumers, csr can emerged as strategic advantage to the business organisations (mebratu, 2001; englehardt and simmons, 2002; d’souza et al., 2007; hopkins et al., 2008). more significantly, the society has started to believe that organisations must operate in a different way as compared to the past. this expectation from the public on business organisations has driven them to look into csr seriously. the public is expecting business organisations to operate in the society’s best interest and this expectation had grown rapidly (mcelhaney, 2009). in other words, if an organisation able to develop a sound csr strategy, the organisation would be able to remain competitive through enhanced customer loyalty and expansion of market share (d’souza et al., 2007). truly, csr had provided countless benefits to businesses and acquired status within management education and research (pfeffer and fong, 2004; starkey et al., 2004). however, the heavy focus on the external part of csr on society and public has neglected the internal part of every organisation who is continuously playing a crucial role, i.e., the employee. the absence of well-established research on this area has opened up an avenue to study csr in relation to employees, namely internal csr. the researcher attempts to study this area by reviewing past and current literatures and aims to shed light for the understanding of internal csr. the researcher will first go through the development of csr before studying how internal csr evolves from the past research and to establish its definition. 2. the development of csr the origin of csr can be traced back to developed countries and reflects the concerns of shareholders in highincome countries. in this context, the dominant paradigm in any corporate management is to maximize shareholder value (chakraborty et al., 2004). according to friedman (1970) there is one and only responsibility of business is to use its resources and engage in activities to increase its profit. however, the neoclassical economists (henderson, 2004; zajac and westphal, 2004) claimed that a focus on social responsibility diverts business from its pursuit of profitability which ultimately benefits society as a whole. in contrast to friedman, drucker (1997) a scholarly authority in the management, provided another perspective on the linkage between management actions and social impact. in discussing the purpose and objectives of business, drucker (2001) suggested that the concept of profit maximization is meaningless and may actually cause harm to society by noting that profit is not the explanation, cause, or rationale of business behaviour and business decisions, but rather the test of their validity. therefore, profitability is not a goal but rather a required outcome to ensure the business continues to achieve its primary purposes of marketing, innovation and sustainability. these discussions started to question the role of business in society. businesses are one of the many other social agents that they must assume responsibilities related to their impact on society while pursuing their primary financial objectives. thereon, parties started to understand and describe the relations between business and society. in the 1950s, bowen (1953) initially described corporate social responsibility (csr) as a self-regulation means for business to informally monitor their behaviours without dependency on coercive authority of governments. the period from the 1960s to the mid-1970s was significant for csr in terms of the development of a consensus that businesses and their executives must be socially responsible (buchholz, 1991; mahon and mcgowan, 1991). early in the 1960s, davis (1960) defined csr as actions that business persons take or decisions they make for reasons other than their economic or technical benefits. mcguire (1963) distinguished social responsibility which was the early concept of csr from ethical, economic, technical, and legal obligations. davis (1973) supported mcguire’s view of social responsibility 10 years later by defining csr as the organisations’ responsibilities for issues beyond their economic, ethical, and legal obligations. these authors’ definition of csr had excluded the economic component. friedman (1970) also started to question whether organisations should take responsible for social issues. however, during that time, no agreement on csr terminology emerged either in the field of academic or business practices yet. by the mid-1970s, although the literature base of csr has grown significantly over the last 60 years (aguilera et al., 2007; godfrey and hatch, 2007) there is still no clear defined and universally acceptable definition of csr by business executives and business scholars (votaw and sethi, 1969; preston, 1975). for example, a review of the academic literature by carroll (1999) shows that there are over 25 different conceptual definitions for csr. nevertheless, one significant development was that the issues of csr had moved from certain philanthropic and philosophical issues of the 1960s to the specific societal issues of an organisation’s social responsibility commitment. during the1960s and 1970s, consumer and environmental advocacy groups focused on product and consumer safety influenced csr activities. in the 1980s, organisational efforts were focused on establishing internal functions, such as public affairs and community relations in order to address public perceptions of unethical corporate behaviours. since the mid-1990s, it was then accelerated by changes in the business landscape including the shift to service and knowledge intensive industries and new employment deal expectations. as such, there has been renewed corporate interest in integrating csr in business strategy (porter and kramer, 2006; maxfield, 2008). in fact, management focus on csr activities reflect the specific business needs of a particular timeframe (waddock, 2008). epstein (1989) viewed these as ongoing corporate business functions; and csr reflects normal business activities. moreover, csr emphasised corporate action and highlighted specific social issues to stakeholders of a corporation (freeman, 1984; buono and nichols, 1990). chronologically, kakabadse et al. (2005) study showed that since the 1950s, csr has developed progressively through several radical evolutions (see figure 1). in early csr publications, some pivotal studies (e.g., (bowen, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 58 1953)) revealed an intellectual impasse concerning csr, due to their different interpretations of csr. in the 1980s there were dramatic changes in csr evolution, whereby stakeholders’ strategic responses to social issues were identified and actively debated. during this period, conceptual models of corporate social performance (cfp) gained acceptance and were developed (ullmann, 1985; wartick and cochran, 1985; wood, 1991). during the conceptual evolution of csr, a parallel development in csr meaning was taken place. csr became a broader concept and resulted in much terminology and analogy. shareholder model predominance social responsibilities of business people development of academic on csr models, managerial implications. research on business ethics and corporate social responsiveness. sustainability and sustainable development explored. stakeholder theory and debates. research on corporate social performance and stakeholder management models. research on corporate governance, business in society, etc. csr as a base point/ element of broader concepts. debate: csr as a management fields or integrated within existing management theories. the growing trend towards csr is driven by a few important factors (lunt, 2001; lantos, 2002). social and ethical issues certainly had received increasing public attention, and therefore a growing market pressure from customers, employees and various stakeholders exerts some form of market preferences. this situation indicates how much importance the public is emphasizing on the social and ethical behaviour of organisations. indeed, regulatory pressure in term of business standards and procedures are forcing all sizes of organisations to conform. the standards include provisions such as ethical behaviour, health and safety regulations, and minimum wages and working hours (davies, 2003). furthermore, the advent of the new era of modern technologies such as the internet and multimedia have provided a way for consumers and pressure groups to observe organisations’ activities. this will compel organisations to be ethically and socially aware. furthermore, organisations which are perceived to be ‘socially responsible’ can strengthen their brand and enhance their organisation performance. therefore, their commitment to csr will make their organisations’ performance more profitable and gain competitive advantage. 3. definition of corporate social responsibility over the past 40 years, scholars have debated the definition of corporate social responsibility (csr) and the constructs of the csr paradigm (e.g. (bowen, 1953; carroll, 1979; clarkson, 1995; brown and dacin, 1997; carroll, 1999)). defining csr is an difficult task because it means something, but not always mean the same thing to everybody (van marrewijk, 2003). various management disciplines have recognised that csr fits their purposes. therefore, a variety of csr definitions have been adopted by different groups, specific to their own interests and purposes. table 1 displays csr definitions from the first generation of csr scholars, starting from the 1950s and definitions from representatives of business and civil society. these definitions were gathered through a literature review and most of the definitions are also referred to in the works of carroll (1999); dahlsrud (2008) and kakabadse et al. (2005). table-1. csr definitions from 1950s to the present year author(s) definition 1953 bowen social responsibility refers to the obligations of businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society. 1960 davis iron law of responsibility, which held that social responsibilities of businessmen need to be commensurate with their social power 1960 frederick social responsibility mean that businessmen should oversee the operation of an economic system that fulfils the expectations of the public. and this means in turn that the economy’s means of production should enhance total socio-economic welfare. social responsibility in the final analysis implies a public posture toward society’s economic and human resources and a willingness to see that those resources are used for broad social ends and not simply for the narrowly circumscribed interests of private persons and firms 1963 mcguire the idea of social responsibilities supposes that the corporation has not only economic and legal obligations but also certain responsibilities to society which extend beyond these obligations. the corporation must take an interest in politics, in the welfare of the community, in education, in the ‘happiness’ of its employees, and, in fact, in the whole social world about it. therefore, business must act ‘justly’ as a proper citizen should continue figure-1. evolution of csr research since 1950s. source: kakabadse et al. (2005) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 59 1966 davis and blomstrom social responsibility, therefore, refers to a person’s obligation to consider the effects of his decisions and actions on the whole social system. businessmen apply social responsibility when they consider the needs and interests of others who may be affected by business actions. in so doing, they look beyond their firm’s narrow economic and technical interest 1967 walton the new concept of social responsibility recognizes the intimacy of the relationships between the corporation and society and realizes that such relationships must be kept in mind by top managers as the corporation and the related groups pursue their respective goals 1970 heald the idea of social responsibility as businessmen themselves have defined and experienced it. the meaning of the concept of social responsibility for businessman must finally be sought in the actual policies which they were associated 1971 johnson a socially responsible firm is one whose managerial staff balances a multiplicity of interest. instead of striving only for larger profits for its stockholders, a responsible enterprise also takes into account employees, suppliers, dealers, local communities, and the nation. social responsibility states that business carry out social programs to add profits to their organization. the third approach of social responsibility assumes that the prime motivation of the business firm is utility maximization; the enterprise seeks multiple goals rather than only maximum profits. a socially responsible entrepreneur or manager is one who has a utility function of the second type, such that he is interested not only in his own well-being but also in that of the other members of the enterprise and that of his fellow citizens. the goals of the enterprise, like those of the consumer, are ranked in order of importance and that targets are assessed for each goal. these target levels are shaped by a variety of factors, but the most important are the firm’s past experience with these goals and the past performance of similar business enterprises; individuals and organizations generally want to do at least as well as others in similar circumstances 1971 community for economic development (ced) the inner circle includes the clear-cut basic responsibilities for the efficient execution of the economic function-products, jobs and economic growth. the intermediate circle encompasses responsibility to exercise this economic function with a sensitive awareness of changing social values and priorities: for example, with respect to environmental conservation; hiring and relations with employees; and more rigorous expectations of customers for information, fair treatment, and protection from injury. the outer circle outlines newly emerging and still amorphous responsibilities that business should assume to become more broadly involved in actively improving the social environment. (for example, poverty and urban blight) 1971 steiner business is and must remain fundamentally an economic institution, but...it does have responsibilities to help society achieve its basic goals and does, therefore, have social responsibilities. the larger a company becomes, the greater are these responsibilities, but all companies can assume some share of them at no cost and often at a short-run as well as a long-run profit. the assumptions of social responsibilities is more of an attitude, of the way a manager approaches his decision-making task, than a great shift in the economics of decision making. it is a philosophy that looks at the social interest and the enlightened selfinterest of business over the long run as compared with the old, narrow, unrestrained short-run self-interest. 1972 manne and wallich i take responsibility to mean a condition in which the corporation is at least in some measure a free agent. to the extent that any of the foregoing social objectives are imposed on the corporation by law, the corporation exercises no responsibility when it implements them. 1973 davis csr refers to the firm’s consideration of, and response to, issues beyond the narrow economic, technical, and legal requirements of the firm. it is the firm’s obligation to evaluate in its decision making process the effects of its decisions on the external social system in a manner that will accomplish social benefits along with the traditional economic gains which the firm seeks. it means that social responsibility begins where the law ends. a firm is not being socially responsible if it merely complies with the minimum requirements of the law, because this is what any good citizen would do. 1973 eilbert and parket proposed a better way to understand social responsibility is to think of it asgood neighbourliness. the concept involves two phases. on one hand, it means not doing things that spoil the neighbourhood. on the other, it may be expressed as the voluntary assumption of the obligation to help solve neighbourhood problems. those who find neighbourliness an awkward or copy concept may substitute the idea that social responsibility means the commitment of a business or business, in general, to an active role in the solution of broad social problems, such as racial discrimination, pollution, transportation, or urban decay. 1973 votaw the term social responsibility is a brilliant one; it means something, but not always the same thing, to everybody. to some it conveys the idea of legal responsibility or liability; to others, it means socially responsible behaviour in an ethical sense; to still others, the meaning transmitted is that of responsible for, in a causal mode; many simply equate it with a charitable contribution; some take it to mean socially conscious; many of those who embrace it most fervently see it as a mere synonym for ‘legitimacy’, in the context of ‘belonging’ or being proper or valid; a few see it as sort of fiduciary duty imposing higher standards of behaviour on businessmen than on citizens at large 1974 eells and walton in its broadest sense, corporate social responsibility represents a concern with the needs and goals of society which goes beyond the merely economic. insofar as the business system as it exists today can only survive in an effectively continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 60 functioning free society, the corporate social responsibility movement represents a broad concern with business’ role in supporting and improving that social order. 1975 backman social responsibility usually refers to the objectives or motives that should be given weight by business in addition to those dealing with economic performance (e.g., profits). employment of minority groups, reduction in pollution, greater participation in programs to improve the community, improved medical care, improved industrial health and safety-these and other programs designed to improve the quality of life are covered by the broad umbrella of social responsibility. 1975 sethi social responsibility implies bringing corporate behaviour up to a level where it is congruent with the prevailing social norms, values, and expectation of performance. 1975 preston and post generally, there is a large number of differences, as it is not always consistent with its usages. we restrict our own use of the term social responsibility to refer only to a vague and highly generalised sense of social concern that appears to underlie a wide variety of ad hoc managerial policies and practices. most of these attitudes and activities are well-intentioned and even beneficent; few are patently harmful. they lack, however, any coherent relation to the managerial unit’s internal activities or to its fundamental linkage with its host environment. 1975 bowman and haire represented csr as opposed to those that were strictly ‘business’. 1976 fitch csr is defined as the serious attempt to solve social problems caused wholly or in part by the corporation 1979 carroll the social responsibility of business encompasses the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations that society has of organisations at a given point in time. 1980 jones csr is defined as the notion that corporations have an obligation to constituent groups in society other than stockholders and beyond that prescribed by law or union contract, indicating that a stake may go beyond mere ownership. 1983 carroll csr involves the conduct of a business so that it is economically profitable, law abiding, ethical and socially supportive. to be socially responsible... then means that profitability and obedience to the law are foremost conditions to discussing the firm’s ethics and the extent to which it supports the society in which it exists with contributions of money, time and talent. thus, csr is composed of four parts: economic, legal, ethical and voluntary or philanthropic. 1986 murray and montanari a socially responsible firm is one that accomplishes and is perceived to accomplish the desired ends of society in terms of moral, economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations. 1987 epstein csr relates primarily to achieving outcomes from organisational decisions concerning specific issues or problems which (by some normative standard) have beneficial rather than adverse effects on pertinent corporate stakeholders. the normative correctness of the products of corporate action has been the main focus of corporate social responsibility. 1991 carroll for csr to be accepted by the conscientious business person, it should be framed in such a way that the entire range of business responsibilities is embraced. it is suggested here that four kinds of social responsibilities constitute total csr: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. furthermore, these four categories or components of csr might be depicted as a pyramid. to be sure, all of these kinds of responsibilities have always existed to some extent, but it has only been in recent years that ethical and philanthropic functions have taken a significant place. 1994 reder an all-encompassing notion, (corporate) social responsibility refers to both the way a company conducts its internal operations, including the way it treats its work force, and its impact on the world around it. 1998 hopkins csr is concerned with treating the stakeholders of the firm ethically or in a socially responsible manner. stakeholders exist both within a firm and outside. consequently, behaving socially responsibly will increase the human development of stakeholders both within and outside the corporation 1999 kilcullen and kooistra csr is the degree of moral obligation that may be ascribed to corporations beyond simple obedience to the laws of the state. 1999 world business council for sustainable development the commitment of business to contribute to sustainable economic development, working with employees, their families, the local community and society at large to improve their quality of life. 1999 khoury, rostami, and turnbull csr is the overall relationship of the corporation with all of its stakeholders. these include customers, employees, communities, owners/investors, government, suppliers and competitors. elements of social responsibility include investment in community outreach, employee relations, creation and maintenance of employment, environmental stewardship and financial performance. 1999 woodward-clyde csr has been defined as a „contract‟ between society and business wherein a community grants a company a license to operate and in return the matter meets certain obligations and behaves in an acceptable manner. 2000 world business council for sustainable development csr is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as the local community and society at large. 2000 business for social responsibility business decision making linked to ethical values, compliance with legal requirements and respects for people, communities and the environment. operating a business in a manner that meets or exceeds the ethical, legal, commercial and public expectations that society has of business. social responsibility is a guiding principle for every decision made and in every area of a business. 2001 uk government csr recognises that the private sector’s wider commercial interests require it to manage its impact on society and the environment in the widest sense. this requires it to establish an appropriate dialogue or partnership with relevant stakeholders, be they employees, customers, investors, suppliers or communities. csr goes beyond legal obligations, involving voluntary, private sector-led engagement, which reflects the priorities and characteristics of each business, as well as sectoral and local factors. continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 61 2001 pinney csr or corporate citizenship can most simply be defined as a set of management practices that ensure the company minimizes the negative impacts of its operations on society while maximizing its positive impacts. 2001 commission of the european communities a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis. corporate social responsibility is essentially a concept whereby companies decide voluntarily to contribute to a better society and a cleaner environment. 2001 foran csr can be defined as the set of practices and behaviours that firms adopt towards their labour force, towards the environment in which their operations are embedded, towards authority and towards civil society. 2001 jackson and hawker corporate social responsibility is how you treat your employees and all your stakeholders and the environment. 2001 van marrewijk companies with a csr strategy integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interactions with their stakeholders and demonstrate openly their triple p performances. 2001 marsden csr is about the core behaviour of companies and the responsibility for their total impact on the societies in which they operate. csr is not an optional add-on nor is it an act of philanthropy. a socially responsible corporation is one that runs a profitable business that takes account of all the positive and negative environmental, social and economic effect it has on society. 2001 foran csr can be defined as the set of practices and behaviours that firms adopt towards their labour force, towards the environment in which their operations are embedded, towards authority and towards civil society. 2001 mcwilliams and siegel actions that appear to further some social good, beyond the interests of the firm and that which is required by law. 2001 kok, wiele, mckenna and brown the obligation of the firm to use its resources in ways to benefits society, through committed participation as a member of society, taking into account the society at large, and improving welfare of society at large independently of direct gains of the company. 2002 commission of the european communities csr is about companies having responsibilities and taking actions beyond their legal obligations and economic/business aims. these wider responsibilities cover a range of areas but are frequently summed up as social and environmental-where social means society broadly defined, rather than simply social policy issues. this can be summed up as the triple bottom line approach: i.e. economic, social and environmental 2002 lea csr can be roughly defined as the integration of social and environmental concerns in business operations, including dealings with stakeholders. csr is about business and other organizations going beyond the legal obligations to manage the impact they have on the environment and society. in particular, this could include how organizations interact with their employees, suppliers, customers and the communities in which they operate, as well as the extent they attempt to protect the environment. 2002 amnesty international business group (uk) companies (have) to recognise that their ability to continue, to provide goods and services and to create financial wealth will depend on their acceptability to an international society which increasingly regards protection of human rights as a condition of the corporate license to operate. 2002 lea csr can be roughly defined as the integration of social and environmental concerns in business operations, including dealings with stakeholders. csr is about business and other organizations going beyond the legal obligations to manage the impact they have on the environment and society. in particular, this could include how organizations interact with their employees, suppliers, customers and the communities in which they operate, as well as the extent they attempt to protect the environment. 2003 baker csr is about how companies manage the business processes to produce an overall positive impact on society. 2003 indianngos.com csr is a business process wherein the institution and the individuals within are sensitive and careful about the direct and indirect effect of their work on internal and external communities, nature and the outside world. 2003 international business leader forum (iblf) open and transparent business practices based on ethical values and respect for employees, communities and the environment, which will contribute to sustainable business success. 2003 commission of the european communities csr is the concepts that an enterprise is accountable for its impact on all relevant stakeholders. it is the continuing commitment by business to behave fairly and responsibly and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the work force and their families as well as of the local community and society at large. 2003 csr europe csr is the way in which a company manages and improves its social and environmental impact to generate value for both its shareholders and its stakeholders by innovating its strategy, organisation and operations. 2003 csrwire csr is defined as the integration of business operations and values, whereby the interest of all stakeholders including investors, customers, employees and the environment are reflected in the company’s policies and actions. 2003a business for social responsibility socially responsible business practices strengthen corporate accountability, respecting ethical values and in the interests of all stakeholders. responsible business practices respect and preserve the natural environment. helping to improve the quality and opportunities of life, they empower people and invest in communities where a business operates. 2003b business for social responsibility csr is achieving commercial success in ways that honour ethical values and respect people, communities and the natural environment. 2003 hopkins csr is concerned with treating the stakeholders of the firm ethically or in a responsible manner. ‘ethically or responsible’ means treating stakeholders in a manner deemed acceptable in civilised societies. social includes economic responsibility. continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 62 stakeholders exist both within a firm and outside. the wider aim of social responsibility is to create higher and higher standards of living, while preserving the profitability of the corporation, for peoples both within and outside the corporation 2003 ethical performance at its best, csr is defined as the responsibility of a company for the totality of its impact, with a need to embed society’s values into its core operations as well as into its treatment of its social and physical environment. responsibility is accepted as encompassing a spectrum from the running of a profitable business to the health and safety of staff and the impact on the societies in which a company operates. 2003 global corporate social responsibility policies project global corporate social responsibility can be defined as business practices based on ethical values and respect for workers, communities and the environment. 2003 ethics in action awards csr is a term describing a company’s obligation to be accountable to all of its stakeholders in all its operations and activities. socially responsible companies consider the full scope of their impact on communities and the environment when making decisions, balancing the needs of stakeholders with their need to make a profit. 2003 strategies csr is generally seen as the business contribution to sustainable development, which has been defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, and is generally understood as focusing on how to achieve the integration of economic, environmental and social imperatives. 2003 world business council for sustainable development (wbcsd) csr is business’ commitment to contribute to sustainable economic development working with employees, their families, the local community, and society at large to improve their quality of life. 2003 organisation for economic co-operation and development (oecd) corporate responsibility involves the ‘fit’ business develop with the societies in which they operate. (...) the function of business in society is to yield adequate returns to owners of capital by identifying and developing promising investment opportunities and, in the process, to provide jobs and to produce goods and services that consumers want to buy. however, corporate responsibility goes beyond this core function. businesses are expected to obey the various laws which are applicable to them and often have to respond to societal expectations that are not written down as formal law. 2003 corporate responsibility coalition (core) as an ‘organ of society’, companies have a responsibility to safeguard human rights within their direct sphere of operations as well as within their wider spheres of influence. 2003 novethic linked to the application by corporations of the sustainable development principle, the concept of csr integrates three dimensions: an economic dimension (efficiency, profitability), a social dimension (social responsibility) and an environmental dimension (environmental responsibility). to respect these principles, corporations must pay more attention to all the stakeholders (...) which inform on the expectations of civil society and the business environment. 2003 unilever social responsibility is the impact or interaction we have with society in three distinct areas: (i) voluntary contributions, (ii) impact of (businesses direct) operations, and (iii) impact through the value chain. 2003 novo nordisk social responsibility is about caring for people. this applies to our employees and the people whose healthcare needs we serve. it also considers the impact of our business on the global society and the local community. as such, social responsibility is more than a virtue-it is a business imperative. 2003 van marrewijk in general, corporate sustainability and csr refer to company activities-voluntary by definition-demonstrating the inclusion of social and environmental concerns in business operations and in interactions with stakeholders. 2005 gap the first one is this whole idea of sustainable solutions in our supply chain. this consists of working on a four-part strategy to improve working conditions, monitor factories, integrate labour standards into our business practices, and the whole idea of collaborating with outside partners to drive industry-wide change. the second is with our employees and making gap inc., a place where people can really flourish and build their careers in a positive work environment. the third is community involvement, including everything from our foundation to our volunteerism. and the fourth key area in corporate social responsibility for us is environment, health and safety. this is everything from the average store energy consumption to the safety of our stores for customers and employees to a high-level environmental impact assessment for all of our business operations. so, we define it broadly, then. supply chain, employees, community involvement, and environment. 2007 antal and sobczak csr includes cultural and socioeconomic concepts 2008 dahlsrud csr includes environmental, social, economic, stakeholder and voluntariness 2008 matten and moon csr reflects social imperatives and social consequences of business success. these consist of articulated and communicated policies and practices of corporations that reflect business responsibility for societal good deeds. 2009 gjølberg csr cannot be separated from contextual factors. source: compilation by researcher the exhaustive list of csr definition shows that the descriptions of csr are ranging from highly conceptual to highly practical. the definitions also derived from a variety of themes such as social responsibility, sustainable development, business ethics, corporate citizenship, triple-bottom line, corporate philanthropy and corporate governance. csr is a multi-disciplinary concept and it is defined according to the context to which it is employed. 4. csr related themes table 1 shows that when csr researchers tried to define csr, they tend to associate csr with other relevant themes such as stakeholder theory, business ethics, corporate citizenship, corporate social performance (csp) and sustainable development (carroll, 1999). according to perrini (2005) csr promoting campaign developed at the european level provide a framework that strongly emphasizes on stakeholder involvement. perrini (2005) explained that stakeholders place implicit and explicit faith on the well-being of an organisation. his findings reveal that there asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 63 are eight stakeholder-based categories, namely: (1) human resources; (2) shareholders and financial community; (3) customers; (4) suppliers;(5) financial partners; (6) public authorities; (7) community; (8) environment which is consistent with past studies by niskala and pretes (1995); gray et al. (1995) and adams (2002). perrini (2005) presented csr key themes emerge in this decade based on the stakeholder-based categories in table 2. table-2. csr key themes c s r t h em es stakeholder-based categories human resources shareholders customers suppliers financial partners public authorities community environment staff compositio n turnover equality of treatment training working hours schemes of wages absence from work employee’s benefits industrial relations in-house communica tions health and safety personnel’s satisfaction workers rights disciplinar y measures and litigation capital stock formation shareholders’/ partner’s pay rating performance corporate governance benefit and services investor relations general characteristi cs market development customer satisfaction customer loyalty product/ services information and labelling ethical & environment al product & services promotional policies privacy supplier manageme nt policies contractu al conditions relations with banks relations with insurance companies relations with financial institutions taxes and duties relations with local authorities codes of conducts and compliance with laws contribution benefits or easy-term financing corporate giving direct contribution the different intervention fields stakeholder engagement relations with the media virtual community corruption prevention energy consumption material emissions environmental strategy and relations with the community source: perrini (2005) the stakeholder-based categorisation by perrini (2005) clearly shown that there are many themes developed in the human resource with employees being the stakeholder. among the csr themes under human resource aspects, health and safety, protection of workers’ right, equality of treatment, training, turnover and personnel’s satisfaction received the most attention in the csr non-financial disclosure reporting among the european companies. this finding undercovers a new leaf for csr, instead of reviewing on the financial performance of a corporation, human resource aspect is another arena that gains a foothold. the concern of csr towards employees begins thereafter. 5. csr and employees majority of the past scholarly research on csr and sustainability focus on the macro level of analysis (devinney, 2009; siegel, 2009; aguinis and glavas, 2012) and these research emphasis on institutional levels, such as addressing regulatory elements, normative and cultural-cognitive elements shaped by external stakeholders (scott, 1995). despite the wide dissemination of csr and its cross-disciplinary nature (lockett et al., 2006) potential relevance for employee management (brammer et al., 2007) organisational behaviour and human resource management researchers have under-investigated csr (rupp et al., 2006; aguilera et al., 2007). in 21 st century, growing attention is directly to the internal stakeholders, specifically the employee, through the field of organisational behaviour and human resource management (aguinis and glavas, 2013). even though some studies of csr are adopted in organisational behaviour perspective (albinger and freeman, 2000; greening and turban, 2000) but these studies focused on how csr affecting prospective employees to increased corporate attractiveness. based on few empirical studies investigating the internal impact of csr on employees, they tend to focus on specific dimensions of organisational commitment (maignan and ferrell, 2001; paterson, 2004; brammer et al., 2007). as the nature of csr is multidimensional (husted, 2000) it can also influence a wide range of organisational attitudes and behaviour beyond organisational commitment. to this point, there is absent of sufficient theoretical consolidation and synthesis the impacts of csr on employees attitudes and behaviour which is then ultimately affect the organisation sustainability. employee is often a central feature of stakeholder theory and csr research and practice. according to barnett (2007) csr is a form of corporate investment characterised by a dual orientation towards the improvement of social welfare and stakeholder relations. stakeholder relations explain why employees being the stakeholder impact the csr policy. firstly, employees can act as agents for social change when they pressure corporations to adopt socially responsible behaviour (aguilera et al., 2007). secondly, environmental policy demonstrates that employees’ support is necessary to ensure effective csr programs and policies (ramus and steger, 2000). thirdly, employees as a stakeholder group perceive, evaluate, judge and react to csr programs and actions (rowley and berman, 2000; asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 64 rupp et al., 2006). from a theoretical perspective, employees are the stakeholders, can be seen as an independent variable that explain the emergence of csr (aguilera et al., 2007) and as a dependent variable that influenced by csr (maignan and ferrell, 2001; paterson, 2004). employees as a unit of analysis have not been receiving much attention in the past csr research (rupp et al., 2006; aguilera et al., 2007). majority of past csr and human resource management research focussed on the relationships between leadership and corporate social behaviour (waldman et al., 2006; swanson, 2008). there are also some corporate social performance models that explicitly included employees as a level of analysis (e.g. (wood, 1991)) few studies have investigated csr’s influence on employees’ attitudes and behaviours. table 3 illustrates studies conducted in the past in csr research in relation with employees. studies conducted focus on the external aspect by looking at the influence of csr on prospective employees which based on social identity theory. these studies show how a socially responsible reputation of organisation influence the corporate attractiveness for prospective employees (albinger and freeman, 2000; greening and turban, 2000). past research also demonstrated that by enhancing corporate image and reputation, csr can be a magnet for prospective employees. however, all these research say little about csr influence on incumbent employees. indeed, riordan et al. (1997) used external corporate image as a proxy for social performance and found that employees’ perception of corporate image can positively influence job satisfaction, and negatively influence turnover and turnover intentions. previous research on socially responsible behaviour explains the present of knowledge gap on csr’s influence on actual employees (swaen et al., 2003). macro-level research by margolis et al. (2007) and margolis and walsh (2003) examined organisations as the main unit of analysis which focused on csr’s financial impact. meanwhile, the micro-level approach that took individuals as the unit of analysis did not refer explicitly to employees’ socially responsible behaviour (schneider et al., 2004; treviño et al., 2006). these past research pointed out the absent of established research in the micro-level analysis by examine the csr practices on actual employees’ attitudes and behaviour. followed by the past csr research in relation to employees, the researcher attempts to fill up the existing knowledge gap on the influence of csr practice towards employees. in the following section, theories underpinning csr and employees are being explored to establish the theoretical background for the understanding of internal csr. 6. theories underpinning csr and employees in an attempt to study csr and employees, past research in relation of csr and employees are scrutinised with table 3 summarising the major findings. with reference to table 3 several theoretical frameworks have been used to examine csr in relation with employees. in line with the evolution of csr, stakeholder theory has emerged as the dominant paradigm in csr discussion. according to stakeholder theory, freeman (1984) asserts that firms have relationships with many constituent groups which have an interest in the activities and outcomes of a firm (donaldson and preston, 1995; margolis and walsh, 2003). these stakeholders both affect and are affected by the actions of the firm and balancing the needs of the multiple stakeholders in the activities and outcomes of a firm is crucial. among others, these groups include employees, customers, suppliers, environmentalists, the community as whole, and owners/shareholders. adding on, stakeholder theory perspective on the morality of csr implies that managers should recognize and serve the interests of a broader set of constituent groups (jones et al., 2007; aguinis, 2011). hence, stakeholder theory marks as an important theory that should not be omitted in the csr and employees’ discussion. social exchange theory is applicable in present context in relation to csr and employees. according to the motivational processes of social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity (homans, 1961; blau, 1964) it explains the relationships among human resource practices, trust-in-management and employee commitment (eisenberger et al., 1990; settoon et al., 1996; wayne et al., 1997). csr practises in an organisation that focuses on the well-being of employees will create trust in the employee toward the organisation and in turns, high employee commitment.a well-established stream of research rooted in social exchange theory has shown that employees’ commitment to the organisation derives from their perceptions of the employers’ commitment to and support of them (eisenberger et al., 1990; shore and tetrick, 1991; shore and wayne, 1993; hutchison and garstka, 1996; settoon et al., 1996; wayne et al., 1997). the research suggested that employees interpret organisational actions such as human resource practices (settoon et al., 1996; wayne et al., 1997) and the trustworthiness of management (eisenberger et al., 1990; settoon et al., 1996) as indicative of the personified organisation’s commitment to them. they reciprocate their perceptions accordingly in their own commitment to the organisation, which is then affecting the organisation sustainability. table-3. studies of csr in relations of employees author(s), year turban and greening (1997) maignan et al. (1999) maignan and ferrell (2001) paterson (2004) title corporate social performance and organisational attractiveness to prospective employees. academy of management journal, 40(3): 658673. corporate citizenship: cultural antecedents and business benefits. journal of the academy of marketing science, 27(4): 455469. antecedents and benefits of corporate citizenship: an investigation of french businesses. journal of business research, 51(1): 3751. the relationship between perceptions of corporate citizenship and organizational commitment. focus external external and internal internal/ external internal continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 65 theory social identity theory (ashforth and mael, 1989) signaling theory (rynes, 1991) resource based view of competitive advantage resource based view of competitive advantage social identity theory independent variables (iv) corporate social performance corporate citizenship (cc) corporate citizenship (cc) corporate citizenship (cc) measurements of ivs kld rating (original 9 dimensions) 5 dimensions : community relations, treatment of women and minorities, employee relations, treatment of the environment, quality of services and products 18 item scale developed by the authors and based on the csr typology of carroll (1979) 's model of csp : economic, legal, ethical, discretionary citizenship 18 item scale developed by the authors and based on the csr typology of carroll (1979) 's model of csp (economic, legal, ethical, discretionary) 18 items scale of cc (economic, legal, ethical, discretionary) adopted from (maignan and ferrell, 2000) dependent variables (dv) organisational reputation organisational attractiveness as employer employee commitment (ec) employee commitment (ec) employee commitment (ec) measurement of dvs or – developed by author 5 point scale : 1 (very poor reputation) – 5 (very good reputation) oa developed by author thru asking students on employer attractiveness 5 point scale : 1 (unattractive employer) – 3 (cannot judge) 5 (one of most attractive employer) ec7 items scale developed by jaworski and kohli (1993) 5 point likert scale ec7 items scale developed by jaworski and kohli (1993) 5 point likert scale ec: 9 items version of the mathieu and farr (1991) scale (croncbach alpha – 0.88) eg :i am proud to tell others that i am part of this organisation. i really care about the fate of this organisation. method of analysis regression structural equation modelling sem hierarchical multiple regression tool survey survey survey survey sample students (n=114) marketing executives (n=210) french manager (n= 120) business professionals (n=278) key findings csp is positively related to corporate reputation and attractiveness as an employer positive influence of cc on ec by marketing executives positive influence of cc on ec only the discretionary component of cc is strongly correlated to ec cc perceptions are positively related to oc; stronger link among employees who believe in csr. the effect of ethical cc is stronger. there is a gender effect for discretionary cc. table-3. studies of csr in relations of employees (con’t) author(s), year brammer et al. (2007) carmeli et al. (2007) valentine and godkin (2009) valentine et al. (2011) title the contribution of corporate social responsibility to organizational commitment. international journal of human resource management, 18(10): 1701-1719. the role of perceived organizational performance in organizational identification, adjustment and job performance. journal of management studies, 44(6): 972992. ethics, social responsibility, and ethical reasoning in an education-based health science centre: when doing good results in good employees, journal of leadership, accountability and ethics ethics programs, perceived ethical context, and a positive work attitude, academy of management focus internal internal/ external internal/ external internal  continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 66 theory social identity theory  organizational identification  social identity theory cognitive dissonance and social desirability independent variables (iv) corporate social responsibility (csr) perceived social responsibility and development csr ethics programs (ethics training & ethics codes) measurements of ivs internal perceptions of csr = procedural justice (6 items scale from moorman (1991) and training (3 items scales); external perceptions of csr captured through one deigned designed item . eg:  the decision management make about employees are usually fair.  i believe the company offer equal opportunity to all the employees. (cronbach alpha 0.87) eg:  the company is a socially responsible member of the community.  there are sufficient opportunities to develop and improve my skills in current job. (cronbach alpha 0.81)  4 items scale based on delaney and huselid (1996): quality of products, services and programs; development of new product, services and programs;  ability to retain essential employees;  relations between management and other employees 1. i work for a socially responsible organization that serves the greater community. 2. my organization gives time, money, and other resources to socially responsible causes. 3. the organization i work for upholds generally accepted ethical business standards. 4. my organization takes care of its customers, employees, suppliers, and investors. 5. i work for a firm that does its best to enhance the financial well-being of its stakeholders. ethics training one question asked subjects approximately how many hours of ethics training they had received in the last year, and the availability of an ethics code was evaluated with an item that asked subjects if their company had ever shared with them an ethics code that governed work conduct in the organization (1 = no, 2 = yes) dependent variables (dv) organizational commitment (oc) job performance (jp) importance of ethics and social responsibility positive work attitude (job satisfaction & intention to stay) measurement of dvs internal perceptions of csr = procedural justice (6 items scale from (moorman, 1991) and training (3 items scales); external perceptions of csr captured through one deigned designed item . eg:  the decision management make about employees are usually fair.  i believe the company offer equal opportunity to all the employees. (cronbach alpha 0.87) eg:  the company is a socially responsible member of the community.  there are sufficient  4 items scale based on delaney and huselid (1996): quality of products, services and programs; development of new product, services and programs;  ability to retain essential employees;  relations between management and other employees 1. i work for a socially responsible organization that serves the greater community. 2. my organization gives time, money, and other resources to socially responsible causes. 3. the organization i work for upholds generally accepted ethical business standards. 4. my organization takes care of its customers, employees, suppliers, and investors. 5. i work for a firm that does its best to enhance the financial well-being of its stakeholders. ethics training one question asked subjects approximately how many hours of ethics training they had received in the last year, and the availability of an ethics code was evaluated with an item that asked subjects if their company had ever shared with them an ethics code that governed work conduct in the organization (1 = no, 2 = yes) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 67 opportunities to develop and improve my skills in current job. (cronbach alpha 0.81) method of analysis regression confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) and seq confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) and amos confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) and sem tool survey of employees survey of employees & supervisor survey of employees survey sample employees from a financial services company (n=4,712 n=161 matched surveys of supervisors/employees from elect./media companies in israel n = 781professionals employed in a fourcampus health science center. n = 781 individuals employed in a large, universityoperated health science center key findings positive influence of external forms of csr on oc subject to important gender variations positive influence of external social performance perceptions on identification, and jp perceptions of corporate social responsibility and the believed importance of ethics and social responsibility were positively related, and that these factors were at least marginally associated with different steps of ethical reasoning. ethical programs function through ethical environment to enhance positive feelings on the job source: compilation by researcher a review of the literature reveals that the relationship between csr and employees can also be explored under social identity theory. in 1985, tajfel and turner presented a framework which explained individuals’ need to classify oneself and others into social groups. according to social identity theory, individuals derive part of the identity from the group(s) to which they belong to tajfel and turner (1985). lindgreen and swaen (2010) added on, when organisations invest strong relationships with their stakeholders, both parties are more likely to work towards the achievement of common goals. social identity theory also proposes that a membership can describe an employee behaviours, perceptions or even thoughts and feelings. an employee may feel attached to the organisational membership and experience organisational success or failure as part of their personal achievement. 7. the evolution of internal csr and its practices according to freeman (1984) research, stakeholders of a firm include those who affect or are affected by the organisation’s goals. the literature provides various classifications in order to systematize the concept. some of the most commonly used classifications are primary and secondary stakeholders (freeman, 1984; clarkson, 1995) external and internal stakeholders (verdeyen et al., 2004) contracting and public stakeholders (charkham, 1994) voluntary and involuntary stakeholders (clarkson, 1994); internal, external, and societal stakeholders (werther and chandler, 2006); primary social, secondary social, primary non-social, and secondary non-social stakeholders (wheeler and sillanpaa, 1997). meanwhile, lozano and prandi (2005) labeled csr on employees as human rights. according to lozano and prandi (2005) there are increasing numbers of organisations linking human rights to their csr strategy screening which acts as policy and a resource for csr measure and evaluation that are regarded as practices. adding on, research by thauer (2013) discovered that the motivation for organisation to incorporate csr practices in human resource practices is due to internal human resource dilemma concerning the human right. hence, he uses the term labour related csr. clearly, there are two dimensions for csr, namely internal and external practices. internal csr practices refer to csr practices which are directly related to the physical and psychological working environment of employees (turker, 2009). it is expressed in concern for the health and well-being of employees, their training and participation in the business, equality of opportunities, work-family relationship (vives, 2006) while external csr refers to corporate socially responsible for local community, business partners and suppliers, customers, public authorities and ngos representing local communities, and the environment such as philanthropy, volunteerism and environmental protection (european commission, 2001). in the practical real-life of any organisation, the focus with regard to csr had always been closely linked to external csr. this is mentioned and proved by review of past literature reviews which revealed that most researches have focused on external csr aspects (e.g. community involvement and environment protection) resulting in less attention being focused on internal csr (cornelius et al., 2008). therefore, it is not surprising that the concept of internal csr is rather vague among researchers and in the academic arena. the main reason for csr in gaining its important is due to the fact that it is related to the well-being of all stakeholders in the organisation and most importantly. csr has gained a foothold within the organisation itself, specifically in the area of human resources (fuentes-garcía et al., 2008). it also involves social responsibility practices for employees especially in the area of their safety, health and well-being, training and participation in the business, equality of opportunities and work-family relationship (vives, 2006). with these, the term internal csr is adopted in present paper as it is comparing with the well-established research on external csr and the counterpart asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 68 which has been under investigated is the internal aspect. internal csr practices refer to csr practices which are directly related with the physical and psychological working environment of employees (turker, 2009). the following section provides a brief development of internal csr practices by some worldwide authorities, bodies and bursa malaysia (summarised in table 4). in 2001, european commission issued a green paper on promoting a european framework for csr. the green paper endeavored to encourage companies to adopt the "triple bottom-line" approach and pay attention to social and environmental issues in addition to economic goals. it also highlights the materializations of csr in the form of responsible and nondiscriminatory practices as well as the transparency of information in a company with life-long training for the employees. coincidentally, iso 26000 (2006) also decided to launch the development of an international standard named iso 2600. this standard on social responsibility aims to provide a practical guidance related to fulfilling social responsibility (sr), identifying and engaging with stakeholders, and enhancing the credibility of reports and statements on social responsibility for the benefit of all organisations. in the context of internal csr, iso 26000 provides a useful guideline for companies to respect and recognize human rights, employment and employment relationships, conditions of work and social protection, social dialogue, health and safety at work as well as human development. iso 26000 (2006) prioritizes the creation of jobs, as well as wages and other compensation paid for work performed as an organisation’s most important economic and social impacts. this observation awake and alert the public and researchers on the importance of employees from the internal practice. on a wider range, dow jones sustainability world indexes guide initiated the sustainability indexes (djsis) to create global indexes to trace the financial performance of the leading companies with an emphasis on sustainability in economic, social, and environmental capacities. with regard to internal csr, djsis focus on corporate governance, risk and crisis management, codes of conduct/compliance/corruption and bribery, human capital development, and also talent attraction in addition to retention. another monitoring body, i.e., corporate social accountability management has introduced the social accountability 8000 (sa8000) in 1999. incidentally, sa8000has its roots on the principles of international human rights norms as described in international labor organisation conventions, the united nations convention on the rights of the child and the universal declaration of human rights. it functions by measuring the performance of companies in eight key areas: child labor, forced labor, health and safety, free association and collective bargaining, discrimination, disciplinary practices, working hours and compensation. global report initiative (gri) also released sustainability reporting guidelines in 2000. these frameworks established the principles and indicators for organisations to measure and report their economic, environmental, and social performance. in accordance with internal csr, gri located six indicators for organisations, such as employment, labor/management relations, occupational health and safety, diversity and equal opportunity apart from training and education. upon the involvement of worldwide bodies in csr, the call for the implementation of csr continued to receive equal attention in europe. european smes’ good practice (2005) launched a call on mainstreaming corporate csr to encourage smes to enlist csr as a means to enhance their competitiveness. this shown that the effort to promote and practice csr is not only the agenda for large corporations, but also smes. among the projects funded by this program is ‘csr and competitiveness european smes good practice’. the focus of this program is to analyses the vital linkage between the competitiveness of smes and their csr activities. it was found that european smes’ good practice underscores on nine components related to internal csr namely; working conditions (e.g. health and safety at work) and job satisfaction, work/life balance, equal opportunities and diversity and training and staff development (e.g. career planning), communication/information of employees and participation in company decisions and responsible and fair remuneration or financial support for employees. this make is very relevant to investigate on the implementation and practices of internal csr in smes. the growing importance of internal csr is also evident in many academic researches such as vives (2006); welford (2005); brammer et al. (2007); longo et al. (2005); spiller (2000) where many related studies have been made in the interest of the business concern. among these researches, vives (2006) defined corporate responsibility as socially and environmentally responsible behavior. the main concern of internal csr involves the health and well-being of workers, workers training and participation in the business, equality of opportunities, work-family relationship of workers, and some corporate governance practices concerning the independent audits, internal control of corruption practices. similarly in malaysia context, bursa malaysia produced a csr framework for companies listed on the exchange. however, this framework is voluntary and has its focus on four dimensions of csr, namely marketplace, workplace, environment and community. that acts as a guideline to enable companies to better understand and implement csr into their businesses, and also to encourage them to publish csr reports on a voluntary basis. hence, to encourage the understanding and participation of companies into internal csr, bursa malaysia has selected eight key dimensions: employee involvement, workplace diversity, gender issues, human capital development, quality of life, labor rights, human rights, health and safety. table-4. descriptions of internal csr year authority/ body/ author(s) description of csr on employees/ internal csr/ internal csr practices 1999 dow jones sustainability index internal csr relates to corporate governance, risk and crisis management, codes of conduct/compliance/corruption and bribery, human capital development, and also talent attraction in addition to retention 1999 corporate social accountability management social accountability 8000 (sa8000) adopted principles of international human rights norms with eight key areas: child labor, forced labor, health and safety, free association and collective bargaining, discrimination, disciplinary practices, working hours and compensation. continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 69 2000 global report initiative (gri) internal csr practices are guided by six indicators fororganisations, such as employment, labor/management relations, occupational health and safety, diversity and equal opportunity apart from training and education. 2000 spiller 10 keys ethical business practices related to the 6 main stakeholder groups: community; environment; employees; customers; suppliers, and shareholders. with regard to employees, the ethical business practices pertain to fair remuneration, effective communication, learning and development opportunities, fulfilling work, a healthy and safe work environment, equal employment opportunities, job security, competent leadership, community spirit, and social mission integration. 2001 european commission green paper to promote csr practices in the form of responsible and nondiscriminatory practices as well as the transparency of information in a company with life-long training for the employees. 2001 kok, vander, mckenna and brown developed instruments for internal csr practices, which are ethic awareness, working conditions, minorities/diversity, organisational structure and management style, industrial relations, education and training, and physical environment. 2004 castka, balzarova, and bamber internal csr in the smes dimension encompassed human capital management, health and safety standards, quality of management, adoption to change and innovation, managing environmental impacts, natural resources and managing finances 2004 maignan and ferrell csr on employees encompass practices such as treat all employees fairly and respectfully, regardless of gender or ethnic background, provide all employees with salaries that properly and fairly reward them for their work, support all employees who want to pursue further education, help all employees coordinate their private and professional lives and incorporate the interests of all employees into business decisions. 2005 european smes’ good practice internal csr involves working conditions (e.g. health and safety at work) and job satisfaction, work/life balance, equal opportunities and diversity and training and staff development (e.g. career planning), communication/information of employees and participation in company decisions and responsible and fair remuneration or financial support for employees. 2005 carby-hall internal csr practices in commercial companies as the common law applications of employer’s csr towards employees. 2005 welford internal csr practices includes non-discrimination, equal opportunities, and fair wages, vocational education, association, and human rights. 2005 papasolomoudoukakis, krambiakapardis, and katsioloudes 9 criteria of csr for employees, which include: 1) to provide a work environment which is staff and family friendly; 2) to engage in responsible human resource management; 3) to provide an equitable reward and wage system for employees; 4) to engage in open and flexible communication with employees; 5) to invest in training and education; 6) to encourage freedom of speech and allow employees the rights to speak up and report their concerns at work; 7) to provide child care support/paternity/maternity leave. in addition, legally the criteria must also be able: 8) to engage in employment diversity by hiring and promoting women, ethnic minorities and the physically handicapped, and 9) promote dignified and fair treatment of all employees 2005 longo, mura &bonoli employees’ expectation toward csr activities are inclusive of health and safety at work, development of workers’ skills, well-being and satisfaction of worker and quality of work, and social equity 2006 vives csr practices for employees should concern for health and well-being of employees, their training and participation in the business, equality of opportunities, work-family relationship. 2006 iso26000 provide guidelines for companies to respect and recognize human rights, employment and employment relationships, conditions of work and social protection, social dialogue, health and safety at work as well as human development. csr on employees focuses on creation of jobs, wages and other compensation paid for work performed. 2006 vuontisjärvi's employee-focused policies and practices involve training and staff development, pay and benefits, participation and staff involvement, values and principles, employee health and well-being, measurement of policies, employment policy, security in employment, equal opportunities (diversity) and work-life balance. 2006 bursa malaysia 8 key dimensions for internal csr: employee involvement, workplace diversity, gender issues, human capital development, quality of life, labor rights, human rights, health and safety. 2007 brammer, millington, and rayton procedural justice and the employee training as the measures for internal csr practices. 2009 lindgreen, swaen, and johnston 6 indicators for csr on employees, which are 1)support for employees who wish to pursue further education, 2)procedures that help to insure the health and safety of employees, 3)fair and respectful treatment of employees regardless of gender or ethnic background, 4)help for employees to balance their private and professional lives, 5)incorporate the interests of employees in business decisions, 6)provide employees with salaries that commensurate with their work and fairly reward them for excellent work 2009 turker proposed eight items for employees in csr; quality of employees’ lives, safety and continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 56-74 70 health, work and life balance, equal opportunities; fair managerial decisions related to the employees, employees’ needs and wants, company policies that encourage the employees to develop their skills and careers, company support for employees who want to acquire further education source: compilation by researcher table 4 shows that there many researchers attempt to describe and define internal csr through the development of csr. it is fair to conclude that there are some overlaps among some of the dimensions and measurement used in the studies. examples of overlaps are work life balance used in internal csr studies in different concepts: well-being and satisfaction of worker and quality of work (longo et al., 2005) fulfilling work (spiller, 2000) work-family relationship (vives, 2006) helping employees to balance their private and professional lives (lindgreen et al., 2009) and quality of life. as a word of caution, these overlaps, which occur between independent variables are repetitive and may create some problems during the data analysis (factor analysis and multiple regression analysis). if researchers intends to operationalize the said measurements, researchers shall carefully omit overlaps measures to avoid the issues of high correlation and multicollinearity, which will further exacerbate the problem of shared variance among independent variables. despite that there are research done on internal csr, it faced the similar faith as csr, i.e., no common definition of internal csr or internal csr practices. nevertheless, turker (2009) offer a simple and precise internal csr description which is internal csr are activities which are directly related with the physical and psychological working environment of employees. 8. benefits of internal csr practices needless to say, csr has contributed substantially ever since its discussion commences. as internal csr focuses on employees, it builds strong bonding between an organisation and its employees (degli antoni and sacconi, 2013). internal csr practices such as employee development, health and safety policies, creating a motivating environment in organisations; reduce the organisation's operation costs and enhance its productivity (elgaraihy et al., 2014). internal csr practices also increase employee motivation and satisfaction as employees are aware that their organisations are taking steps to ensure their well-being. this reduces employees’ absenteeism and increase employees’ performance. the intangible benefits arise from increased employees’ motivation and satisfaction as a result if internal csr practices, give organisation the competitive advantage in the agile business environment. organisations could retain and sustained the talent workforce to create heterogeneity organisation resource in the human resource perspective. the advantage creates a network of association, trust and reciprocity among the members of the organisation, which can create an unbeatable workforce for it to sustain organisational performance and competitive advantage. the involvement in internal csr activities above the regulatory obligations such as laws, professional codes and requirements organisations are lead to a wide range of benefits too. these benefits reduce the internal costs of organisations because they allow them to enhance the organisation’s ability by way of maintaining good levels of staff attraction and retention, increased and enhanced employee morale, which overall, increase performance of engaged employees (ali et al., 2010). to simplify, internal csr practices create shared value between employees and organisation (porter and kramer, 2011) and seeking win-win outcomes (carroll and shabana, 2010) with a direct positive impact on the organisation productivity. this explain the reason for internal csr is perceived as the powerful ‘internal marketing’ tool used to acquire and retain employees. this perception holds just as organisations succeed by fulfilling the needs of their employees by satisfying their needs through a competitive salary, reasonable benefits packages and job responsibilities. thus, reduces employee turnover, whereby employee turnover typically costs organisations the equivalent of one to two times the salary of the departing employee (and up to two to three times the salary for executive positions), which can lead to enormous costs for organisations with high turnover (mitchell et al., 2010). 9. conclusion the benefit of adopting csr had been well-acknowledged. it is a form of value creation that has the power to reconnect businesses and society in a way that ultimately leads to the next wave of global growth. when an organisation is doing for the society, it pays back by enhancing the organisation business performance because consumers are supportive of organisations that care for the society and environment other than profit maximizing. the evolution and development of csr also enlighten corporations not to overlook on the crucial human resource, the employees, while exercising their csr practices. csr can be integrated into workplace and leave substantial impacts on the employees’ attitudes and behaviour that ultimately foster the performance of the organisation. references adams, c.a., 2002. internal organisational factors influencing corporate social and ethical reporting: beyond current theorising. accounting, auditing & accountability journal, 15(2): 223-250. aguilera, r., v. ruth, d. rupp, c. williams and j. ganapathi, 2007. putting the s back in corporate social responsibility: a multi-level theory of social change in organizations. academy of management review, 32(3): 836–863. aguinis, h., 2011. organizationalresponsibility: doinggoodanddoingwell. in zedeck, s. 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online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.imagine.ca/content/media/team_canada_china_paper.asp?sectionmedia asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 4, 244-247, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 244 natural user input management (nuim) through computer architecture and operating system in virtual reality m. salman akram1 shahid naseem2  mushtaq niazi3 muhammad waqas4 tehami mustaasam5 ayesha iqbal6 1,3,4,5,6 national college of business administration & economics, lahore, pakistan 2 ucest, lahore leads university, lahore, pakistan ( corresponding author) abstract virtual reality (vr) takes natural user inputs (nui), like gestures, motions, voices and produces visual overlays in digital form on top of reality that seen by different user at a time. today’s operating systems don’t provide special support for vr application. as a result, today vr application are built as single hardware, single experiences, where the application itself performs as sensing and user input interpretation with machine hardware. in vr application environment new every inputs and outputs, an operating system that support vr applications needs to re-think every output and display abstraction exposed to exist applications. disparate mouse, keyboard and other devices, which from explicit, which frequently has sensitive data mixed with user input. so, operating system with machine architecture must learn in vr applications to manage with the inherent noisiness of machine learning for recognizing for access to recognized objects like user face and skeleton in vr applications. keywords: virtual reality, gestures, abstraction, skeleton, kinect. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 245 2. related work ..................................................................................................................................................................... 245 3. propose methodology ........................................................................................................................................................ 245 4. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 246 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 247 citation | m. salman akram; shahid naseem; mushtaq niazi; muhammad waqas; tehami mustaasam; ayesha iqbal (2016). natural user input management (nuim) through computer architecture and operating system in virtual reality. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(4): 244-247. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: author(s) contribution: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 10 may 2016/ revised: 2 july 2016/ accepted: 11 july 2016/ published: 15 july 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=m. salman akram https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=shahid naseem https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mushtaq niazi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad waqas https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=tehami mustaasam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ayesha iqbal http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=m. salman akram https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=shahid naseem https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mushtaq niazi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad waqas https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=tehami mustaasam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ayesha iqbal http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=m. salman akram https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=shahid naseem https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mushtaq niazi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad waqas https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=tehami mustaasam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ayesha iqbal http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=m. salman akram https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=shahid naseem https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mushtaq niazi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad waqas https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=tehami mustaasam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ayesha iqbal http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=m. salman akram https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=shahid naseem https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mushtaq niazi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad waqas https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=tehami mustaasam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ayesha iqbal http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=m. salman akram https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=shahid naseem https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mushtaq niazi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad waqas https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=tehami mustaasam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ayesha iqbal http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=m. salman akram https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=shahid naseem https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mushtaq niazi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad waqas https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=tehami mustaasam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ayesha iqbal http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=m. salman akram https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=shahid naseem https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mushtaq niazi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=muhammad waqas https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=tehami mustaasam https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ayesha iqbal http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.244.247 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 244-247 245 1. introduction the last several years have seen the popularity of consumer virtual reality (vr) applications. vr application takes natural user interactions such as gestures, voice and motion tracking as input and overlays digital content on top of the real world. vr technology allows users to transfer almost any hardware / component of real world into the digital form. nature of such technology can only static but also dynamic, e.g. whole body, arms or legs movement as well as other nui. another important step in virtual reality for machine is to recognize and identify an object. for purposes of speech, motion tracking, device must be able to sense the changes in real time; this is enabled by specific sensor dependent on used technology (ondrej and frantisek, 2014). existing current operating systems provide no specific and reliable support for vr applications. as an effect, today’s vr applications are built as single support experiences on separate hardware and tools. in current existing operating system where the applications itself perform sensing, depiction and user input interpretation (like motion, speech or gestures), aided by user-space libraries such as the field of view (fov) software microsoft kinect software development kit or kinect sdk. today, these applications can only run at a time, and they receive unrestricted, exclusive, access to read the nui sensors and render augmentations. as a matter of fact, this approach has two major challenges in operating system. that is user privacy and lack of support for simultaneous applications. first, it is unwanted and undesirable to give any application complete access to speech and other sensor data. consider figure 1 which shows a voice frame captured from a kinect for windows sdk. now a day, any application using the sdk has access to the raw voices and depth flow. on this case, that includes the different voices variation at a time. figure-1. voice frame captured variation at a time therefore, we must recognize how the operating system interprets and delivers natural user input to application using machine hardware that is preserving user privacy. in operating system, we required a finer-grained and additional usable permission system to allow slightest privilege granting in the virtual reality environment. let’s take an example, instead of granting any application to access the camera, as currently happening in smartphone now a day, operating system needs to control the access to user’s face, eyes, skeleton and other objects etc. second, instead of persist running vr applications at once, we disagree that it is desirable and forceful to let different multiple vr applications from different vendors simultaneously read sensor all generated inputs and render by virtual overlays in vr. evidence is rising that such a multi-application of vr platform can be highly attractive. 2. related work the characteristics a virtual reality system must have in order to exploit the perceptual and spatial skills of users (cagliari, 2006). different input device could serve as an effective virtual reality platform and provide environment of sufficient immersion and presence, e.g. through multimodal interaction. there are limited possibilities for vr applications manage nui in different visualizations and processing power either device has small visual field or not (jane and jaehoon, 2006). in mobile systems may need to identify object recognition to the cloud or to specialized hardware for nui, which raises heterogeneity issues similar to those tackled by the helios satellite kernel architecture (kyungmin and jason, 2015). 3. propose methodology overall, vr applications require new mechanism and abstraction from the operating system and hardware architecture for multiplexing sensor inputs and recognized input gestures across multiple applications. the prime requirement of a vr operating system is that it should be real-time, as we know that the concept of virtual reality is based on direct input from a user body, so it must be able to respond quickly to any movement in order to accurately simulate reality. the requirements of a given os are dependent on the use of virtual reality system and hardware equipment. certain vr systems do not require high performance and have fewer features while other needs essential real-time performance (kyungmin et al., 2015). when we perceive that integration into the operating system machine hardware / architecture, it does not mean that functionality must necessarily be placed in the os kernel. instead, we mean that shared, trusted functionality that is isolated from every application should be provided (figure 2). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 244-247 246 figure-2. integration into machine hardware architecture another option for vr application protecting those inputs with a fine-grained access control policy enforced centrally by the os, and providing presentation abstraction for applications. fine-grained programs have different protection nui and may interact often in the course of a computation. several operating systems use hardwarebased protection to prevent progress from inadvertently and / or maliciously modifying one another. each process has an address space that defines a set of memory segments and the process’s access rights to those segments. a process can only access memory in its own address space. in addition, the operating system has a security model that associates processes with their access right to system resources for nui. using address space of suitable granularity and process access rights to controlled resources, an operating system can control a process’s operations as desired (mishra, 2016). figure-3. choose right processor type in application and control the sensor function with fine-grained access the microsoft kinect software development kit (sdk) is used as a hardware abstraction layer to establish the connection to the kinect. microsoft anticipates for long-term support and often provides new features enhancement. the idea and functionality behind this model is not build upon the software development kit of microsoft for kinect. it is negotiable with other sdks which are compatible to the kinect, like the sdk of openni. iprocessor represent (figure 3) with the different sensor inside the kinect for microsoft device it is possible to recover depth, speech, rgb and skeleton data. this information can be sophisticated with the iprocessor edge implementing different components. the iprocessor rectangle in figure 3 contains calculation specific parts, that part can be exchanged. it is actually contains abstract parts and interfaces that can be used for implementing single combining different kinds of processors freely for handling more than one sensor and combining data in the calculation process. for example graphics, depth, speech and skeleton sensor can be combined in a multi-processor to cut an exist person out from the images background and it is also called “green-screen”. such processor can also switched on and off separately in order to avoid errors or save resources when no person is in front of the sensors (banerjee et al., 2007). once the application developers have different approaches for security mechanism should focus on nui, what layers the mechanism should be adopted for operating system and the complexity of each mechanism. this mechanism needs to be created and integrated in way to have a proper relationship with other part of the operating system. 4. conclusion overall, vr applications require new approach, mechanism and abstractions from the operating system for multiplexing sensor inputs and recognized nui in different applications. in order to protect those inputs the best option is fire-gained across control policy imposed centrally by the os. the os need to handle the physics between asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 244-247 247 different applications which can be considered a new kind of cross-application interaction. the result has shown that fully support of operating system in virtual reality for nui is case of release pressure on application. now we need to create more application that should be reliable compatible while interacting with operating systems and computer architecture. references banerjee, p.p., j. cristian and s. rizzi, 2007. virtual reality simulations. anesthesiology clinics, 25(2): 337-348. cagliari, l., 2006. virtual reality: past, present and future, in virtual environments in clinical psychology and neuroscience. amsterdam, netherlands: ios press. jane, h. and j. jaehoon, 2006. hand-hled virtual reality: a feasibility study. available from www.cs.wpi.edu/~gogo/hive/papers/hwang_etal_vrst2006.pdf. kyungmin, l. and f. jason, 2015. the case for operating system management of user attention. available from www.eecs.umich.edu/~kyminlee/papers/hotmobile15.pdf. kyungmin, l., f. jason, t.j. giuli, n. brian and p. christopher, 2015. the case for operating system management of user attention. amc: verifying user interface properties for vehicular applications. acm: 1-6. mishra, d., 2016. virtual reality. ijltemas, 5(1): 2278-2540. ondrej, k. and j. frantisek, 2014. approach to hand tracking and gesture recognition based on depth-sensing cameras and emg monitoring. acta informatica pragensia, 3(1): 104-112. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.cs.wpi.edu/~gogo/hive/papers/hwang_etal_vrst2006.pdf http://www.eecs.umich.edu/~kyminlee/papers/hotmobile15.pdf asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 1, no. 2, 62-70, 2014 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 62 how university education in uganda can be improved to prepare economically productive graduates catherine nabayego 1 --nicholas itaaga 2* 1 lecturer in the east african school of higher education studies and development, college of education and external studies, makerere university in uganda 2 lecturer in the department of educational foundations and curriculum studies school of education college of education and external studies makerere university in uganda abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................... 63 2. literature review ...................................................................................................................................................................... 63 3. methodology .............................................................................................................................................................................. 65 4. findings ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 66 5. discussion ................................................................................................................................................................................... 68 6. conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................................. 69 7. recommendations ..................................................................................................................................................................... 69 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 69 every country invests in university education to develop and empower its citizens with the high-level capacity needed to practically work and transform their surrounding environmental resources into productive employment after graduation. the high and growing rate of graduate unemployment in uganda implies, however, that most of the university education graduates are not practical enough to turn their local environmental resources into gainful work and effective contribution to national development; it shows a glaring conflict between the internal and external efficiency in university education in uganda. it is argued in this paper that the failure of most graduates to be practical would not have occurred had the management of uganda’s university education made effective use of the activity-based informal training when preparing their products (graduates). consequently, the paper examines the level at which this type of training is used in uganda’s university education with a view of proposing a way forward. it is based on a study conducted in 2013 using a representative sample of universities selected from central uganda. the findings indicate that the level of interactive learning is very low involving only the use of activities selected and controlled by lecturers. students’ selfdirected and proactive learning using environment-based activities is negligible in almost all the selected universities, to the detriment of the students’ future roles and responsibilities at the place of work. based on these findings, the paper recommends promotion of activity-based mode of learning as a way of ensuring that universities in uganda prepare more productive graduates, hence reconciling the conflict between internal and external efficiency of university education in uganda. keywords: economics of education, informal training, university education. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 62-70 63 1. introduction the genesis of university education in uganda is traced to the inception of makerere university in 1922 (lejeun, 2005). this education was akin to the british university education (kasenene, 2003); (kasozi, 2003). it was entrenched as a highly classroom-based education that slowly promoted a colonial mentality of despising african civilization (nabayego, 2011). the mentality led to a deliberate, yet imperceptible, abandonment of informal training activities which, according to gorski and covert (2004), would have facilitated hands-on learning, thereby preparing learners to become practical enough to do similar activities that would have improved their productivity and employability after graduation. indeed smith (2008) observed that with informal training activities, a need, problem or task is first identified from the surrounding environment either by the trainers or by the learners themselves. the learners then begin to deal with the identified problem, need, or task by conducting the activities necessary to solve it. the need, problem or task could be physical, social, economic, political, recreational, or work-related (loima, 2006); (göran-folkestad, 2006). as they carry out the activities germane to addressing the problem, learners develop the practical competencies needed to perform analogous activities should a similar problem resurface later in life. the problem can in fact rematerialize in future in form of a specialized job, implying that those attending to it after training are actually employed and engaged in a job, and certainly, doing it in a productive manner (fahrni, 2006). accordingly, using the activity-based approach helps to prepare productive university graduates if adopted. unfortunately, instead of using the above-described training and learning activities, the university education introduced in uganda exposes students to largely classroom-based learning activities. such an approach disempowers many ugandan graduates in various ways, notwithstanding the fact that it only enables some of the graduates to perform an array of white-collar jobs in the public sector, especially after uganda’s political independence up to date (kasozi, 2003). at the time of independence, most of the jobs graduates could do were in public administration, teaching, health work, and other jobs in revered companies and organizations (kasenene, 2003).students were trained in a way that detached them from their local environments so much that they even started perceiving informal activity-based training as backward training meant for the formally uneducated (nabayego, 2011). most of the students graduated having acquired little or no knowledge and skills required to enable them to practically engage in productive and entrepreneurial activities based on their surrounding environments. even ugandans out there started perceiving university graduates as people who could only work in government and respectable companies. graduates who attempted to do jobs outside the formal employment sector were perceived as failures that had wasted time at university. this is because the knowledge and skills they applied had been acquired not so much from university education, but informally through home-based training. such type of graduates continued to be produced until the uganda government realized that university education so detached students from the realities of uganda that it could not enable most learners to develop hands-on knowledge and skills required to participate productively in the societal development process (kamuhangire, 2011), (kawere, 2010); (ministry of education and sports, 2003); (museveni, 1995). most of uganda’s university education students could not easily create or find jobs after graduation (government white paper, 1992). only less than 30 percent of the graduates could find jobs. graduate unemployment started rising as more and more university education institutions produced more graduates. consequently, the government instituted the education policy review commission (eprc) to review uganda’s education policy, including the university education policy, and make recommendations for promoting practical education. (education policy review commission, 1989) reached various recommendations one of which was to promote activity-based training rooted in students’ local environments. the commission reiterated that adopting this recommendation would enable uganda’s education generally and university education in particular, to develop practical and hands-on knowledge and skills needed by students to become productively employed after graduation. government adopted the recommendation and started to redesign the national curricula and syllabi with intent to promote this kind of education (bitamazire, 2005). graduate unemployment has, however, continued to rise, standing at over 80 percent today (fagil, 2012). this implies that majority of the graduates are not productively employed, which casts doubt at the use of activity-based informal training in the management of university education in uganda. furthermore, it clearly shows the glaring conflict between internal and external efficiency of university education in uganda ((itaaga, 2013); (natarajan, 1993); hillman and jenkner (2004). that much as the universities are churning out products, which implies internal efficiency, such products cannot be consumed by society (external inefficiency) the main objective of this study was therefore to analyze the level at which activity-based informal training is used in uganda’s university education to prepare students to be productive after graduation. the paper also proposes a useful way forward based on the findings obtained from the analysis. the objective was met by reviewing literature for purposes of identifying the measures of the level and also by testing a null hypothesis (ho) using the methodology presented after the review of literature presented in the next section. 2. literature review gorski and covert (2004) described activity-based training as a form of informal education that can enhance formal education, particularly university education by enabling instructors to engage learners in various out-ofclassroom activities as a means of developing knowledge, skills and abilities that the learners need in order to carry out similar activities later in life and on their own. these scholars pointed out that the activities that can be used range over a wide spectrum but only those relevant to developing a particular skill or ability are simultaneously identified and selected, taught, and corrective measures taken whenever learners make errors. these scholars noted further that educators in these institutions supplement university education with activity-based informal training by involving students in community, workplace, and group-based activities. this, according to smith (1994), was achieved by merging academic studies with out-of-classroom work and social activities, especially through contact between the institutions and surrounding communities. to note of these observations is that they covered the use of activity-based informal training in university education institutions of american, asian and european countries. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 62-70 64 while the interest of gorski and covert (2004) was in how asian countries, particularly israel, made use of informal education training to improve their education generally and university education in particular; that of smith (1994) was in analyzing buckingham’s local community education and how it had improved through conversation and action. certainly, uganda’s case for university education was not covered. in another study, gorski (2004) found out that in european educational institutions, particularly in university education institutions, students had been made to study academics in the morning and to socialize and work in the afternoon hours, all in cooperation and collaboration with members of the surrounding communities. this resulted into producing graduates possessing the very knowledge and skills required to solve the needs and problems encountered in daily life and surrounding environment, better than it was before. gorski (2004) substantiated his observation by noting that on completion, students found it easy to apply their skills and work in service occupations, manufacturing, agriculture, commerce and trade. what is noted about gorski (2004) observations is that despite being well illustrated in terms of how the adoption of the activity-based informal training can enhance university education to produce productive graduates, they do not spell out any specific training activities. moreover, the observations were made based on a study conducted in europe and the united states of america but not in uganda. porat (1985) and boal (1992) identified and described a number of examples of the activities that activity-based training can contribute to university education so as to develop the desired knowledge and skills. they considered activities like: painting, drawing, games, sports, making arts and crafts, and engaging in puzzles and quizzes. other identified training activities included: singing, dancing, storytelling, writing, citing poems, playing piano, playing a guitar, typing, designing and programming in information and communication technology, computing, drumming, playing xylophones, sweeping a compound, preparing food, mulching, assembling or repairing machines, flower gardening, cultivation, animal rearing, driving, flying airplanes, military training activities, bricklaying and concrete practice, surveying, plumbing, carpentry and joinery, and a lot of other learning activities (fahrni, 2006; smith, 2006;2008); (göran-folkestad, 2006); (loima, 2006); (hazler, 1998); (bentley, 1998); (boud and miller, 1997); (gibson and clarke, 1995); (caffarella, 1994); (brown, 1993). boal (1992) in particular argued that if learners carry out such activities, it is likely that they will develop the knowledge and skills needed to help them conduct similar activities on their own, especially after their graduation from the training. it however, remains unclear whether such activities are used to enhance and make formal education in uganda develop productive graduates; hence the need to find out empirically. mambili (2004) made similar observations, adding that activity-based informal training continues to play an effective role in meeting the learning needs of students who would otherwise have missed out. activity-based informal training is the alternative mode of education which is crucial for increasing access and bridging gaps between classroom-based learning and the environment out there. informal activity-based training, continued mambili (2004), develops even the innovativeness and inventiveness of learners because it practically involves learners carrying out learning tasks or exercises with their own hands, legs or any other relevant part of the body (like the waist in the case of dancing or vocal codes in the case of singing). he further observed that such training prepares learners for real life work activities met in future because once an individual learns how to do something; it is very unlikely that they will forget to do the same thing across different circumstances, time and space. mambili (2004) concluded by stressing that once activity-based training is made use of, it can supplement and complement education, particularly university education to make it more relevant to producing practically productive graduates. unfortunately, added mambili (2004), most of the education systems in africa do not make use of these activities. mambili (2004), however, did not address the case of university education in uganda. his concern was about analyzing the position of non-formal education in kenya’s kakamega district in the face of declared free universal primary education; and how students could access quality education through this form of education. the gap about the case in uganda remained, which indicates the need for this study to fill it. in an attempt to establish how informal education operates in practice, smith (2008) explored a range of settings in which activity-based informal training can be carried out. noting that it is very easy for most people to dismiss the notion that schools, colleges and university institutions of learning can offer informal education simply because many school systems ignore it, smith (2008) maintained that these institutions are amongst the settings where the activity-based informal training can take place. he argued that since learners spend most of the time in these formal institutions, their involvement in informal activity-based training could be encouraged in such settings in a bid to nurture practical knowledge and skills. the following were the ways that smith (2008) suggested to help adopt activity-based training in formal education generally and university education in particular: working with students to set up study groups as though they were homework groups; encouraging and supporting the development of groups around enthusiasms and interests such as music and sound systems, environmental issues, and cross-community reconciliation; developing alternative practical educational provision for students experiencing difficulties in mainline classrooms; working with individuals around the personal difficulties they are experiencing in their lives (this could be to do with family relationships and friendships, schooling, health or around thinking about their future). other ways smith (2008) suggested include: opening up avenues for students to practically engage in different life philosophies and ways of life such as debating clubs or leadership systems like school councils and youth forums; assisting with the development of an inclusive education (this may be through activities that encourage students to accept others, and to make practical sense of their schools’ internal and surrounding environments); developing practical programs whose activities link schools (such as university educational institutions) with local communities and homes (this can be achieved by developing the activity programs inviting respectable people and parents to talk to students and encourage their competency development in matters of discipline, hard work, morals, social competence and empathy); working with community groups to design and run programs using school resources; and working with school staff to develop new social and educational opportunities. although this paper adopts the logic of smith (2008) arguments and even though this scholar pointed out a number of ways through which activity-based informal training is used in formal education, his approach was asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 62-70 65 general. moreover, he was interested in establishing how informal education works out in practice but not in how it can enhance university education in order to produce productive graduates in uganda. as to whether the ways he pointed out are also used to enhance this education or not, remains therefore a matter to be empirically established in the case of uganda; hence the justification of this paper. in general, literature indicates that using activity-based informal training facilitates university education to produce productive graduates, hence enhancing the education system’s external efficiency. it is however, silent about the case of university education in uganda, thereby calling for the need to address it. 3. methodology this study adopted a descriptive cross-sectional survey design. this design was adopted because according to sekaran (2001), it triangulates both quantitative and qualitative approaches, thereby permitting collection and analysis of both first hand qualitative and quantitative data collected at one in time in the year 2013. it therefore allowed administration of both interviews and questionnaires to a large number of respondents selected from different categories that made up the study population. it also permitted the use of descriptive and inferential techniques of data analysis (amin, 2005). the population consisted of all stakeholders who participate in university education as lecturers, students and employers of those who graduate from this education. the size of this population was 498,648 (uganda bureau of statistics, 2009). the expected size of the sample was determined using krejcie and morgan (1970) sample determination table cited in amin (2005). this table indicates that the minimum sample size required to represent this population sample should be 384 respondents. this implies that any sample size below this number was not statistically representative, but any sample size greater than 384 was acceptable since it increased the statistical representativeness (kothari, 2005). consequently, the actual sample consisted of 390 respondents, including 95 lecturers, 215 students and 80 employers. this sample was selected from nine out of the eleven universities operating in central uganda. central uganda was preferred because the largest number of universities in uganda is located in this region. therefore, not only was a region a good representative of all other regions in the country but the universities located therein were also easily accessible. the universities were selected using simple random sampling as each of them had an equal chance of being selected. those selected included makerere university, ndejje university, uganda martyrs university nkozi, uganda christian university mukono, kampala international university, kampala university, muteesa i royal university, cavendish university, and victoria university. university lecturers were selected because of the role they play in managing university education as its planners and implementers, and therefore people responsible for preparing students who subsequently graduate from university education. their views were therefore considered representative of what was happening in university education as far as the use of activity-based informal training was concerned. university students were selected because of their role as learners exposed to university education that prepares them to become graduates. employers were selected because of the role they play as evaluators and further trainers of the graduates produced from university education. they included officers in charge of human resource management in companies and businesses operating in both the formal and informal sectors. they were selected to provide data regarding how far graduates demonstrated having been exposed to activity-based informal training. all the respondents were selected using judgmental random sampling, which according to amin (2005) is used to select respondents at random but prudently so that only those judged to be in a position to provide required data are selected. selection was carried out more or less like purposive sampling because it was based on judgment that creates bias in selection; but it was different in the sense that any respondent in a particular category could be selected (randomness) as long as the respondent qualified on the considered criterion. in short, judgmental random sampling was used because there was need to exercise judgment in selecting respondents at random. the following were the criteria: data was collected by the researchers and five field assistants with the aid of an introductory letter obtained from the dean, school of education at makerere university. the data was collected using a self administered semistructured questionnaire designed according to the main themes of the study. the questionnaire was administered to students. more data was collected using interview schedules designed and administered to employers and university lecturers. questionnaires and interview schedules were used because all targeted respondents were literate enough to read the questions and write answers based on their opinions. all the administered instruments were first tested for validity. questionnaires were also first tested for reliability using a pilot study involving 10 respondents not included in the study. the computed validity indices and reliability coefficients are summarized in table 1. table-1.validity indices and reliability coefficient of research instruments research instrument (cvi) α interview schedule for university lecturers 0.875 questionnaire for students 0.809 0.875 interview schedule for formal employers 0.870 table 1 indicates that the content validity index (cvi) of each research instrument and the cronbach alpha coefficient (α) were greater than 0.7, which is the minimum acceptable threshold (amin, 2005). the instruments were therefore highly valid. the collected data was analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. qualitative techniques were applied to analyze qualitative data collected in form of open-ended interview and questionnaire responses. it involved transcribing and describing given responses using the thematic approach. the developed themes were then categorized according to the relevant variables of the study. the quantitative techniques used included: descriptive analysis, factor analysis, the analysis of variance (anova) and chi square techniques of the statistical package for social scientists (spss) (sekaran, 2001). specifically, the descriptive technique was used to generate frequency asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 62-70 66 distributions regarding the developed themes. the generated frequencies were transferred to the excel program to generate a bar graph showing the reported activities. this was carried out to improve the quality of data presentation. based on explanations given by kothari (2005), factor analysis was used to determine the reliable and independent indicators of respondents’ perception of how the activity-based training was used to manage university education. the chi square technique was used to test the hypothesis because it assumed independence of variables (amin, 2005). anova was used to establish at once how the different categories of selected respondents perceived the level of using the activity-based informal education training in the management of university education in uganda (amin, 2005); (kothari, 2005). this was necessary to determine whether the perception of using this training differed across the respondent categories. 4. findings the objective of this study was to examine the level at which activity-based informal training was used to prepare students who graduate from university education in uganda. the objective was met by asking respondents to use a likert scale of responses running from strongly disagree (sd = 1) through disagree (d = 2), neither agree nor disagree (nn =3), agree (a = 4) to strongly agree (sa = 5) and indicate whether the various training activities were used when preparing students pursuing university education in uganda. descriptive statistics obtained from the analysis of the responses appear in table 2. table-2. respondents’ description of the level of using activity-based informal training in university education in uganda informal education activity-based practices descriptions (responses) % of respondents per description (n = 390) mean standard deviation teachers identifying tasks; selecting activities that learners perform so as to solve the tasks in the presence of teachers sd 11.1 4.82 0.093 d 8.6 nn 3.0 a 13.7 sa 63.7 total 100.0 teachers identifying learning tasks from the local environment sd 50.9 1.36 .0311 d 21.0 nn 16.5 a 9.1 sa 2.6 total 100.0 teachers using hands-on activities to help students develop skills sd 19.3 1.99 .591 d 61.7 nn 9.5 a 6.5 sa 3.0 total 100.0 students sent out to surrounding community to personally participate in work relevant to their learning needs sd 25.4 1.85 .611 d 53.1 nn 10.9 a 8.3 sa 2.3 total 100.0 teachers guiding the learners' performance of the activities sd 23.8 d 9.4 nn 3.6 4.74 .825 a 27.8 sa 56.8 total 100.0 students allowed to freely ask or contribute ideas on how learning activities should be performed sd 82.4 d 6.8 nn 4.8 1.40 .065 a 5.2 sa 0.8 total 100.0 educators coming up with activities that encourage growth of students' creative participation in a proactively democratic manner sd 71.3 d 16.5 nn 5.9 1.33 .752 a 3.4 sa 2.9 total 100.0 the learning experiences organized in a way that examples, aids and activities that enhance the learning process are vivid, concrete and familiar to students sd 65.6 d 12.9 nn 8.3 1.28 .531 a 10.9 sa 2.3 total 100.0 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 62-70 67 informal education activity-based practices descriptions (responses) % of respondents per description (n = 390) mean standard deviation the duration of learning sessions depending on the learning needs sd 70.4 d 28.4 nn 13.7 1.13 .812 a 9.4 sa 3.6 total 100.0 findings in table 2, reveal that respondents who merely and strongly disagreed showed that the activity-based informal training was not used in uganda’s university education to prepare students. they therefore revealed a zero level of applying this training when preparing university students. those who neither agreed nor disagreed pointed to uncertainty about this level. respondents who agreed indicated that the training was applied but at a low level. respondents who strongly agreed implied that the training was used at a high level. findings in table 2 further indicate that on average most of the respondents generally disagreed to the use of most training activities (most of the means are close to ‘1’). the findings thus, point to a zero level of using most of the informal training activities in uganda’s university education. the standard deviations were very small, suggesting that individual respondents in all the selected categories did not differ much from the average description. the only exceptions were two activities. one of these activities involved lecturers’ identification of tasks and selection of activities that students had to perform so as to solve the tasks (mean = 4.82). the other task involved lecturers guiding students’ performance of the activities (mean = 4.74). the magnitudes of the mean values indicate that respondents strongly agreed to these activities, which suggests a high level of their use. the fact that the mean values were not exactly equal to ‘5’ implies however, that some of the respondents thought otherwise. therefore, anova analysis was conducted to establish how the selected categories of respondents differed in the perception of using the activities when training students. findings are presented in table 3. table-3.respondents’ description of the level of using activity-based informal training in university education in uganda respondents’ mean description of the level of use statistics university lecturers (n = 95) university students (n = 215) employers (n = 80) total (n = 390) df f p grand average 3.90 1.06 1.38 1.13 2 12.664** .00 **significant at the 0.01 level of significance note: disagree (1), somewhat agree (2), neither agree nor disagree (3), agree (4), strongly agree (5). findings in table 3, reveal that the mean response values corresponding to the different categories of respondents were close to ‘1’, except that corresponding to university lecturers (mean = 3.90), which was close to ‘2’. these findings imply that university lecturers merely agreed, thereby showing a low level of using the informal training activities in uganda’s university education. however, students and employers alluded to a zero level of using the activities. this is why the f-value (f = 12.664, sig. = .00 < .01) indicates a significant difference in the average perception of the use of the activities. there was thus need to establish which category of respondents was realistic. this involved testing ho below. ho: university education in uganda does not utilize the informal activity-based training to prepare students to be productive after graduation ho was tested using the chi square because the way it was stated suggested independence of variables. the activity-based training dimensions used in the analysis were generated from items in table 2 using factor analysis. findings obtained from the testing appear in table 4. table-4.testing the use of informal activity-based training in uganda’s university education activity-based training dimensions χ 2 obs χ 2 cv df p activity selection 16.319 14.067 2 .05 students’ proactive participation 12.397 14.067 2 .05 use of familiar local aids 13.055 14.067 2 .05 overall χ 2 14.334 14.067 2 .05 abbreviations: χ2 obs –observed chi square, χ2 cv critical chi square, p-level of significance findings in table 4 indicate that at the p = .05 level of significance, the overall observed chi square value was greater than the critical chi square value (χ 2 obs= 14.334 >χ 2 cv = 14.067). therefore, the findings were statistically significant. ho was hence rejected in favor of its alternative. this suggested that university education in uganda uses the informal training activities to prepare students to be productive after graduation. however, a comparison of the observed and critical chi square values reveals that their magnitudes were close to each other. this implies that the use of the training activities was weakly significant. therefore, lecturers who reported a low level of using the training activities were generally more realistic. in specific terms however, a comparison of the observed chi square values corresponding to the individual activity-based training dimensions in table 4 reveals that lecturers’ view was only realistic in respect of activity selection (χ 2 obs= 16.319 >χ 2 cv = 14.067). the chi square values corresponding to students’ proactive participation and use of familiar local aids were insignificant, suggesting that these activity-based training dimensions were indeed hardly used in uganda’s formal education to prepare students to be productive after graduation. the fact that activity selection was applied by lecturers called for the need to establish the specific asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 62-70 68 training activities that were being selected to prepare students. lecturers and students were hence asked to mention the activities that the dons selected to help students develop practical knowledge, skills and abilities. results obtained from the analysis of the responses are shown figure 1. figure-1. activities used in management of formal education in central uganda, as reported by formal and informal trainers and trainees figure 1 summarizes the informal training activities used in to prepare students who graduate from uganda’s university education. the magnitudes of percentages indicate that most of the activities were used by 1% to 4% of the trainers. even the most used activities, including agriculture (17%), singing (15%), games and sports (15%), and dancing (12%) were also used by relatively small proportions. these findings thus, substantiate the low level of using the informal activity-based training reported by the educators (table 2). 5. discussion the objective of this study was to analyze the level at which activity-based informal training was used in uganda’s university education when preparing students to be productive after graduation. findings in table 4 led to the rejection of the hypothesis tested to meet this objective. the rejection suggested that this training was utilized. however, the response pattern in table 2 and table 3 and the magnitudes of the chi square values in table 4 showed that the level of using it varied according to particular training activities. the level of using the activities in which lecturers took a leading role was high (table 3). these activities involved lecturers identifying tasks, selecting activities that learners had to perform so as to solve the tasks (moreover in the presence of lecturers); and guiding learners' performance of the activities. the findings thus supported the observations made by gorski and covert (2004) that most of the activity-based practices applied in formal education are those used by instructors. however, as gorski and covert (2004) argued, proper preparation of students to become productive does not have to be dominated by lecturers. learners have to be given an opportunity to engage in the identification, selection and conduct of learning activities. in fact, gorski (2004) observed that providing such a chance prepares learners to become more productive because it enables them to learn through hands-on experience and involvement. unfortunately, most of the activities that would have provided this opportunity were those whose level of use was zero (table 2). in particular, table 2 indicates that respondents disagreed that students were allowed to freely ask or contribute ideas on how learning activities should be performed. they also disagreed that educators came up with activities that encouraged the growth of students' creative participation in a proactively democratic manner, just as they disapproved of lecturers’ use of hands-on activities to help students develop practical skills. these findings were further corroborated by those presented in table 4, which revealed a zero level of students’ proactive participation in the selected activities and a zero level of utilizing familiar local aids while carrying out the activities. this implies that all students’ self-directed training activities were hardly used in uganda’s university education. the results therefore support the observations made by mambili (2004) and smith (2008). while mambili (2004) observed that most of the formal education systems (including university systems) in africa do not make use of the activity-based training, smith (2008) generalized the observation by noting that it is very easy for most people to dismiss the notion that schools and colleges can offer activity-based informal training simply because many school systems ignore it. in fact, findings in figure 1 show that even the lecturers who applied this training were very few and concentrated on very few activities which included mainly games and sports, singing, dancing, and agricultural activities. these activities suggest that uganda’s university education is not totally devoid of informal activity-based asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2014, 1(2): 62-70 69 training. they therefore suggest that there are a few students who become productive mainly in agriculture, music, dancing and sports after graduation. it is therefore not surprising that uganda’s social scene is today witnessing a growing number of skilled musicians, dancers and sports persons. it is also not uncommon to find a few people engaged in modern agriculture. other activities shown in figure 1 include: plumbing, surveying, bricklaying and concrete practice, repairing outof-order machines/automobiles, assembling machines, designing computer programmes, typing, reciting poems, story writing, storytelling, acting, debating, drawing, painting, and leading (or leadership). a close look at these activities reveals strong similarity with those identified by boal (1992), fahrni (2006), loima (2006), göranfolkestad (2006) and smith (2008). as boal (1992) argued, learners’ involvement in such activities makes them develop practical skills and abilities that help them conduct similar activities in form of productive employment after graduation. however, the frequency distribution indicates that very learners benefited educationally from these activities. 6. conclusion the negligible level at which the informal activity-based training is applied in university education in uganda, especially in the respect of using students’ self-directed and proactive participation and use of practical examples, explains why most of the graduates are not productive and therefore the persistent conflict between internal and external efficiency of university education in the country. there is thus need to improve on the level at which this training is applied, especially in respect of the emphasis put on the use of students self-directed activity-based training. 7. recommendations a) the management of universities in uganda should encourage curricula enrichment of their current courses of study by ensuring that adequate informal training activities (environment-based learning activities) are part and parcel of what students should do in order to develop practical knowledge, skills, and abilities they need so as to be productive after graduation. b) university academic staff members should encourage students to practically carry out the informal training activities integrated in their respective program syllabi as a means of self-directed and proactive learning. c) the national council for higher 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http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 65 use of mental health services in primary health care delivery systems in a developing country: a survey of selected general hospitals in delta state nigeria bryan oweilayefa gere1 1 alabama a&m university, normal, united states abstract studies on the use of mental health services in nigeria are scarce. most of the existing studies have focused on psychiatric illnesses. however the context for the assessment and treatment of many mental health disorders in developing countries including nigeria is moving from mental hospitals to primary health care providers (phc). this present study was conducted in delta state nigeria to assess the use and provision of mental health services in phcs (general hospitals). two sets of questionnaires were used for the study; one set was given to health practitioners (15), while the other was given to 50 community respondents who were patients in these facilities. the results show that there is low utilization of mental health services in phcs. in addition, patients do not have a positive attitude towards the use of formal mental health services and also lack an awareness of the availability of these services in phc settings. keywords: mental health, primary health care settings, general hospitals, niger delta, nigeria, developing countries. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 66 2. statement of the problem .................................................................................................................................................... 66 3. methods ................................................................................................................................................................................ 66 4. discussion ............................................................................................................................................................................. 68 5. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 68 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 69 citation | bryan oweilayefa gere (2017). use of mental health services in primary health care delivery systems in a developing country: a survey of selected general hospitals in delta state nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(1): 65-69. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.65.69 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. history: received: 19 april 2016/ revised: 18 january 2017/ accepted: 23 january 2017/ published: 25 january 2017 ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.65.69 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=bryan oweilayefa gere http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.65.69 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.65.69 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=bryan oweilayefa gere http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.65.69 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.65.69 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=bryan oweilayefa gere http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.65.69 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 65-69 66 1. introduction globally, mental health disorders constitute a major source of disability and persons with mental health disorders have high mortality rates in middle and low income countries (wang et al., 2007; eaton et al., 2011; whiteford et al., 2013). mental health disorders also increase the likelihood of living in poverty (ngui et al., 2010) and creates significant cost to patients and their families in terms of burden of care (jackide et al., 2013). uwakwe and otakpor (2014) pointed out that middle and low income countries have significantly low levels of resources and qualified personnel for the provision of mental health services. in nigeria, mental health services are in a parlous state (eaton and agomoh, 2008) and there is a significant treatment gap as a result of the unavailability of a coordinated treatment system, qualified mental health personnel and funding (eaton et al., 2011). according to the central intelligence agency (cia), less than 5.8 of nigeria’s gdp is spent on spent health expenditures (cia, 2009). the world health organization reported that less than 2% of health funds are spent on mental health treatment in nigeria (world health organization, 2006). the existing mental health policy document was formulated in 1991 and there are only eight psychiatric hospitals, eight psychiatric nursing programs and twelve medical schools that cater to the mental health needs of over 158 million people (jackide et al., 2013; world bank, 2016). thus, formal orthodox mental health establishments cater mostly to the need of severe mental health issues such as psychiatric illnesses (adewuya and makanjuola, 2005; adewuya and makanjuola, 2008; eaton and agomoh, 2008) while the bulk (approximately 70%) of mental health services are provided by religious organizations and traditional healers (gureje et al., 2006). results of previous studies conducted in high income countries showed that health practitioners in general health settings are often the pathway to early diagnosis of mental disorders. as a result, a simplified diagnosis and treatment guideline was developed and launched by the who (2008). in 2010, nigeria was one of the countries selected for the adoption of this new simplified diagnosis and treatment guideline referred to as the mental health gap action program (mhgap). the initiative focused on early detection and management of common mental health disorders such as depression, alcohol and other substance use disorders and epilepsy in the primary health-care settings. the program extends competence in diagnosis and management to non-mental health specialists including doctors, nurses and other health providers (who, 2008). the aim was for individuals to receive treatment through the more accessible general health practitioner without going to a specialist. the program allowed physicians in phcs to prescribe psychotropic medications without restrictions. also, non-physicians working in these settings were also permitted through this initiative to prescribe medications in situations of emergency (who, 2006). however, it remains to be seen how effective this policy has been in the provision of mental health services in primary health care (phc). the niger delta region comprises nine states in the country: akwa ibom, cross river, rivers, edo, delta, bayelsa, imo, abia and ondo. the region has over 40 ethnic groups and has a population of approximately 31 million people speaking over 250 dialects (erhabor et al., 2010). delta and rivers states are the dominant oil producers, producing approximately 75 per cent of nigeria’s oil reserves (world bank, 2016). the region has also been plagued by conflicts, human rights violations and traumatic events that engender the development of mental disorders (beiser et al., 2010). beiser et al. further noted that individuals that experience or survive such humaninitiated disasters are at high risk for mental health disorders. the context for this study is general hospitals in delta state. general hospital settings were targeted as primary health care centers for the study because they were accessible, cost effective and offered mental health services alongside general medical practice. there are 62 state-government owned hospitals spread across the 25 local government areas of the state under the management of the delta state hospitals management board (dshmb). these hospitals are structured into 11 medical zones with the headquarters located in asaba (the state capital). the headquarters is responsible for coordinating and managing the activities of the hospitals through the respective zonal management committees. each zone is headed by a medical consultant who serves as the director. these hospitals provide the bulk of general health services to individuals in the state. 2. statement of the problem delta state with a population of 4,098,291 (males: 2,674,306; females: 2,024,085), has a total land area of 16,842 square kilometers (6,503 sq. mi). the state has witnessed an increase in population due to influx of people attracted by oil exploration, and have also been the center of militancy and armed conflicts. even with the billions of petro-dollars, there exist a host of environmental and social problems: environmental degradation and pollution, poverty, unemployment, collapsing basic infrastructure, insecurity, low life expectancy and high infant mortality rate. these significant environmental and social factors create stress or trauma which further prompts depression and other forms of mental disorders including substance abuse. however, there have been no known study that have examined both the public awareness and use of mental health services in phc settings. according to who (2008) efforts to address mental health problems are significantly hampered by the absence of reliable data within and across countries. the current study therefore attempts to address the gap by examining the use of mental health services in phc settings. in addition, the study also focuses on identifying the types of mental health services provided in phc setting, practitioners’ assessment of the adequacy of such services as well as the barriers or factors that impact access or the delivery of mhgap in phc settings 3. methods 3.1. participants and sampling technique the participants for the study are medical professionals (general medical practitioners, consultant psychiatrists, social workers and nurses), as well as patients that receive services in one of the 11 medical zones in delta state. due to the fact that some of the patients were not able to read the questionnaires or were not fluent in english language, they were assisted by the primary researcher to complete the questionnaires. a multistage probability asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 65-69 67 sampling technique was used to select the participants (galway et al., 2012). in the first stage of the sampling, an ordered list was made of all the general hospitals in delta states according the zones (11 zones). each zone was considered a cluster and one cluster was chosen for the study. in the second stage, one cluster/zone consisting of two hospitals (warri zone) was chosen for the study. 3.2. instruments two sets of questionnaire were developed for the study; one for health professionals and the other for respondents receiving medical treatment at these centers. a total of 130 questionnaires were distributed in the ratio of 30 for health professionals and 100 for patients. the questionnaires completed by respondents included questions on demographics, awareness and use of mental health services, factors and situations constraining access to mental health services in primary health care settings, efforts made to extend competence in diagnosis and management of mental health, and how current services have met or have not met the mental health needs. a total of 65 participants completed responses to the questionnaires. 3.3. procedures procedures for obtaining informed consent and protecting participants were approved and monitored by the management boards of each hospitals participating in the surveys. written informed consent was attached to every instrument that was given to be completed by respondents. the questionnaires for the staff were dropped off at their offices and collected after two to three days, whereas questionnaires for patients were completed at the hospitals. the questionnaires were given to respondents by hand and later collected at an agreed time period. participants unable to complete the questionnaires were assisted by the researcher verbally asking the questions and selecting the right responses. 3.4. data analysis the statistical package for the social sciences (spss 23.0) was used to analyze the data. descriptive statistics such as simple percentages (%), averages and standard deviations (sd) were calculated to achieve the purpose for the study. 3.4. results 3.4.1. description of subjects the demographic characteristics of the study participants are presented in tables 1 and 2. overall for professionals, 2.6% (n = 4) were general medical practitioners, 2% (n =3) were consultant psychiatrists, 2% (n=3) were social workers and 3.3% (n =5) were nurses. in addition, 12(7.9%) of the participants who were patients were public servants, 15(9.9%) were traders, 5(3.3%) were unemployed, 18 (11.8%) were unemployed. in terms of patients gender, there were more female participants (n = 35 or 77%) than male patient participants (n = 15 or 33%). with regard to the employment, a greater proportion (11.8%) of participants were self-employed, whereas only (3.3%) were unemployed. the largest participants age group was between 20 to 29 years (n = 24 or 27.8%). table-1. demographic characteristics of professionals variable n % occupation general medical practitioner 4 26.6 consultant psychiatric 3 20 social workers 3 20 nurses 5 33.3 source: author’s computation from survey data, 2016 table-2. demographic characteristics of patients variable n % occupation public servants 12 24 traders 15 30 unemployed 5 10 self-employed 18 36 age < 20 20 – 29 24 42 30 – 39 24 42 40 – 49 13 26 50 or > 4 8 marital status single 32 64 married 18 36 gender male 35 70 female 15 30 source: author’s computation from survey data, 2016 3.4.2. service utilization tables 3 the service utilization information. as shown in table 3, the most common mental health condition for asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 65-69 68 which patient received treatment in general hospital settings was mood disorders ( n = 7, or 4.6%), whereas, the least was comorbid disorder (n = 5 or 3.3%). patients who present for routine checkup and treatment (n = 7, 4.6%), and were diagnosed or recommended for mental health services were twice the number for those referred by family and other health institutions (n = 4 or 2.6%). 10 (66.6%) of health professionals responded that patients do not have a positive attitude towards the mental health services provided for their diagnosis, and many do not show up for follow up treatment. in terms of barriers to the use of services, 10 (66.6%) was attributed to beliefs about causation, 5(3.3%) was attributed to problems with access to treatment and services, 7(4.6%) to cost of medication and services. others include stigma 5(3.3%), and mistrust of health professionals and treatment methods 10(6.6%). specific services provided to the patients included diagnosis and medication, 11(7.2%), counseling 4 (2.6%) and referral to psychiatric hospitals 10 (6.6%). with regard to use of mental health services 35 (%) of patients reported that they have seen some type of professional for emotional distress/depression. 15(%) of patients reported that they have been taken to the hospital by family members for problems related to substance use and emotional disorder. table-3. service utilization variable n % a. common mental health conditions treated mood disorders substance abuse disorder comorbid disorders 7 3 5 46.6 20 33.3 b. referral source routine patient check-up/treatments family/friends other health institutions 7 4 4 46.6 26.6 26.6 c. barriers to use of services beliefs about causation problems with access to treatment and services cost of medication and services stigma mistrust of health professionals and treatment methods/no follow-up limited knowledge about mental health services 10 5 5 5 10 8 66.6 33.3 33.3 33.3 66.6 53.3 d. specific services provided diagnosis and medication counseling referral for psychiatric services 11 4 10 73.3 26.6 66.6 e. mental health conditions for which services were received emotional distress substance abuse and emotional distress 35 15 70 30 source: author’s computation from survey data, 2016 4. discussion the purpose of the present study was to assess the use of mental health services in primary health settings. consistent with previous studies, only a small number of respondents patronize primary health care (general hospitals) for the treatment of emotional distress or co-occurring substance abuse and emotional disorder. gureje et al. (2015) reported that only a small numbers of clients were seen for mental, neurological and substance use disorders in primary health centers despite the availability of services and a limited number of trained personnel. this finding likely reflects the lack of awareness among the general population of the existence or availability of such services. government agencies charged with public health responsibilities or for social enlightenment may need to draw up programs to engage communities and ensure the acceptance and increase use of formal mental health services. in addition, health professionals also reported that patients do not have a positive attitude towards the mental health services provided for their diagnosis, and many do not show up for follow up treatment. this finding is similar to mcmurray and smith (2001) observation that patients in many developing countries often fear or distrust western medicine. in addition, patients may use their experiences in accessing general health services to make sweeping assumptions about the quality and efficacy of mental health services that are available in these government owned hospitals. 5. conclusion this study has two limitations; the first involve sampling issues. participants in this study consisted of a fairly small number of patients. therefore, the results of this study may not be representative of the entire population. a larger sample may have allowed for more variation among participants level of prior contact with the mentally ill. second, the design of the study which was cross sectional in general presents its own limitations. a longitudinal study that is carried out over two to three years may provide better information on mental health service utilization in phc settings. however, the results does provide great insight to service utilization patterns in general hospital settings. as can be observed and consistent with previous studies, there is generally a low utilization of mental health services 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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=global%20burden%20of%20disease%20attributable%20to%20mental%20and%20substance%20use%20disorders:%20findings%20from%20the%20global%20burden%20of%20disease%20study%202010 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(13)61611-6 http://data.worldbank.org/country/nigeria http://www.who.int/mental_health/evidence/nigeria_who_aims_report.pdf http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/43809/1/9789241596206_eng.pdf asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 1, 7-17, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 7 bribery in cameroonian public hospitals: who pays and how much? benjamínyamb 1* --oscar bayemi 2 1 advanced school of economics and commerce (essec), university of douala, cameroon 2 faculty of economics and applied management (fsega), university of douala, cameroon abstract contents 1. introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................. 8 2. health, health care and corruption in cameroonian hospitals ........................................................................................... 9 3. methodology and descriptive statistics................................................................................................................................... 10 4. statistical estimate of patients’ characteristics victims of the phenomenon ..................................................................... 13 5. discussion ................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 6. conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................................. 16 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 17 citation | benjamín yamb; oscar bayemi (2016). bribery in cameroonian public hospitals: who pays and how much?. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(1): 7-17. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.7.17 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/ acknowledgment: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 5 august 2015/ revised: 28 august 2015/ accepted: 3 september 2015/ published: 10 september 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group this paper deeply analyzes the characteristics of corrupters during consultation in the douala public hospitals, as well as the amounts of bribe they pay. a survey of patients in these hospitals reveals that the majority of bribes paid during consultation is between 1,000 and 3,000 cfa francs, interval which corresponds to the 25 th and 75 th percentile of the amounts of bribe paid respectively. our estimates indicate that for the amounts of bribe paid falling within this interval, it appears that the rich, the women, the older and the more educated are more likely to corrupt practices. however, when such amounts are set outside of that interval, the amounts of bribe paid and the characteristics of corrupters are no more the same as before. this contradicts for instance to some extent some theoretical results that do not include the setting of the level of bribe. it finally emerges from our analysis that with regard to each of the characteristics highlighted, correspond specific amounts of bribe paid, which are related to the socio-professional and socio-demographic categories of patients. in particular, senior staffs and business men / contractors would be most likely to pay bribes, whatever the amount. keywords: bribery, prevalence rate, odds ratio, percentile, health services, cameroon. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.7.17 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 7-17 8 1. introduction the empirical literature on corruption has identified the causes and consequences of the phenomenon in the health sector in many countries. gupta et al. (2002) established from a study based on 71 countries, that the countries highly affected by corruption showed the highest infant mortality rates than others, even after adjustment based on income, girls' schooling, health spending and urbanization. mauro (2002) showed that corrupt countries spend less on education and health. in the same vein, lavallee et al. (2010) highlighted in a study of 18 countries that corruption would lead to a reduction of public expenses in health, education and social protection sectors. the works of this literature are important because they have led to a better understanding of corruption in the health sector and, consequently, to the proposal of relevant measures against the phenomenon. for instance, there is evidence that by increasing the transparency and obligation to give account in public health services, the level of corruption will decrease (vian, 2008). however, these works have at least one shortcoming because they do not inform us about the corrupt exchanges practiced between caregivers and patients. indeed, these works explore the transparency international corruption indexes (ti), those of the political risk services / international country risk guide (prs / icrg) and those of the world wide governance indicators (w.w.g.i) of the world bank, which derived from the surveys made from investors plying the world's countries, but who are not in touch with health care personnel in public hospitals of those countries. yet, in recent years, the availability of microeconomic data (from companies and households) on corruption provides the opportunity to better understand the causes and consequences of the phenomenon. however, up to date, and despite a recent commitment, microeconomic studies on this topic remain limited, and confined to certain geographical areas such as the eastern europe (balabanova and mckee, 2002; lewis, 2002) and latin america (hunt, 2004; hunt and lazlo, 2005; seligson, 2006). although africa is one of the world’s areas where corruption is very acute, very few microeconomic studies on this phenomenon are devoted to this continent. certainly, thanks to the afro-barometer project based on surveys of households conducted in 18 countries in sub-saharan africa, works on this theme have being multiplied. these works relate in particular to the relationship between corruption and trust, or satisfaction in public institutions (bratton, 2007; cho and kirwin, 2007; lavallee et al., 2010). but this project has at least one gap. it omits some african countries, which however, are sometimes classified among the most corrupt countries of the world. it is the case of cameroon which ranked first of corrupt countries successively in 1998 and 1999. in cameroon, the national institute of statistics (institut national de la statistique, 2011) studied, from a survey of households in 2007, corrupt practices in the health sector. this study is important because it helps to know that annually, each patient pays an average bribe amounting to 1,089 cfa francs for consultation and medical care. but it is limited insofar as it does not inform us neither on socio-demographic characteristics (age, education, gender, income) of such a patient, nor about different amounts of bribe he/she pays. the purpose of this study is therefore to fill this gap, as part of a field survey 1 conducted among 407 patients in public hospitals of the city of douala in cameroon. according to this survey, the majority of bribes paid during consultation is between 1,000 cfa francs and 3,000f cfa, amounts representing respectively the bribes corresponding to the 25 th and the 75 th percentile of the amounts paid. this interval which represents not only the modal class, but also the median and the mean class, was used as reference to highlight the characteristics of individuals who pay bribes not only in amounts below and above these percentiles, but also those in this interval. in general, the theoretical literature suggests that holders of low incomes, young people and women are respectively less exposed to corrupt practices than holders of higher incomes, older people and men (lavallee et al., 2010). however, the results obtained in this study rather discuss those presented by the theoretical literature because by setting the amounts of bribes paid below or beyond the above mentioned percentiles, individuals’ characteristics vary depending on the set percentile. thus, if for example we take income into account, theoretical expectations are more or less verified by our results, insofar as when the bribe amount is set beyond the 75 th percentile, holders of 250,000 cfa francs income and less, will tend to pay more bribes to a certain amount (under 1,000 cfa francs) than those with a higher income of 250,000 cfa francs; on the contrary, if the amount of bribe paid is set beyond the 25 th percentile, it is rather the holders of income of more than 250,000 cfa francs who will tend to pay bribes of a different amount (less than 3,000 cfa francs). in principle, it was expected that the same trend be observed regardless of the amount of bribe paid, which unfortunately is not the case. the purpose of such a study therefore lies in the fact that not only it allows to identify the profile of those most exposed to the phenomenon, but also, it constitutes a basis for the proposal of the most appropriate anti-corruption measures. because of the secret nature of corruption (shleifer and vishny, 1993) many researchers discuss the characteristics of people who are often victims of the phenomenon without mentioning the amounts. on the contrary, this study presents, analyzes and discusses these amounts. the inclusion of the latter is particularly important as in some countries, they are socially acceptable and justified as a way to compensate public health professionals who are poorly paid, or it is an understandable reaction from people who might have an urgent need of health care (savedoff and hussmann, 2006). the second section briefly presents the cameroonian health system while highlighting the causes and corrupt practices. the implemented methodology and the description of characteristics of the sample used form the basis of part three. as for section four, its models while considering the characteristics of patients victims of the phenomenon. the results of different estimates obtained are discussed in section five, and section six concludes the presentation. 1survey funded by the african economic research consortium in nairobi, kenya in 2009 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 7-17 9 2. health, health care and corruption in cameroonian hospitals 2.1. health and health care during the last two decades, cameroonian populations have made some progress in the evolution of their health status as shown by some indicators, including the infant mortality rate(imr), the neonatal mortality rate(nmr) and the juvenile mortality rate (jmr) shown in the table below. table-1. douala health indicators (1990-2011) 1991 1998 2004 2011 2015 2 neonatal mortality rate(per 1,000births) cameroon 33,1 37,2 29 31 douala 36 28,3 30 33 rural zone 42,9 44,3 37 35 infant mortality rate(per 1,000births) cameroon 65 77,0 74 62 75,6 douala 67,2 51,5 55 54 rural zone 86,1 86,9 91 77 juvenile mortality rate(per 1,000births) cameroon 65,6 79,9 75 63 douala 38,6 41,9 40 23 rural zone 79,7 80,2 85 82 maternal mortality rate(100,000 births) cameroon 454 430 669 782 344 sources: ins (1991; 1998; 2004; 2011) in this table, the neonatal mortality rate as well as the infant mortality rate has dropped from 1991 to 2011 respectively from 36 to 33 per thousand, and from 38.6 to 23 per thousand for the city of douala. at the same time, the neonatal mortality rate has dropped from 36 per thousand to 33 per thousand. in the whole country, these rates decreased from 33.1 to 31 between 1991 and 2011 for the neonatal mortality rate, and from 65 to 62 during the same period for the infant mortality rate. these improvements, however, are still insufficient, due in part to malfunctions of the offer of services in public hospitals. in cameroon, the health sector comprises three sub-sectors: the public, the private and the traditional. in general, the public sub-sector is the most important because not only it is the major provider of medical services, but in addition, it regulates all activities related to it. unfortunately, this sub-sector does not have sufficient human and material resources to meet the demand for care. for instance, as far the personnel is concerned, public hospitals in douala have an average of eight medical doctors for a population of 159,211 inhabitants, that is, 19,901 inhabitants per doctor (institut national de la statistique, 2010). the who’s (world health organization) standard is one medical doctor per 10,000 inhabitants. compared to this standard, every doctor is required to accommodate on average a surplus of 4,211 patients. these doctors are therefore overworked. moreover, in early 1990, civil servants’ salaries, including those of health workers, have been reduced by over 50%. wage increases of about 5%, 15% and 5% made meanwhile did not allow these workers to recover their former purchasing power. impoverished employees have therefore turned to the corrupt maneuvers to try to improve their living conditions. thus, following the bamako initiative 3 , the government adopted a new policy based on the decentralization of service delivery, focusing on primary health care and the participation of beneficiary communities to the financing and management of public health services establishments, given the virtual absence of health insurance. since then, households 4 must pay for the services officially offered to them in public hospitals. to these official payments are added some irregular payments. 2.2. corruption in health services access to basic social services including health is a constant concern for the cameroonian public authorities. but the efforts that they are making, with the support of development partners to facilitate access to these services, are unfortunately affected by corruption. indeed, after ecam3 5 , nearly 85% of households’ heads living in urban and semi-urban areas feel that the level of corruption in the health sector is high in this country. but the magnitude of the phenomenon varies from one region to another (69.8% to 61.1% in douala and yaoundé). for example, during consultation, corruption occurs mainly through the payment of non-regulatory fees and through the interventions of personalities to be quickly served and avoid waiting for a long time (ins, 2011). patients in public hospitals also complain of the unavailability of medical doctors. this unavailability can be explained by the fact that private health facilities that accompany the government in the offer of health services to populations mostly have as promoters, medical doctors working in the public sector. many patients who visit public health facilities are oriented by these doctors to their private health centers for their medical care. therefore, being interviewed on their perception of the level of corruption in the health sector as parts of the households’ survey in 2007, almost six out of ten households in the city of douala believe it is high. this reflects a general malaise. as a matter of fact, if access to basic social services including health is a constant concern for public authorities, corruption in the health sector is like a gangrene which tends to negate the efforts made by the state (ins, 2011). 2 projection 3the bamako initiative is the result of the summit as who and unicef in collaboration with african countries held in 1987 in bamako. 4this policy certainly has the advantage of increasing the necessary resources for the functioning of these hospitals. but it has the disadvantage to oust the less rich households of the public health services market. 5 ecam3 is the last cameroonian household surveys conducted seven years ago asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 7-17 10 3. methodology and descriptive statistics to highlight the characteristics of patients who pay bribes during consultation in the douala public hospitals, we initially determined the sample’s size of individuals to interview and then, through odds ratios, we established a typology of patients’ characteristics whose bribe amounts are below and above the 25 th and 75 th percentiles, given that each of the percentiles was previously set. a typology of patients’ characteristics whose bribe amounts are inside the modal class, that’s to say, between the 25 th and 75 th percentile, given the socio-professional category of the victim, has also been highlighted. 3.1. determining the sample as we were unable to determine an approximate p value through a prior survey (because to our knowledge, no investigation about corruption in public hospitals has yet been carried out in cameroon), that is to say, the proportion of respondents in the context of a preliminary study, we set p to 0.5, this value representing the worst case, that is to say, the value which gives the greatest possible standard deviation for the sampling distribution of p . in this case, the required sample size to ensure a margin error e (in absolute value) not exceeding 5% with a confidence level of 95% will be about (baillargeon, 1989): 2 2 2 / 2 / 2 2 2 2 (0,5)(0,5) (1,96) 384...................(1) 4 4(0,05) z z n e e     e: the error margin; z: the standard normal distribution; : the estimator of p in the preliminary study. the distribution of the number of individuals to be interviewed is done from the number of medical and paramedical staff in each hospital selected as shown in the table below: table-2. the distribution of the number of patients to be interviewed by hospital. hospital staff number importance of the hospital (in %) number of patients to be interviewed laquintinie 630 41 157 general 326 21 81 new-bell 113 7 27 bonassama 103 7 25 cite des palmiers 100 6 25 deido 84 5 21 logbaba 80 5 20 nylon 62 4 15 bonamoussadi 57 4 14 total 1 555 100 384 source: our estimates based on information collected at the regional health delegation of littoral on the number of hospitals the first column describes the type of hospital, the second column the total number of medical and paramedical staff, the third indicates the weight or importance of the personnel of each hospital as compared to the staff of all the hospitals in general, and the last column, the approximate number of people who should be interviewed by hospital, based on the weight of each hospital. we came up with a total of 384 interviewees. for prudence sake, we distributed 415 questionnaires with the assumption that all incorrectly completed questionnaires would be eliminated, this to help approximately achieve the sample’s size. thus, 407 questionnaires were filled out correctly and therefore validated. it is on the basis of these 407 questionnaires that the analysis was performed. 3.2. some descriptive statistics following the questioning of 407 patients, we obtained by hospital the average amounts of bribe, as well as the prevalence rates of the phenomenon. 3.2.1. characteristics of the sample the table below specifies the characteristics of the patients’ sample: age, school level (education), income, marital and employment status (yamb and bayemi, 2015): regarding the age characteristic, it has been split into two categories: young people between 20 and 40 years old and the old over forty years old. this nomenclature at the age level reflects the country's socio-economic situation as concerns employment insofar as four years ago, authorities launched a recruitment campaign in the public sector for the youth (25,000 in total), thus considering as young any person aged forty and less. the income characteristic also obeys to this dualistic nomenclature, that is, those with an income of 250, 000 cfa francs and less, and those who earn more than 250,000 cfa francs. this classification took into account the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents 6 . this choice is justified by the fact that initially, we considered four classes of income namely less than 75,000, between 75,000 and 150,000, from 150, 000 to 250,000 and the class of more than 250,000. it is worth mentioning that among the 407 respondents, almost 83% have an income of 250,000 and less, and only about17% earn more than 250,000.this latter percentage represents the senior staffs in companies and businessmen/contractors, who are considered in the cameroonian environment as people belonging to the richest social class. 80% of the first mentioned earn more than 250 thousands cfa francs, and nearly 50% of the second category as much, hence the justification for the classification in terms of income distribution in the two categories, that is, 250,000 and under, and above 250,000. this is also applied to the education variable where two categories were retained: higher level and no higher level 6in the appendix is presented the table of income levels based on socio-professional categories p asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 7-17 11 table-3. the characteristics of patients’ sample male female total % male % female total % age 40 years old and less 134 190 324 41,4 58,6 100 more than 40 years old 52 31 83 62,7 37,3 100 education primary and secondary education 97 145 242 40,1 59,2 100 higher education 89 76 165 53,9 46,1 100 average monthly income less than 75, 000 cfa francs 78 106 184 42,4 57,6 100 between 75,000 and 150, 000 48 52 100 48 52 100 between 150,000 and 250, 000 26 28 54 48 52 100 more than 250,000 35 34 69 50,7 49,3 100 matrimonial status married 72 99 171 42,1 57,9 100 single 74 82 156 47,4 52,6 100 divorced 10 9 19 52,6 47,4 100 other 30 31 61 49,2 50,8 100 socio-professional category senior staff 17 7 24 70,8 29,2 100 control agent 21 14 35 60 40 100 enforcement officer 22 15 37 59,5 40,5 100 contractor (business man) 25 4 29 86,2 13,8 100 house wives 55 55 100 100 trader 25 42 67 37,3 62,7 100 unemployed 30 29 59 50,8 49,2 100 others (informal) 46 55 101 45,5 54,5 100 total 186 221 407 45,7 54,3 100 source: our surveys’ results 3.2.2. average amount of bribes paid during consultation in public hospitals the diagram and table below show for each hospital the real cost for consultation, taking into account the bribe paid by the patient. in general, in each hospital, corruption makes more expensive the consultation cost of a patient as indicated in the graph and table below: diagram-1. comparison between the official price and the average bribe during consultation table-4. average bribe list of hospitals official amounts for consultation average amount of bribes paid for consultation in cfa francs real total amount for consultation general hospital 7 000 1548 8 548 laquintinie hospital 1 000 3411 4 411 logbaba hospital 1 000 2286 3 286 deido hospital 1 000 3363 3363 bonamoussadi hospital 1 000 1714 2 714 bonassama hospital 1 000 1636 2 636 cité des palmiers hospital 1 000 2460 3 460 nylon hospital 1 000 375 1 375 new-bell hospital 1 000 857 1857 source: hospitals survey and authors' calculations asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 7-17 12 we also identified for all hospitals in general some statistics (percentile and mode), useful in determining the characteristics of those who pay amounts of bribe. we use the table below to determine these measures: table-5. amount of bribes paid (in cfa7 francs) per scale amount of bribes classes frequency percentage 0 to 1,000 1 122 30.0 1,000 to 3,000 2 128 31.4 3,000 to 5,000 3 102 25.1 5,000 to 7,000 4 55 13.51 total 407 100.0 this table shows the proportion of patients who pay bribes depending on amounts. it shows that the amounts mostly paid are in class 1 and 2 (below 1,000 and between 1,000 and 3,000). class 4 meanwhile shows the proportion of the least bribe paid. from the above table, the following statistics were obtained: table-6. some descriptive statistics on amounts of bribe paid (in cfa francs) characteristics values rounded values mean 2442 2500 asymmetry coefficient (skewness) 0.335 0.335 kurtosis coefficient -0.986 -0.986 mode 1936.29 2000 percentiles 25 834 1000 50 2300 2500 75 3083.33 3000 this table shows the calculated real values and the rounded values. to simplify the presentation, we have rather considered the last, insofar as they more reflect the reality of the amounts of bribe paid which are usually whole numbers (round), not followed by pennies. considering for example the mean bribe, we have put it to 2,500 instead of 2,442. (in fact, it will be easier in practice for a patient to pay an amount of 2,500 instead of 2,442). bribes corresponding to the 25 th and 75 th percentiles were selected as reference in our analyzes since class 2, that is, 1,000 to 3,000 that contains these percentiles, is also the modal, the mean and the median class; in other words, the mean (2,442), the median (2,300) and the mode (1939.29) are in this class. it therefore appears that 2,000 would be nearly the amount of bribe paid the most by patients, and with a positive asymmetry coefficient (0.335), it appears that the majority of bribes paid tend to larger amounts as compared to the mean of bribes. 3.2.3. prevalence rates during consultation the questionnaire on corruption allowed us to collect information on the phenomenon. however, it was not about corruption itself, but about opinions the actors expressed as far as this scourge is concerned. to achieve this goal, the questionnaire was administered to patients outside the hospital, so that they are not influenced by hospital staff considered as their 'executioners'. we asked each respondent's opinion regarding the affirmation that corruption is practiced in the consultation service of the public hospital he/she frequents most. to achieve this goal, we used a likert scale that allowed respondents to have five response options namely, not at all agree, disagree, indifferent, agree, and strongly agree. it was for the concerned to choose the option that best describes their feelings about the following statement: "the patient who wants to be consulted must pay the official fees plus the bribe." the choice of the last two options simply means that for the patient, corruption is practiced during consultation insofar as medical doctors abusively use the public responsibility entrusted to them to push their patients to corrupt. we subsequently assigned to each of the response options of this scale, a score in which indicates the level of corruption. the in varies from 1 to 5. for instance, if i = 1, the level of corruption is 11  nni . this is the lowest score corresponding to the view that the respondent does not agree at all that corruption is practiced in the consulting service of the hospital that he/she frequents the most. on the contrary, if i equals to 5, the level of corruption is 55  nni . this is the highest score corresponding to the view that the respondent all agrees that corruption is practiced in the hospital he/she frequents the most. on this scale, when we go from 11 n to 55 n , the level of corruption increases. at the end of the survey, we counted the number ( if ) of respondents who chose the level of corruption ( 4;5)in i  relative to each hospital. the prevalence of corruption during consultation and by hospital was therefore determined as follows: 5 4 i i i f n   , the following table showing the prevalence rates for each hospital. table-7. prevalence rates (in %) during consultation hopitals list prevalence rate (in %) during consultation general hospital 20.5 laquintinie hospital 76.5 logbaba hospital 19 deido hospital 81.8 bonamoussadi hospital 64.3 continue 7 1 euro is approximately equal to 656.56 fcfa asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 7-17 13 bonassama hospital 42.4 cité des palmiers hospital 52 nylon hospital 12.5 new-bell hospital 39.3 hospitals average 45.36 source: estimations from the survey data 4. statistical estimate of patients’ characteristics victims of the phenomenon we will highlight the characteristics of patients’ victims of corruption during consultation through an estimate by odds ratios, while identifying the bribe amounts paid by the same patients. the age, income, educational level and gender variables were selected for the occasion. the estimate through odds ratios were apprehended by the construction of the following 2x2x2 8 contingency table, this for each of the characteristics studied. table-8. contingency table of 2*2*2 dimension setting amounts below and above the percentile i variation of amounts below and beyond the percentile j patients’ characteristics c1 c2 <ci <cj >cj n11 n21 n12 n22 >ci <cj >cj n11 n21 n12 n22 sources: authors’ conception n11 and n21 represent respectively the number of people of modality1 (c1) of characteristic c, which bribe amounts paid vary above and below the percentile j respectively, given that the amounts were set below and above the percentile i. the same interpretation can be applied for modality 2 (c2) for the numbers n12 and n22.these different joint distributions nij were used to calculate the following conditional (partial) odds ratios: ………………………(2) each of the different contingency tables of dimension 2x2 obtained when the amounts of bribe paid are set below and beyond the percentile i, contains the different features identified above, and divided into two terms as previously explained namely: age (40 and under and over 40 years), income (250,000 and under and over 250,000), educational level (not higher and higher), gender (male and female). the estimates with their confidence intervals are found in tables 9 and 10 below. highlighting the characteristics of individuals for different amounts of bribe paid was made by setting one of the corresponding bribe amounts either to the 25 th percentile or to the 75 th percentile (which corresponds to the first and third quartile respectively),while varying the other based on different characteristics: in each of the situations studied, one of the quartiles is regarded as a control variable, and the other as a variable able to explain the characteristics of patients for the different amounts of bribe paid. thus, if we set for instance the third quartile which is 3,000, this will lead us to study the characteristics of patients for the amounts of bribe paid, that are above and below this quartile (<3,000 or > 3,000), for amounts of bribe paid which are higher or lower to those corresponding to the first quartile. however, we note that the study of patients’ features only makes sense for bribes set lower to the third quartile . this interval includes the amounts of bribe paid between the first and the third quartile , and those below the first quartile for bribes above this amount (third quartile), the relationships studied will have no meaning insofar as variations related to the first quartile (< 1,000 and > 1,000) which are supposed to explain the characteristics of individuals , given the amount set beyond the third quartile, do not belong to the interval which corresponds to amounts above 3,000. on the contrary, these variations belong to the interval for bribes paid which are set below 3,000 as shown in the diagram below. diagram-1. 8note that each of the characteristics studied has two modalities namely the amounts of bribe paid, set above and below the percentile i (<ci and >ci) for the control variable ci, the amounts of bribe paid set below and beyond the percentile j able to explain the characteristics of patients i for the independent variable cj (<cj and >cj), and finally, the characteristics of patients for the dependent variable c (c1 and c2) 11 22 / 12 21 iij c n n n n   / iij c  30;q  1 3;q q  10;q asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 7-17 14 also, for bribes set higher or lower to the first quartile, the field of study is valid only for bribes paid, only set above the first quartile: these bribes allow us to highlight the characteristics of individuals based on changes of bribes paid below or above the third quartile (<3,000> 3,000), the latter belonging to the study field. thus, for bribes set above the first quartile , the study is carried out on bribes paid between the first and the third quartile on the one hand, and on bribes paid above the third quartile belonging respectively to the interval of the study on the other. however, bribes paid set inferior to the first quartile cannot be taken into account insofar as this interval does not contain the amounts of bribe above or below the third quartile, and which may explain the characteristics of patients. the diagram below well illustrates these different variations. diagram-2. tables 9 and 10 below respectively study the characteristics of patients victims of corruption during consultation for bribes paid set below and beyond the 75 th and 25 th percentiles respectively ,this for amounts of bribe higher or lower to those corresponding to the 25 th percentile on the one hand, and to the7 5 th percentile on the other. table-9. estimate of individuals’ characteristics for amounts of bribe below the75th percentile source: our estimates from the survey data table-10. estimate of individuals’ characteristics for bribe amounts above the 25th percentile source: our estimates from the survey data in table 9 we find that for bribe amounts set below the 75 th percentile, the odds of men are about 120 times higher than that of women, to pay amounts less than 1,000 cfa francs, instead of paying amounts over 1,000 cfa francs. this is also true for people with an income of 250,000 cfa francs and less (their odds are about 235 times higher to pay less than 1,000 cfa francs instead of paying more than 1, 000 cfa francs, compared to those with an income of more than 250,000 cfa francs). people without a university level and the young also fall within this category, with odds of about 176 and 219 times higher than those with a university level, and the less young respectively. an estimate without taking into account the amounts of bribe paid set below or above the 75 th percentile confirms the above interpretation. in fact, conditional (partial) odds ratios move in the same direction as the marginal odds ratios, and this, whatever the characteristic studied. the table below summarizes the characteristics of patients based on amounts of bribe paid set below the 75 th percentile, for bribes paid higher or lower than those corresponding to the 25 th percentile.  1;q   1 3;q q  3;q   10;q asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 7-17 15 table-11. characteristics of patients for amounts of bribe paid during consultation, set below the75th percentile amount of bribe paid sex income school level age male (m1) female (f) 250,000 and less (m2) above 250,000 (p1) not superior (p2) superior (s) 40 years and less (m3) above 40 years (p3) less than 1,000 cfa francs m1 m2 p2 m3 above 1,000 cfa francs f p1 s p3 estimate independently of amounts of bribe paid set(<3,000 or >3,000) m1 m2 p2 m3 sources: our conception from the data in table 9 this table presents and summarizes the profile of patients who pay amounts of bribe below or above 1,000 cfa francs, knowing that the amounts of bribe studied are those below 3,000, while also bringing out the profile of patients when amounts of bribe paid, set below and above 3,000 cfa francs, are not taken into account. in table 10 our estimates show that for the amounts of bribe set above the 25 th percentile, the odds of men are about 1.36 times higher than that of women, to pay amounts less than 3,000 cfa francs instead of paying amounts over 3,000 cfa francs. on the contrary, for those with less income, their rating is about 5 times higher than those with higher income, to pay amounts of more than 3,000 than less than 3,000. it is the same for those who do not have a higher education level who are about 1.4 times more likely, than those who have to pay amounts over 3,000 than less than 3,000. the less young fall into this category where the trend is to pay amounts over 3,000 than less than 3,000. their odds are about 3.22 times higher than that of the younger. however, our estimates show that if we do not take into account the amounts of bribe paid set above the 25 th percentile, women tend more to pay amounts less than 3,000 than those over 3,000 as compared to men. as far as income is concerned, we have the same pattern as when the amounts of bribe paid are set beyond the 25 th percentile, that is, those with lower income will tend to pay amounts of more than 3,000 than amounts less than 3,000. at the school level, with an odds ratio substantially equal to 1, we conclude that whatever the school level, the levels of bribe paid hardly differ from one category to another. finally, concerning age, results also confirm the trend that when bribes are set beyond the 25 th percentile, young people have a higher rating than older people to pay amounts of more than 3,000, than less than 3,000. the following table summarizes the profiles of one another, for amounts of bribe paid below or above the 75 th percentile, as the studied bribe amounts are those above the 25 th percentile. table-12. characteristics of patients for amounts of bribe set above the 25th percentile during consultation amount of bribe paid sex income school level age male (m1) female (f) 250,000 and less (m2) above 250,000 (p1) not superior (p2) superior (s) 40 years and less (m3) above 40 years (p3) less than 3,000 cfa francs m1 p1 s p3 above 3,000 cfa francs f m2 p2 m3 estimate independently of amounts of bribe paid set(<1,000 or >1,000) f p1 s et p2 m3 sources: our conception from data in table 10 as previously stated, this table presents the profile of patients who pay amounts of bribe below or above 3,000 cfa francs, knowing that the amounts of bribe paid are those set above 1,000. it also presents the profile of patients when amounts of bribes paid set below and above 1,000cfa francs are not taken into account. the table below summarizes while comparing the two eventualities of tables no.9 and10. table-13. summary of tables 11 and12 and profiles comparison bribes paid set below the 75 th percentile (<3,000) bribes paid set above the 25 th percentile (>1,000) characteristics less than 1,000 above 1,000 less than 3,000 above 3,000 sex m1 f m1 f income m2 p1 p1 m2 school level p2 s s p2 age m3 p3 p2 m3 estimate with no consideration of set bribes paid not taking into account the bribes paid set below and above the 75 th percentile (<3,000> 3,000) not taking into account the bribes paid set beyond and below the 25 th percentile (> 1,000 <1,000) characteristics less than 1,000 above 1,000 less than 3,000 above 3,000 sex m1 f m1 f income m2 p1 p1 m2 school level p2 s s et p2 s et p2 age m3 p3 p3 m3 sources: our conception from tables 11 and 12 5. discussion the previous analysis on the characteristics of individuals, victims of the phenomenon, implies the assumption that one of the percentiles is set, and the other varies according to the different characteristics selected. in reality, bribes are paid simultaneously below the 75 th and above the 25 th percentile. this approach allows us to consider much asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 7-17 16 the payment zone between the two percentiles (modal class), where the majority of the amounts paid is located. this brings us to refine the profiles of individuals, victims of the phenomenon, by detecting at the level of the modal class, the dominant modality of the characteristic victim of the phenomenon, given its socio-professional status. as far as gender is concerned, when bribes are simultaneously set below and above the afore mentioned percentiles, we notice that men pay more bribes below the 25 th percentile, and women beyond this percentile 9 . it is therefore established that compared to men, women are more representative of the modal class. this contradicts the idea that women are less prone to corruption compared to men (lavallee et al., 2010) and confirms the theory that women are more affected by the phenomenon due to their more specialized and frequent health service needs (undp, 2011). similarly, for the income characteristic, when bribes are simultaneously set below and above the 75 th and the 25 th percentiles, individuals with incomes of 250,000 and less are more likely to pay bribes under 1,000 cfa francs and over 3,000 cfa francs respectively, none of these amounts being part of the modal class; on the contrary, holders of an income of more than 250,000 tend to pay more bribes of more than 1,000 cfa francs, and bribes under 3,000 cfa francs. this last modality is therefore more representative of the modal class than the first. holding the same reasoning for the age and school level characteristics, it became clear that the older and the more educated appear as representative modalities of the modal class. the table below presents for each representative category of the modal class, the corresponding socio-professional status. table-14. number and patients’ profiles who pay amounts of bribe corresponding to the modal class given their socio-professional category source: our estimates from the survey data we see from this table that as far as gender is concerned, women constitute the most representative modality: most of them are senior staffs (80%), sellers (68%) and housewives (100%) 10 . for the income characteristic, those with more than 250,000 constitute the most representative modality which includes among others, senior staffs (60%) and businessmen or contractors (50%). the above 40 years are the representative modality of the modal class of the age characteristic, composed essentially of senior staffs (60%). as concerns the school level, the more educated are the representative group of the modal class who are mostly senior staffs (100%), control agents (100%) and other (57.1%) that can be assimilated to the graduates of the higher education working in the informal 11 . in general, we find that for all the categories representative of the modal class, senior staffs are included: they are usually graduates of higher education who earn higher amounts of more than 250,000 cfa francs, are older than forty years, and are female. here, the theory is confirmed with regard to income because according to the latter, patients with the highest incomes would be most victims of the phenomenon (hunt and lazlo, 2005). for gender, the theory is somewhat debated; in our case with regard to women, they are considered more vulnerable to corruption than men, this because of their socio-professional status (senior staffs and traders) which grants them a high income, confirming thus the theory that the rich would be the most exposed to the phenomenon. moreover, they are generally more prone to diseases than men, thus requiring them to be much in contact with health professionals and therefore, more exposed to bribe payments. our results refute the theory that the youngest are the most vulnerable to corruption because in reality, older people have much money and therefore, holders of highest incomes, thus reconfirming the theory that the wealthiest would be most exposed. similarly, the more educated are the most vulnerable because they are also holders of highest incomes, insofar as in majority, they are essentially senior staffs and control agents. to the question of who pays and how much, we can say that the most vulnerable to corruption are mostly the wealthiest aged above forty, who are mostly senior staffs, whose education level is quite high, who are female, and whose amounts fall within the modal class. this result is the same as the one found earlier when the amounts of bribe paid were set below the 75 th percentile, this for amounts of bribe paid above 1,000 cfa francs. 6. conclusion the purpose of this study was to highlight the characteristics of patients who pay amounts of bribe during consultation in the various public hospitals of the city of douala. initially, these characteristics were studied respectively by setting the amounts of bribe paid below and above the 75 th and 25 th percentiles, while varying one or the other percentile, based on the modalities of each characteristic. secondly, we considered those of individuals whose bribe amounts are between the afore mentioned percentiles, to characterize patients victims of the phenomenon, given their socio-professional status. in the last case, it appears that the wealthiest, the women, the older and the more educated are more likely to corrupt practices than other socio-demographic and socioprofessional categories, this last result corroborating with the one found earlier, when the amounts of bribe paid were set below the 75 th percentile, this for amounts of bribe paid above 1,000 cfa francs. we note, however, for all the 9the amounts paid by women can go beyond 3,000 given that according to this hypothesis, the amounts paid must be simultaneously below 3,000 and above 1,000 thus within the modal class. 10the housewife status in the studied environment is unique to woman. we can do without it as socio-professional category. from this point of view, this percentage should not be taken into account when interpreting the results. 11motorcycle drivers (bendsikineur), taxi drivers , street vendors asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(1): 7-17 17 results, that the level of the amount of the bribe causes a variation of individuals’ characteristics, given the purchasing power of everyone linked to his/her socio-professional category. this contradicts for instance to some extent some theoretical results that do not include the setting of the level of bribe. in fact, the idea that corrupt practices would be reserved for certain social classes is discussed because inside the modal class for example, we have the profile-type of the corrupt and once out, this profile changes: in fact, individuals who pay amounts of bribe below the 25 th percentile, are also different from those who pay beyond the 75 th percentile. so, everyone is involved in the process, each having his/her own level. no one is spared. references baillargeon, g., 1989. probabilités, statistiques et techniques de regression. les editions smg., trois rivieres qc. balabanova, d. and m. mckee, 2002. 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calverton, maryland, u.s.a. république du cameroun. institut national de la statistique, 1998. enquête démographique et de santé et à indicateurs multiples. icf international calverton, maryland, u.s.a. république du cameroun. institut national de la statistique, 2004. enquête démographique et de santé et à indicateurs multiples. icf international calverton, maryland, u.s.a. république du cameroun. institut national de la statistique, 2010. enquête sur le suivi des dépenses publiques et le niveau de satisfaction des bénéficiaires dans les secteurs de l’éducation et de la santé au cameroun. rapport principal. volet santé, cameroun. institut national de la statistique, 2011. perception de la gouvernance et de l’intégrité au cameroun: une étude quantitative basée sur les résultats d’enquêtes statistiques auprès des ménages. mai, republique du cameroun. lavallee, e., m. razafindrakoto and f. roubaud, 2010. ce qui engendre la corruption: une analyse microéconomique sur données africaines. revue d’economie de développement, 24(3): 5-47. lewis, m., 2002. informal health payments in central and eastern europe and the former soviet union: issues, trends and policy implications. in: e. mossialos, a. dixon, j. figuerras, j. kutzin (eds.) funding health care: options for europe. buckingham: open university press. pp: 184–205. mauro, p., 2002. corruption and the composition of government expenditure, in governance, corruption & economic performance; edited by george t. abed and sanjeev gupta: 225-244. savedoff, w.d. and k. hussmann, 2006. pourquoi les systèmes de santé sont ils prédisposés à la corruption? dans rapport mondial sur la corruption, thème spécial: corruption et santé. transparency international. economica. seligson, m.a., 2006. the measurement and impact of corruption victimization: survey evidence from latin america. world development, 34(2): 381-404. shleifer, a. and r.w. vishny, 1993. corruption. quarterly journal of economic, 108(august): 529-617. undp, 2011. lutte contre la corruption dans le secteur de la sante: méthodes, outils et bonnes pratiques, octobre 2011, one united nations plaza, new york ny 10017, usa. vian, t., 2008. review of corruption in the health sector: theory, methods and interventions. health policy and planning, 23(2): 83-94. yamb, b. and v. bayemi, 2015. an empirical evaluation of the characteristics of the victims of corruption in public hospitals in cameroon: the case of douala metropolis. african journal of social sciences, 5(2): 58-76. appendix-1. table no15 : socio-professional category and level of household income asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 3, 163-172, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 163 qualitative information analysis on managing quality service: issues and challenges leena nitin fukey1 1 professor, department of hotel management, christ university, bangalore, india abstract quality and service management is a process intended to create and maintain importance to any service organizations strategy and competitive positioning where the similarities and differences of services offered are valued. the literature on quality service management has mostly emphasized on perceived service quality, customers expectation, judgment of attitude relating to the superiority of the service, measures of quality attributes associated with service delivery, to enable the survival and the success of the business. the current study examines the potential barriers to quality service delivery and suggests strategies to enhance quality and inclusiveness. it is based on a survey in ten hotels in bangalore and the managers and executives were interviewed from these selected hotels. the study concludes that simple and successfully managing services to enhance quality can lead to more committed, better satisfied, better performing employees and potentially better financial performance and repeat business for an organization. keywords: quality service management, service enhancement, service delivery, perception, expectation, hotel organization. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 164 2. concept of service quality ................................................................................................................................................ 164 3. quality service: issues and challenges ............................................................................................................................. 164 4. need and rationale of the study ....................................................................................................................................... 165 5. methodology....................................................................................................................................................................... 166 6. information analysis ......................................................................................................................................................... 166 7. results and discussion ....................................................................................................................................................... 171 8. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 171 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 171 bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................................... 172 citation | leena nitin fukey (2016). qualitative information analysis on managing quality service: issues and challenges. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(3): 163-172. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.163.172 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 19 january 2016/ revised: 16 february 2016/ accepted: 19 february 2016/ published: 22 february 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.163.172 http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.163.172 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.163.172 http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.163.172 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):163-172 164 1. introduction the service industry today occupies a prominent position in the economy of the developed as well as developing nations. there is a perceived need for documented and organized literature on how to achieve quality in the delivery of service in organizations. quality service is a measure of how well the level of service delivered matches with customer’s expectations. hospitality sector is a major service oriented sector in the economy of a nation (gill and gill, 2012). quality service is of fundamental importance to any service organization’s strategy and competitive positioning. it is also a differentiating tool in an industry like hospitality which is essentially homogeneous in nature. the study of quality service has been dominated by studies of consumer expectations and perceptions of service in many sectors of the service industry based on the servqual model. little work has been done on the expectations and perceptions of the service providers, notably the employees, who interface with the consumers of the service (musaba et al., 2014). davidoff (1994) stated that service has not traditionally been viewed as being as important as manufacturing. but service is no longer merely a by-product of an industrial society. according to davidoff (1994) many companies start to be engaged in efforts to improve the quality of service to their customers. however, improving quality service has not received the same attention and favor as has improving manufacturing quality. this is probably true because it is much harder to quantify and judge service. davidoff mentioned, ―service grows on its own strength, as more people require its products independent of manufacturing. the number of well-paying service jobs continues to grow. the numerous and high productivity service jobs require highly skilled and trained workers with a variety of opportunity for advancement‖. food, drink and accommodation are the main components of hospitality and constitute the largest part of the expenditures of those seeking hospitality from hotels (ross, 1997). the seasonal nature of the hotel industry also has implications on labor management and as a result the hotel industry tends to have high staff turnover and this has consequences on quality service delivery. despite this situation, one critical factor for the success of the hotel industry is availability of high-quality employees. to achieve its objectives, it is essential for the hotel industry to deliver high quality service through effective management of employees (musaba et al., 2014). 2. concept of service quality parasuraman et al. (1988) defined perceived service quality as ―global judgment or attitude relating to the superiority of the service‖. the superiority of the service is confirmed by what the service delivers, which is the outcome and is evaluated after the performance, and how the service is delivered, which is the process and is evaluated during delivery. according to asubonteng et al. (1996) what a service delivers is difficult to evaluate for any service, so consumers or customers rely on other measures of quality attributes associated with service delivery, as evidenced in the five generic dimensions of service quality. a survey of service theory seems to indicate that, clients will judge that quality is low if performance does not meet their expectation and that quality is high if performance exceeds their expectations. so as asubonteng et al. (1996) conclude, customers’ expectations serve as the foundation on which service quality will be evaluated. service quality is defined as, ―an attitude formed by a long-term, overall evaluation of a firm’s performance‖ by hoffman and bateson (2006). this distinguishes the concept from customer satisfaction which is a short-term, transaction-specific measure (hoffman and bateson, 2006). the service quality process can be examined in terms of the gaps between management, employees’ and customers’ expectations and perceptions (hoffman and bateson, 2006). according to hoffman and bateson (2006) service quality focuses on the customers’ cumulative attitude towards the firm which is the result of a number of successful or unsuccessful service experiences. the single largest trend in business in the us over the past 40 years has been the increased emphasis on service and service-related industries (yun, 2001). davidoff (1994) stated in the study that service has not traditionally been viewed as being as important as manufacturing. but service is no longer merely a by-product of an industrial society. according to davidoff (1994) many companies start to be engaged in efforts to improve the quality of service to their customers. however, improving service quality has not received the same attention and favor as has improving manufacturing quality. this is probably true because it is much harder to quantify and judge service. davidoff mentioned, ―service grows on its own strength, as more people require its products independent of manufacturing. the number of well-paying service jobs continues to grow. the numerous and high productivity service jobs require highly skilled and trained workers with a variety of opportunity for advancement‖. this suggests that, especially for specific services in different areas in hotels which is performed by diverse work groups, it is important that they understand what is expected as an outcome of the service given by them to the end user without complicating to achieve the expected service outcome and how one can further develop to enhance the same. 3. quality service: issues and challenges despite the great progress and good prospect in hotel industry development, there are many challenges from both home and abroad. the examples include: the destruction of tourist sites and natural landscape, the pollution of environment, the shortage of financial resources for infrastructure development, the persistent attitudinal problems among service personnel, and the pressure from the competitors in the asia-pacific area with more diversified tourism product and higher service quality (chen, 2001). due to the increasing importance of the indian hotel industry in the world and many serious problems affecting its further growth, the corresponding research in this field needs to be improved in both quantity and quality to meet the international standard. in view of this, an examination of past research efforts will be helpful to provide an understanding of the academic direction of this field, and anticipate future research need in this field. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):163-172 165 4. need and rationale of the study organizations in india are global today; especially when it comes to the clientele it is observed that they are updated on the new trends relating to food and accommodation. this has led to an increase in the heterogeneousness among employees and has increased the challenge of organizations to manage diverse customers coming to hotels. selecting and serving diverse people and their perspectives has become a major concern for every hotel organization. the impact for not managing services would lead to lack of competencies, and interests in employees, which will ultimately increase employee turnover and reduce individuals’ and organizations’ performance to a great extent. organizations that manage quality services are recipients of more commitment, and better working towards how to enhance the present services better as well as better performance by employees. services management aims to create and maintain a positive work environment as satisfied employees fulfills the organizations goal by delivering services successfully to the end user, so that all can reach their potential and maximize their contributions to an organization’s goals and objectives. services management ensures that all employees have the opportunity to maximize their potential and enhance the services by self-development and their innovative contribution by enhancing the present services further. it identifies that empowering people from different backgrounds can bring new ideas and perceptions, which can make the way work is done more efficient to service better. managing these challenges by empowering employees will help organizations to nurture creativity and innovation and thereby to tap hidden capacity for growth and improved competitiveness. 4.1. objectives of the study to plot the outlook towards quality services in the hotel organization by finding the important process to enhance quality service and to identify barriers and ways towards service enhancement. 4.2. sample and sampling technique the units selected for the study consisted of employees in hotel organizations. convenience sampling technique was adopted to select the sample respondents. the sample was drawn from the top 10 hotel companies in bangalore, india. the respondents with diverse backgrounds were included. the questionnaires were administered to employees with minimum 5 years of experience in that organization to ensure that they are well aware about processes and practices in their organizations. a standard interview schedule containing the same set of questions was used to outline research themes. the schedule kept the interviews focused, but allowed individual perspectives and experiences to emerge. interview questions were drawn from quality service and quality enhancement theories and personal experiences in the field. on average each interview lasted approximately one and half hours. the interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim to provide accurate accounts. documentary evidence was collected at interview stage in order to corroborate and augment evidence from other sources (perry, 2001; yin, 2008). thus, providing a window through which the researcher could discover the industries strategic vision language on quality service and enhancement, which in turn provides useful indications of the importance the industry attaches to these concepts. the documents collected include company profile documents, brand operating manuals, performance records, reward schemes, computer intranet files, quality and enhancement measurement instruments and staff training manuals. participant observation was used to get closer to the research situation and observing what was happening, listening to what was said and questioning people (blumer, 1969; carson et al., 2001). thus in the process aiding the triangulation of interview and documentary evidence (carson et al., 2001). the main desirable strength of observation in the study is that what actually happened was recorded. compared with the limitations of interviews where questioning approaches that recognize that the nature of question wording and interviewing can be restrictive must be used, observation generates actual data as per researcher’s observation (carson et al., 2001). to overcome criticism of researcher perspective or stimulus bias, observations were compared with responses to interviews, documentary evidence and verbatim records of the customer satisfaction surveys over the period. in addition, to facilitate the development of ideas and reflections, the researcher kept a chain of evidence. information analysis was primarily inductive with some deductive input. while the analysis process upheld the integrity of individual perspectives (blaikie, 2000) an attempt was made at theoretical (analytic) generalization in order to confirm/disconfirm theory (kvale, 1996). the data was integrated with progressive within-case content analysis to allow for personal critique, subject-content critique and development of a general summary of themes and theoretical implications (blaikie, 2000). content analysis technique was then applied whereby the data collected was coded into preconceived and emerging themes (glaser, 1999; grbich, 1999). the data were then repeatedly revised until there were no new themes emerging. the themes were then grouped into conclusions. in order to validate the findings and observations, the results were presented and discussed with respondents. the analysis revealed a number of themes that provide answers to the research question. these are presented and discussed in the upcoming section that follows. 4.2.1. information analysis significances the research study can provide information on the impact of service delivery particularly. further, this study would also be a review of hotel’s quality service based in bangalore. this study would be beneficial to the five star hotels in the city to enhance the knowledge and improve their current status. furthermore, this study would be beneficial to the hoteliers and the users as this study would provide and reproduce the strategies to enhance business by necessary information on the different pressure in hotel industry. this would expectedly heighten the awareness of the providers and the users to equip a counterattack to possible threats. to the future researchers, this study can provide baseline information on the recent status of service delivery processes asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):163-172 166 4.2.2. phase of the information analysis study in the preparation phase the researcher collect the most suitable data for the information analysis study. the researcher also chooses the target research question for the best available to answer the semi – structured question used for the purpose of the study. the sampling strategy chosen based on the best informants for the study. the unit of analysis selected for the study is narrow method. in the second phase that is organization phase the concepts and categories were created and crosschecked whether the concepts considered are too many of them and whether there was any overlap between categories. the researchers ensure that the data accurately represent the information of the participants provided. and at last the researcher crosschecked the trustworthiness of the analysis process and the representativeness of the data as a whole in the final phase (reporting phase), the researcher checked whether the result is reported logically or systematically and used methodical language to convey the results. the result explains the full description of the analysis process and trustworthiness of the information analysis discussed based on the preferred criteria for the study purpose. 5. methodology three steps were used to identify published articles related to hotel industry in several major hospitality and hotel journals from 1982 to 2014. first, the author did a computer search of the accommodation, food & beverage index, a computerized bibliographic database of hospitality and hotel publications maintained several esteemed universities. using the search terms of ―quality service‖ and ―hotel‖, resulted in identification of the articles published from 1982 to 2014. and then, the table of contents of various journals was manually and electronically reviewed to identify other related articles, with special attention to find the articles from 1998-1999 and 1983-1989, which were not included in the above database. the third step in the process was to review the references cited in each of the articles to identify additional resources relating to the topic. copies of articles identified in this process were obtained for review and analysis. semi-structured questionnaire was prepared based on the reviews and industry experts from five star hotels were interviewed with fair experience in hotel industry who are supervisory and above level .the heads of the hotel department, training managers were a part of this. this identification and selection of methodology depends heavily on the availability of the experts who reflect on the content related to the area of indian hotels but very specific to the property which they work for. the content mostly differs as each hotel has their own ways of working on the specific policies and processes which at times misleads in the identification of quality service process. 6. information analysis the service industry today occupies a prominent position in the economy of the developed as well as developing nations. there is a perceived need for documented and organized literature on how to achieve quality in the delivery of service in organizations. quality service is a measure of how well the level of service delivered matches with customer’s expectations. hospitality sector is a major service oriented sector in the economy of a nation (gill and gill, 2012). quality service is of fundamental importance to any service organization’s strategy and competitive positioning. it is also a differentiating tool in an industry like hospitality which is essentially homogeneous in nature. the study of quality service has been dominated by studies of consumer expectations and perceptions of service in many sectors of the service industry based on the servqual model. little work has been done on the expectations and perceptions of the service providers, notably the employees, who interface with the consumers of the service (musaba et al., 2014). the single largest trend in business in the us over the past 40 years has been the increased emphasis on service and service-related industries (yun, 2001). davidoff (1994) service has not traditionally been viewed as being as important as manufacturing. but service is no longer merely a by-product of an industrial society. according to davidoff (1994) many companies start to be engaged in efforts to improve the quality of service to their customers. however, improving quality service has not received the same attention and favor as has improving manufacturing quality. this is probably true because it is much harder to quantify and judge service. davidoff mentioned, ―service grows on its own strength, as more people require its products independent of manufacturing. the number of wellpaying service jobs continues to grow. the numerous and high productivity service jobs require highly skilled and trained workers with a variety of opportunity for advancement‖. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):163-172 167 food, drink and accommodation are the main components of hospitality and constitute the largest part of the expenditures of those seeking hospitality from hotels (ross, 1997). the seasonal nature of the hotel industry also has implications on labor management and as a result the hotel industry tends to have high staff turnover and this has consequences on quality service delivery. despite this situation, one critical factor for the success of the hotel industry is availability of high-quality employees. to achieve its objectives, it is essential for the hotel industry to deliver high quality service through effective management of employees (musaba et al., 2014). the information analysis was performed where in the experts from hotel industry was chosen and interviewed with structured interview questionnaire. each expert was interviewed and the views on the questions were noted down through audio recording and transcription of the data. for interviews the five star hotels selected were from bangalore. each hotel researcher interviewed experts who are executive and above level. researcher also interviewed experts from the hospitality consulting firm. apart from the chosen hotels researcher also discussed and interviewed few experts from other hotel brands to get overview of quality service processes and their application. the structured questions which were discussed with the hotel expert were on what is their idea of quality service in managing hotel services, what do they feel about enhancement of service processes? do they have quality management process in place? how do they differentiate quality management and six sigma while developing the quality service process? how important is the internal market relationship management to them? what kind of orientation processes hotel has towards internal market (imo)? is training important to enhance services? what kind of problems do they face while implementing the quality service processes as a policy? what kind of challenges the hotel has undergone to retain the processes to enhance quality service? note: ―a‖ represents referred article for the purpose of the study; ―p‖ represents interviewed participant from hotels. hotel organizations and experts interviewed are not revealed and kept confidential as instructed by the hotel organization. 6.1. concept of quality service a1: parasuraman et al. (1988) defined perceived quality service as ―global judgment or attitude relating to the superiority of the service‖. the superiority of the service is confirmed by what the service delivers, which is the outcome and is evaluated after the performance, and how the service is delivered, which is the process and is evaluated during delivery. a2: according to asubonteng et al. (1996) what a service delivers is difficult to evaluate for any service, so consumers or customers rely on other measures of quality attributes associated with service delivery, as evidenced in the five generic dimensions of quality service. a survey of service theory seems to indicate that, clients will judge that quality is low if performance does not meet their expectation and that quality is high if performance exceeds their expectations. so as asubonteng et al. (1996) conclude, customer’s’ expectations serve as the foundation on which quality service will be evaluated. a3: quality service is a complex, elusive, subjective and abstract concept. it means different things to different people. the most common definition of quality service is the comparison customers make between their expectations and perceptions of the received service (grönroos, 1982; parasuraman et al., 1988). quality is a multi-dimensional concept. lehtinen and lehtinen (1982) defined three dimensions of quality service, namely, physical quality, interactive quality and corporate quality. similarly, grönroos (1984) argued that quality service comprises of technical quality, functional quality and corporate image. p1: reflects and comments that quality service is, ―an attitude formed by a long-term, overall evaluation of a firm’s performance‖. this distinguishes the concept from customer satisfaction which is a short-term, and may help assess specific services which are performed by employees. the quality service process can be examined in terms of the gaps between management, employees’ and customers’ expectations and what they perceive it to be. according to this expert, quality service focuses on the customers’ growing attitude towards the firm which is the result of a number of successful or unsuccessful service experiences. p2: states two decades ago, people defined service as anything useful, such as maintenance, supplies installation, repairs, etc., provided by a dealer or manufacturer for people who have bought things from him. but today we believe that this meaning is not sufficient to cover what service means. today it is more appropriate to say that service is useful labor that does not produce a tangible commodity from the customer’s point of view. p3: according to an expert, renowned customers’ service is anything we do for the customers that enhances the customers’ experience. customers have varying ideas of what they expect from customers interaction. no matter how accurately we see our standard operating procedures of customer’s service, we still have to live up to what our customers think that customers’ service is. the customers’ satisfaction is the goal to attain in service industry. to sum up, the relationship between quality and satisfaction is multifaceted. some authors have described it as siamese twins. although there still remain a lot of unresolved questions, it can be concluded that quality service and customer’s satisfaction can be perceived as separate concepts that have causal ordering. 6.2. enhancement in service processes several authors through their work have tried to conceptualize perceived quality service with varying illustrations especially in reference to the dimensions applied in their studies. a1: grönroos (1984) in his seminal paper on quality service defined the perceived quality of a given service as the result of an evaluation process, in which the consumer compares his expectations with his perception of the service received; in other words, he places the perceived service and the expected service opposite one another. in the same study, two factors that consumers consider when evaluating quality service were identified as functional quality and technical quality. the latter being the process of service delivery and the former is what consumers actually receive from the service. a2: parasuraman et al. (1988) identified five dimensions in their servqual model. these were tangible elements which are the physical surrounding of the place where the service is delivered for instance how the table is set or room furnishings, reliability which is seller’s capability to supply the promised outputs at the stated level and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):163-172 168 responsiveness determined as capability to respond to and satisfy the customer’s wishes. others are assurance employees’ knowledge, politeness and trustworthiness and empathywillingness and capability to respond to individual customers desires for example making the bed with the sheets of a particular color as requested by a customers. the servqual model aroused a fair share of attention to the subject some with differing findings. carman (1990); babakus and boller (1992) concluded that the servqual scale is not universal because the dimensionality of quality service apparently depends on the type of service examined. the criticisms notwithstanding, there has been variable support for the validity of the servqual model in the hotel service industry (wilkins et al., 2007). akan (1995) investigated the applicability of the servqual model in the turkish hospitality industry and identified seven dimensions thus courtesy and competence of the personnel, communication and transactions, tangibles knowing and understanding the customers, accuracy and speed of service, solutions to problems, and accuracy of hotel reservations. a3: mei et al. (1999) examined the dimensions of quality service in the australian hotel industry and developed a new scale of quality service in the hotel industry which they called ―holserv‖. with these they identified three dimensions which are employees, tangibles and reliability. saleh and ryan (1991) conducted a study in the hospitality industry and reported five dimensions of quality service that differed from those in the servqual model seen as conviviality; tangibles; reassurance; avoid sarcasm; and empathy. a study by knutson et al. (1990) identified five dimensions for evaluating quality service given as reliability; assurance; responsiveness; tangibles; and empathy. in relations to quality service in uk conference hotels oberoi and hales (1990) that service-quality perception was two dimensionaltangibles; and intangibles. p1: analyzes the force of the quality service measures in the hotel sector and reported that only two of the measures –actual service at that particular time and trustworthiness had the capability of being comprehensive when it comes to service and quality. in the hotel setting, a two measure structure of quality service tangibles and intangibles are inherent. in the study of juwaheer (2004) nine factors emerged as tools of quality service in the mauritian hospitality industry; four of these factors were similar to the tools of the servqual model, but some new tools also emerged namely room attraction and decor factors, hotel surroundings and environmental factors. p2: expert looked at quality service expectations in the ecotourism industry and reported six tools of quality service in the form of tangibles, eco tangibles, reliability; assurance; responsiveness; and empathy. p3: inspects the tools of quality service in the hotel industry, quality measure ―reliability‖ cannot be interpreted as a quality dimension because this attribute can concern several quality measures, for example in a bank, the employees or the teller machine can both be reliable a proposition we totally agree with. 6.3. total quality management process the total quality management process is the comprehensive process of satisfying the customers, starting with a request for a product or service through the delivery and use of the item that satisfies that request. the total quality management process is the attention and control that must be given to all features of a product or service to ensure total customers satisfaction. in addition to the obvious characteristics – such as form, fit, function, and reliability – the total quality management process involves maintainability, storability, appearance, ease of application, end use of a product or service, efforts to accomplish error–free documentation and systems, and countless other aspects contributing to the overall value to the internal operations or the external customers. a1: according to zaire and simintiras (1991) have propounded this viewpoint by stating: total quality management is the combination of the socio-technical process towards doing the right things (externally), everything right (internally) first time and all the time, with economic viability considered at each stage of each process. a2: garvin (1988) explains, tqm may also be viewed functionally as an integration of two basic functions, i.e. total quality control and quality management. quality has been defined in a variety of ways, such as ―fitness for use‖; ―conformance to requirements‖; ―the amounts of un-priced attributes contained in each unit of priced attributes‖, among many others. total quality control is a long-term success strategy for organizations. customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction, product quality assurance in all its stages, and continuous improvement and innovation, are the main ingredients of total quality control; whereas quality management is a way of planning, organizing and directing that will facilitate and integrate the capabilities of all employees for continuous improvement of anything and everything in an organization to attain excellence. thus, tqm in an organization brings all the people together to ensure and improve product-process quality, the work environment and working culture. a3: oakland (2008) depicts tqm as a pyramid representing five distinct components – management commitment, customers-supplier chain, quality systems, statistical process control (spc) tools and teamwork. the customers-supplier chain forms the top of the oakland pyramid. it reflects process ownership, process management and process improvement, propelled throughout the customers-supplier chain. p1: interpret that tqm as it is receiving global acceptance and every organization tries to follow and implement tqm. however, this charge is to show the world that the tqm philosophy is being practiced by organizations which is made without proper understanding of tqm. not all companies are willing to embrace the fundamentals of tqm. it is also strongly argued that there are a considerable number of companies who are using all the popular quality management measures and techniques; however, these techniques, procedures and systems are used in a superficial manner. the main reasons for such a situation are lack of management commitment to the basic principles of tqm and quality improvements and ineffective leadership to direct the improvement process. p2: comments that however implementation of tqm is not an easy task as it requires a total change in organizational culture, shifting of responsibility to management, and continuous participation of all in the quality improvement process. p3: clarifies that the relationship between quality and productivity is strong and positive. efforts to improve quality, if effective and efficient, can have a significant impact on a firm’s productivity. productivity starts from a clarity that confers an amount of physical output to its related inputs, where the inputs constitute labor, capital, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):163-172 169 materials, energy and services. productivity improvement requires balanced attention to the technical, behavioral and management systems. output would be counted only if it is ―good‖ output. thus, there is a convergence between organizational productivity improvement and organizational process quality improvement. 6.4. six sigma vs total quality management a1: six-sigma is a quality improvement framework that evolved over decades. six-sigma was initially developed by motorola in the 1980s as a philosophy that employs a well-structured continuous improvement methodology to improve work processes, expand employees’ skills and produce high-level strategic results. at the time, motorola inc. targeted an aggressive goal of 3.4 defects per million opportunities in any process or product. this powerful breakthrough business improvement methodology has been exploited in almost every industry and many high profile organizations such as general electric (ge), motorola, honeywell, bombardier, abb, sony, to name a few from the long list (rafiq, 2012). a2: six-sigma implies three themes: statistical measurement, management strategy and quality culture. six sigma is a measure of how far a process is from perfection using statistical measurement of quality level. it is a new management strategy that inspires quality innovation and total customer satisfaction. it is also a quality culture. it provides the correct way to do things right at the first time and to work efficiently by using data information. it also provides an atmosphere to solve many critical-to-quality problems through team efforts. statistical representation of six-sigma describes quantitatively how a process is performing (mcqueen and knussen, 2004). a3: six-sigma today has evolved from just being a measurement of quality to a comprehensive business improvement strategy for a large number of companies all over the world six-sigma has been successfully introduced into many service organizations, including hotels and lodging (gržinić, 2007). p1: comments that starwood hotels and resorts, one of the leading hotel chains, was one of the first hotels in the world that endeavored to promote six sigma philosophy. in 2001, adoption of six sigma got in a process to develop innovative solutions that focus on the customers and to transfer these solutions throughout the global organization. recently, few hotels has successfully executed hundreds of six-sigma projects in areas involving productivity, customers interactions and evaluations, menu redesign, green room program, workplace safety, e-mail marketing and sales. when six-sigma was initiated, the company incurred huge amount in training costs. at the same time, the company reaped tangible of more than what was incurred. since then, programs developed under six sigma have delivered more than $100 million in profits to hotels bottom line. p2: stated that another six-sigma project at the westin turn berry resort resulted in an 11.95% increase in incremental spending by customers and an increase in room revenue of more than 19%. a six-sigma project improved reservation systems and helped maximize the use of massage therapists and treatment rooms, increasing spa-related revenues. p3: acknowledged that six-sigma is a systematic quality approach, use of which leads to increase in profitability through improvement in all operations. currently, six-sigma replaced tqm to become the focal point of quality management and business excellence for nearly a quarter of a century. this presents the results of a six sigma carried out in the indian hotel industry to explore the impacts of implementing six-sigma approach on upscale hotels in india , seeking for what values and benefits it brings to improve the overall performance. 6.5. importance to internal relationship management a1: nguyen and le nguyen (2007) explains, despite the fact that crm brings lasting benefits to organizations, as a whole, some of them gain profits from implementing it more than others; crm brings benefits to the organizations that generate a lot of information about customerss (kotler, 2002) in addition to this, gronroos (2006) that service organizations for their intrinsic characteristics of the production and consumption are inseparable elements necessary to build relationships with customerss. accordingly, crm will be ideally suited to the hotel industry, especially when implementing it successfully and effectively, taking into our account that hotels receive a lot of data about customers. such data can be transformed into useful knowledge about them (dev and olsen, 2000; kotler, 2002; lin and su, 2003; mguyen et al., 2007; nasution and mavondo, 2008). a2: verdugo et al. (2009) suffice it to say that hotel industry, like any business sector has to be highly competitive to be able to do well in the business environment, therefore, it is of vital importance for it to encourage behavioral patterns of continuous re-purchase and to retain customers longer. thus, it is evident that such ambitious aims can only be achieved through implementing crm (customer relationship management), which will result in establishing fruitful relationship between organizations and their customers. a3: mylonakis (2009) mentions, moreover, it goes without saying that growing customersacquisition costs, rising customers’ expectations, price-sensitive travelers, more sophisticated clients, uncertain market and less brand loyalty are all key factors, which strongly urge hotels to focus on crm as a useful strategy. needless to say, crm is widely considered as one of the most effective ways to facilitate developing and expanding the customers' base that, in turn, will assist in enhancing profitability and customer’s loyalty. p1: reports that in the commercial world the importance of retaining existing customers and expanding business is paramount. the costs associated with finding new customers mean that every existing customers could be important. a recent practice observed that hotel business management is the best it has ever been, in that costs are under control in a better more effective way than ever before. well good for them! but how will that control affect their ability to be competitive? and how will that affect brands that rely on quality of service to differentiate them from the others? how will hotels regain the sales and marketing ground lost whilst busy reducing overheads? and thereby maximize the returns owners expect from their assets? a dilemma, if they are to remain profitable. p2: unbolt the solutions for that could be considered to be revolutionary, which may be a problem for a 'traditional' business. so what is needed is a change in mindset throughout 'the organization'. if a crm strategy is to succeed, then everyone in the organization must know the whole picture and understand why customers are important and if service delivery is to be consistently good, also believe it. what is often overlooked is that asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):163-172 170 customers are fickle and therefore unpredictable, when choosing where and what they buy. additionally, reliability and consistency of repeat purchases are hindered by the changing environment we find ourselves in. p3: comments that with the opportunities for wider choices increasing, we should acknowledge our customers’ behavior in this context, and mix that together with their 'history' to help determine future sales and marketing to them and thereby ensure a greater chance of attracting repeat purchases in the future. the more opportunities that a customers has to conduct business with your company the better, and one way of achieving this is by opening up channels such as direct sales, online sales, franchises, use of agents, etc. however, the more channels you have, the greater the need to manage your interaction with your customers base. 6.6. orientation towards internal market orientation a1: according to tim and davis (2001) internal marketing is critical and fundamental activity to create a customer-focused organizational culture with an aim to establish internal and external awareness of customers by removing barriers which are obstacles of organizational effectiveness (christopher et al., 1991). berry and parasuraman (1991) define internal marketing as: ―attracting, developing, motivating and retaining qualified employees through job-products that satisfy their needs…the philosophy of treating employees as customers... and the strategy of shaping jobs to fit human needs”. it is argued that internal marketing programs and managerial influence strategies must be aligned, if internal marketing is to become an effective part of the practice of management. a2: similarly researchers such as, ahmed et al. (2003) define internal marketing as it is also viewed as a critical issue faced by marketing professionals, hr managers, and executives in general. im practice encompasses several activities that have been grouped in four major themes that appear to constitute im: training and education, the image of the internal customers, quality standards and rewards systems. a3: furthermore, the basic purpose for applying internal marketing concept is to get motivated employees and to make them conscious at each and every level to serve customers in a better way. researchers also view internal marketing as a management approach in which frontline employees work as support staff area included; this approach enables and motivate employees of the firm to do their own evaluation and for adoption of customers oriented services (cowell, 1984). p1: argues that im through its emphasis on ―internal customers‖ creates a people oriented culture that sets the foundation for building a strong corporate service brand. researchers have also identified some issues related to im include: the link between employee satisfaction and organizational performance; the need for research on how interfunctional co-ordination can be achieved for the effective implementation of marketing strategies; the need for relationship marketing perspective in internal marketing; the need for research in internal communication strategies; and the role of internal marketing for developing organizational competences, that well-structured and rationalized internal marketing approach can significantly improve employee relations with management and overall organizational competitiveness and performance. p2: defines and clarifies that market orientation as ―the organization culture that most effectively creates the necessary behaviors for the creation of superior value for buyers and thus continuous superior performance for the business”. their model identified three main categories which are constituted in market orientation, these are defined as: customer’s orientation, competitor point of reference, and inter-functional synchronization. many previous researchers have identified market orientation as an instrument to increase organizational performance, increased productivity, and profitability, profit maximization new product success. p3:simplifies and comments that, market orientation conceptualization is an area of study that is in the situation of continuous evolution suggested some terms that are used as interchangeably with market orientation i.e. ―market driven‖, ―market oriented‖, ―marketing oriented‖ and ―customers oriented‖. according to this expert the first market orientation as business philosophy signifies marketing thought and second, marketing orientation is as a set of behaviors showing marketing concept implementation. 6.7. is training important to enhance service a1: current changes in the working environment made the human resource development’s -role doubly essential in helping businesses being competitive and prepared for any future obstacles that may emerge (goldstein and gilliam, 1990). a2: according to bellizzi and pintkowski (1990) and li (1991) due to the technological development the workforce in every company needs training, and being more precise, it needs more improved skills in order to overcome any problems and barriers occurring. the demands of global competition also modifies the way organizations function and provide quality management and customers service training in an attempt to carry on with increasing customers prospects. a3: additionally, in order to keep ahead in an extremely competitive atmosphere, it has been recommended that the training role has to promote a continuous learning culture. additionally, companies offer training in order to guide employees on how to achieve their purpose. in addition they want to advance their employees’ performance, by becoming more productive, and prepare them for upcoming changes in techniques or technology in their job (fisher, 1997). p1: speaks that in order to identify what methods are used and which one is more appropriate to be used, in order to improve the existing training system, an analysis of the training types had to take place. to increase the commitment level of employees and growth in quality movement (concepts of hrm), senior management team is now increasing the role of training. such concepts of hrm require careful planning as well as greater emphasis on employee development and long term education. p2: explains, training is now the important tool of human resource management to control the attrition rate because it helps in motivating employees, achieving their professional and personal goals, increasing the level of job satisfaction, etc. as a result training is given on a variety of skill development and covers a multitude of courses. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):163-172 171 training of work tasks is one of the main aspects of staff training, including principles at work, professional knowledge and skills, by offering employees these essentials, staff training helps personal abilities match with business requirements. p3: comments that training could be enormously demanding and should be in-depth; lack of training or poor training brings out high employee turnover and the delivery of substandard products and services. staff training is a significant part as well as the key function of human resource management and development; it is the crucial path of motivating employees and increasing productivity in the business. staff training is the key task to help everyone in the company to be more united. an enterprise could hire experienced employees or train employees to be skilled. when the company trains their own staff, by providing and forming a harmonious atmosphere, accurate work specification and the passion of work, team spirit will be built between employees and management team within the process. 6.8. problems and challenges a1: quality service derives from the field of marketing which values the human interaction between a business and its customers. it incorporates the concept of meeting and exceeding customer’s expectations and it is generally accepted that better quality service impacts positively on an organisation’s performance and competitive positioning. however, the definition of quality service is fraught with disagreements (robinson et al., 2005). a2: according to juran (1988) strongly service-based hospitality industry, human resource management plays important role to hire and train its employees because company’s success will depend on its employees’ servicebased attitude. dealing with people is what hospitality business is all about. when providing services to customers, primary resource is employees. successful hospitality managers need the ability to work with those people who will contribute success. p1: says that when we think about turnover rate, which is from 60 percent to 300 percent in hospitality industry, they cannot overlook why it happen anymore. there are so many reasons employees left their job such as management skill, money or better benefits or ignorance of employee training. now managers or human resource management function have to turn to how to reduce its turnover rate and provide better service to their customers; training is one tool. p2: comments that despite the great progress and good prospect in hotel industry development, there are many challenges from both home and abroad. the examples include: the destruction of tourist sites and natural landscape, the pollution of environment, the shortage of financial resources for infrastructure development, the persistent attitudinal problems among service personnel, and the pressure from the competitors in the asia-pacific area with more diversified tourism product and higher quality service. p3: due to the increasing importance of the indian hotel industry in the world and many serious problems affecting its further growth, the corresponding research in this field needs to be improved in both quantity and quality to meet the international standard. in view of this, an examination of past research efforts will be helpful to provide an understanding of the academic direction of this field, and anticipate future research need in this field. 7. results and discussion based on the above analysis researcher would like to propose the suggestions for developing quality enhancement process to strengthen internal quality which interns reflect on external quality. the above analysis suggests hotels to strengthen their policies and proceedings by adapting results which has been presented in the form of suggestions by experts. these suggestions will help industry to analyze and structure their services by implementing their training to enhance further. the training managers and the heads of the hotel department probably can look into the discussion and suggestions given to develop the standards and check for feasibility of the same based on the hotel operations and management. as discussed by strengthening areas and processes such as total quality management, six sigma, relationship management and marketing and internal market orientation, it would not only enhance the quality but also create a systematic pathway to work towards one objective whichever organization accepts from their internal customers. if hotels create a structured framework and implement as a training module, enhancement in terms of quality and service will definitely have positive impact in the functioning of the hotel operations both internally and externally. 8. conclusion organizations with diverse employees are better suited to serve diverse external customers in an increasingly global market. the results of the study provide considerable insight on present service management practices in the hotel industry. the major strategies adopted by 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research methods. 4th edn., thousand oaks: sage publications. yun, s., 2001. assessment of guest satisfaction of service quality of the hotel. zaire, m. and a.c. simintiras, 1991. the sales link in the customer supplier chain. productivity, 32(3): 427-434. bibliography juran, j.m. and f.m. gryna, 1988. juran’s quality control handbook. jr (eds.). new york: mcgraw-hill. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 4, no. 1, 10-19, 2017 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 10 an analysis of various types of supply chain management systems: case of global public sector versus private sector procurement sakhile manyathi1 1 deputy director: supply chain management training department of national treasury, south africa. abstract public institutions are subject to huge range of legislative restrictions, controlled by the legislative, executive and judicial authorities and subject to criticism by the public at large as compared to private sector procurement processes which are led by profit motives (fourie, 2009). in both public and private sector procurement, the goods, services and or works have to be acquired, which is the most similarity between these two sectors. in the final analysis, oughton (2007) alluded to the fact that, it is how well these concepts work that truly determine their worth; it is clear that public and private sector supply chains truly are "two sides of the same coin" and that many private sector best practices can be used in the public sector with great success and with little or no modification; thereby fostering the much needed partnership between these two sectors. a general concern among public sector procurement processes is a low level of trust to the suppliers in that the best price offer ultimately is selected or given high weight like in the south african 80/20 and 90/10 preferential point system, however there is a contrast, in that the private sector often considers performance equally or even more important than price so the 80/20 and 90/10 principle wouldn‟t work in private sector procurement. private sector procurement managers are said to be more interested in the quality of performance than costs; therefore the public sector procurement officials can learn more of these good practices from the private sector. keywords: public sector procurement, private sector procurement, differences, partnerships, political ambiance. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 11 2. research back ground ........................................................................................................................................................ 11 3. research literature review ................................................................................................................................................ 11 4. public sector procurement compared to private sector globally .................................................................................... 12 5. factors affecting supply chains in the public procurement ............................................................................................ 13 6. partnership between private and public sector in procurement ...................................................................................... 14 7. challenges from the political ambiance ............................................................................................................................. 16 8. lessons to be learned by public sector from private sector procurement practices ....................................................... 16 9. research for the future ....................................................................................................................................................... 17 10. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 17 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 18 citation | sakhile manyathi (2017). an analysis of various types of supply chain management systems: case of global public sector versus private sector procurement. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(1): 10-19. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.10.19 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. history: received: 20 october 2015/ revised: 19 october 2016/ accepted: 26 october 2016/ published: 1 november 2016 ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.10.19 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sakhile manyathi http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.10.19 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.10.19 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sakhile manyathi http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.10.19 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.10.19 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sakhile manyathi http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.10.19 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 10-19 11 1. introduction the main focus on public procurement has never been at a higher level in most research studies conducted globally. the procurement performed in public sector is still following behind the procurement performed in private sector in scientific analysis and accumulated knowledge. papers about public procurement are usually either in documentary form (explaining the situation in a certain specific country). this article is intended as a contribution towards filling some of the gaps identified above. in this article the scene is set for the following sections and sub-sections by analyzing public procurement as an area of expertise. this is done by first considering the differences between public sector procurement and private sector procurement. it will become clearer that demands or requirements put on public procurement from various sources determine the characteristics of public procurement. as these demands are additional demands to those on private sector procurement, they define the complexity of the public procurement. another viewpoint on this complexity and on the nature of public procurement is provided by the various interests that have to be administered in public procurement e.g. political interests, socio-economic goals etc. in both public and private sector procurement, the goods, services and or works have to be acquired, and in both sectors there are good reasons to strive for the best deal in obtaining the required goods, services and or works. even though there are similarities that exist in both public and private sector procurement; it is scientifically proven that the public sector procurement is different from the private sector procurement (erridge, 1996; thai, 2001; thai et al., 2004). this is further confirmed by the exerted demands found in the public sector as compared to the private sector procurement (neill and batchelor, 1999). 2. research back ground the most dominant character of developing countries is its public procurement accounting for roughly 9-13% of the gross domestic product (gdp); therefore this indicates that public procurement requires special attention for faster growth of the developing economies as non-compliance is sky rocking high (odhiambo and kamau, 2003). officials working in public sector procurement are facing difficult conditions in that the environment is highly regulated with various statues, policies, regulations and directives sometimes which are confusing. they operate in an environment of increasingly intense scrutiny and accelerated changes driven by technology, program reviews, and public and political expectations for service delivery and improvements. these combined; normally result into growing institutional complexity and risks. however ntayi et al. (2009) observes that millions of rands get wasted due to inefficient and ineffective procurement structures, policies and procedures as well as failure to impose sanctions for violation of procurement rules thus resulting in poor service delivery; hence the public procurement is the acquisition of goods, services and works by the procuring authority using public funds (world bank, 2005). many internal and external stakeholders of any government are affected by whether the government complies with its set procurement regulations and policies; which in turn determines whether the government met its objectives or not i.e. service delivery. attempting to improve the management of public procurement, many countries have come up with procurement reforms e.g. south africa post 1994. according to arrowsmith and trybus (2003) the last decade of the twentieth century has witnessed the start of the global evolution in the public procurement. nonetheless thai (2008) asserts that challenges in public procurement go beyond procurement regulations to include procurement process, methods, organizational structure and work force needed for process execution. this assertion is supported by the african peer review mechanism, country review (aprm) report on south africa 2009, which asserts that non – compliance with the regulations is so high in south africa. the same report estimated that more than r300 billion is lost every year due to non-compliance. de boer and telgen (1998) as cited by gelderman et al. (2006) explain that compliance is a problem not only in the third world countries but also evident in the countries in the european union and other developed countries. gelderman et al. (2006) further advances reasons for non-compliance as explained by the tendency to avoid red tape involved in the procurement process of the public institutions. however eyaa and oluka (2011) asserts that the type of goods, services and works procured sometimes influences the degree of compliance with the procurement regulations and prescripts. 3. research literature review 3.1. comparative definations of the private sector versus public sector procurement 3.1.1. public sector definitions public sector procurement refers to the government activities of purchasing goods, works and services, which it needs in order to carry out its main functions (arrowsmith, 2010). according to odhiambo and kamau (2003) public procurement is broadly defined as the purchasing, hiring or obtaining by any other contractual means, of goods, construction work, and services by the public sector. according to migiro and ambe (2008) public sector procurement offers a reference framework for the composition of public sector supply chains and multilevel networks; actors in public sector supply chain comprise (1) private firms which receive orders from public sector agents, (2) accounting officers and (3) policy-makers. the case of zimbabwe: in zimbabwe, the private sector is governed by the companies act, labour laws and product liability laws. the public sector procurement is highly regulated by various statues of parliament where in most instances require a compulsory competitive bidding; which is not always the case with private sector procurement. 3.1.2. private sector definitions according to leenders and fearon (2004) supply chain management (scm) is the systems approach to managing the entire flow of information, materials and services from the raw materials suppliers through factories and warehouses to the end customer. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 10-19 12 according to christopher (2005) scm is defined as „the management of upstream and downstream relationships with suppliers and customers to deliver superior customer value at less cost to the supply chain as a whole‟. as per wisner et al. (2008) also broadly defines scm as „the design and management of seamless, value-added processes across organisational boundaries to meet the real needs of the end customer‟. the aforementioned definitions portray different views about the way scm scholars perceives scm in private sector operations; although scm definitions might be bit differing to some extent but they can be summed-up into three related categories i.e.: philosophy of management, management philosophy implementation and various sets of processes in management (klemencic, 2006; lambert, 2006). according to handfield et al. (2009) scm is regarded as a set of three or more organization linked directly by one or more of downstream or upstream flow of services, information and finances from the source to customer (ghaderi et al., 2010). according to fawcett et al. (2007) effective management of these flows requires creating synergistic relationships between the supply and distribution partners with the objective of maximizing customer value and providing a profit for each supply chain member. there is visible difference in terms of the private and public sector procurement objectives, in that private companies are exposed to the harsh and tumbling realities of market competition. the management is assigned with the simple task imposed by their owners to deliver profits today and tomorrow. since such a goal is easily monitored, one can expect that the approaches developed by successful companies to procure is better suited to minimize costs compared to public procurement managers. public sector procurement managers operate under very different and strict conditions in which the threat of bankruptcy is absent, objectives diverse, rigorous evaluation hard to perform, and the prospect of being part of a lawsuit very possible. drawing on andersson (2002) one could depict the typical public procurement managers as operating according to a logic defined by hierarchies of legislative environment under which they operate, whereas the private sector procurement manager acts according to market forces. in legislative hierarchies, political influence coexists with the economic incentives of cost-minimization. two sets of principles are sometimes not compatible. the rights and wrongs are defined within the legislative hierarchy according to its own agenda, which may be partly hidden for outsiders. market logic is simpler and the private purchaser would have sufficient degrees of freedom to design efficient purchasing arrangements. in private sector procurement profitability is the overriding benchmark against which the performance of the procurement official is evaluated. 3.2. research on public procurement there is comparatively little available theoretical and empirical research in public domain on public procurement. even very moderate gains in efficiency would result in significant savings for governments. in spite of this, academic research is still in its infancy. we conclude that the scale-competition problem is acknowledged, but not analysed in depth in the literature. a possible exception is the case of monopsony (keisler and buehring, 2005). the focus is on short-run rather than long-run cost savings in most developing economies. the specific issue of how to balance the benefits from economies of scale and supplier competition is scarcely discussed. other related issues, such as the optimal number of suppliers, have attracted more interest and the conclusions from those studies have some relevance also here (segal, 1989; cousins, 2002). 3.3. research on private procurement the available literature on private sector procurement is much greater and of high quality when compared to the one found in public sector procurement. the main thrust of this literature, however, is not on the scale-competition trade-off, but rather on the management of risks, relationships and costs. recently, the interest has grown, primarily driven by the potential for cost savings. the general impression is that purchasing within private corporations is a more prioritized activity compared to procurement in public institutions. europe economics concludes in their 15 country study conducted for the eu commission that private purchasing is “an integral part of strategy and subject to audit” (europe economics, 2006). a good and concise example of these developments is provided by niezen et al. (2007) who observes that more than half of the cost reductions in successful corporations arise from best supply management activities. according to europe economics (2006) there are three main sources for these savings which are identified. firstly, leading companies manage to create supplier competition by continually searching for new suppliers and developing alternatives such as „insourcing‟. the potential competitive threat to suppliers ensures cost efficiency. the motion to use sole or multiple sourcing strategies is part of the strategic behavior on the side of the procuring authority, in addition to prices but also include delivery speed, quality, flexibility and non-disruption of supply of goods or services. secondly, efficient purchasing divisions within successful corporations continually seek to tap knowledge from suppliers and feed it into their own organization. the increased knowledge improves the abilities of corporations to negotiate with new suppliers and to develop alternatives. the third source includes direct initiatives to „expand the supplier universe‟ i.e. to stimulate firms to engage in the kind of operations that would make them eligible as suppliers. 4. public sector procurement compared to private sector globally the private sector is leading when it comes to the flexibility and adoption of new methods of procurement including quick adoption of new procurement technologies. the public sector may be different in this respect partly because it is required to observe special rules and regulations, such as european union tendering directives in eu and in south africa, national treasury regulations and practice notes and in zimbabwe the procurement is governed by the procurement act and procurement regulations. these goals for public procurement, set by governments, are often products of compromise and may sometimes be conflicting globally (erridge, 2005). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 10-19 13 goods and services must be procured in both private and public sector sectors and in both these sectors the main mandate is to conclude a very attractive and favourable procurement deal for the acquisition of goods and services; however despite these similarities public sector scm is still different from private sector (erridge, 1996; thai, 2001; thai et al., 2004). the approach to analysing these differences itself differs across various publications and countries. a number of papers consider how the execution of procurement is influenced differently in the public and private sector. according to covington (2006) there are differences in the attitudes of various stakeholders and role players in private and public sectors. according to wang and bunn (2004) the focus on buyer-seller relationships differ through various rules, statues, regulations and procedures that are applicable to public sector only. in the international trade center (itc) public procurement training manual the value derived from public procurement is different from that derived from private sector procurement in terms of responsiveness, professionalism, accountability, competition, transparency. murray (1999) analyses local government procurement, and lists a number differences with regard to both objectives and more operational issues. the demands on public sector procurement are far greater than those found in the private sector procurement (neill and batchelor, 1999). pia (the dutch government procurement organization) estimates that 80 per cent of public procurement is largely similar to that in the private sector (leyenaar, 2004) consequently approximately 20 per cent of public procurement is different because of different demands (murray, 1999). what are these different demands that exist in public procurement and are absent in private sector procurement? consolidating the existing literature (leenders et al., 1997; telgen and lenselink, 1998; murray, 1999; arrowsmith and trybus, 2003; burt et al., 2003; thai et al., 2004; davis, 2005) and grouping them for clarity and oversight we come to the following listing of additional demands found in public sector: 4.1. external demands a) transparency, this is where equal opportunities are afforded to every interested individuals for contracting purposes and all processes leading to an awarding of contracts were made well-known to the public. b) integrity in the public sector is expected to be of high standard and for them to do what they promised to do, to avoid improper, irregular, wasteful or corrupt and fraudulent expenditures c) accountability refers to the situation where all public organizations and its officials being accountable for the effectiveness, ethical, legal on how the procurement is conducted. d) exemplary behaviour, public sector procurement officials are expected to be of good examples in terms of effectiveness and efficiencies in conducting procurement. 4.2. internal demands a) most of public sector organizations have various internal goals like cost efficiency, service delivery etc. on top of these internal goals, the public sector organizations need to meet other external goals by the citizens they are serving like roads, clinics, electricity etc. which might conflict with the internal goals (callender and matthews, 2002; schapper et al., 2006). b) public organizations have also political goals to meet, where sometimes community halls are built to keep the youth engaged with musical practice, community meetings etc. but at the same time the same community halls can be used to plot criminal activities (premchand, 1993). c) in public procurement there are many stakeholders obviously these many stakeholders (e.g. citizens, taxpayers, electorate, elected officials, management, and procurement officers) may have different objectives (murray, 1999). but even if they share an objective their interests with that objective may conflict. some common examples will be a a huge demand and need for the sewerage to be treated but none of the citizens would agree for it to be treated in their backyard. 5. factors affecting supply chains in the public procurement first and foremost is a requirement for transparency in public procurement. the public sector procurement transparency refers to the procurement rules, processes; transactions which must be spelled out and be available to the public and also to the potential service providers at large. this requirement affects such areas as advertising of the contract opportunity (i.e. a bid or tender), the public tendering process, the evaluation criteria, process and the awarding of the contract. moreover, all suppliers must be treated the same regarding access to information, specifications, and the duration of time they have to respond to a bid which later translate to the validity period of a bid i.e. a period between bid closing date and the bid award date in south africa. in public organization all price, evaluation criteria are publicly known, the opening and closing of bids all are publicly known (national treasury, 2004). after the lowest bid has been revealed at the bid opening, the purchasing authority which is the government institution, determines whether the company that submitted that bid is the lowest acceptable bidder and responsive bidder. this may include but is not limited to providing samples or completing integrity questionnaires like sbd/mbd 4 forms, in south africa this is derived from the national treasury (national treasury (2011). in addition to evaluation tools used in the private sector, such as sample reviews, reference checks, credit checks, site visits, and interviews with principals, many public institutions also conduct background checks on the company, which usually are carried out by investigative agencies such as an nia or sass or siu and others in south africa. these investigations may also include the owners and principal executives of the bidding companies; these investigations are also backed up in south africa by the national treasury list of tender defaulters and list of restricted suppliers (national treasury, 2008). public procurement is also subjected to various jurisdiction influences which also further add complexity in the public procurement operations. for example, the inclusion of the south african national housing policy, cidb, nhbrc etc. therefore procurement is influenced by and subject to the jurisdiction of these separate government organizations. public procurement professionals can utilize "preferred suppliers" that have a special status bestowed asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 10-19 14 by a particular national, provincial and local sphere of government. under the preferred supplier system, then, the purchasing authority may end up paying a higher price. but that may be partially offset because "preferred" status exempts suppliers from background investigations and liquidity checks (national treasury, 2004). the "backdrop" contract is another tool that is commonly used by public sector procurement professionals. "backdrop" refers to contracts that have been pre-negotiated by another government organization for example in south africa, by the national treasury or by the provincial treasury through the transversal contracts unit. because they eliminate many of the investigative steps mentioned earlier, public sector procurement professionals often use this type of contract to speed up the procurement process although on the local sphere of south africa government procurement managers are still not fully aware of the process to engage this type of contracting for procurement. contracts concluded through backdroping saves lot of money and time, however it is not always easy. while price-competitive is good, the lowest price is not assured and the possibility of further negotiation may be contractually limited (national treasury, 2004). a special type of backdrop contract is the "piggyback" contract. these are agreements between a government institution and a supplier that can be replicated by another government institution with the supplier's permission. like backdrop contracts, piggyback contracts are generally not subject to background checks and therefore the contracting and procurement process can take considerably less time than traditional procurement contracts. normally these types of contracts in south africa are referred to as „contracts arranged by another organ of state‟. according to the national treasury (2005) regulation 16a6.6, “the accounting officer or accounting authority may, on behalf the department, constitutional institution or public entity, participate in any contract arranged by means of a competitive bidding process by any other organ of state, subject to the written approval of such organ of state and the relevant contractors.” according to the national treasury (2012) for public financial management, this provides a national perspective to address financial management capacity constraints in the public sector including the procurement. skills of the procurement professionals often are different in public and private sector supply chains. a recent study by mckinsey & company and the institute for supply management (ism) showed that public sector procurement professionals "lag behind private sector companies on several performance dimensions, including efficiency of purchasing tools and processes, capabilities, and performance management." one reason for this disparity is that mastering supply chain management requires ongoing study. it is only in the last decade or so that private sector best practices have been introduced to public sector procurement managers. however, because public organizations are under increasing pressure to reduce costs, more public sector procurement managers are now seeking outside training and knowledge that will help them to improve their operations like employing more of the consultants which the auditor-general of south africa raised it as concerning practice which must be stopped as various government institutions are now not doing their mandatory duties because they rely too much on consultants (nombembe, 2013). “procurement isn‟t just a job: good procurement is a skill and it needs to be recognized as such” (oughton, 2007). there is probably no other way to obtain such skills else than learning through experience. 6. partnership between private and public sector in procurement fig-1. partnership between private and public sector in procurement source: south african supplier diversity council (2013) according to sasdc (2013) the above figure 1 illustrates that partnership can be fostered in order to give competitive advantage to both public sector and private sector procurement operations; this can be achieved by examining some similarities between the two procurement sectors. public sector procurement usually deals with service delivery to the citizens and private sector organizations. these services typically involve direct contact with people for example, hospitals, police, education or justice and cannot be as easy as the production of goods rationalized by replacing humans with machines. most goods and services are produced by the private sector. their production pattern is becoming more similar to that of the public asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 10-19 15 sector, for example, initially there were no private security companies but in nowadays it is a booming business. in nowadays most services which were predominately government offered are now wholly or partially offered by the private sector. in this sense, the distinction between the private and the public sector is becoming more blurred; when it comes to specific services like hospitals, security etc. citizens prefer private hospital and security rather than the public services (sasdc, 2013). table-1. summary of similarities and differences of the public sector and private sector procurement private public competition yes no size of organizations 1-10.000+ 1-10.000+ geographical dispersion local yes yes regional yes yes national yes yes international yes yes (few) production goods yes no services yes yes profit driven yes no openness no (limited) yes contacts with customers vary many source: sasdc (2013) according to the table 1 above further emphasis is detailed on differences and similarities of both two sectors to enhance partnership between public and private sector procurement. despite the aforementioned differences between public and private sector procurement, there are still important similarities i.e.:  both sectors share a common goal, which is to obtain the best value for the organization. this means getting the most from each rand spent at every step in the supply chain. in the public sector spending efficiency equals organizational efficiency; this applies not just to purchasing but to the entire supply chain value operations.  customers or service consumers i.e. public citizens continue to demand better quality, faster service, and lower cost. if an organization cannot continuously and consistently provide materials "better, faster, and cheaper," then its long-term survival is doubtful.  in real terms more and more pressure is exerted to both private sector and public sector procurement in that services, materials, information etc are expected to be of high quality despite the high scarce and shortages in resources for both sectors. the reality is also evident in that the government is now and again considering reducing its staff compliment as it adds high costs to the wage bill; therefore the government considers to outsource most of its services. furthermore oughton (2007) avers that another way that public and private sector procurement are similar is that they are both subject to three trends that are driving change, which are:  the public sector and private sector procurements need the total process visibility in order to speed the sourcing of goods and services and decrease the inventory costs and improve the cash liquidity. the reality for public sector supply chain managers is that they, too, need to eliminate costs from the supply chain to ensure their organizations' long-term sustainability.  the private and public sector procurements must become more responsive. in a world where continuous improvements in information, communication and technology lead to shorter shelf lives for many products, supply chains have an increasingly difficult job of maintaining a relevant portfolio of materials and services while avoiding the losses caused by holding obsolete material. material liquidation is a multibillion-dollar industry that exists because of supply chain inefficiency globally. responsiveness keeps obsolescence to a minimum standard.  the private and public sector procurements must have transparency, where transparency is not only about compliance to forms, rules, and regulations. it also encompasses the ethics in dealing with relationships in business operations. transparency is highly possible for both public sector and private sector procurement to have procurement operations that are based on trust and sharing of information which will lead to innovations and improved service delivery. in most cases the public sector procurement is not that much different from that of the private sector, because public sector customers demand that service delivery must happen very fast and cost effectively. it can be done by using private sector principles such as strategic sourcing, supplier relationship management, and inventory control in a way that is acceptable in public sector settings.  public and private sector procurement are two sides of the same coin in the final analysis, oughton (2007) alluded to the fact that it is how well these concepts work that truly determine their worth; it is clear that public and private sector supply chains truly are "two sides of the same coin" and that many private sector best practices can be used in the public sector with great success and with little or no modification; thereby fostering the much needed partnership between these two sectors. by focusing on three areas strategic sourcing, supplier relationship management, and inventory management, public sector supply chains can make order of magnitude improvements, generate real savings, and create even more supply chain successes. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 10-19 16 7. challenges from the political ambiance various public supply chain managers in the procurement of goods, services and works are confronted with many challenges, especially from the political environment. the distinction between the administrative and political environment (i.e. political oversight role) has become increasingly fuzzy, because the political environment is interfering more and more in the administrative environment (mafunisa, 2006). public sector supply chain management is different from private sector supply chain management primarily because of the constraints imposed by the political environment within which the management processes are conducted. an important difference is that the ethical values and norms applicable to public organisations vary considerably from those private organisations. political authority and public accountability are two ethical norms specifically for public institutions. public institutions are subject to a very large range of legislative restrictions, controlled by the legislative, executive and judicial authorities and subject to criticism by the public at large (fourie, 2009). as per the republic of south africa constitution , act no. 108 of 1996, civil servants‟ duty is to „succumb‟ to their political heads; they carry out ministerial instructions and ministers are answerable to the public, that is, to parliament, for the management decisions that are made in their name. some of the difficulties that have arisen, involving public criticism of named public servants, are the result of ministers‟ failing to act in accordance with accepted constitutional practices. not only have ministers not accepted full responsibility for decisions made in their name, but ministers can intentionally mislead or misinform parliament and its committees which is unethical in terms of the current rules of the national assembly (parliament). in such circumstances, public procurement managers have to decide where their duty and loyalty lies: to parliament (that is, the public) or to their ministers. they have to make an ethical personal judgement about how they should behave or take decisions. apart from the questions of accountability and transparency, there is also the ethical issue of discretionary decision-making. officials throughout the public service make management decisions involving discretionary judgements on individual issues or where cases of the national interest have to be adjudicated against private actions on a daily basis. those making such judgements are expected to apply the highest possible ethical standards (fourie, 2009). the involvement of officials in management decision-making raises various ethical questions. it requires, inter alia, good people management skills and especially the ability to listen to lower levels of employees, which is a big challenge in the public service because ranks are so important and managers make use of them to disregard lower ranking employee‟s views or opinions. it also requires good communication and negotiating skills, since the opinions of employees have to be reconciled with those of management (fourie, 2009). 8. lessons to be learned by public sector from private sector procurement practices according to lundvall et al. (2008) some of the lessons to be learned by the public sector from the private sector procurement are as follows: 8.1. communiqué communication between buyers and suppliers is seldom satisfactory. as a consequence, suppliers have often experienced that public procurement managers ask for products or services that are not first-best to satisfy actual needs or do not reflect the current level of technology in the market. this can be seen as a failure in communication between the parties which need to be addressed in a proper way. better communication enables suppliers to better understand what products are the most appropriate to satisfy the needs as effectively and efficiently as possible. little communication between public procurement managers and suppliers bluntly reveal that public officials seldom spoke to suppliers. at the stage in which the tender requirements were specified, some contacts may occur, but far from always and virtually never after this phase. as a consequence, it becomes very hard for private corporations to fully understand what the tender exactly is about and what needs that are to be fulfilled. if tenders were more flexible, this would probably not constitute a significant problem. however, given that tender specifications typically are highly detailed, new and innovative solutions may be defined which results in frustration among innovative firms engaged in developing new technologies (lundvall et al., 2008). 8.2. flexibility the flexibility for suppliers to propose alternative products is often unduly restricted in tender specifications for public sector procurement. public procurement managers often put an improper weight on conditional requirements in relation to flexible award criteria. others stress the importance of conditional requirements but agree that public procurement managers are too restrictive in setting the general terms of reference for the tender. this hampers innovation, limits the quest for cost-efficient solutions and complicates procurement processes as well as worsens conditions for sme. private companies are generally better at allowing suppliers sufficient maneuvering space for innovation and new solutions. tender specifications often too narrow, many tenders involve too many conditional demands in relation to awarding criteria therefore public procurement managers need to loosen their grip a bit. observation is that conditional demands in the private procurement managers often are negotiable. in other words, if a prospective supplier had good reasons, there is always a possibility to contact the private procurement managers and argue for a change. a general concern among smes is a low level of trust of the fairness of the procurement process and that the best offer ultimately is selected. the single minded price focus contributes to these worries. according to lundvall et al. (2008) there is a contrast, in that the private sector often considers performance equally or even more important than price. private procurement managers are said to be more interested in the performance than costs. the strong price focus may result in firms, in particular sme, abstaining from bidding. there is also a fear of being subjected to some sort of litigation should a bid be successful but legally challenged by a larger competitor. another lack of flexibility is the common strict demands of relevant and extensive references. references for newly established asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 10-19 17 smes and companies may be very low or non-existent. over relying on firm referencing makes entry harder for new firms and for smes which may limit competition. 8.3. certainty predictability regarding what future tenders will require is generally considered as poor in public sector procurement. in some industries and for some activities, firms may need to invest in research and development (r&d) long before the actual tendering procedure is started in order to meet these demands. if firms are uncertain on tomorrow‟s demands in public procurement, they may find it too risky to invest. better predictability can stimulate innovation in the right direction. this argument has been stressed by many scholars in particular to environmental friendly procurement performance. improved predictability is also warranted on when tenders can be expected to be announced which would enable firms to be better prepared. sufficient time between the tender phases (announcement, validity period, awarding and start of delivery) is often a prerequisite for the participation of smes in public procurement. it is difficult to correctly foresee future conditional demands on public procurements. sometimes, demands come as a surprise when the tender is published and it can be hard for some enterprises to meet them within the postulated time limits. had the procurement officials declared such goals well in advance, it is likely that more companies would have had time and resources to meet them; therefore private sector is better equipped in pursuing such objectives. 8.4. knowledge it is paramount to carefully evaluate procurements through the entire life cycle and feedback the lessons learnt into future procurements to have a body of knowledge (bok) readily available. this aspect has a strong dynamic implication, private companies are generally felt to be far better than public at evaluating supplier contracting processes and learning. also, thorough monitoring during the contract life may provide strong incentives for the supplier to maximize performance in the delivery phase. incentives to perform in private versus public sectors are totally different; hence learning plays a central role. in private sector procurement the buyer constantly monitors and registers the performance of the suppliers in order to maintain pressure for optimal performance. the supplier knows that dissatisfaction of performance may result in an immediate disruption of order from the client or termination of the contract. long-term relationships are the norm in the private sector procurement. in public sector procurement, as long as delivery is acceptable according to tender specification, the supplier is paid the agreed amount. performance in excess of what is promised is as a general principle not rewarded. in other words, irrespective if a supplier only barely fulfills the public procurement contract or fulfills it with outstanding excellence, the termination date and compensation scheme remains unaffected. hence, during the delivery phase there is virtually no incentive for suppliers to improve performance in excess of the minimum as stipulated in the contract. in the private sector procurement, the picture is often the opposite. there are often strong incentives for high performance put in place during the life of the delivery phase. these incentives concern both monetary rewards as well as an increase probability of contract extensions in time or volume. performance monitoring and learning in the government sector is an area that is regarded as underdeveloped, including national, provincial and local government institutions. 9. research for the future the literature review undertaken on the topic and others, has shown that electronic supply chain management (escm) or e-procurement, under e-commerce, has been acknowledged as an outstanding topic in the supply chain management especially in the public sector procurement literature, in the most prestigious operations management and logistics journals, especially since year 2000s. the main topics have been e-procurement, e-fulfilment and information flows for private sector procurement mainly. further research regarding the e-scm process, should try to analyse how different business units can use the same customer data for the betterment of public sector procurement ultimately the service delivery. moreover, it should try to determine what specific type of integration alternatives are available, for organizations working with rapidly changing customer relationship management (crm) systems and scm support technologies. future studies should also develop decisions and identify tools used to analyse the large amount of data, gathered through the internet for scm purposes. e-procurement is a tool; it will not change anything in procurement operations either in private or public sector strategically. e-procurement cannot replace professional buyers, their knowledge of the needs of users and organizations, their experience in judgment of what is mandatory and what is optional, usage of evaluation models to weight different requirements against each other and their negotiating skills. suppliers will still inform presumptive buyers, including public administration buyers about their new products, possible solutions and technical development and also collect information development trends and needs of the public administration. finally, more empirical studies, showing how the internet is used to provide different product and service offerings, are required. it would be preferred that such research be conducted on bigger sized departments and developing countries, as these will enhance the scope of coverage, producing more statistical data, thereby assisting the public sector administration as a whole, especially on scm and procurement. 10. conclusion in conclusion, it would be prudent to note some of the differences compounded with some similarities between the public sector and private sector procurement processes. in trying to foster the much needed partnerships between these sectors, one can conclude that the public sector has got more important lessons to learn from the private sector asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 10-19 18 procurement processes in order to transform the public sector procurement into better, effective and efficient procurement; 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queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 4, 293-297, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 293 efficacy of cognitive restructuring techniques on affluenza syndrome of nigerian youths chima ify, m.1 1 dept. of educational foundations and counseling, imo state university, owerri nigeria abstract affluenza which is perceived as a culture that places a high value on and being addicted to wealth is a social condition that affects the cognitions, emotions and academic behavior of youths in our contemporary society. these youths are negatively influenced by the affluence and wealth of their parents to the detriment of their academic pursuit. this study is therefore carried out to ascertain the effects of cognitive restructuring (rational emotive therapy (ret), confrontation (con) and thought stopping (ts) in bringing sanity and discipline on nigerian youths by curbing their affluenza syndrome. the study adopted quasi experimental design. two research hypotheses guided the study. the sample is made up of 48 students from imo state university owerri, nigeria 2014/2015 academic year struck by affluenza syndrome. data were collected using researchermade questionnaire titled “affluenza syndrome identification questionnaire” (asiq). data collected were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ancova). the result showed that the three techniques of cognitive restructuring treatment package-ret, con and ts were very effective in lowering the level of affluenza syndrome in participants. the result also reveals that there is no gender effect on affluenza syndrome of participants. a finding that translates to the fact that both male and female participants benefited maximally from the three treatment approaches. useful recommendations were made based on the findings from the study. keywords: affluenza syndrome, cognitive restructuring, confrontation, rational emotive therapy, thought-stopping. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 294 2. results ................................................................................................................................................................................ 296 3. discussion of findings ....................................................................................................................................................... 296 4. conclusion and recommendations ................................................................................................................................... 297 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 297 citation | chima ify, m. (2016). efficacy of cognitive restructuring techniques on affluenza syndrome of nigerian youths. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(4): 293-297. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.293.297 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. history: received: 27 july 2016/ revised: 13 august 2016/ accepted: 22 september 2016/ published: 27 october 2016 ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.293.297 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=chima ify, m. http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.293.297 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.293.297 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=chima ify, m. http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.293.297 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.293.297 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=chima ify, m. http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.293.297 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 293-297 294 1. introduction unbridled penchant towards the acquisition of wealth is a topical issue in many countries of the world nigeria inclusive. the thirst and consequent quest for affluence is fuelled mostly by the current societal perception and acceptance of wrongly acquired wealth (chima, 2007).it is also influenced by societal unveiled acceptance of flauntable wealth as the sole yardstick by which an individual qualifies to mount the podium for recognition. whereas afluenza is not categorized in the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder (diagnostic & statistical manual of mental disorders, 2000) and dsmmd (2013) it has come to be accepted as a combination of affluence and influenza. it is a social condition that affects individuals in society as a result of privileged number of people striving to be wealthy (graaf et al., 2001) see affluenza as a painful, contagious, socially transmitted condition of overload, depth, anxiety, and waste resulting from the dogged pursuit of more wealth. for oliver (2007)affluenza is seen as placing a high value on money, possessions, appearances (physical and social) and fame. affluenza sets in once an individual becomes addicted to wealth and acquisition of the culture that unabashedly places premium on financial success and achievement. according so much reverence on money and wealth inevitably leads to emotional distress and varied behavioral consequences such as over consumption, luxury fever, alienation and inappropriate self medication, using alcohol, drugs (psychology today, 2014).in the same vein, oliver (2007) attributes affluenza to other problems such as anxiety, depression, eating disorder, emotional distress, family breakdown, and medication. a silent but highly causative agent of affluenza is the fact that modern-day capitalists make money by exploiting the citizenry. workers are not paid what is commensurate to their suffering and efforts. selfish capitalism creates inequality in society. oliver (2007) affirms that there is a correlation between the increasing nature of affluenza and increase in material inequality. according to him the more unequal a society, the greater the unhappiness of its citizens.affluenza is therefore seen as a show of power, affluence, and superiority. it is basically from this school of thought that affluenza has acquired the sobriquet of a rich person’s disease. the term affluenza is relatively new. according to hurd (2010) a documentary with the title “affluenza” first appeared on american television and was made popular by a book written on that by graaf et al. (2001). affluenza on the other hand can be explained as rich-kid syndrome. breyer (2013) sees it as a condition of having wealthy parents who set no limits. this view point believes that parents in the higher or middle class brackets do not inculcate the culture of caution and discipline on their children and at the same time rise against those who try to enforce discipline on children. they may confront school authorities, law enforcement agents, and the court who try to regulate the excesses of their children. children with affluenza thus grow up developing an entitlement mentality which is a situation where these children feel that they are entitled to things they have not worked for and consequently should not earn. this class of kids believes that their pleasure comes automatically as a result of their parent’s wealth. the prevalence of affluenza in nigerian youths is not in doubt. careful observation of society today will portray youths from wealthy homes having access to uninhibited flow of money for state of the art cars, good appearances, drugs, alcohol, extravagancy, unnecessary touring, to the detriment of their academic pursuit. once the high standard of life is set by a child based on parenting lapses, it becomes difficult to drop. the consequences are very disastrous when these children cannot meet up with an already established ostentatious life style. cases also abound of children of rich parents who cannot make good husbands and wives because they lack respect and discipline, their emotions, reasoning and thinking being controlled and influenced by wealth. in 2013, america recorded an affluenza case of a sixteen year old texan ethan couch who killed four people while driving drunken feeling that his parent’s wealth and influence will offer him immunity from prosecution. another affluenza related demeanor was recorded in connection with the aforementioned december 2015 when the mother tonya couch fled him to texas to avoid arrest for violating his ten years probation deal of being alcohol free. affluenza affects the lives, academic performance and behavior of nigerian youths. they are not usually serious with their studies owing to the fact that they can always get what they want in life. the luxury available to them serves as a distraction and makes it difficult to exhibit proper and effective academic behavior and commitment. children struck with affluenza syndrome lack discipline. they are usually outlaws in school and hardly adhere to instructions, school rules and regulations. teachers are looked down upon by this group of children because they are enjoying better cars, wears, cash, and luxury than the teachers. gender is not an exception in affluenza syndrome. observation will portray females as having been enslaved by extreme materialism, unnecessary expenditure and excessive purchase of expensive trinkets, dresses, shoes. girls in this category are consumed in materialistic extravagancy to the detriment of their studies. effort is needed to manage this distasteful wreckless and ostentatious lifestyle in youths. the only solution is a change in life style and social perception of wealth as ultimate goal in life. progress can be made in this direction through strategic application of cognitive restructuring techniques. cognitive restructuring is a psychotherapeutic process of learning to identify and dispute irrational and maladaptive thoughts which serve as cognitive distortions. the client is helped through cognitive restructuring to recognize and modify his inner dialogue and develop coping self statements that would condition new behavioral tendencies. cognitive restructuring is thus a procedure aimed at helping the client abandon unhelpful thinking patterns so as to begin to think more constructively about situations, behaviors or personal characteristics that have been the source of past difficulties. following cognitive restructuring steps, participants in this study who have affluenza syndrome are guided to: i. identify the various thoughts, negative views and beliefs about wealth and affluence that have been affecting their lives and behaviors. ii. identify, point out and interpret the various cognitive distortion and negative interpretations of wealth. iii. in rational disputation of the thought, the participants are guided to question, debate and challenge vigorously the negative interpretations of wealth and affluence. iv. they are further guided to explore more rational, better and different ways of interpreting and dealing with wealth acquisition. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 293-297 295 the major components of cognitive restructuring applied in this study are confrontation, rational emotive therapy, and thought stopping. confrontation according to nwankwo (1995) is a form of cognitive procedures through which an individual is confronted and told every truth without fear or favour about his destructive and negative behaviors and the need for a change. rational emotional therapy by albert ellis holds that human beings are inherently both rational and irrational in their belief system. man is happy, effective and successful when he thinks rationally or unhappy, ineffective and creates problems for himself when he is irrational in thinking. thought stopping according to chima (2015) comes in the form of an interruption of an unpleasant train of thoughts rising in the mind. this is used in eliminating regulative ideas, self defeating or illogical thinking based on unrealistic fears and assumptions. the thrust of this study therefore is to ascertain the efficacy of cognitive restructuring techniques in changing the mode of behavior and emotions and at the same time bringing sanity and discipline among nigerian youths struck by affluenza syndrome. 1.1. purpose of the study the objective of the study is to ascertain the efficacy of cognitive restructuring approaches (rational emotive therapy (ret) confrontation (con) and thought stopping (ts) in effectively reducing affluenza syndrome among nigeria youths. it also seeks to determine the superiority of one approach over the other as well as treatment effect based on gender. 1.2. research hypotheses i. there are no significant effects of cognitive restructuring techniques (ret, con and ts) in managing affluenza syndrome among youths. ii. there is no treatment effect based on gender. 1.3. research design the design of this study is quasi experimental and consequently adopts pretest, posttest, control group method. the male and female participants who were identified as having affluenza syndrome were randomly assigned into cognitive restructuring treatment groups of ret, con, ts and the control. 1.4. participants and settings the population of the study is made up of all undergraduate students of imo state university owerri, nigeria 2014/2015 academic year. participants for the study were identified using affluenza syndrome identification questionnaire (asiq).the researcher administered (asiq) to students in their various faculties with the help of faculty student union government executives and course representatives. the faculty representatives were trained on how to administer the instrument.180 students were identified as being struck by affluenza syndrome. out of the 180 identified subjects, 48 were randomly selected based on their consent and willingness to participate in the treatment programme. gender was considered in the selection. the 48 selected participants were randomly assigned to three groups of cognitive restructuring (ret, con and ts) and the control. participants in the ret, con and ts groups were given intervening treatments while the control group received placebo. 1.5. instrument for data collection the only instrument used in data collection for this study was the affluenza syndrome identification questionnaire (asiq). the instrument has two sections a and b. section a provided space for indication of names, sex, level, course of study, parental economic level (high and low), while section b has twenty items describing symptoms and characteristics of affluenza syndrome. the response pattern for the instrument is strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree. the instrument was duly validated and yielded to a test retest reliability of 0.84 after two weeks interval and adequate content validity. the items were meticulously scrutinized by two experts in psychology, guidance and counseling and one in measurement and evaluation. 1.6. procedure for data collection data collection was done in three phases which are pre treatment, treatment and post treatment. at the pre treatment stage, participants were identified and selected by the use of asiq. baseline data were established at this stage. treatment was based on three approaches to cognitive restructuring-ret, con, ts and the control group. the therapy lasted for six sessions of 85 minutes per session. the components of the treatment package include:  general briefing on the purpose of the programme, creation of rapport. explanation and discussion on the problems of affluenza syndrome.  teaching the procedure and the strategic steps of cognitive restructuring.  teaching the skills of rational emotion therapy, teaching abcd principles.  teaching the skill of thought stopping.  teaching the skills of confrontation-socratic method.  group discussion and practical demonstrations on applications of rational emotive therapy, confrontation and thought stopping skills.  training in eliminating negative ideas, self defeating or illogical thinking.  progress verification through questioning, role playing, modeling.  general rehearsals on the entire program and round off activities. subjects in the control group were given placebo treatment on effective study practice.post test data were collected at the end of therapy using same instrument as at pretest. data collected were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ancova) to ascertain the effectiveness of treatment. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 293-297 296 2. results there are no significant effects of cognitive restructuring techniques (ret, con and ts) in managing affluenza syndrome among nigerian youths. table-1. summary of ancova on treatment effects sources of variations df sum of squares mean squares f. cal f. tab significance p scheffe’s error 32 124.3778 3.8868 trt +error 35 1037.3460 trt. diff. 3 912.9682 304.3227 78.2963 2.9011 7.94e-15 4.7489 p < 0.05 the result as presented in table i above shows that there is significant treatment effect since the fcalculated of 78.2963 is greater than ftabulated of 2.9011. in view of the significant difference in treatment effects, scheffe’s test is carried out to identify where the differences lie. table-2. scheffe’s test for adjusted y treatments con ts ret control 10.8716* 5.9764* 11.5124* ret -4.8953* 0.6408 ns con 5.5361* source: result of data analysis table-3. ftest on the effect of treatment and gender on subjects sources of variations df sum of squares mean square f-cal f-tab significance p error 34 141.8087 4.1708 trt – error 37 1074.9365 trt difference 3 933.1278 311.0426 74.5755 2.8826 4.94 e-15 gender+error 35 184.8994 gender difference 1 43.0907 43.0907 10.3314 4.1300 0.0029 trt×sex×error 37 144.3971 trt×sex×diff 3 2.5884 0.8628 0.2069 2.8826 0.8909 source: result of data analysis table-4. adjusted means of post test scores gender adjusted-y boy 8.2917 girl 5.9167 source: result of data analysis the scheffe’s value is 4.7489.from the data as shown on table 2 above, the observed treatment difference of 10.8716 for control and confrontation techniques, 5.9764 for control and thought stopping and 11.5124 for control and ret are greater than the scheffe’s value of 4.7489. scheffe’s test therefore confirmed the result of ancova analysis that significant differences exist. it shows that ret has the highest adjusted mean score followed by confrontation and then thought stopping techniques. table c reveals f-cal value of 10.3314 for gender difference being greater than the f-tab value of 4.1300. this shows significant difference in the affluenza syndrome of treated boys and girls. 3. discussion of findings the result in table a reveals that participants in this study benefited from the cognitive restructuring treatment package-rational emotive therapy, confrontation and thought stopping techniques. the rate of affluenza syndrome among the subjects in the treatment groups reduced significantly against the control group that received placebo treatment .the significant effect of treatment as shown on tables a and b testifies to the powerful effect of cognitive restructuring treatment package (ret,con and ts). the findings corroborate that of chima (2013) in the study on re-orientation of igbo cultural belief using cognitive restructuring techniques. the findings demonstrated sufficiently the huge efforts of cognitive restructuring therapy in enhancing logical and rational reasoning among youths thereby reducing their level of irrational behaviors emanating from their archaic and primitive cultural beliefs. post-hoc analysis also revealed the superiority of ret over other cognitive restructuring therapies in this study. confrontation technique was also significantly very powerful in reducing the affluenza syndrome of participants followed by thought stopping. the reason may be taken to be that cognitive restructuring approaches offer participants the opportunity to engage in a discussion session, talking freely about the psychological, social, economic and moral problems associated with affluenza syndrome. the interaction, with the assistance of a therapist guided the participants in identifying and interpreting their various negative views and thoughts; they thus find themselves in a position to rationally dispute, debate and challenge such views vigorously and explore more rational ways of interpreting these thoughts. treatment effect was not seen with the control group when compared with the other treatment groups. this can be explained to be as a result of the placebo treatment they received which is not an intervention measure towards reducing affluenza syndrome. this further confirms the results of previous studies obi nwosu (2010); chima asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 293-297 297 (2013) who found posttest performance of participants in the cognitive restructuring groups better than the control group. further analysis on this study also revealed no gender effect on the affluenza syndrome of participants, which means that affluenza syndrome is more on boys than on girls. result also reveals that all the treatments on gender did not favour any group (table c). this implies that both male and female participants benefited from the treatment and that any of the treatments is as good as the other in managing affluenza syndrome of male and female participants. 4. conclusion and recommendations this study has sufficiently looked into the management of affluenza syndrome among nigeria youths using three cognitive restructuring strategies. based on the findings of this study the following recommendations were made: a) parents, teachers, psychologists, and counselors should be constantly observant in recognizing the manifestations of affluenza syndrome among nigeria youths. b) there is need for seminars and workshops to create awareness on the parents, teachers, youths and the general public on the existence and the negative effects of affluenza on the social and academic lives of youths. c) there is urgent need for government to equip and make functional counseling units in the schools and ministries so as to attend to the needs of both in and out of school youths. d) the society should de-emphasize prestige and recognition accorded to wealth acquisition and work towards placing a higher premium on the cultivation of strong moral principles. references breyer, m., 2013. affluenza epidemic strikes entitled rich kids. retrieved from http://www.mnn.com/family/family-activities/stories/affluenzaepidemic-strikes-entitled-rich-kids. chima, i.m., 2007. enhancing morality in nigeria youth through moral education and counseling for national development. journal of nigerian society for educational psychologists nisep, 5(oct.2005): 31-37. chima, i.m., 2015. cognitive techniques of behavior modification. in uwaoma n.c and chima i.m. behavior modification: modern principles and practice. owerri, nigeria: gabtony prints ltd. pp: 147-167. chima, m.i., 2013. towards a re-orientation of igbo cultural beliefs: blueprints from cognitive restructuring strategy. international journal of development studies, houston, texas, 25(1): 37-50. diagnostic & statistical manual of mental disorders, 2000. 4th edn., washington dc: american psychiatric association. dsmmd, 2013. 5th edn., arlington va 22209-3901: american psychiatric association. graaf, j., d. wann and t. naylor, 2001. affluenza. san francisco: berret – koehler. hurd, m., 2010. affluenza and the poor little rich kid syndrome. retrieved from http://www.dihurd.com/2014/08/28/48010. nwankwo, o.c., 1995. principles and application of behaviour modification. port harcourt: apiic publisher. obi nwosu, h., 2010. rational emotion therapy and desensitization on function restoration after caesarian section. african journal of social and behavioral sciences, 2(2): 1-8. oliver, j., 2007. affluenza: how to be successful and stay sane. psychology today, 2014. affluenza: psychology of wealth. retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/sidewaysview/201408/affluenza-the-psychology-wealth [accessed aug 28. 2014]. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.mnn.com/family/family-activities/stories/affluenza-epidemic-strikes-entitled-rich-kids http://www.mnn.com/family/family-activities/stories/affluenza-epidemic-strikes-entitled-rich-kids http://www.dihurd.com/2014/08/28/48010 http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/sideways-view/201408/affluenza-the-psychology-wealth http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/sideways-view/201408/affluenza-the-psychology-wealth asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 4, 241-243, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 241 research on physical training methods related to the use of weapons by the police zhao hua-sun1 1 instructors, department of police training, liaoning police academy, liaoning province, china abstract the use of weapons is the most advanced form of force for police to stop the crime, but also an important embodiment of the authority of the police law enforcement. over the years, the using of firearms for police in the physical training has been based on the training method of the shooting sports team, it is just focus on firing accuracy and ignoring the police professional characteristics, which cause certain effect to police in the critical moment when police use weapons. this article starting from the characteristics of the police profession, according to the working characteristics of the current status of china's police, put forward physical training methods relate with the police use weapons. it is a reference for the establishment of the physical training system for the use of weapon based on the characteristics of police professional and helping the majority of police improving the weapons use ability. keywords: police, weapon, using, physical fitness, training method, researching. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 242 2. strength training .............................................................................................................................................................. 242 3. endurance training .......................................................................................................................................................... 242 4. coordination training ....................................................................................................................................................... 243 5. reaction training .............................................................................................................................................................. 243 6. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 243 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 243 citation | zhao hua-sun (2016). research on physical training methods related to the use of weapons by the police. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(4): 241-243. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.241.243 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 6 june 2016/ revised: 24 june 2016/ accepted: 6 july 2016/ published: 12 july 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.241.243 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zhao hua-sun http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.241.243 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.241.243 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zhao hua-sun http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.241.243 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.241.243 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zhao hua-sun http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.241.243 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 241-243 242 1. introduction as we all know, shooting is one kind of sports. however, the research of shooting is mainly focused on the technical aspects, but ignoring the physical training. although the shooting training teams in all levels are making a more in-depth study in the physical training in recent years, however, due to the late start, the theoretical level and depth is not enough. the training of using weapons for police comes from the shooting of sports. for a long time, the using of weapons for the police training is also more concentrated in the technical level and there is little in depth of physical training. therefore, the physical training of the use of weapons has not formed a systematic theoretical system, and it also affected the ability to use weapons for police in the process of the actual enforcement seriously. in addition, through the study we found that: the police use of weapons and shooting game project has a big difference. the shooting competition project has a high requirement for the stability of the static state and the ability of muscle control in addition, the training of the physical training of the aerobic for the shooting athletes can enable the shooter to keep the mind awake and quick-witted in a long time, and make the shooting sports reflect the best status and achievements (guo, 2015). the police using of weapons is different from the shooting movement. due to the characteristics of the profession, most of the time the police use the weapon is in the extremely urgent situation, the body has carried on the larger load movement or the psychological load is great. the method and purpose of the using of weapons and the results have a huge difference with the shooting project. therefore, the use of weapons related to the police physical training can not be completely based on the physical training of the shooting program; it must meet the professional characteristics of the police. in view of this situation, the police use of weapons related physical training should include the following aspects. 2. strength training police in the process of law enforcement whether it is shot in a static state or in a moving state or a still shot after a heavy load they all need the arm, waist and leg muscle strength. these forces are essential to keeping the firing stability. therefore, in the exercise of strength training, we should focus on the upper limb, waist and leg muscle strength. 2.1. upper limb strength upper limb is the combination position of people and the gun, but also is the position of a person to fight or is the main part of manual labor. therefore, whether the upper limb strength is complete directly affect the effect of the use of weapons and even safety. if the upper limb strength is not enough, after a fight with the suspect, lack of muscle strength of the upper limb will lead the gun instability, and even the gun was snatched away by others. in view of this situation, the police should be aware of the strengthening of upper limb strength exercise. if conditions permit, you can go to the gym for systematic training. if because the job is busy, no time to exercise, you can select push ups, dumbbell, and more common sports facilities in daily life, such as the horizontal bar, parallel bars, and other equipment upper body exercises. 2.2. waist strength waist is in the middle part of the human body and connecting the body's upper and lower limbs. lack of strength of the waist will lead to the upper and lower extremity strength. especially in the special geographical conditions, the body is in a state of distortion, there is no good waist strength will lead to the body is in an unstable state, and thus affect the effectiveness of the use of weapons. in view of this situation, no matter whether the police use the way of special physical training or the use of spare time for general training should look the waist training as the main content training. generally speaking, the daily spare time, to sit up, drape leg lift and so on movement can effectively exercise the muscles of waist. 2.3. lower limb strength lower limb combine the human body and the ground. the body must through the legs and ground combined to keep the body stable, and thus stable firing. in addition, when living in different terrain, the ups and downs of the ground also influences the stability of the human body, and this time also needs enough leg strength to regulate the body, to guarantee the stability of the body and the stability of firing. for the police, lower limb strength training is the most easily carried out a physical exercise. in his spare time can were squat training,, jump training and jogging training, do not require special facilities and equipment, these training can make a positive role to the leg strength. 3. endurance training endurance quality is also a physical fitness which related to the use of weapons. when the police is the process of law enforcement, no matter physical confrontation or long-distance to arrest the suspect will spend enormous physical ability. if there is no endurance quality as a support, when after a physical confrontation or raid, then the use of weapons for law enforcement, the body does not have enough ability to maintain stability of muscle strength and can not to control the stability of the body by adjusting the breathing, and then there is a greater impact to weapons use. therefore, in the physical training related to the use of weapons, the endurance training is an important content. in general, flat support, push ups and other endurance events in the room can help improve the muscle endurance. if there are conditions in the stadium or gym, you can choose endurance break and equipment for a long time to repeat the exercise to improve muscle endurance. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 241-243 243 4. coordination training shooting is a very fine technical action. in the course of the shooting action, it tests the coordination ability of the inner of muscles and the muscles with each other, which is the special requirement of shooting (he, 2012). especially in the actual process of law enforcement when after vigorous physical exercise and under the high mental load, this has a strong body and coordination ability to guarantee the height consistency of body action and consciousness, especially the small muscles of the fingers and wrist joints of fine coordination ability. specifically, the coordination ability of finger and wrist can be improve by the practice of filliping、pulling fingers and pushing palm. in addition, you can also attach importance to prepare the trigger training. in the process of the shooting sports, the index finger put force alone with appropriate intensity of overwhelming. because the fingers and wrists are small muscle groups, it is easy to fatigue. in the course of the exercise should pay attention to the exercise load, prevent excessive damage due to excessive movement of the wrist and the sensitivity of the finger. 5. reaction training reaction ability is the most basic and core problem of weapon use. over the years we have made the accuracy of the shooting as the main content of the study, and then derived from the various types of training methods. however, a variety of examples told us: no matter how exquisite shooting techniques, in the actual law enforcement process, if we do not have good response ability, no technology can be bought into play. for example in the sudden violence cases of assaulting a police officer, if law enforcement officers reaction ability is weak, it is likely that haven't pulled out a gun has been attacked by suspects witch resulting in no opportunity to use weapons. therefore, in the actual process of law enforcement, all technology, tactics and even the relevant physical requirements about the use of weapons must regard the ability of response as a prerequisite (guo, 2015). specifically, the response of the law enforcement related to the police practice mainly includes: fast lateral movement, rapid turn, rapid retreat and other content. 6. conclusion the use of weapons by police is different from the sport of shooting. it words in a very complex environment and under the influence of many factors, so in addition to the stability of the psychological quality, it must also have a professional physical fitness as a guarantee. muscular strength, muscular endurance, coordination ability of the finger and the body's respond ability influence the ability and effectiveness of the using of weapons of the police in the actual enforcement. therefore, by selecting a few simple and practical training methods can make the police improve physical fitness which related to the using of weapon in their spare time and provide protection for the actual law enforcement. references guo, w., 2015. analysis on physical training of shooting. science & technology of stationery & sporting goods, 15(6): 168. he, y., 2012. analysis on the athletes physical ability training in shooting. qinghai sports science and technology, 50(2): 23-25. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://fanyi.baidu.com/#auto/auto/bring into play 23 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 1, 23-31, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.51.23.31 digital study of the protestant market: taipei and provincial capital cities in china's southeast coast as case studies zhaohui hong1  jianfeng jin2 1fordham university, usa 2purdue university northwest, usa ( corresponding author) abstract addressing the digital and spatial study of the protestant market in taiwan and mainland china is pioneering attempt to enhance the christian study in asia. the article selects taipei and china's five additional provincial capital cities in the southeast coast to calculate and map the supply-side and demand-side of the protestant market in the early of 21st century. utilizing the digital and spatial methods, the article provides a comparative perspective in measuring the protestant density, accessibility and availability of taipei and five capital cities in china's southeast coast. the article concludes that in light of a democratic society with a religious freedom policy, taipei has enjoyed a healthy protestant market demonstrated by its better protestant density, accessibility and availability. keywords: digital study, spatial study, protestant market church, accessibility, church availability. citation | zhaohui hong; jianfeng jin (2018). digital study of the protestant market: taipei and provincial capital cities in china's southeast coast as case studies. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(1): 23-31. history: received: 21 december 2017 revised: 23 january 2018 accepted: 26 january 2018 published: 30 january 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: the authors would also like to express their sincere appreciation to drs. ching-chih lin and hodna hung for their valuable suggestions and assistances. funding: the authors are grateful for two grants supported by the henry luce foundation from 2011 to 2017, "establishing a spatial information network for the study of christianity in china" (no. 4301-41573) and "the spatial study of chinese religion and society" (no. 4301-59088). competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 24 2. methodology and data ................................................................................................................................................................... 24 3. overview and the density of protestant church in taiwan and mainland china ............................................................. 24 4. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 30 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 30 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.51.23.31&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8296-2315 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jianfeng jin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8296-2315 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jianfeng jin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8296-2315 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jianfeng jin asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 23-31 24 1. introduction as the capital city of taiwan, taipei has demonstrated its dynamic development of protestant market in the past years (rubinstein, 1991; lee and sun, 1995; chao, 2006). through comparative perspective, an effort is made to improve understand of the protestant churches and protestants in taipei, located in china’s southeast coast. this is a meaningful and pioneering attempt to utilize digital and spatial reference to bring together china’s five additional provincial capital cities in the southeast coast--guangzhou, fuzhou, hangzhou, shanghai, and nanjing (dunch, 2001; wu, 2003; wu, 2005; xue et al., 2009; keating, 2012; hong et al., 2014). this study is designed to utilize the digital and spatial methods in calculating and mapping the supply-side of the protestant market or protestant churches, as well as the demand-side of protestant market or protestant population in taipei and other five east coast capital cities in mainland china. presently, many scholars perceive that given the current religious regulations and persecution, mainland chinese protestants are suffering from the crisis of protestant population demand over protestant church supply (leung and liu, 2004; grim and finke, 2010; hong et al., 2014) while taipei, as a democratic society, is enjoying its religious freedom and government deregulation over religious affairs (katz, 2003; madsen, 2007). however, few scholars, if any, have provided digital, spatial and comparative perspectives in measuring the protestant density, accessibility and availability of the six provincial capital cities in china's southeast coast. this article intends to address the digital differences of the protestant market in taiwan and mainland china, and shed light on the general understanding of the chinese religious market and the spatial image of protestant market. 2. methodology and data benefitting from conventional statistical methods, this article discusses the density of protestants through measuring the members of protestants and the number of protestant churches based on a case study of six cities, including taipei, guangzhou, fuzhou, hangzhou, shanghai and nanjing. in addition, three spatial and digital methods are utilized to validate and develop what the statistical method has demonstrated about the density of protestants. as the first spatial method, the two-step floating catchments area (2sfca) is capable of calculating the protestant church accessibility score, which demonstrates the different distances from protestant's residential area to the nearest church. as the supplement, the network analysis method (nam) is useful to conduct time measurement, estimating the driving time for protestants from home to the nearest church in order to address the protestant church availability. meanwhile, this article applies the location analysis method (lam) as the third tool to compare the similarities and differences of research findings and explain the disparity demonstrated by different research methods. although the three different spatial methods are using different measurements through selecting 30 minutes of one-way driving by the nam, 20 minutes by the 2sfca and 15 minutes by the lam, each method applies to all six cities consistently and equally. after discussing the research findings, this article compares the different rankings of protestant church accessibility and availability among six cities, based on the statistical and spatial methods. as a result, this study demonstrates the best and worst rankings of church accessibility and availability. following the similar methodology, scholars may expand their research areas to other cities in both taiwan and mainland china. with respect to the protestant church information concerning the five provincial capital cities in mainland china, this study relies on the government official data demonstrated by the chinese baidu map in 2015. in addition, this study takes reference from the 2004 china’s economic census data with gis maps, published by the china census bureau. regarding the protestant population data, this article reviews and selects some reliable statistical information provided by the city government agencies, census data and scholarly research papers. furthermore, this study benefits from a spatial and digital platform, the religious explorer of china--supported by the henry luce foundation and developed by the university of michigan and purdue university--to visualize and map the church accessibility and availability in mainland china. 3. overview and the density of protestant church in taiwan and mainland china selecting the six capital cities located in southeast coast of china (see map 1) has a variety of reasons. given the historical legacy of colorization and westernization since the opium war of 1842, all six cities had their long history in experiencing western christianization and civilization (shen and zhu, 1998; bickers, 1999; waley, 2013). they should represent the first region in china accepting and adopting protestant religion after the opium war. similarly, massive western investments from the mid-19th century to the mid-20th century and revolutionary reform and opening since 1978 have contributed economic, social and cultural foundation in support of protestant development (dees, 1998). consequently, the southeast coast region has shaped its image as the most developed economy, the most open-minded culture, and the most diversified society in china (johnson, 1992; goodman, 1997). therefore, selecting the six major cities in the east coast region as a cohort may provide a window of observing the protestant market in both taiwan and mainland china. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 23-31 25 map-1. location of the six cities benefitting from the digital and spatial techniques, map 2 below denotes the spatial maps in which each dot represents the location of protestant churches in the selected six cities (see map 2). map-2. spatial maps of protestant churches in taipei (2010) and the five cities in mainland china (2015) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 23-31 26 for the first step, in order to calculate the density of protestants, the priority and challenge is to estimate the protestant population number in each city because there is limited data available on the protestant information for all cities. given that, this study has to select the years as close as possible for the six cities. while the information concerning taiwan, taipei, guangzhou and nanjing's protestant population is available from 2015, other cities-including the data of national protestant population in mainland china--is spread from 2001 to 2013. indicated by table 1 below, while mainland china had 1.74% of protestant members in 2010 and taiwan had 5.61% of protestants in 2015, taipei had its highest rate of protestants (13.07%) in 2015 and guangzhou had its lowest rate (0.72%). table 1 also lists the estimated number of protestant population based on the calculation of the latest census data. in particular, table 1 includes the reference information concerning protestant data. table-1. protestant population in mainland china, taiwan, and the six capital cities (2010-2015) location protestant population percentage of protestant source mainland china 23,050,000 1.74% research project team of the institute of world religious studies in the chinese academy of social sciences (2010) taiwan 1,307,842 5.61% mitchell (2015) hangzhou 33,594 1.50% hangzhou statistical information network (2010) taipei 288,793 13.07% mitchell (2015) guangzhou 45,308 0.72% guangzhou municipal bureau of ethnic and religious affairs (2015) fuzhou 72,231 2.47% amity foundation (2004) shanghai 97,869 1.58% shanghai bureau of ethnic and religious affairs (2014) nanjing 57,106 2.35% nanjing bureau of ethnic and religious affairs (2015) for the second step in estimating the density of protestants, it is vital to determine the number of protestant churches in the selected cities. table 2 provides the big picture in listing the number of protestant churches in mainland china and taiwan. table 2 also indicates that taipei had 543 churches in 2015, while the other five cities in mainland china increased the number of churches from 16 to 35 in 2015, as demonstrated by the baibu map, which is a "chinese google map." with respect to searching the church information through baidu, the first step is to allocate the information concerning the altitude and latitude through http://api.map.baidu.com/lbsapi/getpoint/index.html. after searching each city district, it is necessary to input data into an excel spreadsheet in order to insert all data into the arcgis. table-2. the number of protestant churches in mainland china, taiwan and the six capital cities location number of protestant churches source mainland china 11,463 china census bureau (2005) taiwan 4,101 mitchell (2015) hangzhou 35 baidu map (2015) taipei 543 mitchell (2015) guangzhou 22 baidu map (2015) fuzhou 25 baidu map (2015) shanghai 23 baidu map (2015) nanjing 16 baidu map (2015) in light of this data about the protestant population and churches, it is feasible to summarize the density of protestants for all six cities, in addition to mainland china and taiwan. table 3 below denotes the density of protestants in both mainland china and taiwan, which have a large gap in terms of the average number of protestants per church. while 2,011 protestants in mainland china had to share one church in 2010, there were 319 protestants by average using one church in taiwan--6.3 times higher than that of mainland china. with respect to the selected six cities, similarly, 532 protestants in taipei were accommodated by one church on average, while the average number of protestants in each church in other five provincial capital cities had more than the national average--except for hangzhou (960). table 3 also lists the rankings of protestant density indicating that taipei is the best and shanghai is the worst place in terms of the protestant density. table-3. the density of protestants in mainland china, taiwan, and the six cities location number of protestants percentage of protestants number of protestant churches average number of protestants per church rankings of density taiwan 1,307,842 5.61% 4,101 319 1 taipei 288,793 13.07% 543 532 2 hangzhou 33,594 1.50% 35 960 3 mainland china 23,050,000 1.74% 11,463 2,011 4 guangzhou 45,308 0.72% 22 2,059 5 fuzhou 72,123 2.47% 31 2,330 6 nanjing 57,106 2.35% 16 3,569 7 shanghai 97,869 1.58% 23 4,255 8 3.1. spatial measurement of protestant market assisted by the gis technology, this study has utilized three spatial methods addressing the protestant accessibility and availability in the selected six cities. the two-step floating catchments area (2sfca) is http://api.map.baidu.com/lbsapi/getpoint/index.html asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 23-31 27 effective in measuring the driving time from a protestant's residential area to the closest church. provided the available map techniques, setting up 20-minutes of one-way driving may demonstrate the church accessibility score through 2sfca (see map 3 below). map-3. the protestant church accessibility scores in the six cities by the 2sfca with respect to map 3 above, the brown color represents the area with r>1/10000, where protestants can arrive at their nearest church within 20 minutes of one-way driving. by contrast, the area with the green color or 1/10000>r>1/15000 indicates that protestants must take more than 20 minutes to reach their closest church every weekend. the larger the area covered by green color, the worse accessibility the protestants have and therefore, the more serious issues about the protestant demand over church supply in the protestant market. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 23-31 28 after exporting the data based on the 2sfca, table 4 below lists the statistical information concerning church accessibility in the six cities. obviously, taipei has its best church accessibility, which is consistent with the density of church information, as all protestants in taipei can reach their nearest church within 20 minutes of one-way driving. however, 10.88% of protestants in nanjing, 19.01% in shanghai, 33.62% in guangzhou, 35.45% in hangzhou and 55.92% in fuzhou would take more than 20 minutes to travel to their nearest churches. table-4. protestant church accessibility in the six cities by the 2sfca cities percentage of protestant population taking more than 20 minutes to the nearest church ranking taipei 0% 1 nanjing 10.88% 2 shanghai 19.01% 3 guangzhou 33.62% 4 hangzhou 38.45 % 5 fuzhou 55.92% 6 as a supplement, the network analysis method (nam) has been used to double check the driving time from a protestant's residential area to the nearest churches. in an attempt to accommodate the nam, this study selects the driving time of 30 minutes instead of 20 minutes in all six cities, but adds 12 km as the distance from protestant's home to the nearest church. map 4 below shows the three different measurements: the area with the yellow color represents 6 km and 15 minutes of one-way driving, while the area with the green means 12 km and 30 minutes of driving and the area with red color symbolizes 18 km and 45 minutes of driving from a protestant's residential area to the closest church. map-4. the protestant church availability and accessibility by the nam table 5 below clearly demonstrates that given the distance of 12 km and the driving time of 30 minutes, each city has its specific accumulated area and the protestant area coverage. in particular, table 5 shows the percentage of protestant who cannot reach the nearest church and the number of protestant who cannot travel to the nearest church within 12 km and 30 minutes of one-way driving. the more protestants who cannot arrive at the nearest church, the less accessibility and availability of church situation is. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 23-31 29 table-5. protestant church accessibility in the six cities by the nam (30 minutes) 12km (30minute) accumulated area (km2) protestant area coverage (km2) percentage of protestant can't reach the nearest church number of protestant who can’t reach ranking taipei 946.169 182,397 36.73% 105,887 1 hangzhou 1,562.837 20,909 37.76% 12,685 2 fuzhou 1,417.048 856.525 39.56% 6,497 3 shanghai 1,964.430 1,138.450 42.05% 97,869 4 nanjing 1,864.611 1,058.757 43.22% 24,680 5 guangzhou 3,717.82 1,991.308 46.44% 21,040 6 as a result, table 5 above summarizes the rankings among the six cities in terms of their church accessibility. given the fact that 36.73% of the protestants in taipei can reach their nearest church within the designated time and distance, taipei is ranked the best area again for its church accessibility. by contrast, 46.44% of the protestants in guangzhou are unable to get the nearest church within 30 minutes and 12 km, it is ranked as the worst area of accessibility relatively. furthermore, it may provide added value through utilizing the location analysis method (lam) as additional supplement to address the spatial study of church availability and accessibility in the six cities. given the limited scope of mapping and virtualization, the designated driving time and distance have to be limited to 3 km and 15 minutes. as long as all six cities utilize the same measurement through a specific spatial method, it should be consistent and acceptable although it is not ideal. the center of yellow circle on the map 5 below represents the location of each church, while the circle itself covers the area that each protestant can reach the nearest church within 3 km and 10 minutes of driving. map-5. the protestant church availability and accessibility in the six cities by the nam asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 23-31 30 table-6. protestant church availability and accessibility in the six cities by the lam (10 minutes and 3 km) 3 km (10 min.) number of people in the city percentage of protestants who can't arrive in the nearest church ranking taipei 2,618,383 0.00% 1 shanghai 6,181,683 0.00% 2 nanjing 2,430,729 3.46% 3 hangzhou 2,239,600 7.88% 4 guangzhou 6,285,000 32.30% 5 fuzhou 2,921,763 48.56% 6 the table 6 above demonstrates that all protestants in both taipei and shanghai can reach their nearest churches within 10 minutes within 3 km of distance. by contrast, more than thirty percent of protestants in guangzhou and fuzhou are unable to make it with the same time and distance while both nanjing and hangzhou stay in the middle as the rankings of protestant church availability and accessibility. after studying the protestant church availability and accessibility in the six cities through statistical and three spatial methods (2sfca, nam and lam), it is essential to provide a general picture by means of comparing their averaged rankings based on the different research methods. table 7 below indicates that taipei consistently has the best ranking of protestant church accessibility, as demonstrated by the digital density and spatial 2sfca, nam and lam. meanwhile, fuzhou and guangzhou are ranked at the bottom of church accessibility, while hangzhou, shanghai and nanjing stay in the middle rankings among the six cities. table-7. the combined rankings of protestant church accessibility in the six cities density rankings rankings by lam rankings by nam rankings by 2sfca combined rankings taipei 1 1 1 1 1.00 hangzhou 2 4 2 5 3.25 shanghai 6 2 4 3 3.75 nanjing 5 3 5 2 3.75 fuzhou 4 6 3 6 4.75 guangzhou 3 5 6 4 4.75 4. conclusion this spatial study has explored various new research fields that the conventional quantitative research is unable to address. however, given the incomplete and inaccurate data about the protestant church and protestants in the mainland, scholars could not expect the full picture of the chinese protestant market. in addition, the spatial methods cannot totally replace the traditional empirical survey, interview and participant observation, which may provide micro pictures and qualitative interpretations in depth. meanwhile, after comparing the different protestant situations in the six capital cities by the digital and spatial studies, it is obvious that taipei, as a democratic society, demonstrates that the religious freedom matters to the healthy protestant market indicated by better church density, accessibility and availability. however, there may be more reasons for the better protestant market in taipei. the bottom line is that the information concerning the number of protestant churches and members of protestants in taipei is much more accurate, complete, reliable, and more importantly, much accessible and open to the public. it may deliver a clear message that any 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(boe) and sveriges riksbank of sweden have also introduced qe. especially, federal reserve board of u.s. had executed the non-traditional monetary policies of qe1, qe2 and qe3 since november of 2008 till october of 2014 by the chairmen, bernanke and yellen. it continues another non-traditional monetary policy, zirp under the slowly recovering economy. meanwhile ecb announced their introduction of qe on january 22 of 2015 and began buying government bonds on march 9, when europe‟s fragile recovery is lagging the rest of the world and a drop in prices is threatening to make things worse. however none of them had not brought adequate result by the non-traditional monetary policies yet. in this thesis we analyze the relationship between japanese long-term interest rates and its non-traditional monetary policies under persistent and serious deflation. we investigate the extent to which change rates of monetary base and amounts of loan outstanding of banks and other proxy variables affect both the nominal and real interest rates of 10 year jgbs. we used a fundamental bond rate model based on sargent (1969) and test the cointegrating relationship among the variables. then we estimate the model with cointegrating relationship by dynamic ols and error correction model by gmm. keywords: zero interest rate policy, quantitative and qualitative easing, cointegraton analysis, carlson parkin method, dynamic ols, error correction model. jel classification: e52, e58. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 43 2. literature ............................................................................................................................................................................. 44 3. model and methods ............................................................................................................................................................. 44 4. estimation results ............................................................................................................................................................... 46 5. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 47 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 54 bibliography ............................................................................................................................................................................ 55 citation | shohei ishibashi (2017). the cointegration analysis of the long-term bond rates in japan under the zero lower bound problems. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(1): 42-56. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.42.56 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. history: received: 5 november 2015/ revised: 4 january 2017/ accepted: 12 january 2017/ published: 23 january 2017 ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.42.56 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=shohei ishibashi http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.42.56 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.42.56 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=shohei ishibashi http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.42.56 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.42.56 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=shohei ishibashi http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.42.56 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 43 1. introduction since the inauguration of the governor of bank of japan (hereinafter written as boj), haruhiko kuroda, “quantitative and qualitative monetary easing” (qqe) released in april, 2014 has been aimed at achieving the price stability target of 2% without “gradualism” for the easing. however, when economic downturn became so apparent that the goal became hard to be achieved, additional qqe were released on 31st of october, 2014 with great surprises of financial markets. the concrete measures of original qqe is to double the monetary base and the amounts outstanding of japanese government bonds (jgbs) boj holds for 2 years, to lengthen the durations of jgbs boj purchases and to purchase exchange trade funds (etf s) and japan-real estate investment trust (jreits). meanwhile, those of the additional qqe are to increase the amount to purchase from 60-70 trillion yen to 80 trillion yen a year. 1 just after both announcements of the qqes, the stock prices increased dramatically. the announcement effects for the financial markets by the additional qqe were mostly caused by the positive attitudes toward the qqe and the denial of “gradualism” for the easing by mr. kuroda. qqe is not the first trial of the non-traditional monetary policy by boj. boj had little room for further reductions in interest rates already in 1995. the economy are said to have been in a liquidity trap since then and fell in deflation in1997 at last. then boj lowered the overnight call rate to virtually zero percent in february and march of 1999. this is the so-called zero interest rate policy (zirp) which has been the core of the boj‟s monetary policy since 1999. boj announced in april 1999 that the bank would continue the zero interest rate “until deflationary concerns were dispelled”. zirp was removed twice in 2000 and in 2006 judging from the economic condition in recovery at that time. however just after both removals, the economy became deteriorated. then boj adopted quantitative easing (qe) policy in march 2001 by the governor, toshiro fukui. boj maintained an ample liquidity supply by using the current account balances at boj as the operating policy target and committed itself to maintaining the provision of ample liquidity until the rate of change of the core cpi becomes zero percent or higher on a sustained basis to purchase jgbs from time to time as a tool for liquidity injection. boj increased the current account balance from ¥5 trillion to ¥35 trillion and tripled the quantity of long-term japan government bonds it could purchase on a monthly basis. owing to the qe in japan in this period, to some extent the economy recovered, while aggregate domestic loans outstanding and money stock by financial institutions did not increase much and fail to escape from deflation at last. the qe came to a sudden halt in march 2006 and the monetary base turned into drop though subprime loan problem which would cause global depression were surfacing in u.s. see graph-1 and 2 which describe the movement of the interest rates of 10 year jgb, real call rates, monetary base and monetary stock in the periods under the non-traditional monetary policies in japan. not only japan but u.s. federal reserve, bank of england of u.k. (boe) and sveriges riksbank of sweden have also introduced qe. especially, federal reserve board of u.s. had executed the non-traditional monetary policies of qe1, qe2 and qe3 since november of 2008 till october of 2014 by the chairmen, bernanke and yellen. and at last ecb announced their introduction of qe on january 22 of 2015 and began buying government bonds on march 9, when europe‟s fragile recovery is lagging the rest of the world and a drop in prices is threatening to make things worse. president mario draghi overcame german-led opposition on the bank‟s governing council and pledged an asset-purchase program worth about 1.1 trillion euros. the ecb finally turned to bond buying after cutting one of its main interest rates below zero in 2014. 2 it is sometimes pointed out that the economies of those areas and countries are in liquidity traps: private demand is so weak that even near or at a zero short-term interest rates. whether qe policy has effects to the real economy or not has been a very controversial issue. the concept of “liquidity trap” which hicks (1937) point out that further monetary easing do not have much stimulus effects on the real economy when interest rates fall around the lower bound, is referred for supporting the skeptical view against the effect of qe. meanwhile bernanke et al. (2004) discuss some possible effects 3 of qe for real economies: (a) the portfolio rebalancing effect, whereby increases in the monetary base would lead the private sector to rebalance its portfolios, lowering yields on alternative, non-monetary assets; (b) the signal effect (time axis effect by boj), altering expectations of the future path of policy rates by a visible act of setting and meeting a high reserve target; both (a) and (b) above are also referred at a news conference in april 2013 by the governor of boj, kuroda on his own non-traditional monetary policy, qqe. such effects are also emphasized by the previous non-traditional monetary policy, qe with time axis policy. however, in qqe with the higher inflation target of 2%, monetary easing entered a new phase both quantitatively and qualitatively with boj‟s more stubborn faith denying an incremental approach or gradualism. such attitude influences the expectation for inflation of the people. and higher expected inflation means a lower real interest rate which would lead to stronger economy. furthermore, the word “qualitative” of qqe shows, boj try to prolong the average remaining maturity of jgb purchases to lower the long-term interest rates. therefore in qqe especially expectation of people and long-term bond rates are key points. the former is thought to be influenced by the attitude of adamancy of the governor of boj and affect real interest rates much. the latter is considered to be important in stimulating the real economy over fears of deteriorating fiscal condition. for the non-traditional monetary policies in japan, both the nominal and real jgb interest rates are very important and delicate index. in the period from 1999 until 2012, the previous non-traditional monetary policies which failed to overcome deflation at last had had effect on the nominal 10 year jgb rate within the narrow range from 0.5% to 2％. it could be appreciated as long-term interest rates had been kept low. before the introduction of qqe, mainly, insurance companies and banks of japan have purchased huge amounts of newly issued jgbs, owning to difficult fund management environment with extremely low interest rate and their attitude of risk-aversion, 1 the amount boj‟s will purchase a year is 30 trillion yen of long-term jgbs, 3 trillion yen of etfs and 90 billion yen of j-reits yen which is three times as previous amount. magic number for the amounts is 3 for additional qqe, while that was 2 for original qqe. 2 ecb had also introduced minus interest rates that made private banks pay 0.1 % commissions to ecb instead of their receipt of the interest rates on the current accounts of ecb. 3exactly they pointed out three possible effects. the other (c) is the expansionary fiscal effect, whereby the central bank replaces public holdings of interestbearing government debt with non-interest-bearing currency or reserves, thus replacing the expected future tax liability for the public with an inflation tax. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 44 regardless of the growth in the debt-to-gdp ratio has accelerated as graph-3 shows. and since the introduction of qqe in april of 2013, boj had increased so rapidly its purchase amount of jgb that the yields of nominal 10 year jgb have been kept lower. however, the real jgb rates might have fluctuated much more to function to stimulate consumption and business investments. in this thesis we analyze the relationship between the non-traditional monetary policies and the jgb rates introducing cointegration analysis. this thesis is organized in 5 sections and 6 sub-sections. section 2 presents an overview of theoretical and empirical contributions. section 3 is divided into 2 subsections; subsection 3-1 presents the theoretical models and subsection 3-2 presents the data, definition of the proxy variables and adapted model to empirical work. section 4 is divided into 4 subsections from 4-1 to 4-4. they present the results of estimation, the results of unit root tests, cointegration test, the dynamic ols estimation and error correction model regression respectively. section 5 concludes. finally appendix show how to estimate the expected inflation rates based on carlson-parkin method. 2. literature mehra (1994) employed fundamental bond rate model based on sargent (1969) substituting the variables for real federal funds rates into those for money supply in the original model and estimates the cointegrating relationship among the variables in the bond rate models. mehra (1994) concluded that changes in the real federal funds rate have substantially short-run effects on the bond rate, even though long-run stochastic movement in the bond rate are unrelated to the real federal funds rate. and the bond rate rises if inflation edge up. we adopted this model to adjust under the zero lower bound problem of interest rate in japan. as classical literature, hicks (1937) describes “liquidity trap” in which the zero lower bound problem of interest rate is difficult obstacles against traditional monetary policies. it is also the beginning of the continuing controversy on the non-traditional monetary policy, such as quantitative easing policy. however, bernanke et al. (2004) shows that central bank communications can help to shape public expectations of future policy actions (signal effect) and that asset purchases in large volume by a central bank would be able to affect the price or yield of the targeted asset (portfolio-rebalancing effect) even though money market rate is zero we can find much literature on the controversy whether non-traditional monetary policies by boj, such as de facto zero interest rate policy and quantitative easing has definite policy effect or not in diverse way. however, they are less conclusive totally about what kind of effects on the prices and productions such non-traditional monetary policies had. miyao (2002) finds cointegrating relationship in the stability of an equilibrium money, or m1, demand in japan even after 1995 when nominal rates were lowered to de facto zero percent and concluded that japanese economy really had not trapped at the zero interest rate bound at that time. and fujiwara (2006) employing an identified markov switching var framework, points out that there exists a structural break when zirp was resumed, suggesting that the effectiveness of monetary policy is seen weaker since then and zirp had not fulfilled its role enough. however, honda et al. (2007) concludes that quantitative easing policy has definite policy effects, analyzing the effect of the quantitative easing policy by boj from 2001 until 2006 by introducing var models by 3 variables, interest rates, stock prices and foreign exchange rates. honda et al. (2007) finds a transmission effect to the real economy via the portfolio-rebalancing especially on equities which is caused by investor‟s using the supplied money by operation of boj for the purchase of the financial assets. iida and yasushi (2004) points out that even in phase of recovery after the introduction of the reinflational policy by korekiyo takahashi in 1931 as the finance minister at the time, banks‟ aggregate balances of loans did not increase very much. takahashi conducted the policy mix corresponding to keynes‟ macroeconomics theory, which contains firstly depreciation of yen (exchange rate policy), secondly increase in government expenditure associated with the underwriting of deficit-covering bonds by the boj (fiscal policy), and finally interest rate cut (monetary policy). it has enough effect to recover japanese economy from the predicament by showa depression, however the increase of lending was delayed to begin about three years to that of production and to rise in stock prices because in the three years corporate enterprises expand their investment by their surplus funds stocked under deflation. harada and suzuki-loeffelholz (2007) shows growth of fixed assets are not correlated with increase of bank loans but however are correlated with increases in equity or corporate bonds strongly in the period of the recovery during the showa depression and concludes that the recovery of corporate enterprises then are supported by capital markets. 3. model and methods 3.1. models we introduce the model which has the determinants of the nominal long bond rate from sargent (1969). this model shows us that nominal interest rate is assumed to be determined by the three kinds of real determinants. one is the expected inflation rates and related ones. the others are the ones which are concerned with operating or intermediate targets of monetary policies and fiscal policy. the equation expressed in sargent (1969) is as follows; t s ttttt rgdprmrgdprfbern  543210  (1) where is the nominal interest rate, is the anticipated inflation rate, rfb is the real government fiscal balance, rgdp is real income or real gdp, and is the real supply of money. equation (1) means that nominal bond rates are affected by anticipated inflation, the government deficit, changes in real money supply and real income. sargent (1969) estimates equation like (1) for one-year and ten-year bond yields using annual data from 1902 to 1940. however the bond rate equation applied in this work are under the some kinds of non-traditional monetary policies from february of 1999 in japan when despite of extremely low interest rates the change rates of money supply had stayed low or negative. in the non-traditional monetary policy period, it is more appropriate to employ the other proxy variables instead of those for real money supply because boj had not been able to control it. we asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 45 substitute two kinds of proxy variables for money supply in this work. one is change rates of monetary base which is the operating target of boj since april in 2013 and the other is the change rate of aggregate loan amount of banks in japan. they could substitute the change in amounts of real money supply. and we omit the variable rfb because japanese long-terms bond rates which have stayed low in very narrow range seems to be uncorrelated with real government fiscal balance continuing to worsen as graph-3 shows. the correlation coefficient of the two variable are 0.077 and the p-value for the correlation of them is 0.320. and in the bond rate equation the impact of monetary policy action on the real rate need to be included to introduce cointegration analysis and error-correction model based on it, which is better adapted to both short-run and long-run determinants on the bond rates. now we show the long-term bond rate model as follows; ttttttt urgdprgdpcrloancrmbern  lnln 543210  (2) ,where crmb is the change rate of monetary base and crloan is the change rate in the aggregate amount of financial institutions in japan instead of the variable of. equation (2) describes the long-run responses of the bond rate to anticipated inflation and monetary policies. if some among above variables of equation (2) are nonstationary but cointegrated as in engle and granger (1987) the coefficients of the other variables may all be zero. we need another equation which describes short-run effects of fundamentals as mehra (1994) shows. long-run bond rate equation (2) ignores short-run effects and short-run dynamics. short-run equation is as follows; tttttt rgdprgdpcrloancrmbern 2 543210   ttu   16 (3) where is the lagged residual from the long-run bond equation (2), and is the second-difference operator. then, as mehra (1994) did, we produce the error correction model of the bond rate to as follows; rgdprgdpcrloancrmbern tttt  543210  tst k ks sst k ks sst k ks sst k ks s rgdpcrloancrmbe           8765  tst k ks s rgdp      2 9 (4) the 5 variables whose coefficients‟ numbers are from 1 to 5 are respectively the proxy variables for economic determinants. and the variables whose coefficients‟ numbers are from 5s to 9s ( s=1 to n) are the proxy variables for short-run dynamics. this equation is in an error-correction form, indicating that the bond rate will adjust in the short run if the actual bond rate differs from its long-run value determined in (2). the lagged error correction residual in (4) whose coefficient number is 5s to 9s ( s=1 to n) reflects the short-run influence of long-run dynamics on the bond rate. 3.2. data and definition of variables it is important problem that the proxy variable for anticipated inflation is unobservable to estimate equations (2), (3) and (4). for the empirical work here, we use the proxy variable for the actual inflation rate, and that for the anticipated inflation rates which is estimated by the modified carlson-parkin methods as shown in appendix. we adopted the monthly data for three kinds of periods. one is the period from january of 1999 till december of 2012. another is that from january of 1999 till december of 2013. and the other is that from january of 1999 till december 2014. we name them period a, b and c respectively. period b includes the 9 months and period c does more 12 months under qqe. the bond rates are the nominal yield of 10-year jgbs at the end of the months respectively. inflations are measured by the changes of consumer price index in japan released by statistics bureau of japan. and anticipated inflations are measured by the modified carlson-parkin methods. see appendix. the monthly real call rate, overnight and without collateral, is the nominal call rate minus the anticipated inflation rate at each end of the month. both the change rates of real monetary bases and the outstanding lending by financial institutions in japan are yearon-year basis according to bank of japan time-series data search. the data of real monthly fiscal balances are adopted from the ministry of finance of japan. we adjusted them seasonally by the x-arima-13-seats. and we changed the row numbers of the real monthly fiscal balances into the ratio forms scaled by real gdps which was seasonally adjusted as mehra (1994) did, setting the restriction that the coefficients of and , or and , in equation (2) are equal in magnitude but opposite in sigh. the data of seasonally adjusted monthly real gdps are estimated by japan center economic research. thus we induce equation (5)-a, (5)-b, (6)-a and (6)-b. equation (5)-a and (5)-b are long-run bond rate equations and equation (6)-a and (6)-b are short-run bond rate equations for empirical work as follows; a ttttttt urgdpargdpacrloanacrmbaaajgb  54321010  (5)-a b ttttttt urgdpbrgdpbcrloanbcrmbbebbjgb  54321010  (5)-b tttttt rgdpergdpecrloanecrmbeeejgb 2 54321010   e ttue  16 (6)-a tttttt rgdpfrgdpfcrloanfcrmbfeffjgb 2 54321010   f ttuf 16 (6)-b where jgb10 stands for the nominal japan government bond rates. are actual inflation rates and are anticipated inflation rates. we set another restriction that the coefficients on jgb10 and π(eπ) sum to zero. this restriction is effective in the case of a complete fisher-effect. in that case equation (5)-a and (5)-b could be changed into (5)-c and (5)-d respectively as follows; asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 46 c tttttt urgdpcrgdpccrloanccrmbccrjgb  4321010 (5)-c d tttttt urgdpdrgdpdcrloandcrmbdderjgb  5321010 (5)-d where rjgb10 is the real rates of 10 years jgbs which equal jgb rates minus actual inflation rates and rjgb10e is also the real rates of that which equal jgb rates minus anticipated inflation rates. and (6)-a and (6)-b could be transformed as well into (6)-c and (6)-d respectively as follows; rgdpgrgdpgcrloangcrmbggrjgb tttt 2 4321010  g ttug  15 (6)-c rgdphrgdphcrloanhcrmbhherjgb ttt 2 4321010  h ttuh  15 (6)-d now we induce the 8 kinds of long-run and short-run bond rate equations. 4. estimation results 4.1. unit root tests results first of all we need to test for the presence of a unit root to verify whether the variables making up the of longterm bond rate equations, (5)-a, (5)-b, (5)-c and (5)-d are nonstationary. we employed three kinds of unit root tests to test whether each variable has a unit root and is i(1) variable. they are augmented dickey-fuller test (adf test), dickey-fuller gls test (df-gls test) and perron unit root test. the null hypothesis of adf test and df-gls test are that each series contains a unit root. and that of perron unit root test is that each series contains a unit root with a structural break. the lag lengths are chosen based on akaike information criteria. adf test and df-gls test are built on the dickey–fuller test. adf is improved in that the lag terms of the endogenous variables were added in the regressions for test to remove the serial correlation of error term. and dfgls were improved in that the data are detrended applied by generalized least squares (gls). the power of dfgls is known to be strong. and perron unit root test is developed by perron (1997) allowing for structural change like a break in the trend function at an unknown time. this test could redeem the weakness of the dickey–fuller style unit-root test. table 1, 2 and 3 show the results of unit root tests for the all periods respectively. judging from the statistics of the three kinds of tests, all variables except for eπ for period a are considered as non-stationary variables in all three periods. for these variables we cannot reject the null hypotheses of unit root when their forms are levels. however, when their forms are 1st difference, we can reject the null hypotheses of unit root. therefore as for three periods, we cannot find cointegrating relationships in the equation b. as for perron unit root test, rgdp for both periods are not i(1) to be exact owing to their structural changes for such as lehman‟s shock. however, we consider it as i(1) variable because other two tests accepts them so definitely. 4.2. cointegration tests results then we employed three kinds of cointegration tests to find cointegrating relationship among the variables which are considered to have unit roots. firstly, augmented dickey fuller (adf) test on the residuals whose null hypothesis is that the residuals of the models composed of the variables have unit roots. secondly, johansen cointegration test developed by johansen and juselius (1990) whose null hypothesis is that there are no cointegrating vectors in the system. and finally engle-granger (eg) test, a method of single-equation cointegration tests based on the dynamic ols (dols). the null hypothesis of eg test is that there are no cointegrating relationships in the single equation. in the all tests above the lag lengths were selected using scwarz information criteria to determine them. table 4, 5 and 6 present the results of the cointegration tests, only showing the systems we found cointegrating relationships. they are (rjgb10, crloan), (rjgb10, rgdp), (rjgb10, crmb, rgdp), (rjgb10, crloan, rgdp), (rjgb10e, crloan), (rjgb10e, rgdp), (rjgb10e, crmb, crloan), (rjgb10e, crmb, rgdp), (rjgb10e, crmb, crloan, rgdp) in period a, (jgb10, eπ, crmb, rgdp), (rjgb10, rgdp), (rjgb10, crmb, rgdp), (rjgb10, crmb, crloan, rgdp), (rjgb10e, crmb, rgdp) and (rjgb10e, crmb, crloan, rgdp) in period b and (rjgb10e, crmb) and (rjgb10e, crmb, rgdp) in period c. our criterion of the cointegration tests is that all five kinds of test results should be significant at less than 5% levels. 4.3. dynamic ols estimation table-7, 8 and 9 show the dynamic ols (dols) estimates of the cointegrating relationships among the bond rates and other i(1) variables in equation (5)-b, (5)-c and (5)-d respectively in the three kinds of periods. the estimation result of the system (jgb10, eπ, crmb, rgdp) in period b as table 7 shows is the only one extracted from equation (5)-b. table-8 shows the estimation results for systems of (rjgb10, crloan), (rjgb10, rgdp), (rjgb10, crmb, rgdp) and (rjgb10, crloan, rgdp) for period a and, (rjgb10, crmb, rgdp), (rjgb10, crmb, crloan, rgdp) for period b. table 9 shows the estimation results for systems of (rjgb10e, crloan), (rjgb10e, rgdp), (rjgb10e, crmb, crloan), (rjgb10e, crmb, rgdp) and (rjgb10e, crmb, crloan, rgdp) for period a, (rjgb10e, rgdp) and (rjgb10e, crmb, crloan, rgdp) for period b and (rjgb10e, crmb) and (rjgb10e, crmb, rgdp) for period c. as table 7 shows for equation (5)-b, only for period b, both coefficients of crmb and rgdp are negative significantly while that of eπ is negative insignificantly. it means that the growths of monetary base and japanese asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 47 economy made long-term interest rates lower from 1999 till 2013, for period b. and we cannot say that expected inflation rates have negative effect on long-term interest rates. and as table 8 shows for equation (5)-c, only for period a and b, twos of respective three coefficients of crmb and crloan and all coefficients of rgdp are negative significantly. it also means that the growths of monetary base, loan amounts and japanese economy made long-term interest rates lower for both period a and b. finally as table 9 shows for equation (5)-d, all coefficients of crmb and most coefficients of crloan and rgdp are negative significantly. it also means that the growths of monetary base, loan amounts and japanese economy made long-term interest rates lower for all three periods. comparing the coefficients of the variables in period a, b and c, in all three equations, only insignificant coefficient for crmb is found only in period a, crmb of (rjgb10, crmb, rgdp) in equation (5)-c. moreover, in equation (5)-d where complete fisher effect are assumed, the absolute values of the coefficients of crmb n period a which do not include the period under qqe are totally larger than those in period b and c which include it. and comparing those coefficients of crmb between period b and c, those in period c is larger. these differences could be owing to an effect of qqe introduced in april of 2013. after introducing qqe in 2013, the lowering effect for long-term interest rates are reduced. this is the restrictive effect of qqe in 2013 which need time to take. however, after qqe effect are reduced and economy slowed in later 2013, such effect also seemed to be reduced. 4.4. error correction model regression then we substitute the long-run equations, (5)-a, (5)-b, (5)-c and (5)-d to short-run equations (6)-a, (6)-b, (6)-c and (6)-d respectively to estimate the error correction model, hereinafter referred to as “ecm, with instrument variables like equation (4). to begin with, long-run equations are lagged for one period. then solve them for the disturbance term, ut-1. and finally we substitute them into short-term equations respectively. we induce the short-run bond equation (7)-a, (7)-b, (7)-c and (7)-d which are jointed with the long-run part as follows;   tttttt rgdpergdpecrloanecrmbeeaeejgb 2 5432106010   1561461361261-t16   tttt rgdpergdpaecrloanaecrmbaeae  e ttjgbe  16 10 (7)-a   tttttt rgdpfrgdpfcrloanfcrmbffbffjgb 2 5432106010   1561461361261-t16   tttt rgdpbfrgdpbfcrloanbfcrmbbfebf  f ttjgbf  16 10 (7)-b   tttt rgdpgrgdpgcrloangcrmbgcggrjgb 2 432105010  145135125115   tttt rgdpcgrgdpcgcrloancgcrmbcg g ttrjgbg  15 10 (7)-c   tttt rgdphrgdphcrloanhcrmbhdhherjgb 2 432105010  145135125115   tttt rgdpdhrgdpdhcrloandhcrmbdh h tterjgbh  15 10 (7)-d we regress four kinds of models, equation (7)-a, (7)-b, (7)-c and (7)-d by generalized method of moments (gmm) estimation with instrumental variables. two of them, equation (7)-c and (7)-d are with the restriction to assume the complete fischer-effect works. and equation (7)-a and (7)-c have in common that they include the variable for actual inflation. instrumental variables we employ, for example in equation (7)-a, are as follows;. jgb10t-1, πt-1, rcallt-1, crmbt-1, crloant-1, rgdpt-1, δrgdpt-1, δπt-1, δcrmbt-1, δcrloant-1, δrgdpt-1, δ 2 rgdpt-1, δπt-2, δcrmbt-2, δcrloant-2, δrgdpt-2, δ 2 rgdpt-2, δjgb10t-1, δjgb10t-2 table10, 11 and 12 show the result of the regression of the four kinds of ecm in period a, b and c respectively. although not many coefficients are significant, the sign conditions are as we had expected. all the coefficients of crmbt-1, and most coefficients of rgdpt-1 and crloant-1 are negative. in period b and c, in equation (7)-c and (7)-d with restriction for assumption of complete fisher effect, three coefficients of crmbt-1 and rgdpt-1 are negative with the exception that that of rgdpt-1 in equation (7)-d is negative insignificantly as well. meanwhile, in period a, only one coefficient for rgdp t-1 in equation (7)-c is negative significantly with the restriction above. 5. conclusion the results of dynamic ols estimation show that in long-term equations (5)-b, (5)-c and (5)-d, most sign conditions of the coefficients for the proxy variables of monetary base and change rates of loans are negative significantly. it means that the more both the monetary base and loan outstanding increase, the lower real bond rates decline with cointegrating relationships under the zero-interest boundary. and the results of ecms show that on the assumption that complete fischer effect works increases and the rises of increase rate of loans outstanding by financial institutions also lower the nominal and real interest rates in the short run paradoxically. even under the non-traditional monetary policy in japan from 1999, it has been very difficult of japanese economy to escape from the swamp of deflation and it has not been realized yet. even though monetary base and lending increase more, the nominal and real long-term bond rates will decline in the long-run through the cointegrating relationship. after longer duration of the unusual economic condition with non-traditional monetary easing than we had expected, real economy would recover and escape from the stagnant deflation. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 48 judging from the estimation results of dols, we can conclude in three points as follows. firstly, only by the increase of monetary base, real interest rates could not be lowered. secondly by the combination of the increase of monetary base, the loans outstanding real and the recovery of real economy, especially real interest rates could be lowered after some interval or cointegration process. thirdly, even by non-traditional monetary policies it takes even more time than had been expected to recover the economy because the increase of loans outstanding and recovery of real economy is the first step before the decline of real interest rates. as iida and yasushi (2004) pointed out, even in phase of recovery from showa depression in 1930s, banks‟ aggregate balances of loans did not increase very much because corporate enterprises expand their investment firstly by their surplus funds stocked under deflation. it take time of the corporate enterprise in our age to increase their loan outstanding. in qqe and additional qqe, as a portfolio rebalancing effect, it is expected many investors and financial institutions allocate their funds to risk assets such as stocks, foreign bonds and loans as a result that boj purchased long-term jgb in large quantities. it is the ideal transmission mechanism by such asset allocations that lead to the recovery of capital investments by the lowered interest rates and the expansion of exports by the weaker yen successfully. however our results indicate that even after allocation to loans by the financial institutions in japan both the nominal and real interest rates of jgbs still be lowered in the previous non-traditional monetary policies. lowered interest rates are favorable step to recover the economy. therefore whether qqe supplying much more monetary base than in previous policies is enough or not should be judged carefully. and as signal effect (time axis effect by boj), it is expected setting a high reserve target in an adamant attitude by the governor of boj alter our expectations and raise the anticipated inflation. the sudden announcement of unexpected expansion of qqe program on 31st of october 2014 are thought of as a very effective signal for an adamant attitude of boj. according to our estimation results of equation (5)-c and (5)-d, real interest rates are also lowered by both increases of monetary base and aggregate amount of loan outstanding on the assumption that complete fisher effect works. however there is a limit in this paper to find whether the complete fisher effect works or not and signal effect works on japanese real economy under the zero-interest boundary especially in 2013. in the previous non-traditional monetary policies, interest rates were lowered having cointegrating relationship with increase rates of monetary base and loans. however it failed to rise in the long-run accompanied by the economic recoveries at last. it is important to perform in more adamant attitudes for the governor of boj to succeed in qqe than in the previous non-traditional monetary policies. mr. kuroda the present governor of boj emphasized in his inauguration speech that they should do whatever is necessary to overcome deflation and make all-out efforts to utilize every possible resource rather than to adopt an incremental approach or to adopt gradualism. it is very ideal attitude as a governor of boj to convey a strong and clear commitment. however it is also important in the long-run they could continue with the quantitative and qualitative monetary easing. he stated that aiming to achieve the price stability target of 2 percent, as long as it is necessary for maintaining that target in a stable manner, they will not hesitate to make adjustments as appropriate. they also have time horizon of 2 years which was set to convince many people including those who are rather skeptical that boj will continue with enough monetary easing to achieve the target of 2 percent of inflation rate. in qqe, boj implement the non-traditional monetary policy with unflinching purpose, numerical target and time horizon. however, it may take much time to achieve 2% inflation rate escaping from deflation. if things go wrong, qqe may end up with no result and effect. it is appropriate to conclude that qqe needs its continuity at least. graph-1. monetary base, call rate and bond rate from january, 1999 till 2014 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 49 graph-2. change rates of monetary base, money stock and loan outstanding from 1999 till 2014 graph-3. japanese government‟s fiscal situation from 1999 till 2013 table-1. unit root tests results (period a) period a: january 1999 – december 2012 variables augmented dickeyfuller test t-statistics lag length df gls t statistic lag length perron unit root test t-statistic lag length level of variables jgb10 rjgb10 rjgb10e π eπ crmb crloan rgdp -2.92 -2.84 -3.16 -2.21 -4.00 -1.31 -1.19 -1.61 0 12 13 12 11 12 13 0 * *** -2.35 -2.81 -2.98 -1.91 -2.33 -1.32 -1.24 -0.50 0 12 13 12 13 12 13 0 * * * ** -4.57 -4.58 -4.27 -5.15 -4.83 -3.88 -3.85 -5.47 0 1 2 1 4 3 3 0 ** 1 st difference of variables δjgb10 δrjgb10 δrjgb10e δπ δeπ δcrmb δcrloan δrgdp -13.04 -6.17 -4.28 -6.43 -4.12 -4.27 -5.17 -13.70 0 11 12 11 12 13 12 0 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** -8.32 -5.62 -4.08 -2.91 -2.64 -4.28 -3.56 -13.23 1 11 12 12 12 13 13 0 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** -14.33 0 *** as for table1, 2, and 3, "***", "**" and "*" denote statistical significance at the 1%, 5% and 10% levels, respectively. the base models of jgb10 and rjgb10 and rjgb10e include their constant terms and trend lines, while the others include only their constant terms. the lag length employed in those unit root tests are selected by the akaike information criterion. perron unit root test is developed by perron (1997) with a break in the trend function at an unknown time.the critical values of perron unit root test we adopted are as follows; 10% 5% 1% perron test -4.92 -5.23 -5.92. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 50 table-2. unit root tests results (period b) period b: january 1999 – december 2013 variables augmented dickey-fuller test t-statistics lag length df gls tstatistic lag length perron unit root test t-statistic lag length level of variables jgb10 rjgb10 rjgb10e π eπ crmb crloan rgdp -2.91 -2.24 -2.81 -1.64 -2.74 -0.62 -1.07 -1.41 0 12 13 12 13 13 13 0 * -2.44 -2.19 -2.56 -1.70 -2.23 -0.65 -1.26 -0.17 0 12 13 12 13 13 13 0 * ** -4.82 -4.08 -4.88 -4.80 -4.72 -3.15 -3.81 -5.70 0 12 13 12 9 12 13 0 ** 1st difference of variables δjgb10 δrjgb10 δrjgb10e δπ δeπ δcrmb δcrloan δrgdp -13.35 -6.25 -4.39 -6.48 -4.16 -4.99 -5.33 -14.27 0 11 12 11 12 12 12 0 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** -12.60 -5.85 -4.24 -2.71 -2.37 -4.48 -2.52 -13.46 0 11 12 12 12 12 13 0 *** *** *** *** ** *** ** *** -16.01 0 *** table-3. unit root tests results (period c) period c: january 1999 – december 2014 variables augmented dickey-fuller test t-statistics lag length df gls tstatistic lag length perron unit root test t-statistic lag length level of variables jgb10 rjgb10 rjgb10e π eπ crmb crloan rgdp -2.58 -1.88 -2.40 -1.43 -2.19 -0.11 -0.72 -1.37 0 12 13 12 13 13 13 1 -2.35 -1.89 -2.18 -1.63 -2.09 -0.02 -1.17 -0.01 0 12 13 12 13 13 13 1 * ** -4.82 -4.08 -4.88 -4.80 -4.72 -3.15 -3.81 -6.03 0 12 13 12 9 12 13 0 *** 1st difference of variables δjgb10 δrjgb10 δrjgb10e δπ δeπ δcrmb δcrloan δrgdp -13.90 -5.89 -4.53 -5.89 -4.28 -5.36 -5.34 -15.63 0 11 12 11 12 12 12 0 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** -13.14 -5.58 -4.42 -3.30 -2.65 -5.10 -0.78 -14.84 0 11 12 11 12 12 14 0 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** -17.13 0 *** table-4. cointegration tests results (period a) period a: january 1999 – december 2012 system adf test johansen test engle-granger test equation t-statistics (p-value) trace test (p-value) maximum eigenvalue test (p-value) tau statistics (p-value) z statistics (p-value) lag lag lag (rjgb10, rloan) (rjgb10, rgdp) (rjgb10, crmb, rgdp) (rjgb10, crloan, rgdp) (rjgb10e, crloan) (rjgb10e, rgdp) (rjgb10e, crmb, crloan) (rjgb10e, crmb, rgdp) (rjgb10e, crmb, crloan, rgdp) 4 1 1 1 9 2 9 3 3 (0.01) ** (0.00) *** (0.00) *** (0.00) *** (0.03) ** (0.01) ** (0.00) *** (0.00) *** (0.00) *** 1 2 3 4 1 4 1 4 4 29.41 (0.00) 25.93 (0.00) 40.15 (0.00) 51.57 (0.00) 22.88 (0.00) 19.39 (0.01) 35.91 (0.01) 36.18 (0.01) 61.14 (0.00) ** * ** * ** * ** * ** * ** ** * ** * ** * 24.51 (0.00) 22.07 (0.00) 27.91 (0.00) 28.63 (0.00) 19.28 (0.01) 14.39 (0.05) 24.99 (0.01) 25.26 (0.01) 32.75 (0.01) ** * ** * ** * ** * ** * ** ** ** ** 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 0 0 -3.51 (0.04) -3.94 (0.01) -3.99 (0.03) -3.93 (0.04) -3.52 (0.04) -3.63 (0.03) -4.15 (0.02) -5.78 (0.00) -5.80 (0.00) ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * ** * -25.00 (0.02) -31.29 (0.00) -31.97 (0.01) -31.07 (0.02) -30.59 (0.00) -32.12 (0.00) -45.05 (0.00) -55.63 (0.00) -56.06 (0.00) ** ** * ** ** ** * ** * ** * ** * ** * (4)-c (4)-c (4)-c (4)-c (4)-d (4)-d (4)-d (4)-d (4)-d as for table 4, 5, and 6, "***", "**" and "*" denote statistical significance at the 1%, 5% and 10% levels, respectively. the lag length employed in those unit root tests are selected by the akaike information criterion. in any test, the base models of all variables include only their constant terms. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 51 table-5. cointegration tests results (period b) period b: january 1999 – december 2013 system adf test johansen test engle-granger test equatio n t-statistics (p-value) trace test (p-value) maximum eigenvalue test (p-value) tau statistics (p-value) z statistics (p-value) lag lag la g (jgb10, eπ, crmb, rgdp) (rjgb10, rgdp) (rjgb10, crmb, rgdp) (rjgb10, crmb, crloan, rgdp) (rjgb10e, crmb, rgdp) (rjgb10e, crmb, crloan, rgdp) 0 1 1 1 0 0 (0.01) *** (0.00) *** (0.00) *** (0.00) *** (0.00) *** (0.00) *** 2 2 2 4 4 4 51.41 (0.02) 23.20 (0.00) 36.79 (0.01) 54.26 (0.01) 32.25 (0.03) 51.70 (0.02) ** ** * ** * ** ** ** 28.41 (0.04) 19.42 (0.01) 30.89 (0.00) 31.12 (0.02) 25.82 (0.01) 27.97 (0.04) ** ** * ** * ** ** ** 0 1 2 2 3 3 -3.82 (0.11) -3.60 (0.03) -4.47 (0.01) -4.48 (0.02) -4.65 (0.00) -4.67 (0.01) ** ** ** * ** ** * ** -25.66 (0.12) -29.80 (0.01) -48.32 (0.00) -48.45 (0.00) -56.94 (0.00) -57.66 (0.00) ** ** * ** * ** * ** * ** * (4)-b (4)-c (4)-c (4)-c (4)-d (4)-d table-6. cointegration tests results (period c) period c: january 1999 – december 2014 system adf test johansen test engle-granger test equatio n t-statistics (p-value) trace test (p-value) maximum eigenvalue test (p-value) tau statistics (p-value) z statistics (p-value) lag lag la g (rjgb10e, crmb) (rjgb10e, crmb, rgdp) 3 0 (0.00) *** (0.00) *** 1 1 18.06 (0.02) 36.27 (0.01) ** ** * 17.37 (0.02) 31.90 (0.00) ** ** * 3 0 -3.86 (0.01) -5.73 (0.00) ** ** * -39.43 (0.00) -56.32 (0.00) ** * ** * (4)-d (4)-d table-7. dynamic ols estimation results (equation (5)-b) period b: january 1999 – december 2013 system (jgb10, eπ, crmb, rgdp) variables coefficient t-value c 4.63 (4.30) *** eπ -0.01 (-0.23) crmb -1.66 (-5.00) *** crloan rgdp -6.41 (-3.03) *** lead 0 lag 0 adjusted r-squared 0.43 as for table-7, 8, and 9, "***", "**" and "*" denote statistical significance at the 1%, 5% and 10% levels, respectively table-8. dynamic ols estimation results (equation (5)-c) period a: january 1999 – december 2012 system (rjgb10, crloan) (rjgb10, rgdp) variables coefficient t-value coefficient t-value c 1.44 (9.86) *** 12.48 (4.37) *** eπ crmb crloan -12.82 (-3.12) *** rgdp -21.88 (-3.81) *** lead 5 7 lag 0 2 adjusted r-squared 0.40 0.51 period b: january 1999 – december 2013 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 52 system (rjgb10, crmb, rgdp) (rjgb10, crloan, rgdp) variables coefficient t-value coefficient t-value c 16.48 (4.87) *** 21.34 (6.16) *** eπ crmb -0.69 (-0.53) crloan 12.34 (2.60) ** rgdp -29.69 (-4.41) *** -39.00 (-5.70) *** lead 0 0 lag 0 3 adjusted r-squared 0.51 0.48 period b: january 1999 – december 2013 system (rjgb10, crmb, rgdp) (rjgb10, crmb, crloan, rgdp) variables coefficient t-value coefficient t-value c 21.64 (7.65) *** 23.92 (6.61) *** eπ crmb -3.01 (-3.09) *** -2.72 (-2.87) *** crloan 6.54 (1.36) rgdp -39.91 (-7.08) *** -44.24 (-6.20) *** lead 0 0 lag 3 3 adjusted r-squared 0.51 0.53 table-9. dynamic ols estimation results (equation (5)-d) period a: january 1999 – december 2012 system (rjgb10e, crloan) (rjgb10e, rgdp) variables coefficient t-value coefficient t-value c 2.34 (9.58) *** 11.32 (2.44) ** eπ crmb crloan -3.00 (-0.45) rgdp -17.96 (-1.92) * lead 0 0 lag 0 0 adjusted r-squared 0.02 0.07 period a: january 1999 – december 2012 system (rjgb10e, crmb, crloan) (rjgb10e, crmb, rgdp) (rjgb10e, crmb, crloan, rgdp) variables coefficient t-value coefficient t-value coefficient t-value c 2.31 (11.55) *** 18.16 (6.16) *** 17.67 (3.36) *** eπ crmb -9.94 (-4.38) *** -5.19 (-2.88) *** -5.23 (-2.68) *** crloan -28.00 (-3.51) *** -0.85 (-0.12) rgdp -31.22 (-3.31) *** -30.26 (-2.91) *** lead 5 0 0 lag 5 0 0 adjusted r-squared 0.30 0.19 0.19 period b: january 1999 – december 2013 system (rjgb10e, rgdp) (rjgb10e, crmb, crloan, rgdp) variables coefficient t-value coefficient t-value c 13.97 (3.13) *** 16.81 (3.41) *** eπ crmb -4.43 (-3.54) *** crloan 1.22 (0.19) rgdp -23.42 (-2.62) *** -28.46 (-2.94) *** lead 0 0 lag 0 0 adjusted r-squared 0.12 0.27 period c: january 1999 – december 2014 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 53 system (rjgb10e, crmb) (rjgb10e, crmb, rgdp) variables coefficient t-value coefficient t-value c 2.64 (11.77) *** 20.36 (5.56) *** crmb -6.81 (-5.26) *** -6.46 (-6.55) *** rgdp -35.54 (-4.86) *** lead 1 1 lag 1 1 adjusted r-squared 0.34 0.53 table-10. error correction model (period a) period a: january 1999 – december 2012 (7)-a based on actual inflation (7)-b based on anticipated inflation (7)-c based on actual inflation (7)-d based on anticipated inflation no restriction with restriction variable coefficient t-value co efficient t-value co efficient t-value co efficient t-value c jgb10t-1 rjgb10t-1 rjgb10et-1 πt-1 eπt-1 crmbt-1 crloant-1 rgdpt-1 δrgdpt-1 δπt δeπt δcrmbt δcrloant δrgdpt δjgb10t-1 δjgb10t-2 δrjgb10t-1 δrjgb10t-2 δrjgb10et-1 δrjgb10et-2 1.88 -0.22 0.02 -0.74 -0.91 -3.11 -2.90 0.17 -0.79 -2.91 -27.66 0.11 0.07 （1.77 ） （1.84） (0.48) (-1.52) (-0.72) (-1.71) (-0.56) (1.05) (-0.40) (-0.53) (-1.33) (0.67) (0.44) * * * 0.73 -0.13 -0.00 -0.40 -0.61 -1.11 -1.35 -0.02 -0.24 -0.70 -11.86 -0.02 0.11 (1.08) (-1.38) (-0.06) (-1.41) (-0.82) (-0.97) (-0.30) (-0.19) (-0.18) (-0.09) (-0.86) (-0.09) (0.55) 3.77 -0.18 -0.68 -1.24 -6.94 -0.73 -0.90 -13.02 -51.37 0.20 0.01 (2.89) (-3.15) (-1.09) (-0.37) (-2.69) (-0.07) (-0.19) (-1.19) (-1.34) (2.56) (0.10) ** * ** * ** * ** 4.74 -0.31 -2.46 -5.59 -7.99 4.81 -6.01 -53.79 -60.36 -0.08 -0.18 (1.29) (-2.27) (-1.09) (-0.73) (0.28) (0.20) (-0.38) (-1.38) (-0.64) (-0.70) (-1.63) ** dw 1.94 1.89 2.02 1.98 hansen‟s j statistics (p-value) 1.05 (0.79) 4.93 (0.18) 2.56 (0.28) 0.68 (0.71) as for table-10, 11, and 12, "***", "**" and "*" denote statistical significance at the 1%, 5% and 10% levels, respectively hansen's j statistics are the most common test statistics in gmm and used to see whether the instruments are uncorrelated with the errors to satisfy the orthogonality condition. the test statistic has a χ2 distribution under the null hypothesis that the instruments are valid. table-11. error correction model (period b) period b: january 1999 – december 2013 (7)-a based on actual inflation (7)-b based on anticipated inflation (7)-c based on actual inflation (7)-d based on anticipated inflation no restriction with restriction variable co efficien t t-value co efficien t t-value co efficien t t-value co efficien t t-value c jgb10t-1 rjgb10t-1 rjgb10et-1 πt-1 eπt-1 crmbt-1 crloant-1 rgdpt-1 δrgdpt-1 δπt δeπt δcrmbt δcrloant 1.31 -0.16 0.03 -0.37 -0.29 -2.14 -0.51 0.16 0.24 -4.27 （1.48 ） （1.54） (0.30) (-1.67) (-0.38) (-1.38) (-0.16) (1.14) * 0.22 -0.07 0.01 -0.16 -0.57 -0.25 0.80 0.03 0.88 -5.88 (0.39) (-0.94) (0.26) (-0.94) (-0.87) (-0.25) (0.20) (0.31) (0.63) (-0.72) 4.83 -0.19 -0.70 0.41 -9.00 9.75 3.65 -13.73 (3.06) (-3.36) (-2.42) (0.16) (-2.90) (1.03) (0.78) (-1.24) ** * ** * ** ** * 4.80 -0.26 -1.39 -2.20 -8.32 14.32 2.55 -46.15 (1.42) (-2.38) (-2.04) (-0.45) (-1.21) (0.74) (0.23) (-1.27) ** ** asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 54 δrgdpt δjgb10t-1 δjgb10t-2 δrjgb10t-1 δrjgb10t-2 δrjgb10et-1 δrjgb10et-2 -15.83 0.09 -0.02 (0.14) (-1.00) (-1.18) (0.67) (-0.16) -5.44 0.05 -0.04 (-0.48) (0.21) (-0.20) -21.04 0.24 -0.01 (-0.56) (2.74) (-0.10) ** * -38.84 -0.08 -0.20 (-0.52) (-0.66) (-2.17) ** dw 1.98 1.95 2.06 1.98 hansen‟s j statistics (p-value) 2.88 (0.41) 5.54 (0.14) 1.31 (0.52) 1.04 (0.52) table-12. error correction model (period c) period c: january 1999 – december 2014 (7)-a based on actual inflation (7)-b based on anticipated inflation (7)-c based on actual inflation (7)-d based on anticipated inflation no restriction with restriction variable co efficient t-value co efficient t-value co efficient t-value co efficient t-value c jgb10t-1 rjgb10t-1 rjgb10et-1 πt-1 eπt-1 crmbt-1 crloant-1 rgdpt-1 δrgdpt-1 δπt δeπt δcrmbt δcrloant δrgdpt δjgb10t-1 δjgb10t-2 δrjgb10t-1 δrjgb10t-2 δrjgb10et-1 δrjgb10et-2 1.46 -0.16 0.03 -0.38 -0.36 -2.46 -0.77 0.18 0.98 -4.68 -19.42 0.07 -0.05 （1.45 ） （1.35） (0.83) (-1.63) (-0.40) (-1.32) (-0.22) (1.06) (0.33) (-0.81) (-1.30) (0.49) (-0.23) * 0.11 -0.05 -0.00 -0.04 -0.50 -0.11 -0.86 -0.01 1.45 -2.68 -11.74 -0.04 -0.06 (0.18) (-0.59) (-0.07) (-0.21) (-0.77) (-0.10) (-0.23) (-0.06) (0.80) (-0.35) (-0.99) (-0.19) (-0.29) 4.83 -0.18 -0.81 -0.14 -9.06 5.40 5.77 -18.07 -24.38 0.21 -0.04 (2.73) (-3.62) (-3.13) (-0.05) (-2.58) (0.58) (0.92) (-1.45) (-0.59) (2.26) (-0.31) ** * ** * ** * ** ** 4.98 -0.23 -1.31 -2.85 -8.94 9.96 7.56 -45.08 -60.00 -0.10 -0.23 (1.35) (-2.64) (-1.89) (-0.56) (-1.20) (0.52) (0.63) (-1.36) (-0.77) (-0.94) (-2.60) ** * ** ** dw 2.01 1.92 2.12 1.98 hansen‟s j statistics (p-value) 2.06 (0.56) 5.01 (0.17) 1.69 (0.43) 1.57 (0.46) references bernanke, b.s., r.r. vincent and s.p. brian, 2004. monetary policy alternatives at the zero bound: an empirical assesment. brooking paper on economic activity, 2004(2): 1-100. view at google scholar | view at publisher engle, r. and c.w. granger, 1987. cointegration and error-correction: representation. estimation and testind, econometrica, 55(2): 251-276. view at google scholar | view at publisher fujiwara, i., 2006. evaluating monetary policy when nominal interest rates are almost zero. journal of the japanese and international economy, 20(3): 434-453. view at google scholar | view at publisher harada, y. and k. suzuki-loeffelholz, 2007. contributions of bank loans and capital market to recovery from the showa depression. esri discussion paper series no.174: 1-22. hicks, j.r., 1937. mr. keynes and the „classics‟. a suggested interpretation. econometrica, 5(2): 147-159. view at google scholar | view at publisher honda, y., k. yoshihiro and t. minoru, 2007. an injection of base money at zero interest rates: empirical evidence from the japanese experience 2001–2006. discussion papers in economics and business discussion paper series no. 198: 1-36. horii, m. and k. terai, 2004. k ruson p kinh ni yoru infure kitai no keisoku to shomondai. esri discussion paper series no. 91. iida, y. and o. yasushi, 2004. 'showa kyoko to yoso infure ritsu no suikei' (the showa depression and estimation of inflation expectation). in kikuo iwata ed. "showa kyoko no kenkyu (studies on the shouwa great depression)." toyo keizai shinposha 2004: 187–217. johansen, s. and k. juselius, 1990. maximum likelihood estimation and inference on cointegration-with applications to the demand for money. oxford bulletin of economics and statistics, 52(2): 169-210. view at google scholar | view at publisher mehra, y.p., 1994. an error-correction model of the long-term bond rate. federal reserve bank of richmond economic quarterly, 80(4): 4968. view at google scholar miyao, r., 2002. liquidity traps and the stability of moneydemand: is japan really trapped at the zero bound?. rieb discussion paper no.127. kobe university, october 2002. perron, p., 1997. further evidence on breaking trend functions in macroeconomic variables. journal of econometrics, 80(2): 355-385. view at google scholar | view at publisher sargent, t.j., 1969. commodity price expectations and the interest rate. quarterly journal of economics, 83(1): 127-140. view at google scholar | view at publisher https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=monetary%20policy%20alternatives%20at%20the%20zero%20bound:%20an%20empirical%20assessment http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/eca.2005.0002 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=cointegration%20and%20error-correction:%20representation http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1913236 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=evaluating%20monetary%20policy%20when%20nominal%20interest%20rates%20are%20almost%20zero http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jjie.2006.02.001 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=mr.%20keynes%20and%20the%20‘classics’.%20a%20suggested%20interpretation http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1907242 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=maximum%20likelihood%20estimation%20and%20inference%20on%20cointegration—with%20applications%20to%20the%20demand%20for%20money http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.1990.mp52002003.x https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q= https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=further%20evidence%20on%20breaking%20trend%20functions%20in%20macroeconomic%20variables https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=further%20evidence%20on%20breaking%20trend%20functions%20in%20macroeconomic%20variables http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0304-4076(97)00049-3 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=commodity%20price%20expectations%20and%20the%20interest%20rate http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1883997 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 55 bibliography miyao, r., 2005. use of money supply in the conduct of japan‟s monetary policy: reexamining the time series evidence. japanese economic review, 56(2): 165-187. view at google scholar | view at publisher zivot, e. and k. andrews, 1992. further evidence on the great crash, the oil price shock, and the unit root hypothesis. journal of business and economic statistics, 10(3): 251–270. view at google scholar | view at publisher appendix how to estimate expected inflation rates in japan by the carlson-parkin method is as follows. 1. assumption and variables (1) there could be the threshold value, t in the change of the actual inflation rate t . the respondents of surveys for expected inflation rates could perceive the symptom of the changes of inflation rates touching the threshold values correctly. (2) the respondents of surveys would answer, “go up”, when the expected inflation rates, te is higher than tt   (3) the respondents of surveys would answer, “go down”, when te is lower than tt   . (4) the respondents of surveys would answer, “stay the same”, when te is higher than or equal to tt   while te is lower than or equal to tt   . the table bellow shows these assumptions (2), (3) and (4). (5) it is assumed that the answers by the respondents of surveys are normally distributed which is expressed by  2, ttn  . therefore we can express the two kinds of distributions as follows;            t t tt a e   pr (1) where ta is the ratio of the respondents who answered “go up” and ta is t ttt    .  tttt eb   pr            t t tt b e   pr (2) where tb is the ratio of the respondents who answered “go down” and tb is t ttt    . 2. the estimation of the expected inflation by regression analysis equation（1）could be expressed by cumulative normal distribution as follows;  tt t tt t aa e a            1pr   (3) in the same way.  tt t tt t bb e b              pr (4) where   is the cumulative normal distribution function. the relation between the mean values and the standard deviations of expected inflation rates with ta and tb could be expressed as follows; tt tt tt ba ba     (5) with the estimation of t in the equation (5), we could get the anticipated inflation rate for each period. 3. application to the japanese data in original carlson-parkin method, threshold  which is common throughout the whole periods is applied in the equation (6) as follows with the condition that    t t t t t t 11  .                t t tt tt t t t ba ba 1 1   (6) and the expected value of anticipated inflation rate  could be expressed by the equation (5) above. however, we use the diffusion index called “prediction for prices“ of the consumer behavior forecasting survey by cabinet office, government of japan as reference index for the japanese people‟s anticipation for inflation, in  tttt ea   pr https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=use%20of%20money%20supply%20in%20the%20conduct%20of%20japan’s%20monetary%20policy:%20reexamining%20the%20time%20series%20evidence http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5876.2005.00325.x https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=further%20evidence%20on%20the%20great%20crash,%20the%20oil%20price%20shock,%20and%20the%20unit%20root%20hypothesis http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07350015.1992.10509904 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 42-56 56 which whether the inflation rate instead of the level of prices as of then “go up” or “go down” are inquired. therefore equation (5) is not appropriate to use here. horii and terai (2004) introduce the modified carlson-parkin method adjusted for japanese statistics. according to it, equation (5) is modified into equation (5)‟ as follows; tt tt ttt ba ba     (5)‟ where  is the actual inflation rate. but now there is another problem. in the original carlson-parkin method,  is calculated on the assumption that the average values of anticipated inflation rates throughout the observing period equal that of the actual inflation rates then. without another modification, left-side and right-side of equation (5)‟ or  would be zero and it means that the anticipated inflation rate always equals the actual inflation rate in each period. it makes no sense. the modified carlson-parkin method assumes that anticipated inflation rates equal the average rate of forward inflation rates for the next one year. in this thesis we need the monthly anticipated inflation rates, that is    t t ttt 1 1221 12   . therefore equation (6) for modified carlson-parkin method is expressed as follows;            t t t t ttt t t t tt tt t t t t t t ba ba 1 1 1221 111 12    (6) therefore,                t t tt tt ttt ba ba 1 4211112 12 1112122    (7) substituting the above to equation (5), we can estimate the anticipated inflation rates. graph-4 shows the movement of anticipated inflation rate, solid line, and the actual inflation rate, the dot line from january of 1999 until december of 2012. graph-4. anticipated inflation rate estimated by carlson-parkin method owing to the temporary run-up of the resource and other prices by speculation in the commodities markets, from 2004 until2007 there are much gap between them. during that period actual inflation rate is much higher than estimated anticipated inflation rates. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 4, 287-292, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 287 the principle of non-interference and the question of human rights violation: the case of the rohingya minority abdullahi ayoade ahmad1 1 department of international relations school of law and international relations university sultan zainal abidin, malaysia abstract the formation of asean was witnessed by five founding member states promising full cooperation on security and other areas. within three decades of its establishment, majority of states in the region have joined asean except east timor. although the treaty underlines several areas of cooperation, it restrains states from interfering in the domestic affairs of its members. this clause has strictly been observed by all asean states in their cooperation. this traditional norm has affected the rohingyas, an ethnic muslim minority in myanmar, who have been subjected to tyrannous treatment at the hands of burmese allegedly supported by the national government. as a result, neighbouring states, in particular malaysia, thailand and indonesia are receiving thousands of refugees from myanmar, whilst their willingness to engage in resolving the crisis is jeopardised by virtue of non-interference in the internal affairs of other state. therefore, no strong message has been conveyed to the myanmar government, while neighbouring states are forced to accommodate thousands of rohingya refugees. this paper investigates contributing factors that led to the current plight of the rohingya ethnic minority, the effects of border-crossing movement, and the asean principle of non-interference in the domestic affairs of member states. the research concludes by recommending solutions to the crisis and suggesting factors that can shape asean to stand as a true regional organisation. keywords: asean, ethnic minority, internal affairs, non-interference, human rights violation, refugees, rohingya minorities. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 288 2. non-interference in the international law and practice ................................................................................................. 288 3. asean’s principle of non-interference in the internal affairs ..................................................................................... 288 4. myanmar’s human rights atrocities against ethnic minorities .................................................................................... 289 5. effect of rohingya migrant in neighbouring states ........................................................................................................ 290 6. legal status of the rohingya ............................................................................................................................................. 291 7. developments and obstacles in the political tradition of asean.................................................................................. 291 8. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 291 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 292 citation | abdullahi ayoade ahmad (2016). the principle of non-interference and the question of human rights violation: the case of the rohingya minority. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(4): 287-292 doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.287.292 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the author confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. history: received: 2 may 2016/ revised: 18 june 2016/ accepted: 27 july 2016/ published: 18 october 2016 ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.287.292 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=abdullahi ayoade ahmad http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.287.292 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.287.292 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=abdullahi ayoade ahmad http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.287.292 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.287.292 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=abdullahi ayoade ahmad http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.287.292 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 287-292 288 1. introduction the bangkok declaration of 1967 created asean as a regional organisation among five funder nations: thailand, indonesia, malaysia, philippine, and singapore. a major focus in the asean charter is the principle of non-interference and respect for territorial integrity as well as the sovereignty of member states as conditions for asean cooperation. this principle allows member states to manage their relations and embark on the organisation’s objectives through consultation (mushawarah) and consensus (mufakat. the principle has helped the organisation to adequately manage their relations during the cold war. one should remember that the founding leaders were amid the nation-building project from the post-colonial periods when asean was formed. in this context, the principle of non-interference has facilitated peace allowing complete concentrate on nation-building (noel, 2014). human rights protection in asean is yet to yield significant and remarkable returns due to various unresolved human rights violations. such issues include the plight of the rohingya minority ethnic group in myanmar and human trafficking involving syndicates in laos pdr, myanmar and thailand. in addition, the kidnapping and murder of human rights activists such as munir said thalib in indonesia, sombath somphone in lao pdr and somchai neelaphaichit in thailand have also raised public attention at the lack of progress in human rights protection across the asean region (the huffington post, 2014). these issues fall under the context of domestic or national issues that are not to be interfered by member states. despite the non-interference principle which must be observed by the asean, the asean charter further encouraged member states to comply with the principles of protecting human rights. as a result, asean took the initiative to establish the asean inter-governmental commission on human rights (aichr), which aims at strengthening the promotion and protection of human rights among member states to demonstrate its concern for human rights in the region and beyond. subsequently, some member states such as myanmar, malaysia, indonesia, the philippines, and thailand have further established national human rights institutions (nhris) showing commitment for a better human rights protection at the national level. this development raised question on the role of aichr in the region, and how to execute human rights protection in accordance with the national and regional requests without being considered interfering in one another’s domestic affairs. whenever there is conflict between the two principles, the principle of non-interference will prevail over the human rights principle (mohd, 2015). 2. non-interference in the international law and practice the first major non-interference case in international law that drew the line dividing impermissible interference from permissible actions between states and anti-government insurgencies adopted a pattern of pressuring a government through economic measures. such was the case for the military and paramilitary activities in and against nicaragua. the international court of justice decided that the united states had breached international law by providing funding and training to the contra rebels, who sought to violently overthrow the nicaraguan government. however, the learned judge further held that a trade embargo, cessation of economic aid, and other economic measures did not violate the principle of non-interference. it was believed that if economic pressure on a government does not amount to interference under international law, then surely a variety of measures short of that would not violate the non-interference principle (david, 2014). unlike asean, a number of regional organisations have also expressed a commitment to non-interference in member state affairs such as the organisation on security and cooperation in europe (osce), the organisation of american states (oas), and the african union (au). however, they have also publicly supported action to reverse unconstitutional seizures of power within democratic member states, for instance asean was very proactive in encouraging cambodia’s government to reform as a condition for her admission to asean. asean noninterference also emphasises that asean’s purpose is to enhance regional peace, growth, security, and stability. interestingly, several members of asean were very vocal when indonesian forest fires created a regional haze. 3. asean’s principle of non-interference in the internal affairs the principle of non-interference among asean implied that member states tolerate differences in their various countries based on their diverse political systems. as a result, states refrain from making open criticism of member states. regardless of political belief be it a dictatorship, communist, absolute monarch, constitutional monarch or democratic states tend to respect one another. the six fundamental principles that asean adopted in their internal relation can be found in the treaty of amity and cooperation in southeast asia 1976 (noel, 2014): 1 mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and national identity of all nations; 2 the right of every state to lead its national existence free from external interference, subversion or coercion; 3 non-interference in the internal affairs of one another; 4 settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner; 5 renunciation of the threat or use of force; and 6 effective cooperation among member states. this special recognition of respect led to total negligence of human rights promotion in the region. as a result, states are comfortable resorting to systematic national violation of human rights in the hope that no external interference is allowed. this is in contrast to the eu where the state has to surrender part of its national sovereignty to the regional organisation. it is interesting then to note that the asean charter that came into effect in 2008 includes obligations and responsibilities of member states to envisage rights. 2009 witnessed further improvement in human rights among asean, with inclusion of the asean inter-governmental commission on human rights (aichr), a consultative body tasked to envisage a dialogue on the promotion of human rights education among asean states. some of the clauses of the aichr are to motivate asean to ratify international treaties and conventions on human rights. however, the aichr has had little impact because it was silenced by the sanction and http://www.asean.org/news/item/treaty-of-amity-and-cooperation-in-southeast-asia-indonesia-24-february-1976-3 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 287-292 289 expulsion of member states upon violation. it also reflects a lack of willingness among asean with only indonesia, malaysia, philippines, and thailand having national human rights commissions, while others do not (noel, 2014). lack of sanctions gave states the power to act arbitrarily, while the organisation is powerless to act against any member state that violates the charter. moreover, before any decisive action can be applied, it requires consensus which seems infeasible. even aichr’s implementation faced a deadlock due to disagreement between member states on the nature of the powers of the regional human rights body. states often oppose any discussion on human rights on internal conflicts: e.g. thai former prime minister thaksin shinawarta rejected and even threatened to walk out of the asean summit if member states attempted to place the conflict in southern thailand in the agenda in 2005 (noel, 2014). furthermore, the responsibility to prevent and eliminate acts of genocide and mass atrocities lies first with the national authority, while the international community has a vital role that cannot be blocked by the invocation of any sovereignty. sovereignty should not be seen as an obstacle to protect states from foreign interference. it is the responsibility of states to account for the welfare of their people. this principle is provided in article 1 of the genocide convention and embodied in the principle of sovereignty as responsibility and in the concept of the responsibility to protect (office of the special adviser on the prevention of genocide). the principles of responsibility to protect (rtop) was universally adopted by the world leaders at the 2005 world summit, including asean member states. there are three pillars of responsibilities to protect stipulated in the outcome of rtop: 1. the state carries the primary responsibility for protecting populations from genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing, and their incitement 2. the international community has a responsibility to encourage and assist states in fulfilling this responsibility 3. the international community has a responsibility to use appropriate diplomatic, humanitarian and other means to protect populations from these crimes. if a state is manifestly failing to protect its populations, the international community must be prepared to take collective action to protect populations, in accordance with the charter of the united nations (united nations world summit, 2005). the rtop principle determines that it is the responsibility of the state to protect its population from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. moreover, in situations where a state has manifestly failed to protect its population, it then becomes the international community’s responsibility to assist the state to fulfil its responsibility by providing such protection. although the rtop principle was adopted by asean member states, there has been no tangible step to discuss the principle widely within the asean. even though it was concluded in the asean charter in 2005 that the majority of its members believe that rtop upholds state sovereignty, this seems a false commitment when we recall the major atrocities committed in asean such as the khmer rouge in cambodia in the mid 1970’s, the 1990’s east timor crisis, ongoing violence in southern thailand, and the myanmar military dictators and their various human rights violations in myanmar. 4. myanmar’s human rights atrocities against ethnic minorities human rights represent rights to which all human beings are entitled because of their humanity and not because of their social status or individual merit (abdul and el-fatih, 2005). there are three well known categories of human rights. the first is material integrity and the freedom of function politically. second, solidarity rights which includes environmental rights and the right to development. third, rights that concentrates on the entitlement of cultural minorities to use their respective language and religion without any harassment from the dominant cultural group (mudathir, 2005). the recent human rights violation can be traced after myanmar gained independence from british colonial government in january 4, 1948, and then named burma. three successive parliamentary governments ruled myanmar for fourteen years, representative democracy flourished in burma, a time when it was internationally recognised as a full democratic state and the united nations elected burmese representative u thant to become the first non-westerner secretary general of the united nation. ironically, the military led by general ne win conducted a coup d’état which ousted the previous government. there are widespread accusations of severe human rights violations and abuses by the military such as arresting and detaining political leaders and officials without trial. the action of military junta caused ethnic minority groups to form larger rebel factions such as the kachin independence army, in response to the new government’s refusal to adopt a federal government structure. since then, the government of myanmar has been accused of all sorts of human violations against civilians, most notably on karen civilians. such accusations include burning down their entire villages, planting landmines, and the rape and murder of karen women among other atrocities. these tactics were considered ethnic cleansing (moshe, 1973). myanmar has suffered from one military to another for most of its independent political existence. in 1987 for instance, burma’s economy collapsed triggering political and economic unrest that led to massive protests against win’s government known as the “8888 uprising”. the military responded with decisive action killing over 1000 demonstrators who demanded economic reform and regime change. the national league for democracy (nld), an opposition party under the leadership of aung san suu kyi, won the elections but the military junta refused to hand over power. in 1997, the slorc changed its name to the state peace and development council (spdc); however, the name did not reflect its autocratic and oppressive policies. regardless of these atrocities, myanmar was admitted into asean on june 23, 1997 (john, 2009). myanmar is a majority buddhist society. the composition of religion ethnicities in mynamar comprises buddhism (80%), burmese folk religion (6%), protestantism (5%), islam (4%), catholicism (2%), hinduism (2%), others (1%). this shows that muslims are a minority in myanmar and are predominantly composed of the rohingya people and the descendants of muslim migrants from india including from what is now bangladesh, as well as descendants of arab settlers and the recognised kamein minority. history of atrocity against muslims can be dated as early as the 11 th century, when the two sons of byat wi’s brother byat ta, known as shwe byin brothers, were killed due to their religious affiliation and refusal order to forced labour. recorded in the glass palace chronicle of https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ne_win https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962_burmese_coup_d%27%c3%a9tat https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kachin_independence_army https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kachin_independence_army https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/federalism asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 287-292 290 the kings of burma believed muslims were no longer trusted. during war time, king kyansittha ordered his assassination (pe and luce, 1960). as of 1921, the population of muslims in burma reached half a million. during british colonial period, burmese muslims were recognised as indian, even though the burmese muslims were different from indian muslims. burmese muslims, indian muslims and indian hindus were popularly known as “kala” which means black. during world war ii, the japanese committed countless acts of rape, murder, and torture against thousands of rohingyas, and not less than 22,000 rohingyas are believed to have crossed the border into bengal for safety. during the ne win regime in 1962, the status of muslims continued to deteriorate with muslims expelled from the army. while religious freedom of muslims is restricted. the monitoring and control of islam undermines the free exchange of thoughts and ideas associated with religious activities. allegations of terrorism are made against muslim organisations among them is the all burma muslim union. others are anti-muslim riot of 1997 mandalay, antimuslim riot of 2001 in taungoo, 2012 rakhine state violence, anti-muslim riot of 2013 in central burma, and the recent mandalay riots of 2014 (fiona, 2013). it was argued that the recent anti-buddhist actions of the taliban in afghanistan such as destruction of the buddhas of bamiyan was also used as a pretext by buddhist mobs to punish muslims in burma. in the middle of may 2001, human rights watch relates the tension between the buddhist and muslim societies in taungoo for weeks and later resulted. buddhist monks demanded that the hantha mosque in taungoo be destroyed in retaliation for the destruction of the buddhas of bamiyan (moshe, 1973). according to amnesty international, the muslim have continued to suffer from human rights violations under the military junta since 1978, which led to several fled to neighbouring bangladesh (ahsan, 1993). the rohingyas have been denied citizenship since the burmese nationality law was enacted. their freedom is restricted and a special permission is needed before they can travel, they were further restricted not to have more than two children, though the law was not strictly enforced. rohingya’s land was confiscated and given to the buddhist (jonathan, 2009). regardless of the un efforts to repatriate rohingya to myanmar since 2005, majority of them remained in bangladesh, fear for their lives in the hand manymar government if they return (jonathan, 2009). the situation in myanmar resulted in thousands of rohingya become victim in the hand of thai army. it was revealed that a group of rohingya refugee rescued by indonesia authority in 2009 said that they witnessed 190 rohingya refugees boatloads were beaten and abandoned on the open sea by thai forces. in february 2009, it was reported that 4 out of 5 boats towed out to open sea by thai army sank. this was followed by a confirmation statement by the then thai pmabhisit vejjajiva that there were instances in which rohingya were pushed out to open sea (dan rivers cnn, 2014). rasheduzzaman, a professor of international relations at dhaka university, said the reformist administration of myanmar was said to be democratic, however there were no signs that its strategy on the rohingya would see an adjustment soon. even the opposition democratic pioneer aung san suu kyi, who served for nearly 15 under house arrest for being propagating democracy made no clear position on the issue (habib and palma, 2015). 5. effect of rohingya migrant in neighbouring states tens of thousands of muslim rohingya fled myanmar in the past year, many of them taking to the sea in the spring of 2015 to try to reach thailand, malaysia and indonesia. a repeat of the discriminatory policies of the myanmar government in rakhine state that resulted in hundreds of thousands of rohingya flew myanmar since the late 1970s. their plight has been compounded by the responses of many of myanmar’s neighbours, which have been slow to take in the refugees for fear of a migrant influx they feel incapable of handling. therefore, more than thirtytwo thousand registered rohingya refugees have sought refuge in bangladesh, while over two hundred thousand additional unregistered rohingya refugees are believed to live in the country, according to un high commissioner for refugees (unhcr, 2014) estimates. in malaysia, more than 137,000 refugees from myanmar were registered as of september 2014 according to the un, including tens of thousands of rohingya. the global emergency overview, which tracks humanitarian crises, tallied more than 40,000 un-registered rohingya as of last december, but activists say there are roughly an equal number of unregistered rohingya in the country. malaysia has signalled a growing unease with the migrant influx. as a result, in may 2015, malaysian deputy home minister wan junaidi jafaar asserted that malaysia has treated the myanmar migrants humanely but they cannot afford to allow them to flood their shores. the rohingya also seek refuge in indonesia, although the number of refugees there remains relatively small, estimated at roughly two thousand rohingya as of june 2015. indonesia’s military chief has earlier expressed concerns that for his country to ease immigration restrictions would spark an influx of people coming in the thousands (mark and peter, 2016). thailand serves as a common transit point for rohingya leaving myanmar through boats before moving on foot to malaysia or continuing by boat to either indonesia or malaysia. reuter’s report of 2013 found that some thai authorities were colluding with smuggling and trafficking networks in the exploitation of detained rohingyas, with the deputy commissioner general of the royal thai police conceding that officials might have profited from smuggling. in may 2015, amid international pressure, indonesia and malaysia offered temporary shelter to thousands of migrants, malaysia launched search-and-rescue missions for stranded migrant boats stranded, and thailand agreed to halt pushbacks. myanmar’s navy also conducted initial rescue missions at the end of the month. similarly in june 2015, several secret mass graves were detected by malaysian police in the thai border town of padang besar. the u.s. state department downgraded thailand to tier 3 the bottom rank, as a source, destination, and transit country for men, women, and children who are subject to trafficking in its 2014 trafficking in persons report. recently however, the military-led government in bangkok has prioritised a crackdown on smuggling and trafficking rings following the discovery of mass graves in what are believed to have been detention camps. but some experts say that new punitive measures directed at traffickers are responsible for the increases in abandoned vessels at sea—a development that has worsened the humanitarian crisis (mark and peter, 2016). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/amnesty_international https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/human_rights https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/military_dictatorship https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/bangladesh https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/burmese_nationality_law asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 287-292 291 6. legal status of the rohingya the myanmar government denies the rohingya citizenship. as a result, the vast majority of them have no legal documentation. in other words, they are making them stateless. the citizenship law of 1948 excludes rohingya, while the new law introduced by the military junta (a citizenship law in 1982) strictly stripped the rohingya of access to full citizenship. up until now, the majority of the rohingya remain temporary residents with temporary identification cards in myanmar, known as white cards which stated being issued in the 1990s. the white cards confer limited rights and have no legal status as citizens. although in 2014, the government held a un-backed national census whereby the muslim minority group was allowed to self-identify as rohingya, but upon buddhist nationalists threatening to boycott the census, the regime made a u-turn and decided that the rohingya could only register if they identified themselves as bengali. subsequently, the rohingyas right to vote in a 2015 constitutional referendum was denied through the cancellation of the temporary id cards in february 2015. muslim minorities continue to consolidate under one rohingya identity, while the government introduced several policy restrictions such as on marriage, family planning, employment, education, religious choice, and freedom of movement that have institutionalised systemic discrimination against the ethnic group. the united nations calls the rohingya one of the most persecuted minorities in the world. nowadays, many rohingya have turned to smugglers to find their way out of myanmar to escape persecution. the below chart reflects the estimation of more than eighty-eight thousand migrants that have travelled by sea from the bay of bengal since january 2014 7. developments and obstacles in the political tradition of asean one of the most momentums periods of political transformation was during the asean economic crisis of 1997 whereby indonesia moved from the authoritarian government of suharto to a more democratic order in 1998. asean, which was earlier isolated due to its communist ideology, has been recognised as an important emerging market. the event of 9/11 also contributed productively on how asean states work together to fight terrorism. it encouraged states to cooperate with one another to confront a common enemy, especially, the subsequent bali bombing attacks of october 12, 2002. although the cause of rise of terrorism is disputed among scholars, some believe that poverty is one of the major reasons for attacks in asean meaning that poverty alleviation is a promising solution. as a result, asean decided to move beyond tradition military weaponry security, to include security on epidemic diseases, natural disaster, environmental problems, transnational crimes and human trafficking. it also encourages member states to transform asean into a more people centred organisation. the bali concord ii outlines three main pillar for asean; (i) security (it was later changed to political security) (ii) economic and, (iii) social-culture. the declaration aims at utilizing the three elements to elevate the level of cooperation into higher stage. for instance, the asean security community focused on regional cooperation in a democratic and harmonious atmosphere. civil society sees this opportunity to engage government on a range of non-traditional security issues such as the rule of law, human right protection and good governance. the priority is to make sure that asean is transformed to reflect security and welfare of its people rather than traditional security of states. it should be further noted that in the proposals of the eminent persons groups (epg) 2005 to 2006, whom were entrusted to draft a blue print for the asean charter, the proposal recommended by the epg do away with consensus decision making, and recommends inclusion of sanctions against erring members. epg also recommends the propagation and protection of human rights adhering to certain norms such as international humanitarian laws and protection of people against genocide and ethnic cleansing. regardless of this remarkable proposal, the high level task force (hltf) tasked with drafting the charter although welcoming several parts of the recommendation, failed to consider any punishment for erring states for non-compliance (noel, 2014). according to human rights watch, the burmese authority refused citizenship to any rohingya person who failed to establish their ancestors presence in the country before 1823, the beginning of british occupation of what is now arakan state (human rights watch, 2012). as usual, there are no unified or coordinated responses proposed or implemented by asean to resolve the deepening crisis of myanmar refugees. states in southeast asia also lack established legal frameworks to provide for the protection of rights for refugees. indonesia, myanmar, malaysia and thailand have yet to ratify the un refugee convention and its protocol. asean has also remained silent on the issue of the rohingya and in particular, the asylum-seekers in member countries. the organisation’s commitment to the fundamental principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of member-states is a major reason behind this neglect despite the asean parliamentarians for human rights stating in april 2015 that the countinous persecution of rohingya has led to the highest outflow of asylum seekers the region since the late 1970s (parliamentarians call on asean, 2015). 8. conclusion strong leadership is the main requirement to make asean an organisation that adheres to human rights principles. one might argue that the rtop principle could not be enacted within the asean mechanism due to many asean member states domestic problems regarding minorities. however, the rtop principle could help the asean community in the global community of nations. recently, a former prime minister of malaysia, tun mahathir mohamad urged his government to deviate from the principle of non-interference in the state-sanctioned discrimination against the rohingya in myanmar. he considered the situation genocide. mahathir further urged asean countries to discard their non-interference policy on the matter, after thousands of rohingya and bangladeshi migrants were stranded at sea. mahathir suggested that myanmar be expelled from asean membership if it continues to keep committing genocide against its people (kanyakumard, 2015). asean needs to be determined and press the burmese government to end human rights violations and discriminatory policies, including respect to citizenship of rohingya and other minorities. asean must be prepared https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/human_rights_watch https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/rohingya https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/rakhine_state asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 287-292 292 to convey a firm stand to the myanmar government that such actions will harm its relationship with asean and the international community (hrw, 2013). it is widely believed that persecution of muslim minorities in burma could triggered islamic extremism in the country and her neighbours. many muslims have joined armed resistance groups who are fighting for greater freedoms in burma (ahsan, 1993). lilianne fan opined that even if asean has the capacity to control the myanmar crisis, member states lack the political will to resolve it. analysists like new york times columnist nicholas kristof, suggests that the united states should not have normal relations with the country until her atrocity act ends. others, like senior advisor at the united states institute of peace and former u.s. mission chief in myanmar priscilla clapp, argued that myanmar government alone cannot be blamed due to oversimplifies and misrepresents the complexities of the country’s historical ethnic diversity. she believes, international response is slow and urgent action is badly needed. it is time for the international community to organise a realistic, workable solution to compel asean to take a leading role. references abdul, r.m. and a.s. el-fatih, 2005. glossary of political science terms: islamic and western. singapore: thomson. ahsan, s.a.-a., 1993. burma's iron hands towards ethnic minorities: the rohingya plight. asian profile, 21(4): 312. cited in “human security: 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2016. migrant crisis: rohingya refugees buried in mass graves near asean responsibility to protect the jakarta post. retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-06-22/rohingyas-secret-graves-of-asias-forgotten-refugees/6561896 [accessed 23 june 2015]. mohd, a.a.h., 2015. asean must end myanmar crisis. harakah daily. retrieved from http://www.harakahdaily.net/index.php/headlineenglish/35100-asean-must-end-myanmar-crisis [accessed 18 sept. 2015]. moshe, y., 1973. the muslims of burma: a study of a minority group (kernial singh sandhu. rev.). journal of southeast asian studies, 4(2): 318-320. mudathir, a.a.-r., 2005. human rights and the world’s major religions the islamic tradition. westport: ctpraeger publishers. noel, m.m., 2014. ensuring responsibility while implementing under article 4(h) intervention. in dan kuwali and frans viljoen, eds., africa and the responsibility to protect: article 4(h) of the african union constitutive act. london: routledge. pp: 317-318. parliamentarians 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publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.irrawaddy.org/asia/boat-people-crisis-a-test-for-aseans-humanitarian-resolve.html http://www.rfa.org/english/commentaries/rohingya-08032012124109.html http://edition.cnn.com/2009/world/asiapcf/02/12/thailand.refugees.admission http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/burmamyanmar/10177815/burmas-bin-laden-of-buddhism.html http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-06-22/rohingyas-secret-graves-of-asias-forgotten-refugees/6561896 http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/wr2013_web.pdf http://www.hrw.org/video-photos/interactive/2012/01/19/world-report-2012 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7872635.stm http://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2015/06/12/myanmar-should-leave-asean-dr-m/ http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-06-22/rohingyas-secret-graves-of-asias-forgotten-refugees/6561896 http://www.harakahdaily.net/index.php/headline-english/35100-asean-must-end-myanmar-crisis http://www.harakahdaily.net/index.php/headline-english/35100-asean-must-end-myanmar-crisis http://aseanmp.org/2015/07/01/parliamentarians-call-on-asean-ministers-to-address-root-causes-of-migrant-crisis-at-kl-meeting/ http://aseanmp.org/2015/07/01/parliamentarians-call-on-asean-ministers-to-address-root-causes-of-migrant-crisis-at-kl-meeting/ http://www.huffingtonpost.com/engy-abdelkader/human-trafficking-rohingya-women_b_4501815.html http://www.huffingtonpost.com/engy-abdelkader/human-trafficking-rohingya-women_b_4501815.html http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e4877d6.html http://www.ifrc.org/docs/idrl/i520en.pdf 114 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 3, 114-122, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.114.122 cultural pride in the era of pluralism: a closer look to chinese indonesians’ ethnic identity under the reign of jokowi enny ingketria1 1school of journalism and information communication, huazhong university of science and technology, wuhan 430074, p.r. china; sub directorate of oil and gas cooperation affairs, ministry of energy and mineral resources, jakarta 12910, indonesia abstract over the past two decades, chinese indonesians have entered a democratic upsurge, where the discriminatory regulations implemented during suharto’s new order with its forced assimilation policy had been revoked and chinese indonesians have gained accesses to chinese culture and language. since previous studies on chinese indonesians’ identity in post-suharto authoritarian rule have concentrated on qualitative research, in which the construction of identity was complicated and the remaining negative stereotyping against chinese indonesians still occurred, this study used a quantitative approach, assessing a number of determinants that were supposed to affect the ethnic identity and self-esteem of third and fourth generations of ethnic chinese in indonesia. this research utilized structural equation modelling (sem) that was applied using maximum likelihood method. based on the result of examination, chinese media and cultural practice appear to be the most significant variables influencing cultural long-distance nationalism. in addition, ethnic pride, ethnic performance, and self-esteem were most significantly affected by cultural long-distance nationalism, compared to another variable; self-identification. in short, chinese indonesians today have a strong sense of belonging to chinese identity, regardless of the sociocultural context and political situation which to some extent influence their identity formation. keywords: chinese indonesians, chinese media, cultural long-distance nationalism. citation | enny ingketria (2018). cultural pride in the era of pluralism: a closer look to chinese indonesians’ ethnic identity under the reign of jokowi. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(3): 114-122. history: received: 17 july 2018 revised: 17 august 2018 accepted: 23 august 2018 published: 28 august 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 115 2. theoretical background and research model ......................................................................................................................... 115 3. conceptual framework and development of hypothesis ..................................................................................................... 116 4. methods ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 118 5. data analysis and results ............................................................................................................................................................ 119 6. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 121 7. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 121 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 121 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1450 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.114.122&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 114-122 115 1. introduction it is commonly shared that china is likely to become the global post-american hegemon. with its “going global policy”, china has significantly affected the chinese identity of overseas chinese worldwide, regardless of the fact that the culture and the sociocultural context of the country will have also contributed to the identity formation of chinese resided outside the mainland china. according to many scholars, there is no exact definition of chinese-ness today since a changing meaning of this term did occur due to “the relationship among such elements as time, place, self-identification, and categorizations made by others” (wu, 1991). what it means to be chinese in united states today, with a struggle to adjust to american values, will be much different from being chinese in the world’s largest archipelagic state, indonesia, with the cultural differences they will encounter (minghua and ingketria, 2016). from the dutch colonial times until the fall of suharto in 1998, racial prejudice, negative stereotyping, and discrimination had been part of chinese indonesians’ life in indonesia. however, the worst political situation they had to go through occurred during suharto’s authoritarian rule with its forced assimilation policy, and according to dawis (2009) they were drawn to chinese films and series to escape reality and relieve stress and anxiety. during this situation, they instead built strong emotional ties to their ancestral homeland. in the post-suharto era, where the unjust treatment and institutional racism are no longer an issue, and china is on the rise, the study of subsequent generations of chinese indonesians’ identity in different cultural politics and diversified media environment has not been explored comprehensively. the portrait of chinese indonesians in post-suharto era has been studied by several researchers (budiman, 2005; heryanto, 2008; suryadinata, 2008). what is common about those researches is that the residual anti-chinese sentiment remains present due to sociocultural problems; wealth inequality between chinese and non-chinese (suryadinata, 2008) and negative stereotyping against chinese as depicted in post-suharto films (budiman, 2005). furthermore, sen (2006); tickell (2009); setijadi (2013) had studied the representation of chinese indonesians in the post-1998 indonesian films. as argued my minghua and ingketria (2016) chinese indonesians recently still experienced ambivalent identity due to inconsistencies between oral and written statement of the participants being researched. what the previous study lacks of is a research of cultural identity of chinese indonesians’ under particular era, especially under the reign of incumbent 7th president of indonesia, joko widodo, who is a pluralist figure, and after the two-year-imprisonment of the former governor of jakarta, basuki tjahaja purnama (ahok). due to a blasphemy case, ahok, an indonesian of chinese descent, was once dragged to the court and was sentenced to two years in prison. since the previous studies are mostly using qualitative research to assess the ethnic identity of chinese indonesians in the post-suharto era and racial tension occurred after the controversial case of ahok, this paper will analyse whether the third and fourth generations of chinese indonesians who resided in jakarta, tangerang, and bandung still have a strong sense of belonging to china in relation with a number of determinants; sociocultural context, past experience, chinese media, local media, ethnic communities, cultural activities, self-identification, and cultural long-distance nationalism. the ethnic identity will be classified into the affective dimension (ethnic pride) and behavioural dimension (ethnic performance). in addition to the ethnic identity, the author adds one more dependent variable, i.e. self-esteem. consequently, feeling a strong sense of belonging with an ethnic may contribute to aspects of individuals’ psychological well being, such as self-esteem, in which those who think positively about their ethnic groups might have higher self-esteem (xu et al., 2015). the term ethnicity is most often used to refer to a group of people who have distinct culture, shared historical identity, or a national or religious identity (carter, 1995). in order to understand how an individual has explored his/her ethnicity and developed a sense of commitment to his/her ethnic heritage, an inquiry into their ethnic identity has to be conducted in the first place (fischer and moradi, 2001). there are many factors that could influence ethnic identification, among others are cultural long-distance nationalism, self-identification, past experience, sociocultural context, chinese media, mainstream media, ethnic communities, and cultural practice. in order to assess the relationship between variables, structural equation modelling (sem) was applied using maximum likelihood method. 2. theoretical background and research model theorists of both marxism and modernism have predicted that as a society becomes industrialized and modernized, ethnicity will fade and eventually die out. it can be argued that ethnic assimilation and amalgamation have been the main reason for the withering of ethnic identification. however, those presages have proven incorrect. the vital role of ethnicity in the contemporary life cannot be disregarded and its significance depends on times and places. this study uses an integrated approach that builds upon the cornerstone of the social construction of ethnicity and views social structure, ancestry, and the utility and cost of ethnic affiliation as ingredients contributing to the construction of ethnicity. in other words, ethnicity is socially constructed partly on the basis of ancestry or presumed ancestry and more importantly by society, that the interests of ethnic groups also partly determine ethnic affiliation, and that ethnic boundaries are relatively stable but undergo changes from time to time. ethnicity is partly ascribed because it is partly based on ancestry or presumed ancestry that normally carries certain physical or cultural characteristics and national or territorial origins, yet is largely constructed by society. according to phinney (2000) the particularly important defining characteristic for ethnic minorities is ethnic identity, but it should be taken into account that even within minority populations, according to hecht and ribeau (1991); phinney (2000); resnicow et al. (2009) minority ethnic people have different level of commitment to their ethnic identity. ethnic identity can be classified into emotional component (ethnic pride) and behavioural expression (ethnic performance) (nakayama and martin, 2007; verkuyten, 2010). beside ethnic identity, self-esteem also serves as dependent variable. the strength of ethnic identification and self-esteem has been influenced by a number of factors. there are a number of researchers studied the influence of media on ethnic identity (clément et al., 2005; ramasubramanian et al., 2017). in this study, the media is divided into mainstream media and chinese media. in asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 114-122 116 addition, self-esteem is also determined by media exposure (russello, 2009). beside media, previous studies have discussed the impact of past experience on ethnic identity (sherry et al., 2006) sociocultural context on ethnic identity (daha, 2011; kiang, 2014) cultural practice on ethnic identity (schweigman et al., 2011) and ethnic communities on ethnic identity (utsey et al., 2002). however those factors will not directly influence one’s ethnic identity, but the development of one’s ethnic identity is based on cultural long-distance nationalism (wong, 2010) and self-identification (putt, 2014). wong (2010) stated that a person is supposed to experience a cultural longdistance nationalism at first before it eventually turns into ethnic identity. according to phinney (1990); smith et al. (1999); xu et al. (2015) the relationship between ethnic identity and self-esteem has previously been studied. in general adolescents developed an affirmation, as well as feelings of comfort and higher self-esteem, with their ethnic group, if they can resolve uncertainties about their ethnicity via exploration. those direct and indirect factors that determine one’s ethnic identity will also be considered as determinants for the self-esteem. figure 1 below is the conceptual model used to validate the research hypothesis explained in the next section. figure-1. research model 3. conceptual framework and development of hypothesis in this research, we conceptualize all components in the model as follows: 3.1. mainstream media according to ramasubramanian et al. (2017) today mainstream media include movies, tv, radio, magazines, newspapers, and the internet. furthermore, the past research on the effects of media stereotypes suggest that media are important socializing agents through which racial and ethnic minorities learn about their in-group vis-àvis the majority white out-group. louie (2001) stated that media is one of the determinant that affects the longdistance nationalism. in addition, there were a number of studies that examined the impact of media, including social media on self identity (zhang and haller, 2013; ganda, 2014). however, according to ramasubramanian et al. (2017) the impact of mainstream media towards one’s ethnic identity is not as strong as the effect of ethnic media on one’s ethnic identification. thus, the following two hypotheses are proposed: h1: mainstream media positively affects cultural long-distance nationalism. h2: mainstream media positively affects self-identification. 3.2. chinese media chinese media refers to any mass media that were owned by china, such as xinhua and cctv and presents china’s own version of issues happening either inside or outside china. in addition, xiaoling (2010) added that china’s media plays important part in its “go-global” project. its essential function is for cultural transmission, widening common cultural experiences and knowledge within a society to build consensus and social bonds among its members (wright, 1959). therefore, the portrait of china and chinese culture, particularly through the chinese media, will significantly affect the cultural-long distance nationalism and self-identification. dawis (2009) have studied the impact of chinese media products to the identity formation of chinese indonesians during suharto era. therefore, we propose two hypotheses as follows: h3: chinese media positively affects cultural long-distance nationalism. h4: chinese media positively affects self-identification. 3.3. ethnic communities ethnic community is an entity comprising of members who have shared a common sense of identity. during the process of its development, ethnic communities might face a series of setbacks and are subject to change due to ethnic processes, such as assimilation and consolidation, but their continued survival will eventually lead them to achieve a more stable existence. in this case, chinese communities in indonesia, such as asosiasi peranakan tionghoa indonesia (aspertina) plays important role in shaping the cultural long-distance nationalism and selfasian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 114-122 117 identification through the shared knowledge delivered by the members of the community and the cultural activities held in the community. thus, this research postulates the following hypotheses: h5: ethnic communities positively affect cultural long-distance nationalism. h6: ethnic communities positively affect self-identification. 3.4. cultural practices according to miller and goodnow (1995) cultural practices come packaged with values about what is natural, mature, morally right, or aesthetically pleasing. these, then, are actions that may easily become part of a group’s identity. in this sense, values and sense of belonging within a community will grow stronger through the practice learnt by the members, including its essential and optional features (holland and valsiner, 1988; lave and wenger, 1991). cultural practice has significantly influence cultural long-distance nationalism (wong, 2010). furthermore, according to lustig (2013) taking into account that culture affects one’s self-concept, it is arguably that a person’s involvement in a cultural practice may influence his/her self-identification. thus, below are hypotheses dealing with cultural practice: h7: cultural practice positively affects cultural long-distance nationalism. h8: cultural practice positively affects self-identification. 3.5. past experience past experience refers to any experiences of an individual happened in the past, either good experience or bad experience. in relation with self-identification of an individual who lives in a multi-ethnic society, the past experience mostly relates to racial prejudice and discrimination. a number of scholars argued that a person were inclined to explore his or her traditions and history when they experienced greater number of racist encounters and were engaged in more ethnic behaviours (sherry et al., 2006). in addition, a study by daha (2011) about the identity development of second generation iranian american adolescents, showed that iranians in usa were still considered devout muslim fundamentalists despite the fact that many of them were subject to racial prejudice and discrimination, especially after tragic attacks on the united states on september 11, 2001 and during the iranian hostage crisis of 1980. based on the previous researches, past experience has to some extent influence one’s cultural long-distance nationalism and self-identification. therefore, this research postulates the following hypotheses: h9: past experience positively affects cultural long-distance nationalism. h10: past experience positively affects self-identification. 3.6. the present sociocultural context the sociocultural context refers to the current social and cultural setting of the host country where the ethnic minority lives. baumeister and muraven (1996) stated that identities did not come into existence out of nothing. they even cannot choose the suitable context during its formation. therefore, it is with no doubt that in creating and shaping identity, societies clearly play an important causal role. in this sense, the context in which the individual identity exists is created by culture, history, and the proximate structure of social relations. people have individual wants and needs that must be satisfied within that context. in other words, they have control over their identities based on the most comfortable way to adjust to the context. in this sense, sociocultural context will presumably influence one’s cultural long-distance nationalism and self-identification. thus, this research posits the following hypotheses: h11: sociocultural context positively affects cultural long-distance nationalism. h12: sociocultural context positively affects self-identification. 3.7. cultural long-distance nationalism cultural long-distance nationalism is a concept proposed by wong (2010) which stated that individuals might have a sense of legitimacy, authenticity, and a state of peaceful happiness through the practices of culture in a diaspora. there lies a spirit within overseas chinese: “to learn chinese dance insistently, perseveringly, because chinese dance leads them to chinese culture, and chinese culture is what overseas chinese pass on from generation to generation, an inalienable part of themselves – even if they were born on the other side of the ocean, far from this land (china)”. therefore one’s cultural long-distance nationalism might influence the ethnic pride, ethnic performance, and self-esteem of an individual, through their cultural experiences that provoke a sense of chinese-ness in such a way. thus, this research proposes the following hypotheses: h13: cultural long-distance nationalism positively affects self-esteem. h14: cultural long-distance nationalism positively affects ethnic pride. h15: cultural long-distance nationalism positively affects ethnic performance. 3.8. self-identification it is commonly shared that self-identity plays a significant role in constructing each of our lives. selfidentification, in this sense, refers to the process of identifying one’s self. before individuals claimed their ethnic identity, they have to go through the process of self-identification (phinney, 1996). therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed: h16: self-identification positively affects self-esteem. h17: self-identification positively affects ethnic pride. h18: self-identification positively affects ethnic performance. 3.9. ethnic pride according to castro et al. (2009) one’s ethnic or cultural heritage might represent their ethnic pride that constitutes an affirmation of self-respect, dignity, and affection. in addition, as stated by burnett-zeigler et al. (2013) the psycho-pathological symptoms, such as anxiety and depression, experienced by people of colour living in united states, will to some extent be reduced when they have a higher sense of pride, belonging, and attachment to their ethnic group. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 114-122 118 in other words, ethnic identity and self-esteem positively relate to one another based on research to college students who came from various ethnic groups living in united stated. in addition, one’s ethnic pride is supposed to have a significant impact on their ethnic performance, in which one’s strong emotional attachment to their ancestral homeland might have an effect on their performance indicating their belonging to their ethnicity. thus, this research postulates the following hypothesis: h19: ethnic pride positively affects self-esteem. h20: ethnic pride positively affects ethnic performance. table-1. measurement items construct items self-esteem of chinese indonesians 1. on the whole, i am satisfied with my chinese identity. 2. i feel that i have a number of good qualities. 3. i feel that i am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others (mostly pribumi). 4. i have more respect for myself. 5. i take a positive attitude toward myself. ethnic pride of chinese indonesians 1. i have a clear sense of my chinese background and what it means for me. 2. i am happy that i am indonesian of chinese descent. 3. i have a strong sense of belonging to chinese identity. 4. i have a lot of pride as overseas chinese. 5. i feel good about my chinese cultural background. ethnic performance of chinese indonesians 1. i have spent time trying to find out more about my chinese history, traditions, and customs. 2. i am active in organizations or social groups that include mostly members of chinese indonesians. 3. in order to learn more about my chinese background, i have often talked to other people about chinese cultural identity. 4. i participate in chinese cultural practices or festival, such as food, music, or customs. 5. i have learnt chinese language and could speak chinese if needed. the use of mainstream media 1. i used to watch mainstream drama or television series on mainstream media. 2. i used to watch mainstream television news or entertainment news on mainstream media. 3. i spend my spare time watching mainstream drama or television series on mainstream media. 4. i spend my spare time watching mainstream television news or entertainment news on mainstream media. 5. i spend my spare time watching mainstream drama, series, news, entertainment, etc. online. the use of chinese media 1. i used to watch chinese drama and television series on cable television. 2. i used to watch chinese television news, either on cable television or internet. 3. i used to watch chinese movies on youku, pptv, and any other video-sharing websites, instead of cable television. 4. i spend my spare time watching chinese films, news, entertainment, and shows on cable television. 5. i spend my free time watching chinese movies on youku, pptv, or any other video-sharing websites. the involvement in ethnic communities 1. the existence of chinese communities is important. 2. chinese communities should hold chinese cultural practice regularly. 3. chinese indonesians should join any chinese communities they find relevant to them. 4. chinese communities provide more information about chinese cultural values and culture. 5. chinese communities in indonesia have involved in many social and cultural activities recently. the participation in cultural practice 1. chinese food festival is commonly held in indonesia. 2. “saving face” is often presented as chinese cultural practice. 3. chinese dances and songs are commonly observed during chinese new year celebration. 4. respecting elders is a lesson rooted in confucius teachings. 5. celebrating chinese new year is one way to remind us of chinese cultural values. past experience 1. chinese indonesians have been the target of racial prejudice, discrimination, and violence in the past. 2. chinese indonesians were forced to assimilate with the mainstream culture. 3. chinese indonesians experienced institutional racism in the past. 4. any chinese cultural expressions were banned in the past. 5. chinese indonesians were under-represented in politics, cinemas, and films in the past. the present sociocultural context 1. chinese indonesians are able to express their chinese identity in public, without being afraid of being the target of racial prejudice and discrimination. 2. racial discrimination and prejudice is not a problem anymore in indonesia. 3. the government has made changes to give chinese indonesians equal rights with native indonesians. 4. a number of influential figures of chinese descent exist after joko widodo took office. 5. chinese cultural practices and chinese new year are vividly celebrated publicly. cultural long distance nationalism 1. i feel an emotional attachment to china and chinese identity when watching chinese drama or television series. 2. i feel a sense of belonging to china and chinese identity when listening to chinese songs and watching chinese dances and culture during chinese cultural festival. 3. i feel a sense of pride when celebrating chinese new year either in public or private. 4. i feel a sense of pride knowing china is currently on the rise and feel the urge to assert my chinese identity. 5. i feel the urge to learn chinese language and chinese culture. self-identification 1. integration is much better than assimilation. 2. native indonesians and chinese indonesians should co-exist and respect each culture for “unity in diversity”. 3. i feel comfortable to express my chinese identity in public. 4. chinese and indonesians have similar cultural values. 5. i feel a strong attachment to my ancestral homeland, china. 4. methods 4.1. measurements in order to find out the correlations between variables mentioned above, questionnaires were sent through the survey link to those who were identified themselves as chinese indonesians who reside in jakarta, tangerang, or bandung, since those three locations were among districts with the largest number of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 114-122 119 chinese in 2010 (arifin et al., 2017). the questionnaires were originally drafted in bahasa (indonesian language) and were then translated into english by a native english translator and by the researcher as well. the survey questionnaires used 5-likert scale. the following table 1 shows the items for this study: 4.2. collection of sample and data participants who were self-identified as chinese indonesians were invited to take part in our survey. the survey, specifically, used pre-screening questions about self-identifying as chinese indonesians or a person of chinese descent, with ages between 18 and 34, and reside either in jakarta, tangerang, or bandung, to participate in the survey. those who did not meet one of the said three main criteria were excluded from the analysis. participants were mostly third and fourth generations of chinese indonesians with a variety of educational backgrounds. the survey used links that were shared through personal networks via e-mail and via social networking sites, such as facebook and twitter. of the 250 participants who followed the survey link to start the questionnaire, 195 participants completed it. most of the participants were female (54,4%), in the age group of 25 – 34 years. the majority of them were born in jakarta, while some others born in tangerang, bandung, pontianak, medan, surabaya, riau, and bangka belitung. table 2 below is the demographic profile of respondents: table-2. demographic profile of respondents division frequency percent (%) gender men 89 45,6 women 106 54,4 total 195 100 age 18-24 88 45,1 25-34 107 54,9 total 195 100 education level high school 36 18,5 undergraduate 138 70,7 postgraduate 21 10,8 total 195 100 source: primary data 5. data analysis and results 5.1. reliability and validity analysis the data is analysed using the statistical software packages spss 23 and amos 18. in the initial stage, the reliability of variables has been tested, i.e. internal consistency of the statements that have been used for the measurement. for this purpose, the values of cronbach’s alpha coefficient have been calculated. following the latter process, the author conducted the confirmatory factor analysis, in which the series fit indexes’ values have been calculated (χ2/df; rfi relative fix index; nfi normed fit index; cfi comparative goodness of fit; tli tuckerlewis index; ifi incremental fit index; rmsea root mean square error of approximation). furthermore, those are also being tested; convergent and discriminant validity, and composite reliability. here the structural equation modeling (sem) was applied using maximum likelihood method in order to test the hypotheses. table-3. fit indices in the proposed model fit indices recommended value value in the model χ 2 /df < 3 2.03 rfi > 0.9 0.92 nfi > 0.9 0.93 cfi > 0.9 0.96 tli > 0.9 0.95 ifi > 0.9 0.95 rmsea < 0.08 0.06 note: rfi – relative fix index; nfi – normed fit index; cfi – comparative goodness of fit; tli – tucker-lewis index; ifi – incremental fit index; rmsea – root mean square error of approximation. for all variables, the reliability analysis resulted in adequate values of cronbach’s alpha coefficient. according to hair et al. (2010); malaquias and hwang (2016) the statements measuring certain variable are internally consistent when cronbach’s alpha value exceeds the threshold of 0.7. the cronbach’s alpha values of all variables as seen in the model are higher than 0.8 (self-esteem, 0,89; ethnic pride 0,92; ethnic performance 0,91; mainstream media 0,81; chinese media 0,93; ethnic communities 0,84; cultural practices 0,88; past experience 0,85; the present sociocultural context 0,89; cultural long-distance nationalism 0,95; self identification 0,89). for testing the fit of the proposed model, a confirmatory analysis has been conducted as well in table 3. the results indicate that the model reasonably fits the data. the χ2/df ratio is 2.03 (599.5/295) and it is lower than the threshold of 3 (bagozzi and yi, 1988). furthermore, according to byrne (1998) the values of all variables (rfi, nfi, tli and ifi) are higher than the threshold 0.9, while for the value of rmsea, as argued by gao and waechter (2017) it has to be lower than the threshold of 0.08. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 114-122 120 table-4. average variance extracted, composite reliability, maximum shared squared variance and average shared squared variance variables ave cr msv asv self-esteem 0.69 0.89 0.31 0.20 ethnic pride 0.82 0.92 0.51 0.40 ethnic performance 0.74 0.91 0.48 0.26 mainstream media 0.66 0.81 0.19 0.11 chinese media 0.81 0.93 0.65 0.41 ethnic communities 0.71 0.84 0.38 0.24 cultural practice 0.72 0.88 0.42 0.34 past experience 0.69 0.85 0.54 0.31 present sociocultural context 0.74 0.89 0.41 0.27 cultural long-distance nationalism 0.82 0.95 0.52 0.35 self-identification 0.73 0.84 0.46 0.27 all confirmatory factor loadings are greater than 0.65 and all were significant at the alpha level of 0.01. the model is characterized by convergent validity since the average variance extracted (ave) of each construct is higher than 0.5. since the ave value of every single construct is higher than the squared correlation coefficient between the given and other constructs, the discriminant analysis has been achieved. in addition, the values of all correlation coefficients between the observed variables are lower than 0.8 and these values are significant at the level 0.05. the values of average variance extracted (ave), composite reliability (cr), maximum shared squared variance (msv) and average shared squared variance (asv) can be seen in the following table. besides, as seen in the table 4, all variables have cr values that are higher than the threshold of 0.7 (formell and larcker, 1981). analysis of the values displayed in the table enables additional verification of convergent and discriminant validity. for each variable, cr values are higher than ave values, which further confirms convergent validity. in addition, all variables also further confirm discriminant validity, in which ave > msv and ave > asv (hair et al., 2010). 5.2. hypothesis testing in regard with the testing of hypothesis, this research was conducted using the structural equation modelling (sem). from a total of 20 tested effects, 18 of them appeared to be statistically significant (table 5). in the first round of analysis, the author monitored the impacts of the mainstream media, chinese media, ethnic communities, cultural practice, past experience, and the present sociocultural context on cultural longdistance nationalism. based on the results, chinese media, ethnic communities, cultural practice, past experience, and the present sociocultural context significantly influence the cultural long-distance nationalism. meanwhile mainstream media do not have any statistical significance on cultural long-distance nationalism. in this case, h3, h5, h7, h9, and h11 have all been supported, except h1which has been rejected. based on the result, the impact of chinese media is stronger than the impact of ethnic communities, cultural practice, past experience and the present sociocultural context upon cultural long-distance nationalism. table-5. hypothesis relationship hypotheses standardized estimates (β) p value conclusion h1: mainstream media  cultural long-distance nationalism 0,013 0,752 not support h2: mainstream media  self-identification 0,019 0,638 not support h3: chinese media  cultural long-distance nationalism 0,579 0,007 support h4: chinese media  self-identification 0,411 0,008 support h5: ethnic communities  cultural long-distance nationalism 0,115 0,014 support h6: ethnic communities  self-identification 0,113 0,021 support h7: cultural practice  cultural long-distance nationalism 0,293 0,009 support h8: cultural practice  self-identification 0,225 0,017 support h9: past experience  cultural long-distance nationalism 0,216 0,034 support h10: past experience  self-identification 0,199 0,032 support h11: present sociocultural context  cultural long-distance nationalism 0,227 0,009 support h12: present sociocultural context  self-identification 0,169 0,028 support h13: cultural long-distance nationalism  self-esteem 0,296 0,011 support h14: cultural long-distance nationalism  ethnic pride 0,736 0,004 support h15: cultural long-distance nationalism  ethnic performance 0,399 0,009 support h16: self-identification  self-esteem 0,113 0,042 support h17: self-identification  ethnic pride 0,192 0,033 support h18: self-identification  ethnic performance 0,164 0,039 support h19: ethnic pride  self-esteem 0,329 0,006 support h20: ethnic pride  ethnic performance 0,285 0,005 support with regards to self-identification, the result shows that five out of the six observed variables stand out as its statistically significant antecedents. in this case, the influence of mainstream media on self-identification does not have any statistical significance. meanwhile, the strongest predictor of self-identification appears to be chinese media (β = 0.411, p < 0.01). according to the results obtained, h4, h6, h8, h10, h12 are supported, while h2 has been rejected. findings of this research show that mainstream media do not influence both the cultural longdistance nationalism and self-identification of the third and fourth generations of chinese indonesians today. the antecedents of self-esteem have also been identified. based on the three effects which have been tested, all variables; the cultural long-distance nationalism, self-identification, and ethnic pride, have significantly influence self-esteem. however, ethnic pride stands out as a very significant antecedent of self-esteem. in short, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 114-122 121 h13, h16, and h19 have been supported. on the other hand, according to the result of the impacts of cultural long-distance nationalism and self-identification on ethnic-pride, all variables have significant influence on ethnic pride, but cultural long-distance nationalism stands out more significant than self-identification. therefore, h14 and h17 are all supported. the last construct, ethnic performance, have significantly influenced by cultural long-distance nationalism, self-identification and ethnic pride. in this case, h15, h18 and h20 are supported. all the given findings above indicate that cultural long-distance nationalism is the most significant predictor influencing self-esteem and ethnic identity (ethnic pride and ethnic performance), wherein the cultural longdistance nationalism itself is mostly influenced by chinese media, followed by cultural practice, and the present sociocultural context. 6. discussion this quantitative analysis using structural equation modeling (sem) is aimed at justifying the result of qualitative analysis in the previous chapter, in which chinese indonesians today, especially the third and fourth generations, who live under jokowi – jusuf kalla administration, have a strong emotional attachment to china, as seen through their statement in regards with ahok’s imprisonment during the in-depth interview. however they kept their chinese identity low-key. their chinese identity remains strong even though the racial tension once occurred after the decision of ahok’s two-year imprisonment. meanwhile, the cultural long-distance nationalism is particularly noticeable through the increasing number of students studying in china, the existence of ethnic communities, sociocultural settings, the more comprehensive bilateral partnership between indonesia and china, and other cultural activities that provoke the emotional ties to china and chinese culture. the cultural longdistance nationalism has significantly influenced the identity of younger generations of chinese indonesians. according to the result of the quantitative analysis mentioned above, it can be concluded that chinese media is the most significant predictor of cultural-long-distance nationalism and self-identification, followed by cultural practice, present sociocultural context, past experience, and ethnic communities. in addition, self-esteem, ethnic pride, and ethnic performance are more significantly influenced by cultural long-distance nationalism than self-identification. in short, the cultural long-distance nationalism appears to be a significant mediator and predictor that influence the strong emotional attachment of younger generations of chinese indonesians in indonesia. in terms of methodological contributions, prior research has only studied the cultural long-distance nationalism qualitatively, in which wong (2010) studied cultural long-distance nationalism and the staging of chinese-ness by san francisco’s chinese folk dance association. in her study, wong (2010) emphasized the role of cultural practice in provoking the cultural long-distance nationalism of chinese americans. different from wong (2010) in this research, the cultural long-distance nationalism is predicted by mainstream media, chinese media, ethnic communities, cultural practice, past experience, and the present sociocultural context. they are all measured by quantitative method using structural equation modeling (sem). 7. conclusion overall, the findings suggest that cultural long-distance nationalism has positive effects on self-esteem, ethnic pride, and ethnic performance. its effects on the three variables are stronger than the effect of selfidentification on those variables. meanwhile, cultural long-distance nationalism has been significantly influenced by chinese media, cultural practice, present sociocultural context, past experience, and ethnic communities. this research completed the previous qualitative study by minghua and ingketria (2016) that showed that chinese indonesians in the post-suharto era experienced ambivalent identity, where they were reluctant to assert their chinese-ness, while on the other hand they had a strong emotional attachment to their motherland. in this case, the results of this study showed that chinese indonesians’ cultural identity were actually strong, regardless of 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http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2013.776988 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 4, no. 2, 100-106, 2017 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2017.42.100.106 100 a pattern of organization management of entrepreneurial bugis merchants rice trade in south sulawesi, indonesia ansar s.e1 1lecturer, high school of management science stim yapim maros, indonesia abstract this research analyzes the pattern of organization management of entrepreneurial bugis merchants in south sulawesi rice trade in ancient times. as for who became informants in this study was the bugis traders who are still active and which is not a longer active trade of rice. this research is a descriptive analysis using qualitative approach through case studies, but the results of this study indicate that the majority of the bugis merchants ever existed of his time and experience the ups and downs at the development time and intense competition, technology management and entrepreneurship. they are able to survive long is that implementing the principles of good management with i.e. planning, organizing, and monitoring the movement of the. in addition to that aspect of human resources play an important role in the process of developing the quality of thought, affecting every aspect of action, behavior in building interaction with each other both locally, nationally and internationally, so that this is causing the position of merchants bugis have competitiveness and different characteristics with other merchants in the field first. keywords: traders, human resources, entrepneurship, competition, businesemen. citation | ansar s.e (2017). a pattern of organization management of entrepreneurial bugis merchants rice trade in south sulawesi, indonesia. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(2): 76-82. history: received: 24 february 2017 revised: 29 march 2017 accepted: 20 june 2017 published: 17 august 2017 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 101 2. a review of the literature........................................................................................................................................................... 101 3. method ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 102 4. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 102 6. the function of organizing ........................................................................................................................................................ 104 7. the function of moving employees .......................................................................................................................................... 105 8. the functions of the supervisor ................................................................................................................................................ 105 5. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 106 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 106 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 100-106 101 1. introduction the bugis ethnic group is one of the ethnic groups in the homeland of indonesia, the republic unitary state which dwelt and flourished in south sulawesi province. there are four ethnic groups in the province, which has a historical connection, namely bugis, makassar, mandar and torajan. the bugis ethnic group has the largest population among all four tribes and many inhabited or lived in the region of the central part of south sulawesi province, even spread throughout the county in south sulawesi. in its development since ancient times, the ethnic bugis not only flourished in south sulawesi, but also they leave his hometown, go abroad, making a living in other provinces on this archipelago, are they as merchants, businessmen or merchants as well as other types of provesi. bugis merchants have been known in the past as a tenacious man, master cruise and trade in particular trade between the islands in this archipelago and even out of the country, where one type of commodity at trading is rice. for the community of south sulawesi, especially those of bugis, the rice had a privileged position in the overall aspect of his life, because rice is the staple food for the majority of society indonesia, and anyway most of the population of south sulawesi work anyway in agriculture rice. there are several aspects that support the development of the rice trade venture merchant bugis in sulawesi selatan, from ancient times to the present, namely: first, the natural condition of south sulawesi with ample rice makes this province as the largest food barn outside of java island. secondly, the geographical location that is made up of lands and waters that make up the character of the people daring to sailing and trading. third, the position of south sulawesi amid the bustling cruise traffic so that commercial shipping passed and made the city of makassar and parepare as commercial airports are known for the reign of the netherlands east indies. the triumph of bugis merchants in the past was inseparable from the ability management in managing the entrepreneurial organization that is practiced. rice trade between the island has evolved since the first, where the traders, businessmen or merchants using a sailboat in performing transport between districts and between the islands, even to foreign countries such as singapore, malaysia and to the philippines. a pattern of organization management of entrepreneurial bugis traders in trading rice, based on "a sense of trust, honesty and fairness". in an attempt to the achievement of the sense of justice among them, it makes to emphize the law when it was known as the "law of cruise amanna gappa" with regard to the rules in the conduct of trade and shipping. merchants bugis with the unsettled organization management pattern is able to make his business thrive in his time. one of the factors that support them can exist in the rice trade is the availability of ocean freight, though with homemade boats or the production people own a boat type such as bugis pinisi boats, lambo, and so on. the boats which are used as a means of sea transport, in order to haul their wares to other areas of the archipelago. 1.1. the problem how does the pattern of organizational management and institutional dynamics of entrepreneurial bugis merchants in the trade of rice in indonesia. 2. a review of the literature g.r. terry in sarwoto (1991) put forward the notion of management, that management is distinct process consisting of planning, organizing, actuating, controlling, utilizing in each both science and art and follow in order to accomplish predetermined objectives. the basic element that is a source that can used to achieve the goal of management is man (humans), material (material), machine (machines), methods (work order), money (money). while the basic functions of management are planning (planning), organizing (organization), actuating (mobilization), and controlling (supervision). the organization is a container two or more people working together for a specific purpose, with certain principles that underlie every activity, as in any business activity or trade developed by merchants since the first until now. money in sarwoto (1991) organization as "the form of every human association for the attainment of a common purpose (form any human cooperation for the achievement of common goals). g.r. terry in sarwoto (1991). organisasi derived from the word "organism" is a structure with portions so integrated until their relationship to the whole. so an organization made up of two main parts, namely parts and relationships. steven (2001) the organization is a group of people (two or more) that intentionally unite in cooperation, as well as a working relationship to achieve the goals and targets previously set by the group. or in other words that the organization is an alignment (system) of the factors of human and non-human. the organization is a social unit that coordinated deliberate, composed of two or more functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a series of goals and objectives. makmur (2010) some opinions about the organization, namely: (1) thought organization as a container, that our thinking is oriented to collect a human activity. in this thinking organizations are viewed as static can perform various activities. (2) thought organization as a process, which we thought addressed to the organization is seen as something dynamic with various activities, creativity so that the objectives to be achieved it can be managed properly. (3) organization thinking as an activity that is thought clear division of activities, meaning the implementation will give the maximum. (4) thought as a formal organization that form of organization whose formation is done formally by a leader or official who has the authority to do so. (5) thought as an informal organization, the organizational forms not be formal or in other words the official organization or nature is not fundamental to the formation based on agreements and guidance needs of its own members. bygrave (1996) argued that an entrepreneur is someone who earns opportunities and creating organizations to pursue them. the entrepreneurial process involves all the functions of the activities and actions related to the acquisition opportunities and the creation of the organization. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 100-106 102 jhingan (1999) explains that entrepreneurship is hindered by social systems that reject creative ability. customs strength, rigidity and suspicion on the status of new ideas and the desire intlektual, together create an atmosphere that is not fit for trial and new discoveries. david (1980) suggests the need for a change, but our ability to perform corrective action is still hampered by a set of interests that are closely related are supported and endorsed by a vision of development that is based on false assumptions about the reality of our natural and social, evereet and floyd (1987). the process of social change consists of three successive stages: (1) innovation, which is the process by which new ideas are created and developed. (2) diffusion, is the process by which new ideas were communicated to the social system. (3) the consequences, namely the changes that occur in the social system as a result pengadobsian or rejection schumpeter in pressman (2000) describes the business cycle, ie regular fluctuations experienced by the economy. schumpeter, identified three different rotation or cycle occurring simultaneously. first, short-term fluctuations for about three to four years, the so-called "kitchin cycle" which were first discovered by yoshep kitchin. this rotation is associated with changes in business investment. the second cycle is associated with changes in business investment in plant and new equipment called "juglar cycle" for the first time discovered by clement juglar. schumpeter argues that the expansion of the last four to five years are related to the company's desire to expand and modernize their capital equipment. but after largely be evolved and modern, they do not require much new investment, resulting in a reduction in spending on plant and equipment over the next four to five years. the third cycle is a cycle of long-term or "kongratief waves" (wave kondratif) about 45-60 years. latanro (1988) he argued that: (1) employers identify themselves with the company. there is no separation between ownership and business processing .; (2) rely on personal ability and tend not rate high ability of subordinates; (3) does not see his cooperation with employers bugis as a practical necessity and a moral; (4) external relations paktor government deemed important to be used and (5) does not give much attention to the consumer. this analysis is expected to have implications for the development of science or provide empirical support for the development of the theory of organizational management, entrepreneurship, economic anthropology. apart from that also could have implications for government policy is to contribute ideas in formulating development policies entrepreneur (entrepreneur) in the rice trade. 3. method in this research, data collection was conducted at bugis traders who pursue the rice trade. samples in the classification in three phases: the reign of the old order, new order administration and the post-new order. the survey was conducted by in-depth interview to the respondents or informants to dig up information relating to the ins and outs of the entrepreneurial organization management bugis traders in the rice trade. furthermore do it descriptive analysis approach with a qualitative analysis was conducted to decipher or describe patterns of business organizations developed management merchants bugis in south sulawesi rice trade in the face of competition in its time. 4. discussion a. patterns of entrepreneurial bugis merchants organization management 1. planning activities the planning function within an organization are extremely important in determining or setting the goals to be achieved. rice trade venture merchant bugis is inseparable on the need for careful planning, especially in planning rice stocks, and market analysis. both of these activities is the determinant of a smooth business activities of trading or selling the rice among businessmen or merchants. 2) market analysis planning market will trade rice intended to market them, not always seamlessly implemented according to what they had planned, but sometimes experience changes according to needs of the market and the availability of capital, the means of transport. as for traders between the islands in the past who relied on the transportation of a sailboat or motorboat was strongly influenced by the season. if the seasons and weather on the ocean allows for sailing, then they've left for transporting merchandise and when it is not possible, then they look for other marketing areas are younger. although rice to traders in the past aren't too concerned with planning on the basis of a modern administration, but they remain very membutukan planning more mature though unwritten, considering they are more at risk are higher than now. they are just using the tool transportation the sea depends on the season, different this time. although with limited means of transportation and communication, past merchants rely on his conviction based on experience that has felt that is not getting in trouble in the market berasnya, if it is to aim in the area such as on the island of kalimantan, central sulawesi, southeast sulawesi and so on. based on his experience, that in the area of the intended consumers are ready to buy, but the usual obstacles faced i.e. if on site marketing coincided with the influx of imported rice. there is a distinguishing marketing planning in the rice trade between the islands for merchants in the past with the present, namely the current mode of transportation either by land or sea are getting smoothly, kemunikasi business smoother because supported by advances in information technology, so that within a short time the merchants can know about market conditions, whereas in the past are not. b) purchase/rice stocks the availability of rice stocks in the warehouse for a dealer inter island can affect the smooth delivery of the rice, because it requires good planning, to meet the target stock in the warehouse so that it can ensure the smooth delivery of the rice, and experienced no disruptions resulting from not tersediannya stock ready to be marketed. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 100-106 103 activities in warehousing where rice stocks each year undergo fluctuations. analysis of rice stocks is very necessary because it correlates with siqnifikan the uncertain harvest season. at the time of the harvest work, can cause a rich supply of rice from farmers and businessmen milling. for merchants is an encouraging potential because they can get rice from farmers at prices which are relatively inexpensive. but with cheaper prices, this does not mean automatically can buy more rice stocks, because it must be adapted to the capacity of the their warehouse c) sales targets the target sales volume is one part of a very important purpose, because any attempt to trade should ideally have a planning target sales increasing every year. in the modern business world, every business should have a steady marketing plan, because without planning, sales targets, the motivation of employers in developing his business is relatively low. the target into a measuring instrument to see the success of the rice trade venture merchant bugis. for the merchants in the reign of the old order until the middle of the reign of the new order, generally doesn't make planning sales targets in a written plan. they are not so easy to make changes to the planning of sales, because of the limited means of transportation and communication between the islands at the time. different current merchants can only make changes to planning in a short time because of the support the expeditious transportation, warehousing and facilities complete better communication link at any time. .. so merchants of the past in drawing up the sales planning are based on several factors: first, the market circumstances are appropriate estimates of the needs of the market demand. second, estimates of the season in favor of cruise, the third, the success of the production and harvest for farmers. current merchants in setting sales target more focus on the dynamics of the market, i.e. consumer demand and supply of rice as well as manufacturers of the present power potential, such as capital, warehousing and transport tools. d) diversification and enterprise development in other sectors development or expansion is part of the ideals of some employers, after the effort anyway developed then think to strive ahead with developing its business activities in other fields, such as the trading business the results of other earth other than rice (tobacco, cloves, cocoa, coffee, and so on) and the results of the industry. bugis merchants during the rule of the old order and the beginning of the new order, argues that trade in rice is very good, because rice is a very precious commodity needed by many people, because it once tried to trade rice no longer need to think of other types of businesses, so that the rice trade venture could develop, simply by acquiring rice trade venture it already can take family prosper. further efforts to develop trade in other commodities outside the rice, it needs caution employers because of the nature of rice is not like other commodities, where the commodity outside the rice it's easy going price changes that can cause harm on side trader, thus affecting the stability of trading business rice. the younger merchants thus argues that planning for another, develop on other trade can support the increase in his business, as with the planning of employers can be more motivated to work hard and actively to seek business opportunities more profitable. business focused not only on one field only, because when such business losses or congestion, then takes a long process/to bounce back. but if the effort of more than one type of commodity or product, when one of them suffered a slump, then there's still the other makes it possible to give a profit and sustain efforts to trade rice. from the analyzer can be explained that there is a difference of views between the merchants with the age of the institution above 30 years with merchants who are still young (aged 20-year effort <). older age, thus reluctantly left the rice trade to stop so entrepreneurs because they assume that the job of selling the rice, it was glorious and it takes a lot of people for his survival. so in addition to the benefit will also get a blessing and help the community practice in meeting the needs of anyway. they are convinced that his efforts will not be filed for bankruptcy, as long as people still make rice as needs anyway. for merchants who are younger, it wants to diversify its efforts, because they believe that there is no guarantee against the stability of rice prices, which may cause harm to the rice entrepreneurs and can even cause bankruptcy. factors of occurrence of inflation, changes in the value of the american dollar with the exchange rate of rupiah, erratic season, rice policy by the government (about the import of rice, the operations of the market) and so on, can be implicated on the instability of prices. e) transportation transport is one of the kind of supporting efforts to trade rice, both local and interstate trade of the island. transportation by land needed to transport rice from farmers at the level of the purchasing centre to the warehouse and from the warehouse to the port. boat or motor boat ocean freight as required for transporting rice from the district to other districts and between the islands. some of the merchants transport goods and car has even had a boat or motor boat of its own.n addition to using the tool, the transport can also use the service provided by the freight marine transportation entrepreneurs such as pt. emkl (expedition sea ships). the names of companies known in the ocean freight business since the 1960s to 2000s is as follows: barru regency (1) consists of: pl. ilolo ivory, pl. grace, km. dates. (2) the town of parepare consists of: pt. nurlina, ship name km nurlina pt. my hope in bloom, the name of the ship: km my hope, pt. lotus flower, the name of the ship: km. lotus flowers, pt. tanjung selamat, the ship km. cape merry, sweet cape, km. km. tanjung raya, pt makarennu, the name of the ship: km light merry & km toro sompe. pt. makkalitutu, the name of the ship: km. makkalitutu & teen son, pt. rusianto brothers (ethnic chinese), the name of the ship: km. samarinda express 1, km. 2 express, klm samarinda lucky beautiful, beautiful spinach klm, klm hibiscus bloom. (3) in the regency of bone: bone malimpung & pl. pl. toberi, plm bone rate, klm bone kingdom (1980s – present) (4) the city of makassar: km. dilla ocean 1 & km. dilla ocean 2, km. multi sejahtera, km. 7, soraya km island togia and so on. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 100-106 104 from the names of the company and the vessel as well as speedboat yet everything is recorded. the company expedition ships above sea, most of them featuring a boat or motor boat also have transportation by land or cars a truck, which supports smooth business emkl. as for the capacity or ability transport of the ship or boat used by merchants are as follows: (1) motor sailboat (plm) with the following characteristics: • load capacity of approximately 4000 zak or high school with 100 tons • travel time for crossing into kalimantan 10 – 15 days • does not have room for passengers (2) sailing boat motor (klm) with the following characteristics: • the charge capacity of approximately 5000 – 7000 zak or 175 tons • travel time for crossing into kalimantan 5 – 7 days • does not have room for passengers (3) motorboat (km), with the following characteristics: • load capacity of 10,000 – 12,000 zak • travel time for crossing into kalimantan 24 – 30 minutes • there is room for a passenger charge. in addition to using the services of the company ocean freight for private parties, as well as using the services of carriage owned by pt. pelni, however the cost or the average cost incurred was higher compared to using motor boats. motor boat belonging to pt pelni also has limitations because the intended area based on routine which is already fixed and scheduled. view merchant bugis era of the 1990s against possession of sea transportation, such as his attitude towards the possession of means of transport by land, they aren't too worried about to have as a company asset, but more emphasis on utilizing existing transportation services offered by the companies transporting, good transportation by land or sea transport. different merchant era in the 1970s argued that transportation is great for businesses were developed when the ability, because this business is indeed a direct contact and help smooth the rice trade is pursued so far. 6. the function of organizing organizing activities within a business activity is one of the important management functions are implemented, so that the business can run smoothly and accomplish company goals which have been set. a) innovation (new things in marketing) according to schumpeter (bygrave, 1996) that an innovation is a new idea that is brought to market, where buyers are very enjoyable, so they expand purchases to include also a new product or service. every successful innovation introduced by the company business, large or small, new or old, creating new demand for goods and services and would thus create new wealth a new idea or innovation in any business activity is highly expected to give change to business development. organizing the activities of new ideas or new findings is urgently needed in the effort to trade rice, as in producing good quality rice according to the wishes of consumers in the market, the way the packaging, labelling and marketing system. as innovation was exemplified in rice trade efforts in the past, entrepreneurs tried two types of quality rice marketed in areas of borneo island, which is a type of mashed rice and rice milling machine result types. both types have a different market share is namely to mashed rice allocated to consumer areas remote villages, while rice milling intended community of the city. marketing ideas with two kinds of quality made in maintaining a kelanggenan effort. the increasing role of competitors like dolog and the emergence of pt. pertani (persero), which have the ability of capital and ownership of high capacity milling machines with higher quality rice, then getting sued employers or rice merchants to find new breakthroughs, in offset or compete with the pt. pertani (persero). the presence of food in the system rice dolog, undeniable benefits that have been felt by both the farmer, the consumer society in general and even by most parties to the rice entrepreneurs. but if the views in depth with unconscious, thus happened to make few aspirations, motivation of entrepreneurs dolog rice because as one of channelling food rice or rice, it means not too hard-won again the traders or entrepreneurs looking to rice market. new ideas can be found by any employers or employees and other entrepreneurs. an entrepreneur can just modify the findings of others into similar models, but not the same as an example, as seen from the type of rice that is marketed by two or more employers, with the quality of rice of rice of the head are similar but not the same in the fragrance and so on. another example of the importance of organizing the findings from both the internal self or companies or outsiders, i.e. what has been developed by pertani pt (persero) by producing high quality rice head) which is packed with better packaging in maintaining the quality of the rice, did partner or coaching to groups of farmers, producers by providing capital assistance and other farming facilities, which can help farmers increase production. the result of the production of the farmers will be purchased by partners i.e. pertani pt. (persero) according to an agreement beforehand. b) capital resources capital resources into its driving force of a business, therefore there should be the ability to organize all the potential, the potential sources and manage them. the function of organizing as a management function that can affect the course of the business, such as how organizer existing capital in conducting market orientation, determine priorities, options and get the credit loans. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 100-106 105 a businessman rice in determining target markets, should be carefully analysis against customer needs, competitors ' strengths and weaknesses, as well as predicting the expected sales target, so that it can allocate capital resources efficiently and effectively fit his needs. success in mastering the market depends on how to manage or organize existing capital resources, market orientation and in conducting the search for the appropriate market information. the orientation of the market in rice trade is important, because rice is the merchandise that is sensitive to the weather, the season and right so that the face of a relatively high risk of damage. the importance the order of priority among the objectives of the market in rice, as entrepreneurs in the marketing of rice requires the precision of the destination market. sometimes with particular consideration, as there is no order of priority, then the destination market of rice that had been ready to be transported to a certain area, suddenly shifted to another place, so sacrificing other existing partners, and can result in a breakdown in the partnership that's been built up all this time. this should not occur if there has been a market analysis and orderthe order of priorities. in organizing capital resources, can be through banking, credit loans which are commonly employers of rice in areas related to the bank negara indonesia (bni) and bank rakyat indonesia (bri). perrlu credit loan organized properly, since it is a loan that charged interest each month and the current year. if managed well will be beneficial to the development effort, however if not organized carefully, thus becoming a burden on companies that become obligations that may affect declining business conditions. 6.1. human resources (labor) and the use of technology labor is the backbone of the company. in the rice trade labor marketing one of the keys to success, especially in trade between the islands. marketing labor should be organized in order to have performance in finding or creating new markets and take control of the market. duties and responsibilities in exercising and selling among merchants in ancient times on the interisland cruise travel, usually left up or appoint a responsible skipper in addition to the safety of the boat and any charge, as well as the sale of merchandise that is loaded particularly rice. in addition, there are given the authority to take another decision in the market of destination, if it thinks it can be profitable for them, or for the sake of the safety of the merchandise. in addition to the skipper won the trust and authority, also made people trust to help skipper known as mustard greens. the mustard greens in addition to the duties and responsibilities towards the work in the boat, also helped business owners market their rice or other merchandise, such as go check the prices in various markets, wholesale traders and retailers as well as other tasks that are required in the area of destination. ownership and control of information technology is relatively still limited, so that it takes hard work among traders to seek its own areas of marketing that is more potential and promising advantages. it is therefore necessary the people trust with high responsibility. a merchant must have the ability to organize the workforce, especially in the field of marketing because of this venture is the trading business. one of the unit's activities should be reinforced is part of marketing, i.e. must have the ability to monitor how the development of the price at any time in areas or other provinces, such as the area of already affordable marketing before. besides doing telephone relationships with agents he knew rice. the use of technology in trading rice is one of the functions which could affect the progress of the effort. with the use of technology, then the mashed rice as long as it is marketed is replaced by rice milling machine results. so did the packing with the use of sack burlap sack packaging usage was replaced with plastic. 7. the function of moving employees the activity moves or motivate the workforce in a given business activity is an important management functions including, in particular, the field of trade. an entrepreneur must have the ability to be able to motivate and move the workforce to do good work that has been assigned to him. a merchant must have the ability of bugis in moving its employees to work orderly and disciplined, capable of transferring innovation, whether self-created or other entrepreneurs on the inimitable. at globalization period increasingly competitive it needed the ability to transfer benefits and advantages other parties to be able to progressively improve the condition of his efforts. the effort of moving employees to be more creative in finding innovation or novelty, as in purchase activity, the transport/transport, packaging, marketing, bookkeeping and financial administration that can stir up the progress of the business of the trade. can be exemplified how the merchant failed to bugis in the past, in bookkeeping or administrative problems handling a relatively firm is still very traditional. them with the traditional accounting model, i.e. rice circulation only records in and out of the warehouse, and the activities of the financial expenses associated with the purchase and so on, are done in a simple course. they are not able to show the full financial record keeping, each occurrence of a transaction, it cannot be demonstrated how much the real capital, their income as the income of the wife of the director, as the holder of the treasury, income of the child or the family who helped the profit level of effort and activity of its own. 8. the functions of the supervisor the activities of oversight as a function of management is very important and necessary in the rice trade, because without strict supervision, then the entrepreneur is confronted with a market failure that led to the risk of loss. a supervisory employee surveillance against power admnistrasi important do, because labor productivity in public administration and finance in the rice business activities, it is important to indicate whether the company was healthy or not. labor asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 100-106 106 productivity in public administration and finance in question here is, the ability of any administrative personnel in completing the task of recording bookkeeping or both in the field of general and financial activities, such as correspondence, logging out, the amount of rice hutang-piutang entry, the position of capital, loans, profit and so on. bugis merchants very careful and pay close attention to the promise that has been agreed upon with the other party, so that the needed oversight in such matters. keeping our promise in the rice trade venture is very important, because it concerns the credibility of an entrepreneur. in the past when an entrepreneur has kaka, then the result against a loss of confidence in him, even though the confidante was a staple of capital for merchants, bugis, in trying to specialize in trading between the islands. b) surveillance against the quality/quality of rice quality control against the rice trade is very important, because the quality of rice affects consumer tastes and can increase the thrust of the customers and satisfy the growing demand from consumers. increased demand of rice traded ensures survival or smooth effort among merchants. in everyday life, it seems that with the increase of people's income has been affected patterns of consume, particularly the demand for the fulfillment of the needs of an increasingly demanding quality rice, as rice as a staple that every day must be fulfilled. therefore, employers already must anticipate the problems regarding the ever increasing demands of the desired quality of rice consumers. in the 1960s to the 1970s with supplies or stockpiles of food (rice) are strictly limited to meet the needs of the community, so that any quality of rice traded can still enter the market, as required by the community. when that merchants not to choose quality rice which should be trading by choice's quality is still very limited. another case in the 1980s to the present, with increased rice production, which makes the results of the south sulawesi province as the granary of rice or rice-producing outside the island of java, and the increasing quality of the processing technology of rice milling entrepreneurs owned and pertani pt. (persero), led to a growing various the type and quality of the products offered in the market. good traders among retailers, or consumers have the opportunity to conduct the elections against various types of rice that will be bought and sold by traders and purchased by a consumer. 5. conclusion 1. the rice trade venture for bugis merchants have experienced ups and downs, where known at period as a successful merchant, has even been able to penetrate the interisland trade using simple transportation tool i.e. a sailboat in the past. but along with the progress and development of the transport, communication and then shift has occurred so that they are able to survive and most of the rice trade venture to leave. 2. a business organization management pattern of bugis in trading rice merchants in the old order and new order are still, in general, use traditional management pattern, they show the implementation of management functions are still weak, particularly on the function of planning and organization. references bygrave, w.d., 1996. entrereneurship. jakarta: binarupa aksara. david, k.c., 1980. community organisation and rular development: a learning process approach. public administration review, 40(5): 480511. view at publisher evereet, r. and s.f. floyd, 1987. popularizing new idea. surabaya: national business. jhingan, m.l., 1999. ekonomi pembangunan dan perencanaan, pt. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. latanro, 1988. employers bugis an analytical painting. dissertation graduate programme unhas, makassar. makmur, 2010. indonesia in the wake of global transformation: from nation-state to market-state? indonesia social science review, 1: 2. pressman, 2000. lima puluh pemikir ekonomi dunia, terjemahan edisi pertama. jakarta : pt raja grafindo persada. sarwoto, 1991. fundamentals of organization and management. jakarta: ghalia indonesia. steven, r., 2001. organizational behavior and management. jakarta: ghalia indonesia. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3110204 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 2, 115-126, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 115 industrial accidents in bangladesh apparel manufacturing sector: an analysis of the two most deadliest accidents in history muhammad faisol chowdhury1  tasnim rezoana tanim2 1 assistant professor, school of business, university of liberal arts bangladesh, dhaka, bangladesh 2 lecturer, school of business & economics, north south university, dhaka, bangladesh ( corresponding author) contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 116 2. literature review .............................................................................................................................................................. 116 3. methodology....................................................................................................................................................................... 117 4. case studies ....................................................................................................................................................................... 118 5. findings .............................................................................................................................................................................. 120 6. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................... 122 7. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 123 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 123 citation | muhammad faisol chowdhury; tasnim rezoana tanim (2016). industrial accidents in bangladesh apparel manufacturing sector: an analysis of the two most deadliest accidents in history. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(2): 115-126. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.115.126 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 29 june 2015/ revised: 25 july 2015/ accepted: 21 october 2015/ published: 27 november 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group abstract the purposes of this study are, firstly to investigate the two recent industrial accidents: the collapse of rana plaza and the fire at tazreen fashions, and secondly, to find out the reasons behind these accidents. the study particularly focuses on the readymade garment (rmg) sector in bangladesh. it is qualitative in nature and follows an interpretivist and constructivists philosophical paradigm. data were collected through triangulation method which uses two deviant cases (rana plaza and tazreen garments), and responses from a qualitative questionnaire. the questionnaire sample includes 16 male participants from 8 rmg factories located in dhaka. all the participants were top-level executives at those factories (i.e. owners and general managers). the study finds that non-compliance with the occupational health and safety (ohs) provisions and the evasive nature of the factory owners were the main causes of the accidents. the study also discovers that there is a significant difference in the ohs practice among the factory owners of the outsourced and the subcontracted factories. the study further explains the rationale behind this difference. keywords: occupational health and safety, readymade garment, industrial accident, negligence, evasion. jel classification: j28. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.115.126 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.2/500.2.115.126 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 115-126 116 1. introduction workplaces in lower cost emerging economies have undergone continuous and substantial changes due to the outsourcing and offshoring practices of the european and north american countries (manning et al., 2008; contractor et al., 2010; dey et al., 2012). in many of these developing countries apparel manufacture and export has become the main source of remittance (haider, 2007; contractor and mudambi, 2008). this study focuses on bangladesh, a lower cost emerging economy, where readymade garment (rmg) manufacturing and export has become a lifeline for both urban and rural people. it is the only major labour intensive sector of the country with huge employment-generating potential and the biggest source of remittance earnings. nonetheless, the several disasters that have occurred in garment factories, claiming thousands of lives, have notoriously become the subject of much concern recently, both in the country itself, as well as internationally among the globally renowned buyers, trade unions, and monitoring authorities. as a result, despite the phenomenal success of the rmg industry in bangladesh in the last two decades, workplace accidents have led to a downturn in the growth of this sector in the past few years. the industry has been plagued by building collapses, frequent fires, and other avoidable industrial incidents. only in the last four years, almost 4,500 garment workers were injured, crushed, burnt, trampled or killed in preventable workplace accidents (al-mahmood, 2013; bbc british broadcasting corporation, 2013a). the recent worst-ever industrial accident in the country, the collapse of rana plaza in 2013, caused the deaths of 1,129 workers and the life-threatening injuries of 2,515 workers (cpd centre for policy dialogue, 2013; ilrf — international labor rights forum, 2013) and the fire at tazreen fashions in 2012, caused the deaths of 117 workers and severely injured a further 200 workers (al-mahmood, 2013; bbc, 2013a). these accidents have not only shocked the entire nation, but also the other nations of the world, stimulating outrage among people at the failure to ensure a safe and healthy work environment (alam and hossain, 2013). the importance of ohs is being increasingly realised in bangladesh, and likewise in other developing countries which are undergoing rapid industrialisation. in bangladesh, as in other countries of the west, the responsibility for health and safety at work is placed on the employer, although the government has some kind of occupational health care services and safety standards. ohs services are provided as benefits by employers and are generally separate from other community benefits. in bangladesh, there are labour laws and other ohs compliance provisions for rmg factories which are imposed and implemented by different authorities, like the government of the country, the bangladesh garments manufacturers and exporters association (bgmea), the international labor organization (ilo), and the global supply chain (e.g. foreign retailers) who place their work-orders with local bangladeshi factories. all these compliance provisions adequately cover health and safety issues. given the proliferation of the practice of all the ohs provisions, it is observed that the number of workplace accidents has increased rapidly in the last five years. this study, therefore, aims to investigate the two recent industrial accidents: the collapse of rana plaza and the fire at tazreen fashions, and then attempts to find out the reasons behind these accidents. the researchers‘ ontological position confirms that people‘s knowledge, views, understanding, interpretations and experiences are meaningful properties of the social reality which their research questions are designed to explore. so, the epistemology framing of this qualitative research is interpretivism and constructivism. therefore, the study presents two case studies and questionnaire responses to facilitate an in-depth, detailed examination of these two deviant events. to illuminate and further investigate the research questions, the cases and questionnaire responses allow the researchers to generate some themes for further analysis of the phenomenon. 2. literature review ohs practice is considered as an important issue for organisations to deter industrial accidents (walton, 1985; whitener, 2001). according to zacharatos et al. (2005) managers of successful organisations comprehend that in order to make most out of the organisational system, it is important to ensure that the employees are safe, sound, and healthy at work. proper compliance with ohs legislations can help organisations avoid the costs of litigation arising from poor health and safety standards (gilmore and williams, 2009). jyothi and venkatesh (2011) claimed that the safety and protection of employees carry greater financial implication than many in corporate leadership roles recognise. it creates a ripple effect that can influence immediate and long-term costs. as perfectly stated by robens (1972, cited in browne (1973) “accidents prevention can be integrated into the overall economic activity of the firm”. it is, therefore, argued that employers must apply the same effort and creativity to designing and maintaining a healthy and safe workplace as they customarily apply to other facets of the business. empirical evidence suggests that safe and healthy working conditions have a positive relationship with employee satisfaction, performance, and productivity. deussom and adams (2012) claimed higher worker productivity when ohs conditions are fulfilled in workplaces. arboleda et al. (2003); vredenburgh (2002); vassie and lucas (2001) and mcdonald et al. (2000) considered health and safety management practices as antecedents of safety culture in different organisational setups like transportation, healthcare, aircraft maintenance, and factory environment. harvey and gavigan (2014) carried out a research on workplace stress, injuries and violence and subsequent ohs practices in canadian workforce and concluded that reducing workplace stress through improved ohs and human resource management practices can lead to reduced ohs injuries, accidents and violence, and associated costs, as well as absenteeism, turnover, and litigation. robertson et al. (2011) and carter (2010) in their research in cambodia and nepal, and concha-barrientos et al. (2005) in their study in the us workforce found that a safe and healthy work environment can increase productivity and profitability. asuyama et al. (2013) found positive performance changes among cambodian rmg factories due to increased ohs participation. the study of morillas et al. (2013) of sweden and spain revealed that there were considerably fewer accidents in factories due to the implementation of ohs measures. noweir et al. (2013) in their research on the kingdom of saudi arabia, hori (2012) in his research on japan, saifullah and ismail (2012) in their investigation on malaysia, and geldart et al. (2010) in their research on canadian firms, also generated similar findings. similarly, a systematic risk management approach that involves treating workplace accidents as a problem — that requires employers‘ good judgement and conformity to the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 115-126 117 regulations and technical solutions — is found to be adopted by australian employers (walters, 2004). their risk management approach was equipped with the implementation of deterrent elements like health and safety policies, risk assessment, safety plans and auditing, and training employees through qualified personnel from diverse backgrounds to deliver risk management services (walters, 2004). these empirical studies prove that ohs provisions are considered as a major way of safeguarding workplaces against accidents. in context of bangladesh the relationship of an ohs-regulated, safe work environment with organisational productivity and worker satisfaction was examined by nur (2013); ahmed (2012); yunus and yamagata (2012) and berik and rodgers (2008) where the implementation of ohs worked as a deterrent to accidents. from these studies, a safe work environment was found to have a positive effect on labour productivity. similarly, akram (2014); ahmed and hossain (2009) identified that in the rmg sector standard work environment can lead to higher worker satisfaction and retention rate. this is further supported by bils bangladesh institute of labour studies (2005) as in their research they found the relationship between ohs practices with work efficiency, performance, and worker satisfaction in bangladeshi rmg factories. furthermore, rahman and hossain (2010) concluded that regular practice of ohs and compliance with the code of conduct (coc) conditions of global supply chain can result in low labour unrest and turnover, and high worker morality and productivity. so, a healthy and safe work environment can reduce operating costs and improve organisational effectiveness, based on the notion that the well-being of staff is an integral feature of successful organisations (macdonald, 2005). ohs is an integral part of the management system, woven into each management competency and a part of everyone‘s day-to-day responsibilities (pierce, 2000). it is the moral and legal obligation of the employers to provide a safe work environment for the employees and workers (jyothi and venkatesh, 2011). in bangladesh it is a legal requirement for any rmg factory owner to administer and comply with the country‘s labour law and other ohs provisions imposed on them. yet, there still are employers who seem to take safety less seriously than they should. evidence can be found from empirical studies that, during the last decade, the majority of workplace accidents that occurred in the rmg sector in bangladesh were related to the employers‘ lack of administration, negligence and avoidance of the ohs provisions (bhuiyan and haq, 2008; ahmed and hossain, 2009; alamgir and haque, 2013; ilo — international labor organization, 2013). the societal expectation from the factory owners is that they should have a rational choice with regard to undertaking responsible business practices. thus, they must have a reasonable understanding of the ohs regulations and policies imposed on them by the bangladesh government and bgmea, as well as by the global supply chain, and ilo, in order for the regulation to work as a deterrent factor to occupational accidents. however, this does not seem to be the case. as discussed earlier, the explicit reason for the confounding number of workplace deaths in the rmg sector is the reluctance observed among many factory owners with regard to conformity to the ohs provisions (ahmed and hossain, 2009; zaman et al., 2013). the evidence shows that these high-status people in society are uninterested in making calculative decisions to implement ohs as an incentive to safeguard their factories against undesirable catastrophes. for instance, in terms of workplace casualty, in the uk, a total of 148 people were killed while at work in the year 2012 to 2013 (hse — health and safety executive uk, 2013). this is a significantly low number compared to the several thousand deaths in bangladesh‘s rmg sector alone during the same time period. the decreasing tolerance for industrial and workplace accidents, the rising complexities associated with these incidents, and the growing recognition that health and safety forms an important subgroup of organisational contingencies affecting the management practices underscore the need to understand how work and organisational design shape objective patterns of interaction and behaviour and subjective feelings about the employment relationship (james and walters, 2002; bratton and gold, 2003). the involvement of ilo, global supply chain, and the local government in shaping the country‘s ohs system and imposing the ohs provisions on factory owners reaffirms the importance of practicing ohs requirements. on the question of the importance of ohs, although economic cost and management considerations will always be predominant for the organisation, the costs of ill-health, work related accidents and deaths are not only borne by the victims, the families and their employers: the costs of these undesirable workplace incidents are also clearly borne by the taxpayer and public sector services. however, reliable estimates of the total cost of occupational ill-health and accidents are incomplete as a result of the low priority given to this area in bangladesh. although the above mentioned studies have focused on areas like the brief discussions on the workplace accidents, technical and government failures of the successful ohs implementation and importance of ohs to protect workplaces from accidents in the country‘s context, a systematic and detailed investigation of the workplace accidents has not been done by these researches. 3. methodology contextual conditions and the perception of individual respondents are of extreme importance to this study. therefore, this study uses a ‗data triangulation‘ from two cases and qualitative questionnaire for data collection and interpretation of the phenomenon in order to obtain an accurate representation of the reality. through triangulation, an accurate representation of reality is possible (polit and hungler, 1999) and it provides a rich and complex picture of some social phenomenon being studied (mathison, 1998). the topic of this study demands an approach to be more receptive to meanings in human interactions and capable of making sense of what is perceived as multiple realities. as a result, the researchers‘ selection of these two qualitative methods to achieve triangulation to conduct the study are valid and the evidences generated through this methodology can be confirmed robust and reliable. two deviant and extreme cases: (a) the fire at tazreen fashions limited, and (b) the collapse of rana plaza, have been used to aid the analysis. these case studies give a more detailed picture of workplace accidents within the bangladeshi context to show what can happen in an extreme situation. according to baxter and jack (2008) the case study approach provides tools for researchers to analyse complex phenomena within their contexts. it allows researchers to explore individuals or organisations by intervening in their context and relationships, and supports the deconstruction and subsequent reconstruction of various phenomena (yin, 2009). the case based approach is also suggested by schofield (2007) and leedy (1997) since case study is the ‗fact‘ of any particular issue, the contents of which require an in-depth focus on the social science area to understand its phenomenon on the basis of it being an asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 115-126 118 individual problem. furthermore, blumberg et al. (2011) claimed that case studies shed more light on a phenomenon from multiple perspectives as defined by its context compared to other approaches. in this study, the case study method gives the researchers flexibility and similarly ensures that the answers to the research questions are not explored “through one lens, but rather a variety of lenses” (baxter and jack, 2008) which allow for multiple facets of the phenomenon to be revealed and understood. the cases are prepared based on secondary data analysis. both cases are descriptive in nature and were chosen to describe the phenomenon (e.g. workplace accidents that occur due to occupational health and safety negligence) and the real-life context in which it occurred. secondly, by keeping in mind the complex scenario of the cocs of the global supply chain, and subcontracting nature of the business, the cases are presented with respect to the information obtained through authentic sources like actual compliance audits performed by leading auditors from internationally renowned consumer product manufacturing companies, and from other archival records. the reason for choosing multiple cases over a holistic case is that it allows the research to analyse the phenomenon within each setting and across setting, thereby making it possible to examine the similarities and differences between the phenomena. according to the framework of creswell (2006) and stake (1995) the case studies contain the following aspects: • arrangement of the details of the case events in a logical and sequential order • data to put into meaningful groups or categories • the sources of evidence (such as quotes and statements) to be examined in relation to the case. • different patterns or themes to be identified from the case data • the patterns or themes are to be analysed further in detail • conclusion of the case this study follows the qualitative questionnaire as a second method of the triangulation process. by following the property of intensity sampling 8 bangladeshi rmg factories located on the outskirts of dhaka were selected. this selection was aided by the members‘ directory published by the bangladesh garments manufacturers and exporters association (bgmea). all of these factories are outsourced (i.e. they take work-orders directly from the foreign retailers), 100% export-oriented, and they manufacture apparel for european and north american retailers. through this intensity sampling, the researchers selected a small number of rich discussions that provide in-depth information and knowledge of the phenomena of interest. in order to establish a purposeful sample providing saturation, guidance was taken from creswell (2006) who suggested saturation for his study at 5 to 25 participants, while morse (1994) suggested at least 6 participants. however, mason (2013) argued that the cut-off point is always inevitably arbitrary, and thus focused on the richness of data and the interaction between the researcher and respondent to yield rich insights rather than quantity. this research, therefore, utilised an intensive structured questionnaire with a sample size of 16 respondents (2 from each factories), considering that the quality of the data depends on the point of saturation and feasibility, from which no new information would hope to be gathered from the respondents. all the respondents were male, top-level executives of the factories (e.g. owners and managers). the questionnaire was designed to take approximately 30 minutes to complete and the responses were submitted online with the aid of google docs. the target respondents were the garment factory owners. the questionnaire was split into 5 sections consisting of 22 questions, as follows: • section 1: the purpose, target respondents, time frame and ethical issues were presented. • section 2: instructions to fill out the questionnaire were provided. • section 3: 5 questions were asked to gather information about the participants and their job. • section 4: 5 questions were provided to collect information about the factory. • section 5: 12 questions were asked about the ohs provisions and compliance issues. it is to be noted that, this research did not collect any data from the people associated with rana plaza and tazreen fashions through interview or questionnaire, due to the severity of the accidents in these two establishments which left the workers, employees and other associated people bereaved, shocked, and traumatised. the aim of this study does not cover the involvement of any respondent from such a vulnerable group. 4. case studies 4.1. case one: the fire at tazreen fashions limited tazreen fashions limited is a sister concern of tuba group, which is a large business corporation in bangladesh. situated in the ashulia district on the outskirts of dhaka, the factory was established in 2010 and employs 1,500 workers (document cloud, n.d). it produces apparel for american, british, german, italian, spanish and swedish buyers including carrefour, delta apparel, dickies, disney, edinburgh woollen mill, el corte ingles, enyce, ikea, karl rieker, kik, piazza italia, sears, teddy smith, walmart, and the u.s. marine corps (bergman and rashid, 2012; mosk, 2012; ccc clean clothes campaign, 2013). on 24 november 2012, fire broke out in the factory at around 7 p.m. while it was in operation. although the total number of people who were killed and injured due to the accident cannot be verified due to the inconsistent reports of journalists and the media, researchers and investigators later estimated these to have been 111-124 deaths and 200-300 people injured (ahmed, 2012; bergman and rashid, 2012; amrc asia monitor resource centre, 2013; ross, 2013; zaman et al., 2013; bbc, 2013a). according to the report of the asian network for the rights of occupational and environmental victims, it is believed that more than 1200 people were working inside the nine-storey building when the fire began (amrc, 2013). eyewitnesses and fire defence officials mentioned that the fire broke out on the ground floor, where piles of fabric and yarn were stored in an open space when they should ideally have been stored in a room with fireproof walls. the blaze quickly spread across the ground floor and fire and toxic smoke spread to the upper floors. many employees tried to escape via the interior staircase, as the factory lacked a sprinkler system or fire exit (ccc, 2013). however, it was also reported that the managers on a few floors ordered workers to continue working despite hearing the fire alarm, assuming it to be a fire drill. with the locked gates on most of the floors of the nine-storey factory, this initial refusal to evacuate left many workers trapped inside when the fire engulfed the entire building. the smokeasian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 115-126 119 filled staircases and iron grilles on the windows prevented the trapped workers from escaping. a few desperate workers managed to break windows and escape, while others jumped from the upper floors to the ground, which left them badly injured or dead. a few others managed to leap onto the roof of a nearby building (manik and yardley, 2012). according to the bangladesh fire service and civil defence official abu n m shahidullah and operations director mahbubur rahman, most of the workers who died due to the lack of adequate exits and suffocation by smoke were on the first and second floors. in addition, these officials highlighted that the factory lacks necessary closed-circuit television monitoring system and had not received an operating licence from the fire service authority upon the expiration of the previous one (bustillo et al., 2012). afterwards, the bangladesh occupational safety, health and environment foundation (oshe) carried out an independent investigation into the incident to highlight the root causes and failures. some of the major identified causes were: no fire or emergency exits or stairways, the provision of only one main entrance and exit on the ground floor which was itself insufficiently wide to accommodate the number of workers in the factory, inadequate fire extinguishers and fire defence materials, locked collapsible gates on different floors that stopped workers from evacuating when the fire alarm went off, the factory owner‘s negligence with regard to following the building code (constructing a nine-storey building when there was permission to build only three floors), raw materials storage on the ground floor in close proximity to high voltage electricity transformers, the expired fire safety certificate, and the lack of fire safety training (only 40 of the 1,500 workers had attended basic fire safety instruction) (amrc, 2013). it was also found that the fire extinguishers available in the factory were not used at the time of the incident. this ignorance and carelessness among the floor managers and workers reflect the irresponsibility and severe negligence of the management in understanding the importance of following the occupational health and safety (ohs) guidelines. industry officials and rescuers stated that the people who could not escape from the fire were burnt alive and many of their bodies were beyond recognition, as they were burnt to ash along with the raw materials and equipment, thus creating confusion about the actual number of deaths (bajaj, 2012; chowdhury, 2012; mezzofiore, 2012; new age, 2013; ross, 2013). furthermore, the inquiry report of the ministry of home affairs bangladesh stated that the utmost negligence of the factory owner was responsible for the accident and the subsequent deaths of the workers. the report blaming the factory owner for negligence, further identified that nine mid-level managers and supervisors prevented the workers from leaving the workplace even after the fire alarm had gone off. it was also suggested by the report that the fire was ‗an act of sabotage‘, although no evidence was brought forward to support this claim (manik and yardley, 2012). “we have come to the conclusion that it was an act of sabotage. we are finding out as of now who exactly the saboteurs are and all culprits will be brought to book”, said the interior minister m k alamgir (mosk and berkowitz, 2012). the government enquirer m u khandaker claimed that the investigation had found no evidence of an electrical short circuit, and that eyewitnesses had suggested possible foul play (manik and yardley, 2012). accordingly, the bgmea termed the accident ‗sabotage‘, claiming that people had infiltrated the factory and that there might have been an ill-motive behind the fire (news network, 2012; amrc, 2013). however, this assertion of the government and bgmea has exposed the deep tension among many researchers and investigators, as they also claim that the severe negligence and carelessness of the factory owners have been contributing to the disastrous industrial accidents in bangladesh for decades (ahmed and hossain, 2009; zaman et al., 2013). given the proliferation of the use of the ohs provisions as a deterrent to workplace accidents, the factory owners‘ unwillingness to act rationally is resulting in a havoc in the overall apparel manufacturing sector of the country. israfil alam, the bangladesh government‘s spokesperson from the ministry of labour and employment, criticised these ‗sabotage‘ claims, terming the accident as ‗act of arson‘. he commented that these reports were designed to save the employer of the factory and termed them ill-motivated, defensive and biased. he concluded by saying, “the garment factory owners are yet to become humans. they are still owners of garment factories!” (amrc, 2013). regardless of the source of the fire, it is verified that the serious level of unsafe working condition within the factory and the negligence on the part of the factory management team were the primary reasons for such an accident and the resulting death toll (bbc, 2012). 4.2. case two: the collapse of rana plaza rana plaza was a nine-storey commercial building, located in savar, a sub-district of greater dhaka. it housed five separate rmg factories, employing around 5,000 people on different floors, several shops, and a bank. the first three floors of the building contained around 300 shops and the bank whereas the five rmg factories occupied the higher floors, and the ninth floor was under construction. these rmg factories had been manufacturing apparel for 28 retailers from canada, italy, ireland, spain, the uk and the usa, including brands like: benetton, bonmarché, el corte ingles, joe fresh, mango, matalan, primark, the children‘s place, and walmart (luckerson, 2013; o‘connor, 2013; smithers, 2013). the building was owned by sohel rana, a leading member of the local wing of the ruling political party, the awami league (bdnews24, 2013). the building collapsed at about 9 a.m. on 24 april 2013, with a death toll of 1,129 lives and approximately 2,512 injured (alam and hossain, 2013; butler, 2013). within hours of the collapse, the united nations offered to send expert rescue teams with dogs, micro-cameras and other equipments to the site, but this offer was rejected by the government authorities. similar offers of international search and rescue assistance, including a formal offer to send a team of specialists from britain, were also rejected (nelson, 2013). although the local rescuers provided food, water, and oxygen to those trapped and tried their best to rescue them; the pace of the rescue operation was slow due to lack of necessary training, tools and equipment. the relatives of the victims vented their anger over the slow pace and attempted to participate in the rescue operation by removing the debris with their bare hands. the general public and different organisations responded spontaneously and contributed cash, food, medicine and equipments, according to their capacity (mustafa, 2013). according to the report by the centre for policy dialogue, 1,129 dead bodies were recovered, 2,438 workers were rescued alive from the rubble, and a large number of people remain missing since the accident took place (cpd, 2013). it is estimated that a total of 332 people who were working in different factories located in the building could asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 115-126 120 not be identified. the preliminary results of a government inquiry found that heavy machinery, high-capacity generators, and the use of substandard materials during the construction of the building were largely responsible for its collapse. the inquiry official also suggested that the top three floors of the nine-storey building were added without the permission of the planning authority and that the building had been constructed on marshland which, in turn, could have been the root cause of its faulty structure (campbell, 2013; than, 2013; watkins and ahmed, 2013). similar results were found by a bgmea investigation committee who identified nine causes for the rana plaza collapse, including deviation from the original building design and layout, shoddy construction, the low capacity of the pillars, the installation of heavy generators on the rooftop, the inappropriate use of the building for industrial rather than retail purposes, and the setting up of heavy machines in the garment factories (appg all party parliamentary group, 2013; hossain and alam, 2013). afterwards, other experts and analysts also concluded that the very low-quality construction materials, poor structural design, under-developed swampland on which the building was constructed, the piling up of heavy industrial machinery on the upper floors, the lack of a fire escape, and the complete absence of building safety standards also contributed to this incident (manik and yardley, 2012; asif, 2013; bbc, 2013b). a number of officials reported that the building showed cracks on the day before its collapse, and recorded footage of the cracks were shown in various tv channels. but sohel rana, its owner, dismissed these as ‗nothing serious‘. he later claimed to the media that the building was safe to use and the workers should return to work (libcom, 2013). ―the building is strongly made to last the next 100 years, so get back to work. nothing will happen to you‖, sohel rana was reported to have told the workers on the morning of the disaster when they refused to enter the factories (clothes to die for, 2014). while the bank managers and shop owners took the cracks seriously and kept their respective offices closed on the day of the collapse, the garment factory owners along with sohel rana ignored the risk and kept the factories open. many survivors reported that the managers of the factories ordered the workers to ignore the potential risk and return to work. they threatened the workers by saying that their salaries would not be paid if they did not follow the order, and thus the workers were forced to return to work (clothes to die for, 2014). four days after the accident, sohel rana was arrested as he was attempting to flee to india. in march 2014, he was granted six month‘s bail in the high court (daily star, 2014). because of the severity and intensity of the accident, this incident is now being considered the most devastating rmg factory accident in history, as well as the worst accidental structural failure in modern human history (hossain and alam, 2013; bbc, 2013b). 5. findings after analysing case one, it appears that the main reason for the accident was the negligence of the owner and the midlevel managers of the factory in practicing the ohs provisions properly. despite hearing the fire alarm, the managers prevented the workers from evacuating the workplace by locking the collapsible gates on several floors. this caused many workers to become trapped inside the building. another reason for the accident is the lack of adequate fire exits. moreover, the storage of raw materials like fibre and yarn in an open space near the high voltage electric transformers accelerated the spread of the flames. also, the lack of sufficient fire extinguishers and inadequate preparedness and training to handle accidents contributed considerably to the incident. the analysis of case two suggests that the main reason for the accident was the negligence of the owner of the building and the owners of the rmg factories in practicing the ohs provisions adequately. despite noticing the cracks in the building the day before the accident, the owners neglected the risk factor and forced the workers to return to work. other reasons that contributed to the accident included the violation of the original building design and specifications by adding additional higher floors, the use of substandard materials during the construction on marshland, the installation of heavy generators on the rooftop, setting up heavy machinery in the factories, and, the complete absence of security and safety measures within the building. the questionnaire responses received from the 16 respondents indicate that most of the respondents have little or no knowledge about the new national labour law, and also possess very little understanding of the terms and conditions of the cocs provided by the foreign retailers. from the cases and questionnaire responses, the following themes emerge: theme 1: the factory owners‘ understanding of the ohs provisions and practices theme 2: the factory owners‘ negligence in administration of the ohs provisions table-1. contributing factors of the accidents of the two cases factors tazreen fashions rana plaza number of illegal construction of unapproved factory floors 6 floors 3 floors main cause of the accident fire from electrical short-circuit building collapse for shoddy construction inaccessible emergency exits during the accident yes yes absence of fire extinguishers & sprinklers no, but inadequate yes absence of adequate safety standards yes yes absence of periodical fire drill yes yes narrow and insufficient staircases yes yes non-guidance and no support from the floor managers & supervisors during the accident yes yes unskilled and inexperienced managers & supervisors to tackle workplace accidents yes yes unauthorised use of factory floors to install heavy machineries yes yes poor building structure yes yes building constructed for industrial use yes no violation of ohs provisions yes yes asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 115-126 121 5.1. theme 1 this theme is discussed based on the participants‘ questionnaire responses relating to their understanding of the existing ohs provisions and practices. the respondents were asked several questions to establish their knowledge about the existing ohs provisions (e.g. bangladesh labour act, 2006 and its amendment in 2013, coc of bgmea and foreign retailers, ilo ratifications). surprisingly, only 2 respondents were found to be aware of the specific sections of the bangladeshi labour act which deal with health and safety issues. the remaining 14 respondents answered that they are aware of the existence of the labour act but could not list any specific ohs sections of it. similarly, none of the respondents could remember any of the ilo conventions on ohs issues related to the rmg industry which the country has ratified. however, half of the respondents were able to highlight some of the basic security and safety requirements (e.g. the provision of fire drills, emergency exits, etc.) mentioned in the coc of bgmea and specific cocs of the foreign retailers. a number of questions explored the participants‘ opinions about the existing ohs provisions. all of the respondents agreed to the point that the appropriate implementation of the existing ohs provisions can deter accidents successfully. however, further analysis of their answers revealed that most of the participants face various difficulties to comply with the ohs provisions in terms of the availability of experienced and expert health and safety management personnel, and the cost of implementing an efficient ohs plan in their factory in order to comply with the national legislation. for example, one employer commented, “…there is no training centre or institute from where a person can learn safety and security related issues to practice ohs in our factories. we rely on our common sense and instinct when it comes to safety measures”. similarly, another respondent commented, “bgmea training institute is the only place to get training on it [ohs issues]. this is a very little facility for an industry of this big size”. furthermore, the cost of implementing a strategic ohs plan is also seen as a major hindrance by the factory owners. because of the worldwide improvement in health and safety issues (janicak, 2008; sousa et al., 2014) which significantly improved the ohs conditions in advanced nations (bjerkan, 2010; geldart et al., 2010; noweir et al., 2013) there exists a contrasting situation in the rmg sector in bangladesh where the number of accidents has increased significantly. the global supply chain has also become stricter about the implementation of advanced ohs measures and demands that all local factories must comply with their advanced ohs standards. this pressure places the local factory owners in a difficult situation. das (2008) found that an abrupt decrease of cmt (i.e. cut the fabric, make and trim the garment) price paid by foreign retailers in recent years, and increasing pressure to comply with their individualistic cocs with advanced ohs requirements have resulted in additional expenditure in the form of overhead costs for the majority of factory owners. the frustration among the factory owners is reflected in the comment of one respondent, ―…they [the foreign retailers] must understand that this is a poor country and the government itself does not have enough resources to support our industry. how can we comply with all their [global buyers] requirements when the country cannot provide any security for our investment and the buyers reduce their payment rate significantly?” it is important to note that a large number of these outsourced garment factories are involved in ‗subcontracting‘. this process of subcontracting occurs without the knowledge of the foreign retailers and is unauthorised by them. for example, rana plaza housed 5 garment factories, most of which were subcontracted factories. none of these factories received any direct work-orders from foreign retailers, however, they were found to be manufacturing products for 28 european and american brands. similarly, tazreen fashions was also found to be manufacturing products for walmart during the fire, whereas, walmart afterwards denied their involvement with tazreen fashions (burke, 2013). however, clothes carrying the brand labels/tags of these retailers were found in the debris in both the situations (luckerson, 2013). 5.2. theme 2 this theme is analysed with respect to the case studies and questionnaire responses obtained from the participants. several questions were put to the factory owners to elicit their views about the accidents which occurred due to the insufficient ohs arrangements. all 16 respondents agreed that any accident is unexpected and unwelcomed by them. they similarly agreed that a proper investigation to find the reasons for the accidents and the taking of punitive measures against the offenders must be implemented appropriately by the government. when the participants were asked whether their factory has a building safety certificate for industrial use from the concerned authority, more than half of the owners (10 respondents) answered that their factory is located in rented premises, so, it is the building owner‘s responsibility to obtain all of the necessary certification. however, they showed their concern that the existing labour law of the country should include extra guideline in fire safety and building structure. when they were asked about the incidents of tazreen fashion and rana plaza, all of them admitted the carelessness of the factory owners and the government, which is reflected in the following responses, “if the authority [government] can check all factory buildings time to time, a disaster like rana plaza can be avoided” … “the recent fire in tazreen garments, chowdhury knitwear, kts mill, all are avoidable if the authority and the owners could monitor the fire safety plan on time”. correspondingly, the participants were asked some questions specifically to determine their interpretation of the situation where factory owners neglect or evade ohs provisions and, as a result, workplace accidents take place. a mixed reaction was found among the respondents when they were asked to what extent they think that the workers or the owners are to be blamed when an accident occurs in the factory. the majority (12) of the respondents said that, workers can be held liable if they are found to be the cause of any accident that is due to their negligence or carelessness. a factory owner responded, “i can give many example in my factory where the negligence of the worker is the main cause of an accident. for example, last month we found a careless worker who entered in the chemical room when smoking. we warned him immediately, and this could start a big fire in the factory.” in contrast, only 4 respondents agreed that it is the sole responsibility of the owner, “…to train and teach the workers to identify hazards. being the owner, the responsibility is on our shoulder to keep the workers and workplace safe, risk free.” similarly, an important perspective emerged from one of the participants when he commented, “the workers asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 115-126 122 are uneducated and they do not know all safety and security issues. so, when any accident occurs because of any worker’s mistake, the responsibility is on the owner. no one will blame the worker for the accident but everyone will blame the owner for it”. furthermore, almost all the participants (15) showed their frustration towards the subcontracted factory owners because of the negligence observed among this particular group of industrialists who are also the repeat offenders. these subcontracted factory owners are highlighted by the respondents as being highly-motivated by profits and, “…do not think twice to put the live of the workers at stake to generate more profit”, commented one respondent. similar concern is also reflected in the following comments from other respondents: “these law breakers are never caught, and do not face any punishment for their unacceptable business practice. the government is too busy to pay attention to this sector” … ―even if it is difficult to practice all the ohs provision, it is not impossible. many factory owners are less interested to do so because they know no one cares about the way they do business”. 6. discussion the research has detected different interpretations between the outsourced and subcontracted factories on the following issues: (a) understanding of the ohs provision and its conformity, (b) negligence in practicing the ohs provision and its disastrous outcome. the research findings show that the participant owners of the outsourced factories believe that the existing ohs legislation and provisions of the country are sufficient to reduce workplace accidents, provided that these provisions are implemented and followed properly. it is also found that all of the participants claimed to follow the country‘s ohs provisions (e.g. labour law, bgmea‘s coc and ilo conventions) imposed on them. however, this contradicts to the fact that, except for only 2, the remaining participants were found to be ignorant of these ohs provisions. this level of ignorance is contradictory to the respondents‘ claim to be practicing the ohs provisions imposed on them by the government, the bgmea, the ilo, and foreign retailers. this is similar to the findings of bansari (2010); ahmed and hossain (2009) and bhuiyan and haq (2008) which revealed that the implementation of ohs provisions and ilo conventions is poor across the whole garment sector, and the compliance with international labour standards has declined in several areas, especially in the ohs area. in spite of this ignorance, all of the participants were found to be deeply concerned about ensuring the safety and security in their factories, through their use of common sense and instinct. correspondingly, this study further finds that the outsourced factories, due to their conformity to the ohs provisions, experience fewer accidents compared to the subcontracted factories, where the ohs provisions are frequently overlooked. similarly, from the two cases (i.e. rana plaza and tazreen garments) it is found that subcontracted factories tend to neglect the ohs provisions frequently and are more prone to workplace accidents. the subcontracted factory owners tend to take advantage of the situation where, firstly, their factories are excluded from the foreign retailers‘ audit and, secondly, an ineffective and weak monitoring system by the government of the country increases their chance of not getting caught and prosecuted, thus promoting an environment in which to continue their business with minimum ohs practice. this finding is similar to the results of the empirical studies conducted by rashid et al. (2014); bajaj (2013); french and martin (2013) and zaman et al. (2013) where it is found that subcontracted factories do not make efforts to ensure safety and security, and frequently violate the ohs legislation of the country. however, none of these studies provided any reason behind this evasive tendency among the subcontracted factory owners, which this study attempts to unfold. it is interesting to find that, on the one hand, the outsourced factory owners comply closely with the ohs provisions, especially the cocs of foreign retailers while, on the other, the subcontracted factory owners tend to ignore many ohs provisions. the findings also reveal that the cost of ohs practices is high, the availability of experienced health and safety professionals is low, and that proper safety auditing and the investigation of accidents of any kind by the government or any other authority are not in practised. in this situation, two different standpoints are found between the outsourced factory owners and the foreign retailers. firstly, this research finds that the outsourced factory owners admitted that their practice of unauthorised subcontracting is wrong, but, they also admitted that the foreign retailers are also culpable because they often award contracts to manufacturers, whom they know do not have enough machines and workers to do the job. these foreign retailers avoid subcontracting because they would rather manage a fewer big contracts, and the price per-piece garment falls with bigger orders. similarly, the factory owners do not turn down large work orders because they fear that they will be shut out of future orders. no factory owner can even consider refusing a work-order because they are desperate for more and more orders, and the subcontracted factories, the lowest on the ladder, compete intensely and cannot afford to upgrade their workshops. as a result, although this unauthorised subcontracting to smaller, uninspected factories is not supposed to happen, it remains an entrenched practice. in contrast, the findings of this study earlier showed that the foreign retailers completely denied their involvement with subcontracted factories. they made a clear position by mentioning that they do not authorise any of their outsourced factories to subcontract work and that is completely against their policy. secondly, this research further finds two different perspectives between the outsourced and subcontracted factory owners in relation to their compliance and negligence with ohs provisions. the outsourced factory owners are found to be highly accommodating in complying with the country‘s labour law and foreign retailers‘ coc imposed on them. a possible reason for them to possess this obliging nature is that their factories are direct partners of the supply network of the global retailers. they accept work-orders directly from these foreign retailers and, as a precondition for the apparel manufacturing process, these factory owners must have adequate ohs facilities present in their factories. similarly, these factories are subjected to a strict compliance-audit process, conducted by the foreign retailers. a failure of this audit would result in the cancellation of the existing work-orders or withholding of future orders, and the factory being designated a ‗high-risk‘ manufacturer. as a result of this, in addition to the stocklot faced by the factories, they would also be avoided by other retailers with regard to future work, and eventually the factories would shut down. therefore, these factory owners are highly compliant and their factories are fully asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(2): 115-126 123 compliant with the ohs requirements. on the other hand, the owners of the subcontracted factories are unwilling to comply with the cocs of the global supply chain, and instead show an interest in abiding by the country‘s legislation to some extent. these factory owners, not being a direct partner in the supply chain network, give an impression of non-conformity with the coc terms since they do not have any contractual relationship with the foreign retailers in regard to manufacturing apparel for them. being unauthorised by the foreign retailers, these factories are not subjected to any audit performed by them. therefore, the foreign retailers do not take any responsibility for any accidents that may occur in these factories during their unauthorised production process. however, in terms of the outsourced factory owners, the research shows that these owners find it very difficult to comply with the cocs of foreign retailers, since fulfilling these terms increases the cost of production significantly. the participants are found to claim that the country‘s ohs legislation is considered easier to practice compared to the foreign retailers‘ coc. this could be why foreign retailers have become increasingly stringent about complying with their cocs and conduct periodical compliance audits of these factories, whereas, the bangladeshi government does not engage in any similar practices. this can further be supported by ahmed (2012) findings, which showed that the compliance monitoring cell formed by the government to ensure the implementation of the ohs legislation in rmg factories did not work and was shut down due to the shortage of skilled staffs, the absence of logistical support, and the presence of a rigid structure. on a similar note, it could be due to the reason that the foreign retailers‘ cocs are more advanced and sophisticated in terms of ensuring a safe and healthy workplace compared to the ohs legislations of the country. though these participants have been found unaware of the specific ohs provisions in the country‘s labour act, and ilo provisions, they have been found to be considerably aware of the overall health and safety issues for protecting their workers and factories from accidents. 7. conclusion the objective of this study is, firstly, to investigate the two recent industrial accidents: the collapse of rana plaza and the fire at tazreen fashions, and, secondly, to find out the reasons behind these accidents. the study found that in both cases, non-compliance with the ohs provisions and the evasive nature of the factory owners were the main causes behind the accidents. from the questionnaire responses, it is discovered that the understanding of ensuring safety and security in the factories is very high among the rmg factory owners, as they believe in the appropriateness of ohs provisions in effectively reducing workplace accidents. however, their knowledge of the existing ohs provisions is very low. similarly, a significant difference in the practice of ohs provisions among the factory owners of the outsourced and the subcontracted factories was also seen. considering the fact that a severe level of negligence in following the ohs provisions was observed in the two deviant cases of this study, the subcontracted factory owners were found to be less compliant with the required ohs provisions compared to their counterparts. this evasive tendency among the subcontracted factory owners were further reasoned in the complex situation of the existence of and compliance with multiple standards of ohs requirements, specifically from the bangladesh government, from the ilo, from the bgmea, and most importantly, from the foreign retailers. though the findings of this research explore a new dimension of the situation which was not covered in any other studies before, it possess some limitations that are consistent with those found in studies of this kind. for example, the generalisability of the sample which consisted of only 16 participants from 8 factories, from an industry that contains almost 5,000 factories (afsar, 2004; chowdhury and ullah, 2010) could be considered as a limitation. however, a triangulation research of this type, by default, must limit the number of participants due to the difficulty associated with their recruitment, specially in a country which is not research-focused, and societal hindrance makes the factory owners reluctant to participate in any voluntary activities. similarly, the scope of this research could be broadened by investigating the situation where the global supply chain pressurises the native factories to comply with their health and safety requirements. furthermore, another investigation must be made to identify the deterring capacity of these ohs provisions to deter accidents. the choice of the factory owners to comply with or neglect the ohs provisions can also be investigated. this study did not cover these issues, and therefore, these issues could be the options for conducting future research works. despite the limitations, this research intends to contribute to both academic and non-academic settings; by generating new literature for those who are interested in ohs studies, and by stimulating the stakeholders in the rmg industry to raising awareness, informing, engaging and promoting the ohs 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by the entrepreneurs or government? research journal of economics and business studies, 2(4): 28-34. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130425-bangladesh-dhaka-building-collapse-world/ http://edition.cnn.com/2013/05/03/world/asia/bangladesh-building-collapse/ 123 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 3, 123-130, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.123.130 adolescents with physical deficiencies – between tolerance and rejection changing negative attitude marinela rusu1 1researcher, phd. romanian academy, iasi branch, institute ”gh. zane”, romania abstract adolescents with disabilities often face not only the psychophysiological consequences of the presence of physical deficiency but also problems with integration into the school group or in society, in general. the present paper summarizes the conclusions of some researches from abroad as well as the author’s regarding the integration of young people with physical deficiencies and proposes a series of intervention methods in order to facilitate this process. educators are the ones who have an important role to play in changing the negative perception of the deficient person and a better understanding of the concept of deficiency as well. attitudes of rejection and marginalization are the consequences of social conditions induced by culture, language, history, mass media, etc. all of this can be changed by cultivating counter-values as empathy, acceptance of diversity, tolerance, respect and responsibility. a modern society has to be characterized by humanism, understanding of the other that is different, empathy towards suffering, tolerance and support for those with a deficiency. our paper is an invitation for educators and social workers to be mindful of changing the negative attitude of young people towards those with disabilities. keywords: disability, rejection, tolerance, empathy, human rights. citation | marinela rusu (2018). adolescents with physical deficiencies – between tolerance and rejection changing negative attitude. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(3): 123-130. history: received: 27 june 2018 revised: 13 august 2018 accepted: 12 september 2018 published: 27 september 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 124 2. between tolerance and rejection .............................................................................................................................................. 124 3. interacting with others ................................................................................................................................................................ 124 4. relationships within the family ................................................................................................................................................. 125 5. integrating in the school groups ............................................................................................................................................... 126 6. increasing prejudice and discrimination in schools .............................................................................................................. 126 7. teaching about disability ........................................................................................................................................................... 126 8. the three r: recognition, respect and responsibility ........................................................................................................ 126 9. disability as a variation of normality ...................................................................................................................................... 127 10. factors involved in better adaptation of adolescents with physical deficiencies ....................................................... 128 11. conclusions ................................................................................................................................................................................... 129 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 129 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.123.130&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1484 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6647-3351 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1484 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6647-3351 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1484 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6647-3351 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 123-130 124 1. introduction in a world where social prejudices marks largely people's behavior towards their ”different” peers, facing us also with its attempt to remove the most harmful of them such as racial or gender discrimination the idea of investigating psychological profile of peoples with physical disabilities represents an attempt to enrich knowledge in this area; it is also part of the general effort to remove many of the unfounded ideas about disability and people with a disability. the approach of this theme was sporadic in the romanian and foreign literature. the groups of people with various physical deficiencies have been the subject of research of limited interest, most often referring to the physiological, medical, rehabilitation and physical therapy aspects. although we cannot minimize the importance of the medical side, however, we must add the need to consider the psychological issues and their profound implications in shaping the personality and the character. therefore, the present study proposes precisely a deeper understanding of these human adolescents, who have faced not only the inconvenience of physical deficiency, but must face the devaluating opinions of others, to fight continuously the unfounded doubts about their multiple disabilities, with the idea of personal and professional failure that is mistakenly associated with the presence of physical disability. handicapism is still, unfortunately, a truth about the active prejudices in contemporary society. the present study reveals the negative influence and unfavorable consequences of the irrational attitudes of the others towards the persons with physical deficiencies, contributing in the course of the individual development to the crystallisation of disadaptive behaviors, shaping of morbid ideas and self-destructive rumina, generating an inevitable affective fragility. 2. between tolerance and rejection the problem of physical disability is not a new one. it has travelled through the times, generating many popular, mystical and mythological explanations. in many cultures we find associations between images depicting physically deformed beings, and disorders of morality, thinking or conduct. greek mythology, fairy tales and legends in many cultures describe people with deficiencies as generally unlikeable figures, sometimes even representatives of obscure forces opposing man. deviations from normal development, not being understood, were attributed to supernatural, fearsome, or repellent forces (bower, 1980). the church of the middle ages added an ice blast to the difficult state of people with physical disabilities. the fact of not being able to explain how these phenomena appeared meant that they were considered "terrible", signs of evil, manifestations of wrath, divine punishment, and in many cases "dark acts of the devil" (chauvin, 1920). even if modern society is making efforts at the legislative level to help people with deficiencies, the collective subconscious is in doubt, emotional cold, and sometimes even hostile to them. fear of the unknown is a perpetual element of human adaptation that can be overcome only by fearful, penetrating minds and detached from the limitations of forms. evocators in this sense are the artistic creations, that were accepted by critics as part of the "aura of the ugly". the "ugly" interpreted as "beautiful" become categories that are super ordinated to a reality that can sometimes express identical things. they are not absolute but, on the contrary, as far as human nature is concerned, the relationship between "form" and "content" can sometimes be contradictory: the most appealing face may in some cases hide deplorable characters and vice versa. 3. interacting with others authors such as păunescu (1983) consider that in the affective and relational structure of the person with physical deficiencies there is a strong conflict state, generating emotional states and negative feelings, which undermine his/her neuropsychic equilibrium. but a conflict cannot be sustained or intensified indefinitely. when the internal pressure exceeds a certain tolerance limit, an exit from the conflict is sought. overcoming the feeling of inferiority is often accomplished by the compensation mechanism. as pirozynski (1987) writes, ”as a source of psychic insecurity, the feeling of inferiority gives birth to an ideal of personality, a fiction that reverses the real situation. all the resources of the soul will be mobilized to accomplish it. when acting on the causes of inferiority, compensation is real and the feeling of inferiority dissolved. but there are also situations where, for subjective or objective reasons (frustrating social conditions, etc.), one can only act on the effect (i.e., the feeling of inferiority). then we have a pseudo compensation: its means are imaginary-subjective; the feeling of inferiority is not dissolved but it is pushed into the unconscious." in the same sense, rudica (1992): "no less frequent and important through its consequences, is that category of vocational frustrations that are caused by various motor or psychic infirmities that make those adolescents quit the dream of a particular profession, with the conscience and regret of forced abandonment. some of these disabled people are developing successful compensation phenomena along the way, which help them form a new professional ideal, but others fail to balance through other activities and remain for all their lives with the painful feeling that nature has deprived them of the chance to do things the way they want." in the opinion of păunescu (1983) there are two major aspects of this process: "the first will lead us, he writes, in a general way, out of the conflict that puts the question of changes in personality" (p. 20). in establishing friendly relationships with others, the building of self-image has a particular importance. self-image is a dynamic synthesis in which the others reflect, and also reproduces the condition of our own existence. due to the presence of a "weak point" that is the deficiency, felt by the subject directly, but also through the attitude of the others towards him, he tends to report everything and especially his affective-emotional feelings, to his physical ego, acquiring a special, excessive "sensitization" (rusu, 1996). the affective level is best suited for installing this sensitivity. "exploring your own body" (schwarzer, 1992) is a behaviour that runs from the first year of life to adulthood, allowing individuals to discover and learn their own body as a differentiated entity, unique to each of them. the discovery made by the person with deficiency is that this "uniqueness" has a negative sense and often leads to opposing, tense experiences. both objective and affective knowledge receive the disfavouring situation more clearly. ”even at an early age, the child has to deal with deficiency as something special and denigrating, because of the discussions between parents or between adults; after that the deficiency becomes a whip with which the other children hit and humiliate him/her” (rusu, 2002). it asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 123-130 125 is a simple fact to demonstrate that children's attitudes are influenced by general educational attitudes, by the attitude of adults towards people with physical disabilities. 4. relationships within the family automatically become mirrors in which the young person can look and understand himself. some specialists claim that parents create the deficient socio-emotional status through the relationships they create in the first stage of the child’s life, parental ”mirrors” helping the process of self-defining. trying to establish a typology of relationships within the primary group where there is a child with physical deficiency, we will identify the following types: total affectional abandonment since the discovery of the deficiency, parents cannot admit the failure suffered by the appearance of a child that puts them in inferiority in their community. in this case, the child's suffering will be complete and its development slowed down. partial abandonment occurs when one of the parents especially the father – is completely careless concerning the child’s needs. the overwhelmed mother becomes emotionally aggressive with the child, traumatizing him. mother has a feeling of condemnation in front of destiny and can have two distinct attitudes: either completely abandoning the child, or making a total affective fixation towards the child, completely giving up her personal life. there are cases when the existence of a child with deficiency leads to a hyper protective attitude in parents, for example, the manifestation of an exaggerated worry towards the child, suppressing his/her possibility of becoming autonomous. unfortunately, the most common situations are those in which a deficient child breaks the family's balance, through strong conflicts stemming from the mutual blame of spouses about their "misfortune" (rusu, 1995a;1995b). any of these situations is detrimental to the development of the personality of the deficient child, because the stimulation of affectivity, activity, relationships, tendencies to manifest autonomy, independence are the essential means for the development of a harmonious and integrated personality. so, the way the family responds to this accident which must be considered as any other accident depends on the structure and the development of their own personality. meisel (1986) notes in this regard: "a group of parents who came regularly to the consultation showed their intense suffering and the terrible emotional distress caused by the infirmity of the child. some thought their marriage had suffered, others were afraid they had neglected their other children. many felt the inability of friends, relatives or neighbours to understand and accept their own child. in others, the greatest despair came from the lack of hope: will their child continue to develop mentally and physically? many talked about resentment to the professional world that advised them to place the child in an institution or against those counsellors who fail to understand them." the attitude of hyper protection seems to be, often, as a materialization of a sense of guilt. it can have a disastrous effect on child rehabilitation. for the disabled child as well as for the normal individual, nothing is more convenient than the state in which it is not obliged to make any effort, everything being driven, carried out by others. only that, starting from here, creates even worse infirmity. even that child, who, manages to become independent, with respect to motricity became capable of self-service, in cases of hyper protection becomes a complex infirm, insecure of his abilities, waiting everything from others. he becomes lonely and later will consider his condition an injustice and will firmly demand that society take care of him when his mother is gone, not conceiving that he may be able to help himself. he becomes a lazy, often evil, vindictive teenager, who easily adds up vices of all kinds. the complexity of disability manifestation let us identify another important aspect concerning the adolescents with deficiencies: the relational handicap or the issue of social contact. relating to normality is for these adolescents a continual reaffirmation of infirmity, generating the feeling of embarrassment, inferiority, fear of not being accepted, and often they repel the attitudes of repulsion, rejection of an intolerant society with its marginalization tendencies. with constant attention and constant dialogue, we discover the immense anguish of these children for whom ordinary accents or words gain a considerable, delusional, fantastic importance and they are moving away from those who do not know them very well. next, we will try to delineate the importance of the concept of relational handicap, somewhat extending its sphere of comprehension, in the case of adolescents with physical deficiencies. we will complete the definition given above by c. păunescu, showing that relational handicap is an impossibility of the ego to project beyond infirmity and to creatively assume the environment in which the teenager lives. as we observed in our experimental intervention with these children, some years ago, ”the relational handicap is at the same time the reflex of a false identification, following the illogical equation, the unreliable me = my infirmity, me = my failures, me = the helplessness” (rusu, 1995b). if in the case of severe psychoses the hope of healing relies on therapeutic action on the still unaltered part of consciousness, similarly, in the case of relational disability, we must count on the "unaltered" elements of the adolescent personality. and these "unaltered" elements refer to the mechanisms of thought, logic, and to the same extent to general human truths. the relational handicap is mirrored within the personality by a tendency dominated by repelling and avoiding social contact. this measure of defense of the personality balance results on the part of the weak cultivation of the mechanisms of relationship, of intercognition, and above all, of an over amplifying the normality of others, simultaneously with the over amplification of their own infirmity. particularly serious may be the effects in time of relational handicap manifestation. it can produce fragile personalities, irreversible or hard-to-recover affective perturbations. the mechanism known as self-fulfillment prophecy (schwarzer, 1989) becomes here a suitable example. it consists in the tendency of a person to become what he is expected to be or what is believed to be about. the ability to establish normal relationships with others is virtually the only saving valve in the face of the gradual dissolution of a person touched by the inferiority complex. the balanced, natural relations are the only ones capable of resizing a correct selfimage, in which i/me is not equivalent to the deficiency, in which the deep self does not identify with personal failures but possesses a tremendous potential for internal restructuring and evolution. also, only normal relationships with others can restore authentic hierarchies of individual values, removing the idea of "stigma" or "damnation." in this way, the process by which relational handicap would turn into a psychosocial disability can be prevented. jealousy and autism are two reactions to the hostile environment and two facets of the relational handicap. autism, closure itself, refusal to collaborate is in essence a trick of pseudo-learning of deficiency, because autism actually means to see without being seen. jealousy is a social, but negative attitude, and not a few times it can become a sadistic attitude. but there are different types of characteristics. there are children who are looking for asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 123-130 126 people's society and cannot live outside a circle of friends, even if the feelings that unite them are not really close. others choose isolation and are content with a circle of restricted friends whom they have been attached to for a long time. friendship creates the possibility to exchange impressions or feelings that one can only tell about to a good friend, expressing the embarrassment about the issues that troubled one’s teen years. some relationships of this kind are irreplaceable for the psychic and moral life and evolution of adolescents with physical deficiencies. 5. integrating in the school groups schools have a responsibility to change negative attitudes that lead to discrimination, prejudice and segregation. because it is precisely a central goal of education, promoting the values and attitudes that are essential to our pluralistic society and to the democratic form of government, it is particularly important to refer to those beliefs and attitudes that lead to discrimination the denial of certain members of society, the right and opportunity for full participation at the social, educational, economic and political levels. therefore, educators need to understand the importance of teaching future citizens the care for the rights of others (lickona, 1991). schools can play an important role in bringing about the necessary social changes, preparing for "each generation to examine and, when necessary, to alter existing social values, practices and beliefs" (shapiro, 2000). the drive to reintegrate young people who have been excluded on the basis of disability is an "exciting, controversial and dynamic process for provoking the basic assumptions of each of us and at the same time introducing us in new ways to think and see” (biklen and bogdan, 1977). a school has the responsibility to contribute to the socialization and unification of society. as rubenfeld (1994) stated, school, of course, is one of the great defining experiences in any country. almost more than family life, it is the ”great socializer”. here we learn to juggle with friends, enemies and knowledge, to cope with difficulties and to enjoy success in our projects. 6. increasing prejudice and discrimination in schools contrary to common belief, there are considerable damages among adolescents which tend to grow and become more aggravated as the years go by baskin and harris (1977) found that young people classified as handicapped are often rejected and ostracized by their peers. in situations of high density, potentially explosive, such as dining rooms or playgrounds, they have been particularly vulnerable to social abuse. "simply, students with disabilities are often not chosen as friends" (kelly and reigel, 1993). "while some studies suggest that disabled students perceive their peers in general, positive ... most studies indicate that non-disabled students show negative attitudes towards their peers with deficiencies" (pfeiffer, 1989). it is not surprising that lickona (1991) claimed cruelty among colleagues as one of the scary trends in schools, along with a sharp rise in violence and vandalism, lack of respect for authority, bigotry, mischievous language, and lower civic responsibility. 7. teaching about disability according to orlansky and heward (1981) the main factors that form the development of negative attitudes are the media, which tends to negatively affect people with disabilities. bowe (1978) pointed out that as long as society fears people with disabilities, they will continue to treat them in hospitals, institutions and separate schools. he wrote: "as long as we compassionate people with disabilities, we will continue to regard them as objects of charity rather than equal in order to have a say in their destiny" (p. 111). 8. the three r: recognition, respect and responsibility recognition is about admitting the truth that there is diversity in life and each individual is different and has this right, implicitly. to recognize the difference also means the ability to respect this difference and to take it into account in interpersonal interaction. respect refers to the means by which someone demonstrates respect for the value of someone else. respect for others requires an individual to respect all other people as having equal dignity and equal rights with one's own person. responsibility is an extension of respect. in the lickona (1991) if we learn to respect people with disabilities, it also means we value them. if we value them, we feel some responsibility for their well-being. educators and legislators freely recognize the benefits of integrating young people with educational disabilities with their nondisabled colleagues. before discussing such educational and social benefits, we still need clarification of the terms. the concept of "integration" involves several terms that confuse those who do not know their specific nuances. the best-known terms are (1) "the least restrictive medium" (or alternatively), (2) "normalization", (3) "integration" and (4) "inclusion". integration simply refers to the concept of group homogeneity. it is the direct opposite of segregation, especially in homogeneous environments such as special schools, special institutions, separate classes and services" (bowe, 1978). integration typically refers to the process of returning students with disabilities to general education, while maintaining a separate system of special classes, services and programs for others. attitudes can be changed. as young people with harmful behaviors become aware of the effects of negative feelings, they can develop the desire to change. since attitudes to young people are learned, the cognition theories can be applied to change negative attitudes. as young people receive new ideas and incentives, their prejudicial attitudes often fade away: "attitudes appear to be highly dependent on contact and information about what specific attitudes are being raised" (bowe, 1978). but the settings of young people's contacts with disabled people are extremely critical. when a young person with disabilities integrates into the ordinary school, all children benefit from both a better learned curriculum and the opportunity to learn to accept and appreciate individual differences. teaching methods, such as cooperative learning, improve and enhance the academic abilities of young people, since we need to learn to educate. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 123-130 127 this paper provides information designed to change the negative attitudes of teachers and students to develop empathy for people with disabilities and to support their inclusion in both school and society. changes in attitudes and the development of empathy can help to overcome the gap between people with disabilities and those without. the process begins by studying and acquiring a complete understanding of the paradigms of special education and disability, especially the medical model and the model of independence. students and teachers need to learn that disability does not focus on the medical causes or etiologies, but on understanding the negative effects of the social and civic environment on disability. its favorite idea is that it is possible to reduce the number of people with disability discrimination in schools by eliminating negative attitudes and segregation that comes largely from the medical paradigm. blatt (1987) emphasized that conquering the mental retardation and eliminating its rejection would only be achieved when young people learn to live with each other and until the separation of all forms is eliminated, until schools not only believe but teach indeed that all human beings are precious and valuable to society. meanwhile, to get empathy and true classroom integration, teachers need to know the following aspects related to the issue of deficiencies (according to shapiro (2000)): 1. to identify those elements which contribute essentially to the emergence of negative attitudes, including: language, history, culture, the media and education; 2. re-evaluate the impact of language and the meanings of the concepts of "disability", "handicap", "deficiency", "stereotype", "prejudice" and "discrimination"; 3. to find methods of developing pupils' awareness of the deficiency and its relation to other forms of discrimination, in particular, the similarities and differences between racism, sexism and deficiencies; 4. use specific methods that lead to successful integration; 5. to find methods that can be used to assess pupils' negative attitudes so that these attitudes can be changed; 6. strategies and methods for example, simulations, role plays, classroom discussions, interacting with deficient people (their presence in the classroom, dialogue) and attending a documentary hour with media sources to facilitate individual differences learning; 7. specific teaching strategies and methods to dispel popular beliefs and myths about people with disabilities for example, these people are sick, they prefer and need separation, they need and seek sympathy, they are similar in groups of people with disabilities, are abnormal or less valuable; 8. find ways to sensitize students to understand and act with the frustrations and restrictions imposed by the different sensory, physical or mental conditions; 9. how to provide opportunities for teachers and students to share experiences and feelings about the condition of being disabled and disabled in a favorable group environment; 10. how to give young people the opportunity to reflect on their feelings when they are with a disabled person; 11. how to defuse the invisible barriers of fear and curiosity that teenagers can have about people with disabilities, especially classmates and /or deficient guests; 12. how to help young people develop awareness and appreciation of what it means to have a disability; 13. how to help students understand the potential and limitations of corrective devices used by people with disabilities; 14. how to help young people see beyond the disability the people who are, in reality, more akin to them than different; 15. how to improve the ease with which both students interact with people who seem different, no matter what difference might be; 16. how to provide basic information on common disabilities needed to develop empathy and to shape a positive outlook towards people with disabilities; 17.recognizing the way of examining your own thoughts and feelings towards people with disabilities; 18. how to make students understand that disability denies humanity to both people without disabilities and those with disabilities; 19. making students understand how the physical and social environment can be improved so that disability should not be perceived as a handicap; 20. to help students understand the civil rights of people with disabilities. 9. disability as a variation of normality the use of the term "normal" to refer only to individuals without disabilities means the involvement of those with "abnormal" disabilities (blaska, 1993). "abnormal" has extremely negative implications. it is offensive and should not be used when referring to human beings. educators must accept the concept of all people, including those with disabilities, as normal. in other words, all people should be perceived as living in a very diverse group, where all are normal and equally worthy. we recall that white (1979) insisted on the idea that we cannot speak of similarity, identity, normality (in the typical pattern, template) in the case of human beings. this is confirmed by the diversity of conformations of individual features, qualities or decreases that favour success or adaptive failure. in some philosophies of readaptation, it is presented that instead of normal behaviour as the gold guide says for "what to do and how to do" the abilities and deficiencies of a person will be all put into action, and thus the person will be really fulfilled. here is what we find written in the booklet dedicated to patients at the institute for physical medicine and rehabilitation in england: "there are hundreds of ways to do all this to help us become independent. maybe with your deficiency, you will not be able to do it the way others do, but it certainly does not mean that you cannot learn to do it in a different way. that's why our people are here to teach you to do these things as best as possible with your deficiency" (as quoted in allen and pearson (1988). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 123-130 128 10. factors involved in better adaptation of adolescents with physical deficiencies following the findings in our experiment, which started some years ago (rusu, 1995a;2002) concerning the adaptation of adolescents with physical deficiencies, we were able to identify a number of factors that allow better adaptation and social integration of these teenagers. in addition to psychological factors that can contribute to personality optimization, there are certainly a number of environmental and social factors that favour a better adaptation of adolescents suffering from physical deficiencies, leading to the emergence and development of compensatory behaviours. authors such as orlansky and heward, who have studied closely the issue of optimizing social adaptation of people with disabilities, agree on a number of favourable factors, including the following: i. functional recovery of the person with deficiencies this will be achieved by the combined efforts of surgeons with those of physiotherapists, to correct the physical defect as much as possible or totally. reclaimed independence consists in the use of such material means (wheelchairs with automatic controls, moving racks, crutches, prostheses), which make changes to the environment (incoming walk-in ramps, special baths, intercoms, etc.) that make it easier for these adolescents to move and minimize dependence on others. social contacts are the area that brings attention to the issue of reinsertion into a micro group with a secure climate for teenagers with physical deficiencies. in this respect, we recall here some rules of self-control of curiosity towards people with deficiencies, which should be observed within the group (according to wright (1960) do not talk about deficiency unless he/she (the person with deficiencies) does it; do not talk about deficiency unless he/she wants it; do not ask immediately; take into account the person's condition; do not argue on this subject; do not try to divert it from the subject. ii. personal valorisation of adolescents with physical deficiencies here we may include a large number of suggestions and concrete proposals. some general directions in this respect would be: a) accepting the deficiency this requires awareness of the limits while recognizing the skills and abilities of adolescents with physical deficiencies. thus, they will end up accepting their own limitations, cultivating their own abilities, and concentrating their efforts to reach accessible goals. for this, it is necessary to outline a self-concept that includes both positive and negative attributes, being preferred to the belief that they possess either an exaggerated powerlessness or an imaginary omnipotence. it is also necessary to strengthen feelings of adequacy and trust based on the current personal possibilities to act in the social, educational and vocational fields; b) achieving and maintaining expectations of performance and fulfilment. comparisons with other children will be avoided and appropriate standards will be set for individual potentials. expecting more from a teenager with deficiencies can lead to frustration, a sense of failure and inadequacy. also, waiting too little of them often leads to an exaggerated dependence, as well as a feeling of weakness and resignation; c) supporting and encouraging the teenager's urge to become independent. people with deficiencies in general, are in a position to remain addicted to others much more. that is why the greater the number of independent activities they perform on their own, the lesser their shortcomings will be. d) creating varied experiences in the areas where the teenager is able to fulfil. these will be encouraged by teachers or parents. e) establishing appropriate discipline requirements, as physically deficient adolescents require much improved school and living space. two specialists have an important role in the formation of children and adolescents with physical disabilities are physiotherapist (dealing with physiological recovery) and occupational therapist who seeks the participation of adolescents in various activities, especially those which are useful for self-help, employment, communication and other aspects of life (baskin and harris, 1977). such activities foster physical development, independence, vocational potential and self-image enhancement. the occupational therapist can also work with the vocational rehabilitation specialist to help teenagers find those opportunities to work and live independently after school. orlansky and heward (1981) calls also other specialists who frequently offer help to adolescents with physical disabilities, such as: physical therapist or physiotherapist he is encouraging children to become as independent in terms of motility, which helps to develop motor functions, to reduce pain, discomfort or long-standing problems related to physical impairments; biomedical engineers who create and develop specialized technology to meet special needs; a nursing social assistant that helps deficient students and their families to cope with difficulties; analysts of practical behaviour that closely follow the behaviour of adolescents with physical deficiencies. in fact, we can talk about the possibility of building a team of specialists to collaborate directly on physically impaired patients. iii. social valorisation of adolescents with physical deficiencies. beatrice wright (1960) addresses an important problem concerning how the deficient person relates to the "world" of others. she noticed that she often has inappropriate reactions in uncomfortable and devaluing situations. thus, a person who is always confronted with difficult situations will gradually develop ways to overcome these situations. her approach to the group will depend on general self-assessment. as a result, a form of therapy has been approached, aiming at better adaptation to social situations created under different circumstances. role playing is the method by which a teenager with a physical deficiency learns to give the best answer, to have the most appropriate conduct in the face of curiosity, insult, insensibility of people without disabilities. these modes of behaviour are designed in situations where guidance and encouragement are possible and where there is control over mistakes. the discussion about the following personal experiences is completely free, which produces over time changes in the personal system of values. it is an extremely useful method to overcome one of the most serious problems of the deficiency: relational handicap. more confident about what he is and what he can do, the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 123-130 129 physically deficient adolescent meets the demands of the environment altogether, and he is more committed to fulfilling his professional aspirations. another interesting idea in this respect is the reintegration of these children into the classes of children without disabilities. in his article lovitt (1979) mentions that: "of course, it is not easy for teachers, but they will gradually become accustomed to the somewhat different needs of children with physical disabilities, so they will be eventually treated like their other colleagues”(1979). many adolescents with physical impairments manage to adapt to their own living environment. they do not have unusual behaviour and are fully capable of learning in classes with physically normal students, interacting harmoniously with them. in the same sense, meisel (1986) observes that "as the view that people with physical deficiencies need to depend on assistance for their education, is being overcome, in the same way, there is a question mark over the opinion that medical establishments and medical staff are the ones more appropriate to coping with academic learning, day-to-day skills, or social behaviour of deficient adolescents"(p. 87). current treatment methods make it possible for many children with deficiencies to attend regular schools. hospitalization tends to be shorter, physiotherapy can be done even in school and surgery can often be done during holidays. in conclusion, we have to revert to the idea that people with deficiencies develop their own style depending on certain needs imposed by deficiency. but their inner feelings tend to be the same as the others’. we should understand that they do not want and do not need pity, compassion, but only minimal help, detached, but above all they need to be considered as all others, human beings who aspire to happiness, personal and social fulfilment. iv. parents the most important element. of all people who need to help children with physical disabilities, parents are the most important. knowing all the details they will help prevent many of the risks that may arise. in many western countries, parents have legally acquired the opportunity to make decisions about the educational option for their children with physical or mental deficiencies. both in terms of providing assistance and training, parents can help their children with difficulties and even teach them at home or at school. it is now known that the most successful intervention programs involve the intervention of parents. shearer and shearer (1972) confirm that parents engaged in early intervention programs at young ages for children with various deficiencies took the role of members in counseling boards, consumer roles that inform others, organizational members, teachers, curriculum developers, counselors, support staff, or assessors. parents are the most frequent and constant observers of their children's behavior. often, they know better than anyone what are the adaptive needs of their children and they can help educators in setting realistic goals. they can also tell stories about home events that cannot be captured by outsiders for example. parents always know best how the child reacts to other family members, to the censored environment of the school or medical center. in short, parents can take part in rehabilitation programs integration involving their children at any stage setting up, planning, and participating in classroom activities and assessment. many parents work in classes as teachers, teacher help, as volunteers, or as members of organization and leadership. this is true both in childhood and adolescence, when the problems of the child become more complex, and it is necessary to orientate him towards a profession and to pay attention to the individual vocation. trust and optimism should be the dominant notes in parent-adolescent relationships. 11. conclusions looking at the problem in a temporal perspective, we would say that the deficient young and adults have a permanent problem: the lack of acceptance as fully integrating members of society, with all the rights, privileges and services guaranteed as for every citizen. even though the law has progressed somewhat, even though justice has laws in favor of these people, it can be quite difficult to change the way some individuals think or deal with people with shortcomings. the latter "appear to exist in the community but not to be part of it" as birenbaum (1986) writes. in this respect o'conner notes an impressive fact: "we should remember that there is really little evidence to date that public support for normalization has gone so far that people with mental deficiencies are welcome or at least tolerated in the most no deviated circles of society" (as quoted in heward and orlanski (1988). most young people and adults with physical deficiencies point out that the greatest barriers to total integration into society are not the inaccessible buildings or current restrictions imposed by their deficiency, but the differential treatment given by persons without deficiency. as terms like racism and sexism indicate prejudice, discriminatory treatment of racial or women groups, the american term ”handicapism” (shaver and curtis, 1981) has been designed to mark special responses to people with disabilities. such reactions are not based on the real qualities or performance of the individual, but start from the assumption of what a person with a disability should feel or how it should be as a result of his or her disability. all the efforts are oriented toward avoiding this destructive attitude to adolescents with physical disabilities. the factors that we presented above are important to take into consideration when trying to optimize the perception of deficient persons, when searching for a better adaptation and integration. school and teams of specialists can also give their specialized help, working together with trust and optimism. references allen, f. and c. pearson, 1988. the emotional problems of the physically handicapped child. british journal of medical psychology, 8: 56-63. baskin, b. and k. harris, 1977. notes from a different drummer: a guide to juvenile fiction portraying the handicapped. new york: r. r. bowker company. biklen, d. and r. bogdan, 1977. media portrayals of disabled people: a study in stereotypes. interracial books of children bulletin, 8(6 & 7): 4-9. birenbaum, a., 1986. community programs for people with mental retardation. mental retardation, 24(3): 145-146. blaska, j., 1993. the power of language: speak and write person first. in perspectives on disability (2nd edn.,). m. nagler (ed.). palo alto, ca: health markets research. blatt, b., 1987. the conquest of mental retardation. austin, tx: 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with disabilities. lincoln, ne: lincoln public schools. wright, b., 1960. psychical disability. a psychological approach. new york, evanston: harper and row. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 107 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 4, no. 2, 107-115, 2017 issn(e) 2313-7401/issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2017.42.107.115 inspiring, exploring, activating and organizing: a framework for improving communication skills and product knowledge in call center syed muhammad shoaib1 1hamdard university, pakistan abstract the rapid growth of call centers and customer dependency on call center puts very high demands and standards for the call center management in terms of customer satisfaction. beside operational management areas like forecasting, scheduling, recruitment and hiring, training plays a significant role in achieving customer satisfaction from call centers. this paper deals with the training in a call center and suggest a framework for training to improve customer satisfaction by improving product knowledge and communication skills of call center agents. the traditional training programs in call centers heavily focuses on forced learning methods and traditional lecture base approach. this work provides a framework and establishes four principles to reform training program in order to improve communication skills and product knowledge of call center agents. the first principle “inspiring” focuses on personal and professional development of call center agent through call center. the second principle “exploring” focuses on self-learning through designed explorations ,the third principle “activating” focuses on activity base learning for communications skills and product knowledge in call centers and the last principle “organizing” aims at incorporation of these principals into training programs and in training curriculum for effective training execution according to the guidelines provided in the framework. keywords: product knowledge, communication skills, call centers, training, framework. citation | syed muhammad shoaib (2017). inspiring, exploring, activating and organizing: a framework for improving communication skills and product knowledge in call center. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(2): 115-123. history: received: 24 november 2017 revised: 13 december 2017 accepted: 18 december 2017 published: 27 december 2017 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 108 2. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 108 3. results .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 109 4. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 112 5. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 114 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 115 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2017.42.107.115&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=syed muhammad shoaib https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=syed muhammad shoaib asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 107-115 108 1. introduction customer service is integral to the success of every business unit, whether it is a small scale business or a large enterprise, ever increasing customer expectations and increasing tendency of sharing bad experience on social media there is a tremendous pressure on companies to maintain high level of customer service. the decrease in cost of telecommunication and information technology equipment made a significant role in the emergence of call centers and now almost every industry and organization is interested or already deployed call center as their prime customer facing channel. call centers now termed as the “public face” for many businesses, have a constantly increasing significance in customer attainment and retention. the rapid growth of call centers and customer dependency on call centers puts very high demands and standards for the call center management in terms of customer satisfaction thus the importance of call center and its operational effectiveness and efficiency is imperial in providing quality services to its customers. call center performance is mainly a composition of a) how quickly customer call is being answered b) how the call is being handled. the organization measures its call center representatives on two major compositions, adherence measures and quality of a call. the first measurement i-e “the adherence measures” include adherence to login time ,average handling time ,hold time ,talk time etc. the adherence measure is not related to this research directly. this research deals with the second segment of agent performance measurement i-e “the quality of a call” i-e how well agent performs in the call with respect to “communication skills” and delivery of qualified information to customers labelled as “product knowledge”. call center faces variety of challenges due to which call centers need to strive very hard to achieve optimal customer satisfaction. majority of customers approach call center for issues in service, acquiring services and for general information. thus the importance of call center and its operational effectiveness and efficiency is imperial in providing quality services to its customers. call center agent when equipped with all the necessary knowledge and accurate information can be able to deliver relevant knowledge through excellent communication skills which can significantly improve customer experience over call. many businesses rely on call centers for their marketing needs and to serve their customers. call centers employee’s training period last typically for few weeks and call center agents are very tightly monitored as they respond to hundreds of customer queries on daily basis (tjosvold et al., 2014). in call centers training is typically aimed for (1) new staff and (2) existing staff. new hires typically got training for few weeks before they put into floor shop, while training for existing staff can be both scheduled and unscheduled. no matter what segment of staff, training play a very key role in ascertaining employee and organizational performance which in turns results in customer satisfaction. there are several learning theories for training which explain how people learn and each theory refer to distinct aspect of how people learn for example; a) social learning theory identifies four aspects of learning which are attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivational (noe, 2010) reinforcement theory developed by b.f. skinner, according to which behavior is a result of its consequences, c) goal theory deal with organizational psychology and describe the relationship between performance and goal setting. it is also very beneficial in designing training programs, assigning trainees with specific and challenging goals can result in more commitment and involvement and it also create satisfaction among trainees as they attain their goals, d) adult learning theory which is described as the art and science of adult learning, in applied terms, it means that teaching for adults requires focusing more on the procedure and less on the content being educated and approaches such as case studies, character playing, simulations, and self-evaluation are of maximum benefit rather the lecture, e) information processing theory (ipm) not only focuses on internal mechanism of learning that enable us to store, capture, retrieve and respond to messages but also highlights the impact of outside factors on learning. there are number of training frameworks or models that have yield significant performance improvement in organizations .these well-known training models are instructional systems design (isd), the five step design, analysis, evaluation, implementation, and development model framework of the addie covers all the steps of isd model (dick et al., 2011; gustafson and branch, 2011). in addie model design stage focuses on how the learner learn, in the development stage teaching content are formulated, next stage involves applying the training, building the teaching atmosphere, and placing teaching supplies in the teaching environment, in the final stage performance and outcomes are evaluated (hsu et al., 2014). human performance technology (hpt) comprises of ideologies from arenas such as social psychology, instructional systems design, organizational development and human resources management (klein and fox, 2004). hpt helps organizations to identify performance gaps, offers interventions for performance enhancement, implementation of change management process and results evaluation. the purpose of the training programs is to increase the individual job performance (bain et al., 2002; holman et al., 2007) employee performance and organizational performance. this study focuses on developing a new framework to improve the “communication skills “and “product knowledge” of call centre agents. the research targets improvement in communication skills and product knowledge through the implementation of suggested framework presented in this study. the framework is designed by focusing on how to improve the engagement of trainees in training programs, how to develop motivation for self-directed learning for personal and professional development and how to reduce attrition rate. the significance of training in achieving customer satisfaction is of great value and this work help in achieving customer satisfaction and improve agent performance through new training framework presented in this research. 2. methodology 2.1. research tool quantitative and observational research was carried out to test the framework. previous researches exist in abundance regarding training frameworks however this research suggest an entirely new perspective for trainings in service industries specifically in call centers. an observational research technique is used to test the framework. the research conducted was quantitative in nature and took the form of observational research. the designed framework was implemented to sample and the findings were than compared to set of another sample on which the framework was not applied. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 107-115 109 2.2. sampling two types of samples, a and b, were collected (table 1). for sample “a” 5 agents were randomly selected and 5 calls of each randomly selected agents were evaluated and observation were recorded on the observation forms (table 2). for sample “b” 5 agents were randomly selected and 5 calls of each randomly selected agents were evaluated and observation were recorded on the observation forms (table 3). marks deduction criteria for communication skills (table 4a) and product knowledge (table 4b) against which calls are evaluated were also formulated. both these units are being measured through certain parameters. in this research certain parameters of “communication skills” and “product knowledge” has been taken and reflected in “observation forms”. these observations forms then served as the basis for data collection and data analysis. 2.3. data collection the call recordings of both the samples i-e “sample a” and “sample b” were analyzed against the observation forms of communication skills and product knowledge. sample “a” was observed in the light of observation form of communication skills and sample “b” was evaluated against in the light of observation of product knowledge. the analysis was conducted through data that is naturally occurring in the forms of call recordings. the customer service department in the company where the research is conducted is consist of more than 350 new-hired agents. compared data is the cumulative average of first month score of five newly-hired agents on which no implementation of this framework was applied against the parameters identified in the observation forms. data obtained was then compared with data available of sample “a” and “b”. table-1. sample details sample name category sample size framework implementation details "a" newly-hired agents 5 partial implementation of exploring and activating principle for some learning units related to communication skills "b" newly-hired agents 5 partial implementation of exploring and activating principle for some learning units related to product knowledge table-2. observation form sample “a” agent name number of calls observed casual greeting or greeting not clear (total marks 25) pace of greeting not accurate (total marks 50) not using professional words (total marks 150) non energetic (total marks 150) lack of courtesy (total marks 150) agent 1 5 25 40 90 90 120 agent 2 5 20 30 90 120 120 agent 3 5 25 50 60 60 90 agent 4 5 20 40 120 90 120 agent 5 5 25 40 120 120 120 table-3. observation form sample “b” agent name number of calls observed un qualified information given (total marks 200) ccr did not try to upsell/cross sell (total marks 200) ccr did not pitch the offer (total marks 200) did not drive the call (total marks 200) poor system handling (total marks 200) agent 1 5 160 120 160 120 120 agent 2 5 120 80 80 120 120 agent 3 5 80 120 120 80 80 agent 4 5 120 120 120 120 120 agent 5 5 160 120 120 120 120 table-4(a). marks deduction criteria for “communication skills” kqi(s) deficiencies deduction communication skills casual greeting or not clear 5 pace of greeting is not accurate 10 didn’t use professional words 30 lazy/non energetic 30 courtesy 30 table-4(b). marks deduction criteria for “product knowledge” kqi(s) deficiencies deduction product knowledge poor system handling 40 did not drive the call 40 ccr did not try to upsell/cross sell 40 ccr did not pitch the offer 40 unqualified information given 40 3. results the framework is only partly applied to newly hired agents. in order to observe impact on product knowledge and communication skills observation forms for each is developed and data is collected and then analyzed according asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 107-115 110 to the parameters set in these observations forms. data is collected on excel and observations were made after listening the call recordings of samples and comparison was drawn between agents who does not go through the training according to proposed framework and between those on which this framework is implemented partly. these samples are selected through purposive sampling method and uses observation forms to analyze the results. this framework was partly implemented to two separate batches of newly hired call center agents. 3.1. data analysis and comparison sample “a” following segments of framework is applied to sample “a” 1. some exploration activities for communication skills 2. activations for creating motivation for better communication skills 3. brief activity of setting communication goals data was collected against two different samples and was compared and analyzed with the data of agents on which the framework was not applied (figure 1). data is analyzed and mean is taken as a source of comparison. compared data is the cumulative average of first month score of five newly-hired agents on which no implementation of this framework was applied against the parameters identified in the observation forms (table 5). data obtained was then compared with data available of sample “a” (figure 2). it was evident from data comparison that there is no subtle difference between the two compared data, this suggest that in order to validate the impact of this framework it is strongly recommended that the framework is to be applied on full scale . table-5. average of sample “a” agent name number of calls observed casual greeting or greeting not clear pace of greeting not accurate not using professional words non energetic lack of courtesy (total marks 25) (total marks 50) (total marks 150) (total marks 150) (total marks 150) agent 1 5 25 40 90 90 120 agent 2 5 20 30 90 120 120 agent 3 5 25 50 60 60 90 agent 4 5 20 40 120 90 120 agent 5 5 25 40 120 120 120 average 23 37 96 96 114 table-6. average of compared data agent name number of calls observed casual greeting or greeting not clear pace of greeting not accurate not using professional words non energetic lack of courtesy (total marks 25) (total marks 50) (total marks 150) (total marks 150) (total marks 150) agent 1 5 15 30 60 120 90 agent 2 5 25 40 120 90 120 agent 3 5 25 40 90 60 90 agent 4 5 25 30 120 60 120 agent 5 5 20 40 120 120 120 average 22 35 102 90 108 figure-1. bar graph a) casual greeting b) pace of greeting not accurate c) not using professional words d) non energetic greeting e) lack of courtesy asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 107-115 111 figure-2. data comparison sample “a” sample “b” following segments of framework is applied to sample “b”, 1. some exploration activities for product knowledge of learning units “x” and “y” 2. some activations for product knowledge of learning units “x” and “y” data is analyzed and mean is taken as a source of comparison. compared data (table 7) is the cumulative average of first month score of five newly-hired agents on which no implementation of this framework was applied against the parameters identified in the observation forms (figure 3). data obtained was then compared with data available of sample “b” (figure 4). it is obvious from data comparison that there is no subtle difference between the two compared data ,this suggest that in order to validate the impact of this framework it is strongly recommended that the framework is to be applied on full scale . table-7. average of sample “b” agent name number of calls observed un qualified information given ccr did not try to upsell/cross sell ccr did not pitch the offer (total marks 200) did not drive the call poor system handling (total marks 200) (total marks 200) (total marks 200) (total marks 200) agent 1 5 160 120 160 120 120 agent 2 5 120 80 80 120 120 agent 3 5 80 120 120 80 80 agent 4 5 120 120 120 120 120 agent 5 5 160 120 120 120 120 average 5 128 112 120 112 112 table-8. average of compared data agent name number of calls observed un qualified information given ccr did not try to upsell/cross sell ccr did not pitch the offer (total marks 200) did not drive the call poor system handling (total marks 200) (total marks 200) (total marks 200) (total marks 200) agent 1 5 160 40 120 160 80 agent 2 5 120 120 80 120 80 agent 3 5 60 80 80 40 120 agent 4 5 120 160 120 120 160 agent 5 5 120 120 120 120 120 average 5 116 104 104 112 112 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 107-115 112 figure-3. bar graph showing (a) unqualified information given (b) ccr did not try to upsell (c) ccr did not pitch the offer (d) did not drive the call (e) poor system handling figure-4. data comparison sample “a” 4. discussion the purpose of this research is to improve the product knowledge and communication skills of call center agents by designing a new training framework. this framework establishes 4 key principals to increase the effectiveness of training program in call centers for the improvement in communication skills and product knowledge of a call center agent. this framework is specially designed to conduct training of new inductees however the principles and guidelines mentioned in this framework can be very helpful for all call center agents either new or old. this framework can also help in building effective training content related to communication skills and product knowledge asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 107-115 113 a) inspiring according to this principle trainer first need to build the motivation in trainees by building motivation for call center. inspiring principle create deep inspiration in trainees by transforming their mindset about call center. the call center job is often viewed as a monotonous job with limited window of growth, however the impact call center can create in attitude, emotional management and in learning ability is mostly overlooked. this framework identifies these “impacts” which not only help call center agents in progression of their professional career but can also help in transforming personal life. the theme of this inspiration principal is “person first and organization second”. this theme at first glance may seem rude to the organizations but in depth analysis will open many avenues. many organizations focus on the organizational gains first, according to this principal to create the lasting inspiration the inspirations shall first focus on the individual as the growth in individual will directly affect the organization performance, with this little shift of mindset that is “person first and organization second” call centers would not only able to achieve greater productivity but can also help in reducing turnover. the two suggested “inspirations” which can transform call center agents from this “inspiring” principle are (a) impact of call center and (b) presenting success stories. for the designed inspiration of “impact of call center” trainer shall demonstrate the transformation call center can bring in trainee which can benefit trainee in his/her professional and personal life. the job in a call center is tough but with this job there are many revolutions which call center agent can bring in his life during stay in call centre. the job of a trainer is to effectively design and communicate these transformations and also connect these transformations to carrier progression. some of these transformation that trainer need to cover in “impact of call center” are (1) gaining self-discipline (2) change in attitude through stress management (3) learning anger management (4) refining communication skills. all these transformation can greatly impact the personal and professional development of call center agent and help in changing the vision about call centers. the second “inspiration” can be achieved through presenting success stories of current and former call center staff. presenting success stories at the beginning of a training of new inductees can greatly inspire trainees. b) exploring after the execution of “inspiring” principle the next phase is to develop content by using guidelines mentioned in “exploring” principle. the theme behind exploring is to enable self-learning. according to this principle trainees first need to explore learning areas by their own before trainer provides any assistance regarding the learning unit. all these exploration need to be structured and predesign. the “exploring” principle identifies several such exploring activities for communication skills and product knowledge. “explorations” suggested for call center industry for the improvement in communication skills are (1) exploring communication skills by calling helpline (2) exploring communication skills by visiting floor and observing live calls (3) exploring by watching videos of best communicators, by using the theme developed in “exploring” principle trainer can also create many other explorations .the theme of this principle is that trainees need to first self-explore about communication skills and products. after these explorations trainer may proceed for formal deliverance of knowledge according to curriculum design and sequence. for product knowledge explorations are (1) calling helpline (2) exploring by accessing official information portal (3) exploring by watching product commercials. trainer can also developed other exciting explorations to enable trainees to explore products. figure-5. “exploring” c) activating the “activating” principle comprehensively focuses on designing of engaging and interesting activations which can be executed before, during and after formal lectures. according to this principle, activations are designed to increase learner engagement and effectiveness of the learning. through activations trainee would get more involved in the training. activations for communication skills revolves around three philosophies i-e in order for agent to have a better communication skills agent should be (1) motivated to learn communication skills (2) have to set communication goals and (3) shall developed cognitive skills. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 107-115 114 figure-6. “activating” the activations for communications skills are designed considering these principles, for building motivation for communications skills some activations are (1) inspirational speeches (2) testimonies of great leaders about importance of communication skills and (3) impact of communication skill on personal life. for setting communication goals key attitudes need to be acquired for impressive communication. these attitudes or communication goals are (1) helpfulness (2) patience (3) avoiding conflict and (4) confidence. these setting of communication goals is necessary as no matter how aware you are with the communication skills techniques and tips but if do not have the right feelings or attitude communication cannot be effective. the activation to build these feelings involves the use of nlp (neuro linguistic programming) anchoring. in these activations the state of mind will be linked to specific event or trigger. in these activations we will link communication goals with the event of communication so that anchor can fire to create a more positive communication. nlp anchoring is constructed on the idea of being able to get into the supreme powerful state for a specific task or event, and then being able to enter into that state exactly when you need it. after building motivation for communication skills and the attitude necessary for effective communication skills it is mandatory to developed cognitive skills. activations for developing cognitive skills are (1) role playing activities (2) role imitations and (3) rephrasing activity. for the improvement in product knowledge activations are (1) role playing activity, this activity to be carried out b/w two agents where one agent would play a role of a customer and other to act as an agent. for this activity trainer have to predesign the scenarios of learning units where role playing activity need to be applied (2) story telling activity , to be carried for learning units where agent need to remember a lot of information like product features ,product purpose ,product pricing ,product benefits ,policies etc.(3) audio presentation of calls (4) group base verbal presentations (5) problem solving activities , trainer have to predesigned cases for problem solving activities. d) organizing the last principle “organizing” refers to the organized incorporation of these principals into the training program and in training curriculum for better implementation of these principles in training program. the organization principle recommends that complete training content shall be developed in which the principles of inspiration, exploration and activation must be incorporated. 5. conclusion call centers are the prime customer serving channel in today’s business environment. the speedy growth of call centers and customer reliance on call centers puts very high focus and standards for the call center management in terms of customer satisfaction. beside operational aspects of call center management training plays a significant role in achieving customer satisfaction through call centers. this paper, deals with the training in a call center and suggest a framework for training to improve customer satisfaction by improving product knowledge and communication skills of call center agents. the framework designed was based on four key principals’ i-e inspiring, exploring, activating and organizing. the inspiring principals suggest to build motivation in trainees about personal development through call center. the “inspiring” principle recommends several strategies and themes to build motivation in trainees and how call center can play a significant role in improvising personal and professional development. the second principal “exploring” increase ability to learn by enabling them to explore learning units by creating useful “explorations”. several explorations were determined to improve learner’s abilities. the third principal “activating” rely heavily on activities base approach to learn. this principal create several activities related to call center learning. the fourth and the last principal “organizing “recommends the organization and development of training content. the organization principle recommends that complete training content shall be developed in which the principles of inspiration, exploration and activation must be incorporated. the framework was partially applied to newly hired agents, it is to be noted that only some parts of the framework was applied in isolation due to time constraint. this implementation reveals only slight improvement due to partial implementation and no significant difference observed between the samples on which the part of the framework was tested when compared with the sample on which framework was not applied. this slight difference was observed on “product knowledge” whereas the “communication skills” almost remains the same. 5.1. limitation and recommendation  complete framework is not applied to any of sample due to lack of time and resources. in order to get full advantage of the framework it is strongly suggested that the whole framework to be applied in the training programs.  this training framework is designed explicitly for improvement in communication skills and product knowledge of call center agents in call centers, however this can also be used in other service industries.  this framework is not a replacement of formal training content related to communication skills and product knowledge. this framework provide four philosophies and methods that need to be incorporated in training program to increase the effectiveness of training asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 107-115 115 references bain, p., a. watson, g. mulvey, p. taylor and g. gall, 2002. taylorism, trgets, and the pursuit of quantity and quality by call centre management. new technolwork employ, 17(3): 170–185. view at google scholar | view at publisher dick, w., l. carey and j.o. carey, 2011. the systematic design of instruction. 7th edn., boston, ma: pearson. gustafson, k.l. and r.m. branch, 2011. what is instructional design? in r.a. reiser & j.v. dempsey (eds.), trends and issues in instructional design and technology. 3rd edn., boston, ma: pearson. pp: 16-25. holman, d., r. blatt and u. holtgrewe, 2007. the global call center report: international perspectives on management and employment. sheffield, uk: global call center research network. hsu, t.c., j. lee-hsieh, m.a. turton and s.f. cheng, 2014. using the addie model to develop online continuing education courses on caring for nurses in taiwan. journal of continuing education in 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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=using%20the%20addie%20model%20to%20develop%20online%20continuing%20education%20courses%20on%20caring%20for%20nurses%20in%20taiwan http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/00220124-20140219-04 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=performance%20improvement%20competencies%20for%20instructional%20technologists https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=performance%20improvement%20competencies%20for%20instructional%20technologists http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02762539 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10726-012-9314-6 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 3, 222-228, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 222 challenges of instructional supervision of senior high schools in the techiman municipality in the brong ahafo region of ghana daniel yelkpieri1 matthew kojo namale 2 1 centre for educational policy studies university of education, winneba 2 department of psychology and education uuniversity of education, winneba ( corresponding author) abstract this study sought to investigate the challenges of supervision of teaching and learning in public senior high schools in the techiman municipality of brong-ahafo region. the descriptive survey was employed to collect data. questionnaires and interviews were the main instruments used in data collection. the data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. one hundred and twenty respondents made up of 3 headmasters of shss, 116 teachers and 1 external supervisor was sampled. random and purposive sampling techniques were used in selecting participants. the study found that continuing distance learning programmes offered by the university of cape coast and university of education, winneba were the latest developments in formal training for instructional supervisors. inadequate and irregular supplies of fuel for cars, as well as lack of payment of car maintenance allowances were among the challenges hindering effective instructional supervision in the municipality. the study recommends among others things that the ghana education service (ges) should provide headmasters with periodic in-service training programmes to keep them abreast with current trends and practices in instructional supervision. keywords: instructional supervision, models of supervision, clinical supervision, internal, external supervisions. contents 1. introduction and research problem ................................................................................................................................. 223 2. research design ................................................................................................................................................................. 223 3. data collection instruments.............................................................................................................................................. 224 4. results and discussions of findings .................................................................................................................................. 224 5. conclusions and implications ............................................................................................................................................ 227 6. recommendations .............................................................................................................................................................. 227 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 228 citation | daniel yelkpieri; matthew kojo namale (2016). challenges of instructional supervision of senior high schools in the techiman municipality in the brong ahafo region of ghana. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(3): 222-228. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.222.228 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/ acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 14 april 2016/ revised: 18 may 2016/ accepted: 25 may 2016/ published: 6 june 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.222.228 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=daniel yelkpieri https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=matthew kojo namale http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.222.228 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.222.228 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=daniel yelkpieri https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=matthew kojo namale http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.222.228 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.222.228 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=daniel yelkpieri https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=matthew kojo namale http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.222.228 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.222.228 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=daniel yelkpieri https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=matthew kojo namale http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.222.228 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 222-228 223 1. introduction and research problem collaborated efforts by headmasters, teachers, circuit supervisors, parent-teachers association (pta) and government must ensure that the nation’s dream of quality education delivery becomes a reality (ghana education service, 2002). however, the desire for accomplishing quality education is in the hands of educational leaders who are duty bound to ensure that all members of the group live up to expectation in performing their professional duties. adeel (2010) is of the view that supervision is the general leadership role and a coordinating role among all school activities concerned with learning. supervision involves mentoring what teachers do including all classroom activities. supervision can only be said to be effective if it achieves its avowed objectives of quality instructional delivery. effective supervision enables administrators to re-inforce and enhance teaching practices that improve student learning. the situation is not different from ghana since the success or failure of educational policy is a collaborative effort and one of the key players responsible for getting employees to carry out plans and policies of management is the supervisor (ges, 2002). again any educational policy is judged on the outcome of the results produced by schools at the end of every examination year as its success or failure. supervision of teaching and learning in the shss is also a responsibility of inspectors from the district education directorates. one limitation in discharging this responsibility emanates from the qualifications of supervisors from the district offices and teachers in the shss whose work is to be evaluated by the district supervisors who hold lower academic qualifications than the teachers of shss. in such cases the teachers may underrate the competence of the supervisors. this may explain why there is infrequent inspection of the shs teachers by district office supervisors (mankoe, 2007). as a result, there has been a public outcry in ghana of abysmal performance of the ghanaian students at the shs level. these emanated as a result of inadequate administrative supervision in schools (oduro, 2008). although the government of ghana is focused on improving supervision of instruction in schools, much still needs to be done. research findings suggest that poor pupil performance in public schools, in part, is the result of ineffective supervision of teachers (opare, 1999; oduro, 2008). the ges (2002) outlines policies to guide supervision of instruction in basic schools and secondary schools in ghana which have been formulated by the ministry of education (moe) in partnership with the ges. glickman et al. (2004) also suggest that heads of institutions and any person entrusted with the responsibility to supervise instruction should possess certain knowledge and skills as plan, observe, assess and evaluate teaching and learning processes. given these interventions, it is worrying to note that there are still challenges confronting effective supervision in public senior high schools (shss) in the techiman municipality of the brong-ahafo region of ghana. opare (1999) observed that despite extensive internal and external supervision, public schools are not adequately supervised. it is in line with this that, the researcher decided to investigate into the challenges confronting effective supervision of instructions in public senior high schools in the techiman municipality. 1.1. purpose of the study the purpose of the study was to examine the challenges that confront effective supervision of instruction in the techiman municipality from the perspectives of headmasters and teachers. research questions the following research questions were formulated for the study 1. what are the skills needed for the implementation of effective instructional supervision of school-based teacher supervisors in the techiman municipality? 2. to what extent are school heads equipped to implement modern models of teacher supervision? 3. what are the constraints faced by heads of institutions’ in the performance of their supervisory roles in shss in techiman municipality? 1.2. significance of the study it is envisaged that the findings of this study are important in that they have the potential to: 1. help those entrusted with policy formulation and implementation to gain better insight into the state of supervision of instruction in public shss in ghana; 2. identify future training and skills needed for school-based supervisors in senior high schools; 2. research design a descriptive survey that employs questionnaire and structured interview schedule was used in this study. this approach helped the researcher to involve more respondents in his data collection. it also enabled him to triangulate the data collected. 2.1. population, sample and sampling procedure the population includes all shs’s teachers and headmasters as well as officials from the techiman municipal education office. the target population included all headmasters and teachers from techiman senior high school (tess), akumfi ameyaw senior high/technical school (astec), in the municipality and officials from the techiman municipal education office. in all, 130 teachers including heads were sampled. the sample size was arrived at by dividing the teacher population of each school over the total teacher population of the schools multiplied by the required sample selected by the researcher. that is × 130. for example, this is the calculation for tess; ×130= 51. this same procedure was followed to calculate the other two shss. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 222-228 224 table-1. sampling techniques and sample size names of shs number of teachers sample size tess 85 51 astec 85 51 tshts 46 28 total 216 130 three headmasters were purposively selected and an officer from the inspectorate division of the ges in the techiman municipal education office for the interview because of their positions and in-depth knowledge about supervision in the service. with respect to teachers, the simple random sampling method was used to select the 127 respondents. the random sampling method gave all respondents equal opportunity of taking part in the study. at tess “yes” was written on 51 pieces of paper which were put in an empty box. another 34 pieces were put together in the polythene box with “no” written on them. the pieces were thoroughly mixed up and the teachers were asked to pick a piece of paper from the box one after the other. when a teacher picked “yes”, he/she received a questionnaire to fill while those who picked “no” were excused. the same process was repeated at astec and tshts. convenience sampling was employed to invite the teachers to be interviewed. the reason is headmasters and teachers from the selected shs were busy with wassce and those who agreed were invited for the interview. in all, 13 interviewees were involved, comprising 9 teachers, 3 heads, and 1 officer in charge of supervision. 3. data collection instruments the researcher used two sets of instruments, namely questionnaire and semi-structured interview schedule to collect the data for the study. the use of questionnaire made the work of the respondent easier since they answered them at their own convenient time without any interference of the researcher. a set of questionnaire was used for the teachers and headmasters. the instrument has four sections. section “a” comprises the bio data of the respondents which involves age, sex, and level of education. section “b” sought the respondents’ opinion on the roles and responsibilities of supervisors; section “c” and “d” sought the respondents’ opinion on the professional training in supervision and monitoring of supervisees, information on the influence of supervision on assessing the complementary role by the municipal education directorate and also discussing challenges facing effective supervision of public shss. questionnaire for teachers and heads solicited information about the influence of supervision on teaching and learning in the schools, the challenges facing them as teachers and heads, solutions to those problems and what should be done to improve teaching and learning in their schools. semi-structured interview schedule was designed to collect information from respondents. this allowed the researcher to probe into their responses for further information where necessary. the interview method allows greater depth than is the case with questionnaires, that is, there is direct interaction between the researcher and the respondents. the technique reduces the risk of misinterpretation by respondents, since the researcher will have the chance of explaining the purpose of the study and to clarify any queries raised during the interview. the interview data were used by the researcher as means to supplement data that have been earlier collected by the survey. the questions guiding the interview were developed from the same issues used to develop the questionnaires. 3.1. content and face validity and reliability of instruments the validity of the instruments was established by giving copies of the instruments to colleague research fellows to evaluate them and make comments for the improvement of the research instruments. the comments were considered by the researcher to improve the quality of the items. the questionnaire was tested for reliability to guarantee that the instruments used were unbiased to changes of the investigator, the respondents or the study situation. the questionnaire was pre-tested in tanoso shs. the aim was to allow the researcher to identify and appreciate budding problems in the proposed study and if need be, to modify the data collection approaches before commencing fieldwork. the original questionnaire items were 35 questions; however, these were reduced to 32 after the removal of all ambiguous items. the interview schedules were personally pilot-tested and the responses were similar in each case. this implies that the schedules were reliable. 4. results and discussions of findings the field data were checked and edited for consistency and accuracy. the data was coded and keyed into a statistical package for service solutions (spss) soft-ware version 16.0 and analysed to derive descriptive statistics for the study. the quantitative method made use of tables, percentages, means and frequencies. data collected qualitatively were analysed thematically using the open code method. the data were organised and common statements by subjects were written down and emerging themes noted. the municipal education officer’s, teachers’ and headmasters’ responses were compared. the results of the findings from the questionnaire and interview data are presented and interpreted in line with the research objectives. 4.1. skills needed by school-based supervisors in senior high schools 4.1.1. training of school-based supervisors when the municipal officer in charge of supervision was interviewed he indicated that he had not received any formal training in teacher supervision, however, various leadership courses have been provided for a number of years. although he agreed that some form of supervisory training is essential, he seemed unprepared to take any practical steps in this direction. when he was asked about the kind of experience upon which supervisors based their work on, the officer indicated that “most supervisors learn their job by doing it”. he observed that “they learn from their mistakes and as they keep correcting them they become used to the nitty-gritties of their jobs as supervisors”. he also stressed that practical experiences are supplemented by formal training. he, however, noted that usually it is asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 222-228 225 the heads of institutions who are the beneficiaries of those courses to equip them for their tasks. this supports the assertion that about 80% of teacher supervision is undertaken by school heads in ghana (mankoe, 2006). the teachers reported that “they needed a supervisor who is more experienced in teaching to coach them”. the shss are organized and administered in such a way that each department has its own role to play, with the head playing the most significant supervisory role. the headmaster, who is the school based supervisor, is entrusted with both administrative and supervisory duties to perform in order to achieve goals (yelkpieri and seidu, 2007). in order to ensure better administration, heads involved their deputies as well as heads of departments to get things done properly and efficiently, while they co-ordinate the activities and make final decisions. the study found that it is the school heads, their deputies and heads of departments who were considered as teacher supervisors. 4.2. in-service training in-service training is one of the major components of professional development as it improves pedagogical supervisory skills. the study sought to find out whether in-service training had ever been provided in the study area. the data show that 2(66.7%) headmasters and 57(47.5%) teachers were of the view that supervisors sometimes provided in-service workshops for teachers to develop their skills. this is in line with yelkpieri and seidu (2007) when they stressed that heads of school have the responsibility of organizing in-service-training for teachers and orientation courses for newly posted teachers to schools. however, 63(52.5%) of the teachers indicated they had never had any form of in-service workshop to develop their skills, which was supported by 1(33.3%) of the headmasters. the research further noted that heads of the shss had been sponsoring their teachers to attend annual workshops and conferences organised by their subject associations. this suggests that headmasters sponsor heads of departments only to such workshops and conferences. this finding agrees with the notion that it is the responsibility of supervisors to provide teachers with in-service training sessions, as well as encourage them to attend workshops and conferences to bring them abreast with time in their instructional practices (yelkpieri and seidu, 2007). the municipal officer in charge of supervision, the heads of institutions as well as teachers interviewed identified the following latest developments in formal training for supervisors: • continuing distance learning programmes offered by the university of cape coast (ucc) and university of education, winneba (uew) • diploma in business leadership – a situational approach offered by the ghana institute of management and public administration (gimpa); • the master of education in educational administration and management offered by the university of education; and • sandwich release /part-time courses offered by some ghanaian universities. all the above programmes aim at improving the leadership skills of school administrators so as to enhance their supervisory capacity. evidence provided through interview shows that it is not every headmaster, nor head of department who patronized some of these above listed programmes to improve their supervisory skills. heads and teachers were asked to indicate the type of supervision emphasized in the municipality, whether internal or external supervision or both and the results are as shown in table 2. table-2. kinds of supervision types of supervision no. % internal 35 29.2 external 14 11.7 both 71 59.1 total 120 100 table 2 gives a summary of the responses of the various types of supervision provided in the techiman municipality. it can be seen that majority of the respondents 71(59.1%) indicated that both internal and external supervisions were emphasized in the shss in the municipality. however 35(29.2%) of the respondents also suggested internal supervision, while, 14(11.7%) indicated external supervisions. it must be stressed that both internal and external supervision are essential to ensure that quality is not compromised. headmasters and teachers shared similar views in an interview conducted in all the selected shss in the municipality. some teachers were asked to express their opinion on the type of supervision they preferred in an interview, majority of the teachers who responded preferred internal supervision to that of external supervision. the reasons given are that:  teachers' problems were better known and understood by their heads than the external supervisors.  external supervisors do not have sufficient time to give extensive advice to teachers individually and it is easy for schools to relax, as a result of the intermittent visits by the supervisors.  the information the teacher has already received from his head of department, principals or headmasters may duplicate with that of the external supervisor.  external supervisors are unlikely to have the same degree of understanding and sympathy for a teacher's problems as compared to internal supervisors who share the teacher's classroom experiences. but it should be noted that both external and internal supervisions are given recognition in modern supervision. it is in this respect that sergiovanni and starratt (2009) regarded supervision as a co-operative venture in which supervisors and teachers engage in dialogue for the purpose of instructional improvement for the benefit of students learning. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 222-228 226 in view of these considerations, supervision would appear to be most effective when carried out internally at the institutional level and through instructional leadership of headmasters and senior subject masters. however, some minority teachers also expressed the view in a similar interview at tess that “external supervision compliment the internal supervision therefore both external and internal supervision work for the good of supervision”. few teachers at tuobodom rather opted for external supervision; others did not express their preference at all. this situation observed during the survey could lead to playing down of the complementary role that external supervision plays in the promotion of teaching. halpin (1956) sees external supervision as complementing the role and duties of the internal supervisor by providing professional advice and guidance to teachers. 4.3. readiness of the schools to implement modern models of teacher supervision there are a number of supervisory models that are usually used by supervisors and sometimes based on situational demands. by and large most educators use clinical supervision and formative supervision followed by inquiry based supervision. these kinds of supervision seem popular because “supervisors said they are developmental, non-judgmental and counseling oriented and are directed at improving teacher performance”. the supervisors interviewed said that they did not often use spot check and random checks because these types of supervision do not use appointments and classroom visits are not announced. table 3 shows the result. table-3. respondents’ views on the extent of agreement on the use of supervision model item wm std i i like fault finding model 2.69 1.03 d i like facilitating model 3.34 1.11 nand i like spot check model 3.38 1.37 nand i like consultative model 4.06 1.11 a i like random checks model 3.49 1.10 nand mean of means=3.31 standard deviation = 1.14 key to the table: a=agree, sa=strongly agree, nand = neither agree nor disagree, sd=strongly disagree, d=disagree wm= weighted mean, sd= standard deviation and i= interpretation. 4.4. interpretation of weighted means 5= strongly agree, 4.0-4.9= agree, 3.0-3.9, uncertain, 2.0-2.9=disagree, 1.0-1.9=strongly disagree table 3 shows that respondents agreed that consultative model supervision was more useful to them as teachers. this is evidenced by a weighted mean of 4.06 and a standard deviation of 1.11. this means that teachers generally agree or like to be heard when they are supervised and not only to be given instructions by supervisors. this type of supervision fosters co-oporation and mutual respect between the two parties. this type of supervision is often referred to as clinical supervision (asiedu-akrofi, 1978; wiles and bondi, 1986; bame, 1991; bernard and goodyear, 1998). the study further reveals that respondents neither agreed nor disagreed that facilitating model of supervision was useful and needs to be encouraged. this is supported by a weighted mean of 3.38 and a standard deviation of 1.37. some supervisees responded positively to models that are interactive and negatively to models that are directive. this suggests that teacher supervision can be democratic, where the full use of the experiences of teachers are realized or autocratic, where the experiences of supervisors are used. generally, it came to light that all the respondents on the whole, were in favour of models that were interactive as against models that were directive. this is supported by a mean of means of 3.31 and standard deviation of 1.14. 4.5. challenges of supervisors in public senior high schools the extent to which the supervisors’ role ensures effective supervision in the shss in the techiman municipality is hampered by some challenges. all the four heads’ and the teachers affirmed that the scope of supervision is limited by the fact that supervisors face some challenges in executing their supervisory roles. the summary is depicted in table 4. table-4. challenges of supervision in shss item responses no % supervisees consider supervisors as interfering 19 15.8 inadequate teacher motivation 12 10.0 inadequate logistics 27 22.5 combining supervision with community functions 38 31.7 lack of budget line for supervision 24 20.0 total 120 100.0 nineteen (15.8%) out of the 120 respondents identified supervisors as interfering in their work whiles 38(29.7) agreed that combining supervision with community functions by heads was the major challenge confronting them. in probing further, it came to light that “some heads were community leaders and by virtue of that they were mostly called upon to attend meetings even when it was within school hours”. again 24 (20.0%) teachers reported that there was lack of budget line for supervision. in an interview, it came to light that “most of the teachers were not staying on the school campuses therefore involving them for the evening supervision had always proved futile”. the official vehicles which were supporting “teachers’ movement had all broken down and even where such vehicles were available, fueling them was another headache”. similar sentiments were expressed by the municipal inspectorate asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 222-228 227 division. these challenges ran from poor incentives through lack of official vehicle to carry out supervision in the municipality. in such a situation, it was realised that supervisors sometimes use their pocket money for public transport which were never refunded to them. it could be realized that most district directors of education consider their official vehicles as their “bonafide” property and releasing them was always a problem. this challenge among others accounted for infrequent supervisions. hence, on the average, supervision is carried out annually and where supervision had been frequent, “it was not more than once a term” as the study captured. this finding agrees with mankoe (2007) when he said that supervisors have to rely on public means of transport as a result of lack of official vehicles to carry out their supervisory task. 4.6. suggestions to challenges to effective supervision when the respondents were given the chance to suggest measures to be put in place to ensure that teacher supervision is made effective in the techiman municipality, the following suggestions were made in table 5. table-5. suggested solutions to the problems suggestions no. % discuss findings with supervisees 36 30.0 regular supervision 38 31.7 planning lesson with supervisees 32 26.7 provision of logistics 14 11.6 total 120 100.0 out of those who responded, 36(30%) respondents suggested that supervisors should be able to discuss findings with supervisees, whiles 32(26.7%) suggested that internal supervisors should plan lessons with supervisees. the issue of logistics still remains a headache, hence the remaining respondents called for provision of adequate logistics to ensure regular supervision. when the same issues were put forward in an interview, on how the issue of lack of cooperation between supervisors and supervisees could be tackled, the same suggestions were replicated. three out of 4 heads proposed that supervisors should be able to discuss findings with supervisees, 5 out of 8 teachers suggested regular supervision while the remaining respondents suggested involving lesson planning with supervisees as well as provision of logistics. again when the researcher called for measures to address the issue of inadequate logistics in an interview, all the heads proposed regular supervision so that external supervisors could actually know what is on the ground. provision of incentive schemes to heads, motivating both heads and teachers were among other things which were suggested in the interviews. with respect to lack of budget line to streamline supervision, all the heads endorsed “making enough budgetary allocations for schools to intensify their internal supervisory roles to compliment that of external supervisors”. an interview with the municipal ges officer in charge of supervision revealed that the inspectorate division has put in place several measures in ensuring that supervision in schools was effectively conducted. these include “signing of daily attendance registers to ensure regularity and punctuality among teachers”. the heads have been given “power to lay embargo on teachers’ salaries”, etc. others include providing the necessary human, material and financial assistance to shss teachers, ensuring a flexible, minimum educational programme in the public shss in the municipality as well as sponsoring conferences and coordinating activities among schools interested in curriculum innovation. the heads on their part also indicated that, “attending form meetings, random checking of students’ exercises as well as assigning teachers on morning devotional preaching plans were measures being implemented to ensure regularity and punctuality among teachers”. 5. conclusions and implications based on the findings of this study some conclusions have been made. it was evident that most teachers prefer to be supervised by the head of the department. the head of department is a subject specialist and a colleague, so this is why he/she is popular with teachers and most of the teachers will want to deal with him. teachers also welcome supervision if it is done in the right spirit and with the aim of improving the learning process and promoting teacher growth. this suggests that headmasters of shss should encourage internal supervision to ensure quality delivery of instruction. all these support the idea that supervision is a team effort aimed at improving teaching and learning in schools. therefore, all teachers and supervisors, both internal and external should see their collaborative efforts as important steps to achieve quality education goal. without this understanding and team work, it will be difficult to achieve this goal. teachers needed a supervisor who is more experienced in teaching to coach them develop their full potentials as well as learning new teaching methodology to keep them abreast with new developments in the teaching field. it is therefore necessary that capacity building which takes the form of in-service-training, workshops are frequently organized by school headmasters. continuing distance learning programmes offered by the ucc and uew and sandwich release /part-time courses offered by some ghanaian universities are other latest developments in formal training for which supervisors could encourage their staff to take advantage of. this suggests that capacity building either on the job or through further education is very essential for the development of technical skills which are critical for successful implementation of educational curriculum. 6. recommendations based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 222-228 228 1. the training institutions such as ucc and uew and ges through pre-service and in-service training programmes must organize regular workshops for both teachers and headmasters to desired aspects of modern-day instructional supervision. again, since supervision is a process but not a product, some aspects of modern-day instructional supervision could be incorporated into the teacher training programmes at the diploma, degree and masters’ levels to sensitize teachers’ about modern-day instructional supervision practices. 2. ges must take steps to provide training for headmasters and heads of departments in instructional supervision as part of their induction process after their appointments. in addition, new developments in the education system could be provided to headmasters through periodic in-service-training to keep them abreast with current trends and practices. 3. the challenges of supervisors should be addressed by the municipal director of education and the ministry of education. these challenges include supply of cars to the inspectorate division of the municipal directorate of education by the ministry of education to enhance their mobility and also serve as incentive. the municipal director of education should ensure regular supply of fuel to enable supervisors regularly visit their respective schools. 4. all stakeholders of education must put their shoulders to the wheel to ensure that they provide the necessary support to the shss. for example, accommodation should be provided to teachers on campus by the government, pta and non-governmental organisations (ngos) so that they could be punctual and regular at school. 5. car maintenance allowances should be paid to supervisors regularly by the ministry of education. 6. supervisors should share findings of their supervision with supervisees and also take steps to know what motivates them as individual teachers and at the same time creating opportunities for staff to share personal accomplishments. references adeel, a.n., 2010. concept of supervision. available from http://www.asidell.yalosite.com/education/concept-of-supervision [accessed 10th september, 2011]. asiedu-akrofi, k., 1978. school organisation in modern africa. tema: ghana publishing company. bame, k.n., 1991. teacher motivation and retention in ghana. accra: ghana universities press. bernard, j.m. and r.g. goodyear, 1998. fundamentals of clinical supervision. boston: allyn & bacon. ghana education service, 2002. circuit supervisors handbook. accra: ghana publishing corporation. glickman, c.d., s.p. gordon and j.m. ross-gordon, 2004. supervision and instructional leadership: a developmental approach. 6th edn., new york: pearson education inc. halpin, a.w., 1956. the leadership behaviour of school superintendent. the school development study monograph no. 4 and columbus college of education of instruction. new york: prentice hall inc. mankoe, j.o., 2006. policy analysis in education. kumasi: payless publication. mankoe, j.o., 2007. educational administration and management in ghana. accra: progressive stars printing press. oduro, g., 2008. increased enrolment does not mean quality education. ghana news agency. available from http:news.myjoyonline.com/education/200809/20151.asp. opare, j.a., 1999. academic achievement in private and public schools: management makes the difference. journal of educational management, 2(1): 12-22. sergiovanni, t.j. and r.j. starratt, 2009. supervision: human perspective. 4th edn., new york: mcgraw-hill book company. wiles, j. and j. bondi, 1986. supervision: a guide to practices. columbus, ohio: charles e. merril publishing company. yelkpieri, d. and a. seidu, 2007. headship and supervision of basic schools in the awutu-effutu-senya and gomoa districts: the problems and challenges that confront headteachers. african journal of educational research, 11(1&2): 82-94. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.asidell.yalosite.com/education/concept-of-supervision 166 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 3, 166-172, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.166.172 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group impact of pubg game addiction on social isolation and narcissistic tendencies among gamers maria waris nawaz1 tooba nadeem 2 sana liaqat rao 3 tahira fatima4 sidra shoaib5 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3,4,5institute of professional psychology, bahria university karachi, campus, pakistan. abstract the current research aimed to explore the relationship of pubg game addiction with narcissistic tendencies and social isolation in gamers. for this correlation survey based research the data was conveniently collected from pubg gamers (n= 101) age ranging from 13-30 years through online response method. the instruments included online game addiction scale (kim, namkoong, ku, & kim, 2008) narcissistic personality inventory (raskin & hall, 1981) and measures of social isolation (zavaleta, samuel, & mills, 2017) for testing the hypothesis. according to the yielded results, an excellent reliability of these measures was established. the results also indicated that online game addiction, social isolation and narcissistic tendencies among pubg game players are negatively correlated (<.05). it was concluded that online games do carry positive aspects of enhancing social skills and interactions among the players, while helping them exhibit behaviors and emotions that are not coherent with narcissistic tendencies. this paper also carries implications for families, friends, teachers and therapists of online gamers, who may use the findings to understand some of the positive aspects of playing online games. keywords: pubg game addiction, social isolation, narcissistic tendencies, gamers. jel classification: gaming addiction; social psychology; clinical psychology. citation | maria waris nawaz; tooba nadeem; sana liaqat rao; tahira fatima; sidra shoaib (2020). impact of pubg game addiction on social isolation and narcissistic tendencies among gamers. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(3): 166-172. history: received: 10 april 2020 revised: 15 may 2020 accepted: 8 june 2020 published: 30 june 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 167 2. method ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 168 3. results .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 169 4. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 170 5. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 171 6. implications..................................................................................................................................................................................... 171 7. limitations and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................ 171 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 171 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.166.172&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1815 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0251-4879 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1815 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0251-4879 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1815 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0251-4879 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 166-172 167 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper attempts to highlight the implications of excessive usage of technology, aided with games causing peer-pressure of meeting the latest trends that can further lead to hyperactive tendencies, self-control issues including impatient behaviors and lack of mindful decision making. these factors create opportunities for future researchers to conduct preventive work as according to some of the previous researches and the results of this current study may suggest that game addiction can polish mental skills of the players like enhancing their attentiveness and mental activity but playing games for long hours may promote sedentary lifestyle which may lead to health issues like diabetes, obesity or disturbed motor functioning in the long run. 1. introduction online video games first appeared in 1990s and since then, they have become widely popular and accessible (kenneth & laura, 2014). the number of online games being played and players of these online games have increased significantly. a common characteristic of multiplayer online games is that, in virtual communities‘ players can assume any role they desire, collaborate with other players in the game to succeed in even more complex goals and accomplish missions of a fairly aggressive nature. players have the power to talk online, make friends and conduct transactions involving real or virtual assets. the entertaining, interactive and real-time online games have become ‗‗killer applications‘‘ on the internet, and these are the primary reasons some teenagers spend hours every day playing these games (whang & chang, 2004). however, as the popularity of the online games has grown, so has the concerns over their excessive use. the compulsive indulgence in multiplayer online gaming is mostly seen among the age group of 13–25 years with gaming abuse being more common in boys as compared to girls. the increasing trend of mass shootings, have also been associated with excessive use of violent video games, which has fueled the debate of possible effects that violent video games may have on adolescents and young adults (singh, 2019). given the prevalence of internet use and online gaming among youth, there is a rising concern that a subset of internet-using youth may exhibit problematic or addictive patterns of internet while using and gaming online (mei, yau, chai, guo, & potenza, 2016). the urge and compulsion for digital and video gaming has been classified as a mental health disorder by the world health organization (who) in 2018. additionally, online game addiction is also defined as a distinct behavioral addiction characterized by excessive or compulsive use of computer games or video games that interferes with a person‘s everyday life (world health organization, 1992). in recent years, several studies have demonstrated that gamers have trouble controlling their video game playing (chiu, lee, & huang, 2004; hussain & griffiths, 2008; smahel, blinka, & ledabyl, 2008; wan & chiou, 2006). the resulting excessive amounts of time spent on playing video games can be severely disruptive to school, work and ‗real life‘ social contacts (chappell, eatough, davies, & griffiths, 2006; thalemann, wölfling, & grüsser, 2007; wan & chiou, 2006). recently, a new game addiction playerunknown‘s battlegrounds (pubg) is becoming very popular. it is a multiplayer shooter game where up to one hundred players fight in a ‗battle royale‘ and the last person or team alive wins. one can play the game with either friends or unknown people. most of the gamers are addicted to this game and spend an excessive amount of time playing this game. a lot of children play this game even though it is marked for people who are above sixteen as it involves user interaction and digital purchases. a study conducted on gamers reported that 47% of the participants had played one or more intensely violent games (allahverdipour, bazargan, farhadinasab, & moeini, 2010). cole and griffiths (2007), concluded that online multiplayer games provide a highly social environment where strong friendships and sometimes even romantic relationships are forged. in this regard, online gaming provides a medium in which players can explore different aspects of their personality in a safe and anonymous environment (hussain & griffiths, 2008) but on the other hand, the excessive screen time is leading to lack of human interactions, low emotional connect between children and adults because both are hooked to their own virtual worlds (ferguson, coulson, & barnett, 2011). some teenagers may lock themselves for hours to ensure uninterrupted indulgence in games which may cause different health related issues (kuss & griffiths, 2012). various previous studies have suggested that individual psychological characteristics (including personality traits) may predispose certain individuals to overuse the internet, and past research has chiefly examined the effects of shyness (chak & leung, 2004) loneliness, and self-consciousness on the level of internet use so far (engelberg & sjöberg, 2004; shapira, goldsmith, keck jr, khosla, & mcelroy, 2000; whang, lee, & chang, 2003; yuen & lavin, 2004). moreover, risk factors for the development of pathological gaming included personality styles marked by neuroticism, social isolation and diminished self-control, as well as mental health problems related to depression, anxiety and adhd (ferguson et al., 2011). zavaleta et al. (2017), defined social isolation as the inadequate quality and quantity of social relations with other people at different levels where human interaction takes place. a narrative analysis revealed that the students who are addicted to online video gaming admitted that, they are spending less time with their families and are failing to control emotions with other family members (yarasani, shaik, & myla, 2018). several researches have been conducted in this regard to see the impact of online gaming on the physical and psychological health of the players. williams, yee, and caplan (2008), reported that online gamers have a lower body mass index (bmi) when compared to the general population. as far as psychological health of gamers is concerned, a number of studies have shown narcissistic trends in the gamers. along with all other aspects of personality, gamer‘s perception of themselves is also affected (kim et al., 2008; ng & wiemer-hastings, 2005). individuals with narcissistic personality traits are preoccupied with a grandiose sense of self-importance, fantasies of success, power and that they require excessive admiration and recognition as presented in american psychiatric association (2013) it can be reasonably predicted that people with a greater narcissistic personality trait will collect valuable items and upgrade their skills to advance other players in the game (song, larose, eastin, & lin, 2004). narcissistic personality trait was considered to be important for the understanding of the online game addiction process. for some people, with a narcissistic personality trait, multiplayer online games may be reinforcing because asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 166-172 168 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group it bolsters self-esteem as well as provides status and respect with a lower chance of rejection. therefore, narcissistic people are likely to have a high chance of being addicted to online games (kim et al., 2008). one of the consensuses reached among online game addicts is that the main attractive feature of multiplayer online games like pubg and ever quest, is its system of goals and achievements. as you play, your character advances by gaining experience points, ‗‗levelling-up‘‘ from one level to the next while collecting valuables and weapons and becoming wealthier and stronger. in this social setting, excellent players receive ‗‗the recognition and attention of others‘‘ and gain power and status. considering all this, the possibility that people with narcissistic personality traits use the access of numerous relationships available through the internet as a way of gaining an admiring audience is plausible (kim et al., 2008; ng & wiemer-hastings, 2005). moreover, various narrative analysis suggest that, the students have admitted concerns related to sleep disturbances caused by mainly spending more hours being awake and even if sleeping then waking up restless in the middle of the night with anxiousness related to scoring higher and crossing levels to get admiration in return (bartel & gradisar, 2017; hawi, samaha, & griffiths, 2018; satghare et al., 2016). from the above literature it can be concluded that, online game addiction has been increased significantly among adolescents and young adults which is severely disrupting the functioning of individuals. excessive gaming is not only causing physical issues but psychological issues as well. as reported in several studies that there indeed is a link between violent video game exposure and psychopathic traits and strongly associated with the interpersonal-affective deficits (kimmig, andringa, & derntl, 2018). hence, the current study aims to explore the relationship of online game addiction with social isolation and narcissistic tendencies in adolescents and young adults. furthermore, it can be observed that pubg game addiction has been increased significantly in recent times and there have been complaints about students by teachers from school, increased divorce cases have been reported and parent-child conflicts have also surfaced as a result of increased aggression. so there is a need for more researches which can identify the behavioral trends of gamers and interventions for reducing addiction can be designed effectively. based on the previous researches it is hypothesized that there would be a significant relationship of pubg game addiction with narcissistic tendencies and social isolation in gamers. 2. method 2.1. research objective  to explore the relationship of pubg game addiction with social isolation and narcissistic tendencies.  to find out the predicting role of pubg game addiction on the social isolation and narcissistic tendencies. 2.2. research question  what is the relationship of pubg game addiction with social isolation and narcissistic tendencies?  what is the impact of pubg game addiction on the social isolation and narcissistic tendencies? 2.3. research hypothesis there will be a significant relationship of pubg game addiction with social isolation and narcissistic tendencies. 2.4. research design the current research is based on quantitative research approach which utilizes the correlational survey design to study the relationship between pubg game addiction, social isolation and narcissistic tendencies through self report questionnaires. 2.5. sample through convenient sampling, which is a technique of the non-probability sampling, 160 participants were approached online. 2.6. inclusion criteria of research participants  participants living in pakistan were included in this study.  participants within the age range of 13 to 30 were selected for this study.  participants who played pubg game were included in this study.  participants who played pubg game for 1 to 24 hours a day were included. 2.7. exclusion criteria of research participants  participants of other nationalities were not included in this study.  participants who were below the age 13 and above the age 30 were not selected.  participants who did not play pubg were not included in this study.  participants with any other online game addiction apart from pubg were not included in this study. 2.8. measures 2.8.1. informed consent form the informed consent form was used to provide participants with sufficiently detailed information about the research so that they can make a voluntary, informed and rational decision to participate. it included the information of researchers, the purpose of the study, information about any risk or discomfort, assurance of confidentiality of any shared personal information and their right to decline or withdraw any time from the research without any consequence or penalty. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 166-172 169 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.9. demographic information form the demographic information form was formulated to collect data about psychosocial variables that could possibly affect the results. this form included information related to age, gender and number of hours of playing pubg. it was administered only on pubg gamers. 2.10. the online game addiction scale (kim et al., 2008) the online game addiction scale has 20 items associated with online gaming including compulsive use, withdrawal and psychological dependence, as well as the related problem of sleep, work, school, family and time management (for each item, a graded response is selected from 1 = ‗rarely‘ to 5 = ‗always‘). the total score was in the range of 20-100, and higher score implies a tendency towards addictive usage. the cronbach‘s alpha reliability for the scale was 0.91. 2.11. narcissistic personality inventory (raskin & hall, 1981) it was used to measure the narcissistic personality tendencies. the narcissistic personality inventory was developed by raskin and hall in 1979, since its initial development npi has evolved from 220 items to npi-40 (1984) and npi-16 (2006) as well as the novel npi-1 inventory (2014). it comprises of 16 items. according to the reliability and validity of the research conducted by raskin and hall, the npi has strong construct validity and ecological validity. the cronbach‘s alpha reliability for the scale was 0.74. 2.12. measures of social isolation (zavaleta et al., 2017) it was used to measure social isolation comprising of 15 items, scoring was graded as every day, most days, few days and never. the domains describe a set of indicators of social connections, range of different relationship as well as the quality of those relationships and the resulting outcomes for people (i.e., emotional and financial support, job opportunities, social isolation) and for society (i.e., trust in others and tolerance). the cronbach‘s alpha reliability for the scale was 0.72. 2.13. procedure the survey was made on google form then it was posted on different groups of facebook and whatsapp initially. later on, it was posted on official home page of two well-known websites i.e., www.surveycircle.com and www.reddit.com/r/samplesize for several days in may. in informed consent participants were clarified about the objective of the study along with the risk and benefit involved. they were given details regarding voluntary participation and their right to withdraw at any time. once they agreed to participate in the study, they were asked to fill demographic information form and each self-report questionnaire which had its own instructions written on top of the google form. the questionnaires were in this order, firstly online game addiction scale (kim et al., 2008), narcissism personality inventory (raskin & hall, 1981) and lastly, measures of social isolation (zavaleta et al., 2017). as the survey was conducted only on pubg gamers from popular forums on social media, the participants can be regarded as representative participants of pubg gamers in pakistan. also, the questionnaires which did not fulfil the inclusion criteria were excluded from the study. lastly, the yielded results obtained were analyzed using statistical package for social sciences (spss-22) to test their statistical significance of variables. 2.14. ethical consideration the research was conducted keeping in mind the research ethics. at the beginning, consent was obtained from the participants after giving the basic description about the purpose and nature of the study. they were briefed about their right to withdraw from the study at any time. the participants were informed about the research‘s nature in detail. in the end they were thanked for their cooperation. furthermore, they were also given researcher‘s contact details in case if they wanted to know about the results of the study. 3. results in results, demographic variables of participants are discussed along with descriptive statistics of the main variables. the data was coded and analyzed through the statistical package for social sciences (spss, v. 22) to examine the relationship among pubg game addiction, social isolation and narcissistic tendencies, correlational analysis was used. table-1. frequency and percentages of demographic variable (n=101). table-2. descriptive statistics and alpha reliability coefficient, univariate normality of study variables. variables items n alpha m sd skew skew std.error kurt kurt std.error oga 2o 101 0.9 2.59 .92 .196 .240 -.523 .476 npi 16 101 0.7 1.63 .21 -.112 .240 -.795 .476 si 15 101 0.7 2.99 .29 -.578 .240 -.620 .476 variables frequency % gender male 81 80.2 female 20 19.8 approximately time spent on playing 1-6 hours 90 89.1 7-12 hours 5 5.0 13-18 hours 3 3.0 19-24 hours 3 3.0 http://www.surveycircle.com/ http://www.reddit.com/r/samplesize asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 166-172 170 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group mean, standard deviation, skewness and cronbach‘s alpha reliability coefficient has been reported in table 2. skewness shows the normal distribution of the data. in the light of above mentioned scales the alpha reliabilities of all scales are excellent. the value of mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis indicated that the data is normally distributed. table-3. relationship between online game addiction, narcissistic tendencies and social isolation. online game addiction narcissistic tendencies social isolation online game addiction pearson correlation 1 -.318** -.257** sig. (2-tailed) .001 .010 n 101 101 101 pearson correlation -.318** 1 .236* narcissistic tendencies sig. (2-tailed) .001 .018 n 101 101 101 pearson correlation -.257** .236* 1 social isolation sig. (2-tailed) .010 .018 n 101 101 101 note: **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). the coefficient pearson correlation shows the negative relationship between online game addiction, narcissistic tendencies and social isolation. the sig value of scales is below the standard value of .05 which indicates there is significant relationship which is negative between predictor and criterion. 4. discussion this study primarily focused on exploring the relationship of online game addiction of participant‘s psychological characteristics such as narcissistic personality traits and attributes of social isolation in adolescents and young adults. one of the misconceptions surrounding online game playing is that, the games appeal only to children and adolescents, this belief has been proven quite wrong as one of the most globally popular games of today‘s time, pubg has fully shaken the idea by indulging gamers of all ages into its realm. the results of this study suggested that, there is a significant negative relationship between online gaming addiction and psychological characteristics of narcissistic personality traits and social isolation, which has been measured by the significant value of scales which is below the standard value of .05. this means that players who play online games will have good social and interpersonal skills will others. also, the results show that an excellent reliability has been yielded from the questionnaires used in this study. considering the sample‘s age range, 13 to 30 years, it can be justified that most of the participants were either school going, university students or have been already working in their professional life so while observing table 1, it can be seen that the average time spent on playing pubg in a day by majority of participants was reported to be 6 hours to 7 hours. hence, it can be said that these participants might have certain responsibilities to fulfil rather than getting involved in online gaming. furthermore, the discrepancy of the supporting relationship shown in the results of previous researches which are quoted in the literature review section above might be because pakistan follows a collectivist culture. in another study by memon, mahar, dhomeja, and pirzado (2015), factors related to pakistani‘s living priorities and attributes were discussed. it also mentioned that most individuals falling between the ages 13-30 years either live with their caretakers and guardians, or are married. they may also face strict work environment if they are working which might ultimately play a vital role in having a specified routine of spending less time on online games. another factor pertaining to participants and their caretakers, guardians or other authorities present at their academic or professional environment is that, they might be taking decisions for these participants and these participants might also be directed to follow a proper routine and work according to their priorities based on social norms. the age range and the average number of hours spent on playing pubg by majority of the participants may also justify that these participants might be able to manage their personal and professional life, as they have been giving 6-7 hours that might be their actual leisure time in which they can do anything that interests them but they have chosen to play pubg. in another study conducted on gamers, showed that participants spent an average of 6.3 hours per week playing video games (allahverdipour et al., 2010). this indicates that many individuals in today‘s fast paced era, are able to sustain and control their wants and emotions in order to meet the needs as suggested by abraham m, psychosocial variables that could possibly effect the results. maslow‘s hierarchy of needs and wants, which discusses about transcending to next level of needs only when the basic needs are met (fallatah & syed, 2018). since pakistan is a developing country, where due to limited resources, individuals might get opportunities that require more of their time and opportunities for fulfilling their household responsibilities so that they are able to meet societal norms and pressures, these individuals tend to be more focused on meeting their basic needs while avoid getting into crises situations, this factor is very important to consider the pakistani living standard where online gaming might be a secondary need for many individuals which justifies the number of participants found for this study (memon et al., 2015). the inclusion criteria of this study was to have pubg gamers to fill the questionnaires, the focus was to have only pakistani population to fill the survey so that a true relationship between online gaming and the other two variables can be established so that further research can be done in the future to address the issues related to it, but during the course of conducting the survey online it was found that many people living in pakistan did not have any idea about pubg, the responses were recorded in the ―others‖ section where they reported that according to them they have never even heard the name of this game thus those responses were discarded from the study as they did not fulfil the inclusion criteria of pubg players only. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 166-172 171 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group according to weinstein and weizman (2012), online video games can be rewarding for players as online gaming activates dopaminergic neurotransmitters in the players‘ brain‘s reward circuit which may influence their excitatory synapses, resulting in happy and congenial behavior with others. this may also mean that having fresh and pleasing mood can boost their brain‘s smartness which might be helping them manage their schedules for leisure and work related activities. this can be one of the reasons why negative relationship was established between the variables. another aspect of the literature provided by cole and griffiths (2007) supported the findings of this study as according to them social interactions are highly established in such online games, where people play the game in a group online and create chat rooms to discuss strategies for winning the game and later practice when they are involved on any missions altogether as a group to fight the enemies (mission is defined as any important duty assigned to anyone). in a game like pubg, people play and interact with each other on chat or even on voice chat, they may talk about their item skins, form alliances or think or talk about strategies on how to reach the top 5 or top 10. after which it becomes a survival of the fittest among the friends or alliances, because they help each other in improving their odds against the other competitors but it does not mean that one lucky player would not win the whole ―battle royale‖ without even attacking anyone because at the end every player strives for winning (lin, 2018). this game is as adventurous as it sounds, and increases game plans and strategic discussions among friends and other regular players who get to know each other online as they play the game and later may decide to meet in person if they want. the players also get involved in discussions related to their winning streaks and also seek tips from their peers present in their daily life thus establishing good interpersonal skills which also reduces any feelings of ego or pride (xu, 2018). in our study, most of the respondents were categorized as having good social bonds and also open personality while sparing a balanced and calculated amount of time on playing pubg, as for them it was more of a leisure activity that is supposed to be done in their spare time rather than played as an addiction. moreover, further studies are needed so that other potential relationships can be examined to address online gaming and other health outcomes. 5. conclusion the results from this study suggest that online game addiction and gamer‘s psychological characteristics pertaining to social isolation and narcissistic tendencies have a negative relationship, which suggests that playing online games like pubg can boost social interactions and establish good interpersonal skills among peers. 6. implications this paper carries implications for families, friends, teachers and therapists of the online gamers, who may use the findings to understand some of the positive aspects of playing online games. parents of these gamers can be told to limit the game playing time rather than totally omitting it from their routine as games can help individuals in establishing critical thinking. government policies can be divided to control the usage of games in a way that addictive patterns are not exhibited for example levels of the games can be limited to control the addictive continuous play. psychologists and healthcare professionals need to spread awareness about games and their effects among the society. 7. limitations and recommendations the results of the study show a strong relationship between the two variables. for future researches on pubg, a greater sample size would show more significant results. furthermore, to find the impact of any specific game, an intervention based study can be designed. many participants who were excluded from the study, reported through emails that the questionnaires used in the study were lengthy and they discontinued it due to boredom. hence, a precise questionnaire can help researchers to record more responses from the gamers. in this study, pubg was researched with narcissism and social isolation. for future researches, pubg and other online games can also be studied with other personality traits. also that, pubg is a violent video game, so longitudinal studies can be designed to see its effect on gamers in the long run. moreover, studies can be 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(2017). measures of social isolation. social indicators research, 131(1), 367-391.available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1252-2. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 2, no. 1, 25-43, 2015 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms * corresponding author 25 'life beyond the walls of my hometown': social safety networks as a coping strategy for northern migrants in accra haruna abdallah imam 1* --hardy tamimu 2 1 formerly of the institute of african studies, university of ghana, ghana 2 headteacher, kokomlemle 1 basic school, accra, ghana abstract this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 26 2. methodology......................................................................................................................................................................... 26 3. literature review ................................................................................................................................................................ 27 4. discussion of findings ......................................................................................................................................................... 31 5. sources of support ............................................................................................................................................................... 36 6. concluding remarks ........................................................................................................................................................... 41 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 42 there is a persistent belief among northern youth that urban centers, particularly accra, offer better opportunities for them to improve their lives. these opportunities therefore serve as incentives for them to migrate in large numbers to accra. however, these migrants are confronted with difficult conditions such as lack of suitable accommodation, lack of regular incomes, high occupational risks, poor remuneration for their services, poor health care, reproductive health problems, and harassment from city authorities among others. given their high levels of vulnerability within the urban environment, the young migrants, both at the individual and group levels, adopt diverse coping strategies that serve as social safety nets to soften the impact of the harsh socio-economic conditions they encounter in the city. these include accommodation arrangements, job seeking strategies, income management and savings strategies, sources of food and eating habits, health seeking behaviours, disaster management and institutional support. using mixed methods, this paper explores these social safety nets, and examines the extent to which they have helped improve the well-being of northern migrants in sodom and gomorrah. keywords: migration, migrants, kayayei, safety nets, accra, sodom, gomorrah. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 26 1. introduction migrations have taken place since the beginning of human civilization. annually, millions of people around the world, especially from developing countries, leave their usual place of residence to seek better employment opportunities and livelihoods in other countries (bhattarai, 2005). migrations are not only international, but also occur within countries, often from rural to urban areas, though in some countries, there are also movements from rural areas to other better-endowed rural areas. indeed in several developing countries, urban areas have witnessed higher growth rates than that of the general population because of massive migration from rural areas. between 1950 and 2000, the world‟s urban population grew from 30% to 47%, and it is expected to reach 60% by 2030 (united nations population fund, 2001). the proportion of africans living in urban areas increased from 15% in 1950 to 37% in 2000; by the year 2030, this is expected to rise to 53% (united nations population fund, 2001). urban growth in africa is estimated at about 6% a year, twice as much as in latin america and asia (anarfi and ahiadeke, 2006). historically, migration in africa, south and southeast asia has been male dominated (sharpe, 2001). a prevailing misconception has been that men migrate and women do not, making women migrants often invisible, or assumed to be the economic dependents of spouses (jolly and reeves, 2005). but more and more women are migrating for work now and not just accompanying spouses. female migration has increased because of a greater demand for female labour in certain services and also because of growing social acceptance of women‟s economic independence and mobility (deshingkar, 2004). today women account for approximately half of all global migrants (sharpe, 2001). africa is undoubtedly a continent of considerable migration (hance, 1970). over the generations, various forms of population movements occurred in response to demographic, economic, political and related factors; population pressure, environmental disasters, and poor economic conditions (aina, 1995; manuh, 2005). before colonial rule in africa, there were no strict political boundaries separating one ethnic group from the other. indigenous inhabitants of the region are known to have migrated in large groups, fairly extensively over wide areas of land in search of favorable conditions for development of their social, economic and political welfare (addo, 1974). movement connected with trade and evangelism also featured during this early period (addo, 1974). however, contact with europeans created new patterns of movements, first through the slave trade, and later through colonization, within the sub region and with the rest of the world (boahen, 1985). colonial rule paved the way for relative peace and political stability, and movements associated with warfare reduced. the development of the export sector, with emphasis on the urban areas and exploitation of the rural areas, resulted in considerable inequality in both sectors. the stage was therefore set for a new framework for migration, deriving from the labour requirements for plantations and later the administrative apparatus associated with colonialism (amin, 1974). there was forced migration through forced labour, taxes and compulsory cultivation, and in time, forced recruitment gave way to free migration of individual and families in search of better conditions (mabugunje, 1972). during the post-colonial period, urban-biased development strategies, the introduction of free primary education and higher population growth rates reinforced the volume, intensity and determinants of migration mainly towards the capital cities, and other urban areas (adepoju, 1990). after independence, nationalist governments attempted to deal with the colonial legacy of underdevelopment by investing heavily in industry, commerce, administration and most especially the establishment of post primary schools and social amenities in the cities. however the continued export-oriented development path and the concentration of investment in a few cities became a major cause of regional population movements and subsequent inequality in development, income, employment and living conditions (aina, 1995). according to osei (1996), cities of most african countries are still the centers of modernization, in addition to serving as the intellectual and social capital, the seat of government and the main centres of political activity. they are also the major transport and market centers because of their populations and physical infrastructure. the rapid social change associated with the modernization of these cities has caused a mass exodus of population from rural areas to urban areas. thus a large proportion of the urban population is made up of migrants from the rural countryside. in ghana, urban population growth has outstripped the overall population growth rate. from 32% in 1984, the population living in urban areas rose to almost 44% in 2000, representing an inter-censual growth rate of 4.6% as against an overall national growth rate of 2.7% (ghana statistical service, 2002). at this rate of growth, the urban population is expected to double by 2020 (ghana statistical service, 2002). there is a growing concentration of population in the three major cities of accra-tema, kumasi, and sekondi-takoradi, and over one-third of all urban residents in ghana live in these three cities (ghana statistical service, 2003; anarfi and ahiadeke, 2006). many of the young urban migrants face substantial challenges in obtaining employment and finding accommodation, while their living conditions often expose them to severe health risks. however, these risks are considerably mitigated through access to networks that function as informal insurance mechanisms (boyd, 1989). as it's well known, migrants generally create social networks in their settling-in process. these social networks provide them with valuable opportunities in such areas as jobs and housing, and in learning to survive beyond the walls of their hometowns. using mixed methods, this paper explores these social safety nets and examines the extent to which they have helped improve the well-being of the migrants in the accra metropolis. the paper identified family relations, friendship, community and occupational associations as some of the major key components of the social safety networks that help to minimize the vulnerability of the migrants in their process of integration. 2. methodology data for this study was obtained through quantitative and qualitative methods. multiple data collection devices including direct observation, in-depth interviews and focused group discussions were used in the field so as to ensure reliability. relevant documents were also consulted for information on the study. young migrants from the northern asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 27 region between the ages of 10 and 25 who either migrated individually or in the company of others to the accra metropolis formed the target for this study. 2.1. sampling techniques a combination of sampling techniques was used to select respondents for the data collection. a simple random sampling approach was adopted to locate young northern migrants whilst purposeful sampling technique was used to get key informants such as chiefs and other opinion leaders. purposive sampling was also employed to group the migrants for the focused group discussions. 2.2. data collection methods structured questionnaires were administered to a sample of 50 young migrants aged between 10-25 years, including both males and females. the sample consisted of 21 males and 29 females. this method proved efficient because many respondents were interviewed within a short span of time. however, there were some difficulties in getting respondents to answer questions due to lack of time as many of them were busily going about their daily activities. therefore, the respondents were visited at their own convenience. in addition, data was collected using in-depth interviews. key informants such as leaders of associations, local chiefs as well as opinion leaders like the assemblyman, imams and pastors were interviewed. officials of relevant state agencies like the ministry of women and children‟s affairs, non governmental organizations and other benevolent organizations that provided support to the migrants were also interviewed. much of the interviewing was done during the day. this method offered flexibility to both the interviewer and the respondent. a focusd group discussion (fgd) guide was also used to obtain information from various youth groups. using this guide, a total of five group discussion sessions were conducted, with groups consisting of about 6 to 10 migrants each. three group discussions were conducted in sodom and gomorrah, and one each in cmb, and okaishie market. for each youth category, group discussants were constituted on the basis of gender while a third mixed group represented both genders. the fgd method provided the researcher an insight into the real life situation of the migrants. furthermore, the fgd required far less time than the individual interviews for the same number of participants. it also provided an opportunity for the participants to correct those who did not provide accurate information. however, controlling the groups was more difficult than in the one-on-one interviews. to avoid wasting much time on issues not considered relevant for the purpose of the study, discussions were kept on track while dominant personalities were not permitted to overwhelm other participants. another method adopted to gather information included observations, where migrants socio-economic lifestyle was critically observe. this was considered non-intrusive as respondents could be observed as they went about their daily activities. also the method allows the researchers access into the daily life of the subjects (vlassoff, 1994). in all the methods mentioned above, information gathered was carefully written in a field notebook and respondents were asked to provide information on their coping strategies and other support systems employed to address the hardships that confronted them. the information obtained was analysed using qualitative and quantitative techniques. the data was coded and transformed into themes and categorical labels. materials were sorted by these categories, identifying patterns, relationships and commonalities or disparities. the sorted materials were also examined to isolate meaningful patterns and processes. identified patterns were considered in the light of previous research and theories and then a small set of generalization was established. 3. literature review many studies have been undertaken on migration in ghana, especially from the northern regions to southern ghana. however, many of the studies have tended to focus on remittances, the contributions of migrants to their communities of origin through knowledge transfer and other forms of investment, issues of undocumented migration, and discrimination against migrants (awumbila et al., 2009). missing in much of the debate has been the sociocultural dimensions including the social context within which the migrants live, the complex dynamics of social relationships among migrants, as well as their home and host societies (awumbila et al., 2009). in the light of these gaps, the literature review focuses on the challenges and the accompanying coping strategies or social safety networks of young migrants in urban areas. in a study of migration and development in uganda, cheney (2004) observed that labour migration was prevalent in pre-independent uganda and followed a similar pattern to that of other african countries at the time. she is of the opinion that governments increased villagers‟ dependence on money and wage labour by imposing huge taxes, and families needed money to purchase basic household goods. however, the macro-economic environment created by post independent governments particularly in ghana promoted rural urban-migration. through urban biased policies, the terms of trade were turned against agriculture and the rural areas, contributing to wide urban differentials. urban biased policies which include over valued exchange rates, industrial protection and cheap food policies, discriminated against agriculture in particular and rural areas in general. these policies suppressed farm prices and rural incomes encouraging a shift of labour out of agricultural production and a subsequent increase in rural urban migration (anarfi et al., 2003). but macro economic sector specific policy reforms initiated in 1983 contributed to improving the domestic terms of trade in favour of the rural sector thereby encouraging urban-rural migration (anarfi et al., 2003) it has been established by many researchers that economic motives tend to be the principal factor influencing migration (addo, 1974; findley, 1977; hashim, 2005). for instance, gugler and flanagan (1978) are of the opinion that there is an imbalance in economic opportunities between the urban and rural sectors in west africa and this has promoted rural to urban migration. on related issues, aiken (1981) studied squatters in the cheras roads flats of kuala lumpur and concluded that squatters of both rural and urban areas move to the capital in search of employment, high incomes and better prospects for their children. his study revealed that 45% of the migrants to the city were unemployed in their place asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 28 of origin, 20% migrated because of low income in their home area and the rest either followed their parents to the city or moved there for further education. in the opinion of awumbila et al. (2009) migration has become an important livelihood and coping strategy for individuals and families and is one of the surest means of acquiring skills and improving the living standards of both the skilled the unskilled labour. in the northern ghanaian context, van der geest (2008) in a study of north–south migration in ghana indicated that poverty and financial problems were generally the most important reasons for people to migrate. migrants made specific reference to scarcity of fertile land, low crop yield and/or food security problems in the north as being reasons for migrating. kwankye et al. (2009) in their recent study of independent north-south child migration in ghana found that the perception of greater availability of socio-economic opportunities in the southern regions has over time sustained continues stream of migration from north to south. contrary to the view that young people migrate for economic reasons, kielland and sanogo (2002), in a study of labour migration in burkina faso, cautioned that poverty should not be seen as the single most important cause of youth migration. they argued that while poverty is the most cited reason parents give for sending their children abroad, by comparing the households of child migrants with those who stayed, it was found that poverty was a much weaker factor than anticipated. rather, they emphasized that there is a culture of migration in rural burkina faso, where children are thought to be mature and having independence when they migrate from home to neighbouring towns or even across towns or the border to la cote d‟ ivoire (see also quartey and yambilla (2009)) although economic factors dominate the north-south migration in ghana, social factors like family conflict, ethnic conflict, witchcraft, education, and the desire to be independent have also been identified as some of the reasons for the migration of the northern youth to other cities and towns outside the region (van der geest, 2008; kwankye et al., 2009). 3.1. major challenges of migrants in the city the quest for accommodation is a basic „predisposing cultural habit‟ of enfolding oneself in an urban dwelling (pellow, 1988). streams of migrants in urban areas, given the shortage in accommodation, resort to living in slums and squatter settlements both within the city and at its periphery, often in extremely hazardous conditions (mumonge, 1980). alhassan et al. (2004) studied northern migrants in accra and stated that housing shortages forced these migrants to put up makeshift rooms made of waste material with an average of ten people in a room, usually from the same village. however, a recent study by awumbila (2007) has shown that there has been some improvement in the housing condition of the northern migrants in accra due to the interventions of some non governmental organizations. in a study of a migrant community in accra, known as sabon zongo, pellow (1988) observed that in spite of its deplorable conditions, space in sabon zongo is at a terrific premium as many people clamour to live there due to their poor economic conditions. she notes further that the area is concentrated with the lowest and the most casually employed individuals who provide cheap labour but do not get any good investment in the form of housing. the united nations human settlement programme (2003) characterized squatter settlement by these attributes: lack of basic services, substandard housing or illegal building structures, overcrowding and high density, unhealthy living conditions and hazardous locations, poverty, social exclusion and minimum settlement size. the report further stated that these attributes are linked to ill-health. anarfi and ahiadeke (2006) showed a reflection of this phenomenon in a research carried out in some communities in accra. they studied four urban slums which included nima, mamobi, shukura and sodomgomorrah. they observed that there is worsening access to adequate shelter and security, overcrowding as well as growing vulnerability to environmental health problems and natural disasters in these areas. they identified malaria and cholera as the most prevalent diseases in these four urban slums. these two diseases constituted 88% of all reported health problems in nima and mamobi, and 62% in sodom-gomorrah and shukura. sexually transmitted infections also ranked high in the four communities while diseases such as diarrhoea, coughs, skin, ear, and throat infections were quite common. in terms of causes of these diseases, the report identified environmental sanitation, especially „choked and stinking‟ gutters and drains as the main cause of the health problems. the survey however, failed to point out the environmental safety nets put in place by the people to deal with their numerous health problems. with regard to migrants reproductive health, zheng et al. (2001) in their study of sexual behavior and contraceptive use among unmarried, young women migrant workers in five cities in china found that some female migrant workers were sexually active and living with their boyfriends. they indicated that most of the young girls lacked basic information about reproduction and contraceptives. they noted that there were social, psychological and economic barriers to accessing these services, so induced abortion were the outcome of unprotected premarital sex. tanle (2003) also made a similar observation among migrant adolescent women from the upper west region to accra and kumasi. she finds that young migrants aged between 15 and 24 and mostly illiterates engaged in unprotected sex with different sexual partners. in his study of street youth in accra, anarfi (1997) observed that 52% of males and 54% of the females had ever had sex but only 29% of those had regular sexual partners. adomako et al. (2007) in their study of sexual exploitation of children on the streets of accra found that financial hardship, lack of education among migrants such as kayayei from northern ghana, lack of parental support, unavailability of jobs and lack of accommodation would seem to be predisposing factors. they indicated that most of the respondents pass the night in verandas of shops and sheds and were more likely to be subjected to abuse by night watchmen and other people active at night. notwithstanding the difficulties, some scholars have argued that the young migrants make a positive contribution to society through the services they provide (kwankye et al., 2007), and serve as an informal means of transporting goods from the market to lorry parks or homes. in return for these services, the porters receive money from their clients which they use to cater for themselves and in some cases, also send some home to support their families (apt asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 29 van ham et al., 1992). the head porterage is a form of informal sector employment which provides income for the porters (kwankye et al., 2007). 3.2. migrants’ coping strategies/ social safety networks the harsh living conditions in the city have compelled young migrants to adopt a variety of social safety networks and coping strategies to minimize the impact of the hardships that confront them. this includes support systems provided by private agencies like non-governmental organizations and the state. for some scholars, migrants generally create social safety networks in their settling process to provide them with valuable resources in their new destination (colman, 1988; lopez et al., 2001). awumbila et al. (2009) found that in migration studies, social capital and social safety networks has been applied at three stages. firstly, social networks have been applied at the stage of migration decision process. here the applicant seeks to emphasize access to information networks which ease the decision process. the basic question at this stage probes how social safety networks influence the migration decision making process through access to information. the second level of application of social safety network theory in migration studies is at the movement stage of the migration process. this relates to the influence of social networks in the actual movement. the third level in the application of social networks theory in migration is at the stage of migrants‟ adjustment process in their new destinations. at this stage, social safety networks are resorted to because of the risk and vulnerabilities such migrants experience and the network that are generated in response to these risks and vulnerabilities. they observed further that social networks are manifested in the form of kinship ties, friendships, voluntary associations, and institutions that support migrants to integrate in to the host society 3.3. migrants’ kinsfolk/socio-cultural networks a migrant‟s kinsfolk are an important resource for obtaining accommodation and urban jobs in the city (graves and theodore, 1974). peil (1972) in a study of factory workers in ghana found that between 8% and 13% of factory workers interviewed in accra, kumasi and secondi-takoradi arrived in town knowing no one. about two thirds of them stayed with kinsfolk upon arrival. it must be noted, however, that with the passage of time these statistics can certainly not be relied upon because many changes have occurred. as current evidence reveals, scores of migrants with children, some of whom are under a year old, pass the night on hard paved walkways and passenger sheds at lorry stations. 1 this suggests that most migrants in recent times do not necessarily rely on their kinsfolk for accommodation upon arrival in the city. aina (1995) noted that kinsfolk are highly valuable in the first period of settling down in town. he also added however, that the standards of hospitality and clan solidarity are undergoing changes in response to availability in urban life which is sometimes individualistic. agarwal (1994) studied female porters popularly known as „kayayei‟ in accra and revealed that a large proportion of the migrants receive help from relatives and fellow villagers when they reach the city. she added that the mechanisms by which some of the porters came to be working in accra was through family connections. she further explained that an older sister, cousin, hometown acquaintances or distant relative was involved in arranging accommodation, and securing work for the newly arrived migrant. 3.3.1. voluntary associations a voluntary association is by character, a body of persons associated for a common purpose. in such an association, membership is based on one‟s own free will without any external compulsion (assimen, 1999). graves and theodore (1974) stated that mutual aid societies and voluntary associations were a highly flexible adaptive strategy employed by migrant communities throughout the world. he stated further that such associations can be formed on the basis of kinship, place of origin, ethnicity or occupation in the cities. he listed various types of such associations which included ethnic associations, village or home town associations and recreational groups, all of which served as bridges for the newly arrived migrant. they provided fraternity, a sense of identity, practical training, financial protection, religious guidance and traditional social control. many of these voluntary associations can still be found in urban centers of africa contributing to the welfare of migrants. however, their services now extend beyond the boundaries of its membership to cover people who are even not members of such associations assimen (1999). acquah (1972) observed that, the main purpose of the voluntary association was to provide support for its members, including taking care of the sick, and provision of accommodation for its members. she noted further that these associations provided avenues through which news about contemporary issues are circulated. in the study of the role of ghanaian immigrant associations in toronto, owusu (2000) observes that voluntary associations promote unity and social interaction among migrant members. they serve many important social and economic purposes, including assisting their members to find jobs and housing particularly new migrants. this assistance may include providing information about jobs that members have learnt through informal networks and contacts, and informing newcomers about employment opportunities in their work places. he states further that the associations often offer direct financial assistance in the form of „soft loans‟ to members, especially newcomers who may be experiencing financial difficulties. in addition, individual members of the associations make voluntary monetary donation to bereaved members, normally during a funeral ceremony. he categorized immigrant associations in three main groups as follows: township association, ethnic associations, and national associations. the psychological effects of being a member and the reciprocal gift and support systems inherent in the relations are beneficial to the people. however, people generally rely on family members and interpersonal social networks for certain activities, particularly marriage, naming, and funeral ceremonies. 1 naa lamiley and daabu (2007). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 30 3.3.2. mutual benefit societies acquah (1972) stated that migrants in urban cities particularly accra had resorted to the formation of mutual benefit societies as a strong economic tool to cushion their unreliable source of income. these societies serve as a source of security for migrants living under unstable economic conditions. she indicated that these societies can be put into different categories, some of which include, rotating credit and contribution to a common fund for the mutual benefit of all. she stated that the various forms of assistance given by these societies include provision of capital for trading, and giving support to members who are robbed or involved in court cases. migrants who are ready to go back to their places of origin obtained funds especially from the rotating credit to buy their personal belongings and use some as capital in their home village. adepoju (1990) also added that these societies in addition provide resources for individuals during periods of personal crisis in the urban centers. in the same way, agarwal (1994) observed that there are voluntary associations formed by migrants in urban centers for the purpose of helping their members to save money or to promote their mutual benefit. these societies help their members to save, provide a means of obtaining credit and serves as a form of insurance. he stated that the best known kind of the credit institution for migrants in the cities is esusu (rotating credit), apparently of yoruba origin, which is found all over west africa under slightly different names, for instance, asusu in freetown, susu in kumasi and ozuzu in southeastern nigeria. in recent times, esusu has further undergone some modifications in african cities with specified informal financial agents called susu collectors, who offer opportunity for low income earners to save and also give credit as well. schindler (2007) studied how market-based small scale business women (traders) in tamale used susu collectors as a strategy to minimize risk and to facilitate the reconstruction of their business after experiencing a loss. he found that under this strategy, a susu collector visits his customer business location every day for a period of one month and collect a fixed amount of money. the daily contributions of a customer are recorded in a savings pass book. after 31 days the aggregate amount is paid out to the customer as a lump sum, while the susu collector keeps the first day‟s contribution as a fee for his service. they sometimes grant loans to their customers with a small interest. he finds that they appreciate the discipline to save forced on them by this strategy and also to buy larger consumer goods. they however admitted that saving with susu collectors may entail a risk for them, as they are not regulated by state authorities. 3.3.3. migrant leadership/ political safety nets another coping strategy of northern migrants in accra is the appointment of leaders among themselves. leadership is a very important tool for the survival of any organized human society. in the light of this, acquah (1972) studied accra migrants and observed that rural urban migrants in cluster settlements in accra chose to appoint their own leaders to whom they could look up to for leadership and to whom they could turn in time of need and for the settlement of disputes. she stated that every migrant ethnic group from northern ghana and beyond which has a large number of migrants in accra has its headman. 3.3.4. institutional support in a study of the management of slums and squatter settlements in nairobi, mumonge (1980) indicated that all efforts to evict squatter settlers in the city by urban authorities have always remained unsuccessful. faced with this situation many scholars and policy makers have now shifted position and are advocating policies of accommodation rather than continuing to exercise control with the view of forcing squatters out of the city. he indicated further that the government implemented an urban development scheme known as „siteandservice‟ as part of efforts to address the problem. under the „siteandservice‟ scheme, plots of land at the periphery of the city with access to water supply, roads and other social services were made available through low cost loans to encourage private development. the essential feature of the scheme is that those who succeeded in being allocated a plot were also offered a material loan which was generally sufficient to construct at least a two bed room house. aiken (1981) pointed out that to solve the squatter problem in kuala lumpur, the government pursued a number of policies: relocation in conventional lower income housing schemes, eviction without alternative housing compensation, upgrading of existing settlements through the provision of utilities such as electricity, pipe-borne water and drainage facilities. in the same vein, the government of ghana has decided to relocate the people of sodom and gomorrah to a place known as adjin kotoku, about 5 kilometers from amasaman. a loan agreement of about 10.4 million euros has so far been signed with a belgian bank to develop infrastructural facilities for the area. these include drainage, health centers, market, transportation terminal and a police station. 2 hurley (1990) observed that the government and non-governmental agencies can usefully work with informal associations especially migrants by promoting credit and savings schemes. the provision of credit is a direct and effective way of assisting income generating activities. he claims that it may be difficult to get loans from banks; therefore interveners can assist by acting as guarantors or setting up revolving loan funds as a way of making credit available for urban migrants. the principle of a revolving loan fund is where a sum of money is made available to a member of a group, and when he or she repays it, it is lent to another member. in their study of sexual exploitation of children on the streets of accra, ampofo and alhassan identified some interventions undertaken by some non-governmental organizations like the women development agency to assist young migrants. they indicated that young females were given short skills training in occupations such as hair dressing, sewing, tie-and-die making and catering services. they further indicated that successful trainees were given 2 http://www.ghanaweb.com/ghnahomepage/newsarchive/artikel.php?id=108056 accessed on 27/4/08 http://www.ghanaweb.com/ghnahomepage/newsarchive/artikel.php?id=108056 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 31 some incentives in the form of tools and a start-up capital with which they were expected to return to their places of permanent residence to make meaningful livelihood through the skills acquired. however, these migrants were not given the opportunity to try out their skills in the competitive urban environment they find themselves. as a result, many of the repatriated girls stayed in their respective villages just for a short period and then returned to the streets of accra to make a living. 4. discussion of findings 4.1. age profile of the migrants this section provides a general idea of the demographic characteristics of the survey sample. table 1 shows the age and sex of respondents in the study. table-1. age and sex of respondents age group(yrs) sex total male no. % female no. % no. % 10-14 2 10 5 18 7 14 15-19 6 29 7 24 13 26 20-24 8 38 14 48 22 44 25-30 5 23 3 10 8 16 total 21 100 29 100 50 100 source: field data. the ages of the respondents ranged between 10 to 30, with close to half of them (44%) falling within the range of 20-24 years, followed by 15-19 years (26%), 25-30 years, (16%), in that descending order with the least being 1014 years, (14%) as shown in table 1. on the whole, the sex distribution indicates a greater proportion of female than males, thus suggesting that more females are now involved in the north-south migration than males as indicated by awumbila (2007). also, the number of female migrants after ages 20-24 years started falling whilst those of males continued rising suggesting that more males tend to stay in the city than females after these ages. this might be attributed to the fact that females could be returning to their areas of origin to prepare for marriage as they grow older whilst the males stay on in the city. 4.2. status of shelter this section discusses the living condition or situation of migrants in the city. one of the biggest challenges for the young northern migrants is accommodation. most of these migrants, particularly the young girls, sleep in the frontage of shops, lorry parks, pavements, and market squares, with a large proportion of them living in surrounding slum settlements like cmb and sodom and gomorrah. when migrants were asked during the interview why they slept outside, most of them simply answered that they had no better alternative places to lodge. a significant proportion of the northern youth migrants at sodom and gomorrah dwell in make-shift structures made of wood, empty packing cases, scrap metal, and other waste materials. these rooms were not spacious enough to contain the „multitude‟ of inmates who are therefore compelled to live in close contiguity and jostle over each other with an average of about 15 to 18 people per room of about 4 by 5 metres in size. most of the rooms had leaking roofs and therefore offered no protection from the rain. males and females lodged in separate rooms with the females having the highest number of people in a room. some female participants in the focused group discussion admitted living together with their boyfriends, who often abused or exploited them. another female participant added that as a result of the lack of accommodation they were usually lured by men who promised them accommodation but abandoned them after exploiting them sexually. the structures were mostly owned by the males who then rented them out to their fellow migrants who paid an average of one ghana cedi each per week. many of the respondents complained of excessive heat in the rooms as a result of their numbers which compelled them to sleep outside in the night. some of the females were able to save enough money to acquire their own rooms. for instance, a 21 year old female migrant from yendi, in a focused group discussion revealed that she bought her structure from another young male migrant who was leaving for home. due to lack of security at their sleeping places, migrants are sometimes robbed of their savings or get injured by criminals. table-2. illustrates the sleeping places of the migrants. table-2. sleeping place at night place sex total male no. % female no. % no. % in front of shop 4 19 10 34 14 28 makeshift room 11 53 8 28 19 38 lorry park 4 19 8 28 12 24 workshop 2 9 1 3 3 6 home 2 7 2 4 total 21 100 29 100 50 100 source: field data it can be seen from the table that, generally, majority of the respondents sleep in makeshift rooms (38%), followed by the frontage of shops (28%), lorry park (24%) with those sleeping at home (4%) being the least. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 32 on the basis of sex, more males (53%) than females (28%) sleep in makeshift rooms, thus reflecting the fact that more of the males had the opportunity of acquiring lodgings than the females. furthermore, a greater number of the females (34%) than males (19%) sleep in the frontage of shops probably due to their inability to have access to a makeshift room. on the whole the proportion of females who sleep in the open (62%) are greater than that of the males (38%) which suggests that many females are at the mercy of the weather and susceptible to sexual harassments than the males. 4.3. unsanitary living conditions and associated health hazards many of the migrants who slept outside were exposed to the vagaries of the weather. in an interview with a 16 year old female migrant who slept with her friends at kokomba market, she complained they often did not sleep at all whenever it rained at night, since their sleeping places were always inundated with water. to elude the cold and the dampness of the weather they often wrapped their bodies with a thin layer of polythene. another female migrant pointed out that too much heat in their makeshift room forced them to sleep outside in the night, leaving them at the mercy of the elements of the weather and mosquitoes. though sodom and gomorrah had potable water and electricity, usually from illegal sources, the environmental and sanitation situation is better seen than described. there were no well constructed drains to absorb running water in the area. also, there were no sanitation facilities like waste disposal containers, and people therefore disposed of rubbish indiscriminately in their surroundings. they queued at public makeshift bath houses and toilets and paid between gh¢ 0.10 and gh¢ 0.20 to have their baths. these were sub-standard toilets that were made of wooden materials. a participant in one of the discussions lamented that one problem has been that poor persons with no jobs could not afford payment of some of the open pit latrines, and instead, hold it until night time and defecate into plastic bags. they then threw these into the street while others openly defecated into the korle lagoon. a substantial number of the migrants agreed in the discussions that the sanitation situation in the area is the cause of the serious health problems such as malaria, diarrhoea, worm infestation, skin infections, typhoid, and cholera. a key respondent indicated in an interview that most of the sicknesses found in the area are hygienic related. another key informant, a community leader with the title saha naa which means „lucky chief‟, lamented that the deplorable environmental state of the area was responsible for the high concentration of serious communicable diseases. table 3 describes the major health problems in sodom and gomorrah table-3. major health problems in sodom and gomorrah sickness type sex total male no. % female no. % no. % skin diseases 4 19 3 10 7 12 headache 9 43 12 41 21 46 fever/malaria 4 19 6 21 10 20 stomachache/diarrhea 2 10 5 17 7 14 stds 1 5 2 7 3 4 other 1 4 1 4 2 4 total 21 100 29 100 50 100 source: field data. it can be observed from table 3 that close to half of the respondents (46%) reported suffering from headache, followed by malaria (20%), stomachache (14%), skin disease (12%), sexual transmitted diseases (4%) in that descending order. the high prevalence of headache with the migrants could be attributed to lack of rest among the migrants. again, with the exception of skin diseases, in all the categories of sickness female respondents outnumber the male respondents. this implied that the females were more liable to sicknesses than the males. the study confirmed the findings in earlier studies by ankrah (1995) that squatter settlements in ghana exhibit a high rate of disease outbreaks due to unsanitary conditions and lack of basic health-care. 4.4. major disasters in sodom and gomorrah this section identifies and discusses the major disasters encountered by the northern migrants in the study area. the migrants like most other slum dwellers around the world struggle with both man-made and natural disasters such as fire outbreaks, flooding and outbreak of epidemics. according to the migrants, the frequent occurrence of these disasters poses a great threat to their lives and properties at sodom and gomorrah. most of the respondents rated fire outbreaks as the leading and the most frequent occurring disaster in the area which causes destruction to life and property. it was a unanimous agreement among many respondents in the discussion that fire outbreak has now become a monthly affair in sodom and gomorrah and whenever it occurs it spreads widely to other parts given the fact that the whole community is made up of wooden structures which facilitates the spread of the fire. it was also noted by many in the discussion that it has become extremely difficult to put out fire in the area due to lack of accessible routes to fire scenes. when asked to enumerate the kind of havoc that the fire wreaks on them, a number of the migrants replied that the items that were usually destroyed in fire outbreaks included cash, jewelry, clothing, shoes, and electronic appliances such as television sets, video decks, tape recorders and physical structures. in the words of a 21 year old migrant from nakpayili in the northern region of ghana, „there are frequent fire outbreaks in the area and, whenever that happens, we lose everything and start all over again‟. another migrant whose personal belongings and structure were burnt in the last fire outbreak, said he has had enough from the place and was ready to go to his home town, bimbila, to start a new life. “a „malam‟ friend of mine who was believed to be sleeping in his room was burnt beyond recognition when the fire swept through it”, he concluded. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 33 another serious challenge that confronted the young northern migrants in sodom and gomorrah was the annual outbreak of cholera. according to most of the respondents, though there could be other epidemics like flu, small pox, and yellow fever, cholera was believed to be the single largest killer in the area whenever there is an outbreak. according to a 24 year old key informant who had lived in the community for close to seven years, they experienced an average of about four to five deaths daily when cholera broke out in the area in 2006. they explained that though cholera kills so fast, it does not occur as frequently as other epidemics but anytime there is an outbreak, many lives are lost. table 4 describes the major disasters in sodom and gomorrah. table-4. major disasters encountered by northern migrants in sodom and gomorrah disaster type sex total male no. % female no. % no. % fire outbreak 11 52 17 56 28 56 flooding 3 14 8 28 11 22 epidermics 6 29 3 12 9 18 other 1 5 1 4 2 4 total 21 100 29 100 50 100 source: field data. table 4 illustrates the main disasters confronted by the northern migrants in sodom and gomorrah. from the table (4) more than half of the respondents reported fire (56%) as the leading disaster in the area followed by flooding (22%), epidermics (18%) in that descending order. it must also be noted that the proportion of fire (56%) is far greater than that of epidemics (18%) though some of the migrants agreed that epidemics such as cholera claims many lives whenever there is an outbreak. this is because the fires occur more frequently in the area and outbreaks were therefore remembered quickly by the migrants whilst epidemics sometimes occurred once within a year. the choice of fire as a major threat could be attributed to the fact that the whole area is made up of mainly wooden structures which facilitates the spread of fire anytime there is an outbreak. secondly, the electricity supplies to these structures are from illegal sources; the structures were improperly wired with some of the cables buried underground. most of the migrants acknowledged in the interviews that the improper electrification of the area could also be the cause of their woes. it must be noted, that, the threat of the fire in the area could also explain why concrete buildings are now springing up in the area in recent times. 4.5. the hunt for employment once in the city the young migrants have difficulty finding work in the formal sector due to their low level of education and lack of skills for the formal sector. in their quest to make a living, they felt they had no option but to drift in their large numbers to work in the informal sector. many of them, particularly the young girls, were working as porters, popularly known in ghanaian linguistic trope as kayayei, in the central business district of accra. some were working as apprentices with food sellers; others worked as shopkeepers while others served domestic urgencies (i.e. household chores). there were also male porters who hired trolleys to carry goods from one point to another for a negotiated fee. however, there were a few of the young migrants who were also engaged in petty trading and street hawking. some of the young girls were found to be hawking with products like fruits, bagged water (pure water), plastic materials such as cups and bowls while the boys were involved in the sale of items like foodstuffs, household items, second-hand clothing etc. there were also a few others involved in apprenticeship to become hairdressers, tailors, and welders. some of them use the proceeds from their jobs to support their families back home. majority of the young male migrants interviewed were scrap dealers, track-pushers and porters. there were a few others who worked in construction firms as labourers. it was also revealed in the study that some of the young girls were involved in prostitution to meet their daily needs. a key informant in an interview actually pointed to a particular makeshift structure in the area where prostitution takes place at night. the female porters who formed the majority of these young migrants often carry head pans, relying solely on their own human energy to cart foodstuff for shoppers. they were regularly seen carrying large loads on their heads in the various market places in accra. the charges for the loads were determined by the weight and distance which ranged between gh¢0.30 to gh¢1.50p. majority of the girls were working at old fadama, kokomba market, cmb, avenor, tudu, and agbogloshie areas. a number of the respondents said they normally wake up as early as 4 am to roam the markets and the lorry parks to get loads to carry. during the discussions, most of the porters complained that in recent times it is no longer easy to get loads to carry. one participant lamented that these days they even scramble for the load in the market. „sometimes one can roam the whole market without getting load to carry‟ another added. the participants generally attributed their current situation to the presence of the large numbers of porters in the market lately. on the other hand, the males who were engaged in construction work also complained about a lack of jobs especially during the rainy season. some of them said in the discussion that they faced a lot of difficulties in securing jobs with the big construction companies unless one becomes a beneficiary of favoritism. the scrap dealers also added that scraps are not as readily available as in the past so they travel outside accra to get scraps. as presented in table 5 below, majority of the respondents were porters (32%) followed by petty traders (26%), scrap dealers (20%), shop attendants (14%) with domestic work being the least constituting (6%). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 34 table-5. the occupations of the northern migrants in the city type of work sex total male no. % female no. % no. % porters 5 24 11 38 16 32 petty trading 5 24 8 28 13 26 domestic work 3 10 3 6 scrap dealer 9 42 1 3 10 20 shop attendant 1 5 6 21 7 14 construction 1 5 1 2 total 21 100 29 100 50 100 source: field data. the analysis by sex also shows that more females (38%) than males (24%) found work as porters. this could be attributed to the way in which the females conveniently enter the business by relying solely on their own physical energy in transporting bulky loads. their male counterparts on the other hand had to hire or acquire trolleys before engaging in the business. these findings corroborate agarwal (1994) study where she indicates that portering is primarily a female activity. furthermore, there were an overwhelming proportion of males (42%) than females (3%) involved in scrap dealings which suggests that the scrap business is the preserve of men. also, scrap business is an onerous physical activity which involves the tedium of traveling over long distances across the city and this perhaps explains why many of the females could not engage in it. on the whole, most of the jobs the respondents reported they were doing were menial work which is characterized by low remuneration, little rest and hard work. in spite of their difficulties many of the migrants were able to earn enough income to support their basic needs as well as their families back home. for most of them, despite the challenges they face it is better than staying in their respective villages where there is little or no chance at all for employment of any sort. 4.6. occupational risks this section outlines and discusses the risks associated with the migrants‟ work in the city. interactions with both male and female migrants revealed that the work they do constitutes a major source of health risk. many of the young girls mentioned problems associated with the heavy loads they carry daily. first of all, they believed that they were offered insignificant rewards for their services. the price for each single load is a bargaining game between the customer and the porter, and in this haggling, the girls complained they frequently suffer the use of insulting language on them by their clients who try to push the rate down. the prices offered by customers sometimes do not commensurate with the weight of the loads and the energy expended in carrying them. sometimes some people refuse to pay the agreed sum of money but the female porter would have no choice but to accept the meager amount thrown at her. young girls who carried babies on their backs go through extra difficulty as they carry the children at their backs with loads on their heads. again, most of the young male migrants who were „scrap dealers‟ were involved in the business of dismantling and burning discarded electronic equipment such as television sets, personal computers, telephone cables, cell phones, electronic toys, dryers, fridges and washing machines, under unhygienic and unsafe circumstances with the aim of extracting copper, aluminum and metal scraps for sale. in the process of extracting the elements these migrants were exposed to poison and toxic chemicals like lead, mercury, beryllium, and cadmium which could result in major health hazards such as lung cancer, skin diseases, and kidney damage (dogbevi, 2007). a number of the scrap dealers who push trucks across the city looking for scraps complained that apart from the tiredness resulting from the long distances traveled, they often ran into head-on-collisions with vehicles and suffered abuses from drivers on the road. according to them they are sometimes involved in fatal accidents with cars resulting in major injuries or even the death of the migrant. others also expressed concern in interviews about constant harassment from the police for disrupting traffic. there was also a report of some of them being arrested and jailed for various offences like stealing or for purchasing iron scraps which were believed to be stolen. apart from the body pains, the migrants identified accidents as the next major source of risk of their occupation. many of the female porters said during the discussion that on countless occasions a number of them have been knocked down by passing vehicles while they try to cross the road with loads. in the words of a female participant, „we usually do not see clearly whenever we carry loads because the load sometimes obstructs our vision and this is most likely to result in an accident if one is crossing the road‟. „sometimes we carry items like iron rods and roofing sheets, which could result in an injury when it falls on ones leg‟, added another. a 17 year old boy who hawks along the major streets of accra added in an interview that many of his colleagues who try to sell petty goods to people in passing vehicles were knocked down by these same vehicles. many of the migrants in the discussion identified theft as yet another form of risk associated with their work and, according to the porters, if any item in the custody of a porter was stolen then he or she could be made to pay for it. the male porters who normally carried goods and other materials on trucks hinted that occasionally some of the wares they carried fell off without their notice and when this happened they were made to pay for them. some of the female participants indicated that they were frequently trailed by thieves who try to steal the items either from their headpan or at the point of delivery. when asked what happened to a person who failed to pay for a lost item, the reply was that they usually contributed money in aid of the victim else he or she would suffer arrest and possible incarceration. 4.7. reproductive health risks the squalor and the poor living conditions in sodom and gomorrah, especially at night points to the possibility of exposure to reproductive health risks. though some of the respondents in both the interviews and discussions did not deny engaging in sexual activity in one way or the other, they were initially hesitant to provide information about asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 35 their sexual behaviours since premarital sex is considered immoral. in answer to the question whether they have ever engaged in any sexual activity, majority of them responded in the negative. however, several of the respondents conceded having a girlfriend or boyfriend either in accra or in their natal villages. some of the respondents both male and female reported having engaged in sex for the first time as early as age 15 or 16 years whilst others claimed to have been devirginised at age 20. in responding to the incidence or reasons which resulted in the sexual encounter, some participants of the group discussion, particularly the girls, said they slept in the same room with their boyfriends and therefore could not resist the temptation of sex. according to the girls, the boys offered them accommodation and security and for the two parties, sex was a mutual benefit. many of the young girls said they had their first sexual encounter through rape which they said was not reported. majority of them however, conceded that some of the young girls indulged in sex as a means of making money for survival since they did not want to work. even though a lot of the migrants were involved in unprotected sex, only few of them seemed to have knowledge about safe sex. this could probably be due to lack of sex education among them. when the question of consequences of sex at their stage was raised, substantial number of them mentioned pregnancy while others gave sexual transmitted diseases (stds) as a consequence. on the use of contraceptives, some of the respondents said that sexual activity was usually unplanned and therefore they did not have time to think about contraception or use contraceptives. most of the young girls had little knowledge about contraceptives therefore they were involved in unprotected sex. the contraceptive methods most commonly mentioned among those who said they had ever used a method were condoms and withdrawal. a few of them especially the girls knew about the rhythm method but were wrong about when the „safe period‟ was. when asked in the fgd when a girl is most likely to be pregnant in her cycle none of them could give a correct answer. table 6 sets out the conditions under which sexual activities often occurred among respondents in the study. table-6. conditions under which sex took place among respondents situation sex total male no. % female no. % no. % peer influence 5 24 2 8 7 14 for accommodation 1 4 3 10 4 8 forced/coerced 3 14 13 45 16 32 mutual consent 10 48 3 10 13 26 monetary influence 2 10 8 27 10 20 total 21 100 29 100 50 100 source: field data. it is observed that overall, many of the respondents (32%) indicated that their first sexual experience in the city was under duress, and this phenomenon was more pronounced among the females (45%) than the male (14%). in addition, 26% of the respondents reported to have had their first sex through mutual consent, while for another 20%, sexual experience was influenced by money. however, monetary considerations seemed to play a fairly large part for females (27%) than males (10%), and this suggests that more females than males were enticed to have sex through monetary inducement. a small but significant proportion of them (8%) had their sexual encounter in an attempt to satisfy their accommodation needs. 4.8. harassment from city authorities majority of the northern migrants who reside in sodom and gomorrah said in an interview that they were under constant threat of eviction by the accra metropolitan assembly (ama). according to the assembly the area is a government property for which the migrants have no permit to put up structures. the community leaders in an interview were displeased with ama officials who constantly come to the area to write warning signs of eviction on some of their structures. also, the female porters who ply their trade along bus stops and other unauthorized places complained about how the ama officials frequently chased them away from those places. a 16 year old porter said in an interview that most of the time the ama officials often seize their head pans and other valuables whenever any of them is arrested. porters who operated within the business district were also mandated by the city authorities to pay a daily toll of about 20p before they could conduct their business freely in the market. some of the porters regarded the payment of the daily tolls as unfair treatment since according to them there were some days they do not earn income at all. some of the young migrants involved in hawking complained that the frequent decongestion exercise carried out by the ama had affected their business and thus rendered them jobless. those who were involved in selling petty goods to people in passing vehicles around some major traffic lights also narrated some of their unpleasant experience with the ama task force. a 15 year old female bagged-water seller (pure water seller) at abossey okine traffic light, in an interview, said that they were sometimes beaten by the task force and their wares taken away from them. the foregoing discussion aimed at finding out the difficulties that confronted the migrants in their bid to find means of survival in the harsh and insecure environment in the city. as part of their numerous challenges, accommodation was recognized as one of the daunting problems confronting the young migrants. as a result many of them resorted to sleeping on the streets, lorry parks, with a significant number of them residing at a squatter settlement called sodom and gomorrah. in this settlement the migrants were further confronted with problems such as poor sanitation resulting in frequent outbreak of diseases and epidemics. this poor neighborhood was also prone to disasters such as fire and flooding which resulted in loss of lives and destruction of properties. besides, many were under steady harassment from city authorities especially the porters for the payment of market tolls whilst the residents of sodom and gomorrah were under constant threat of eviction. the evidence found above shall offer us asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 36 the opportunity to see in the next discussion the coping strategies that the migrants have adopted to be able to survive the onslaught of the social and economic exclusions. 5. sources of support in this section of the discussion, we now shift the focus to the different coping strategies adopted by the young northern migrants to be able to survive in the city of accra. these include accommodation arrangements, personal and group safety strategies, role of voluntary associations, job seeking strategies, income management and savings strategies, health seeking strategies etc. we start by looking at how the problem of accommodation in the city is being managed. 5.1. accommodation arrangements respondents in the study accessed various sources of information about accra before embarking on their trips to the city. some of these sources of information included friends, family relations and the media. in a discussion with the migrants, some of them said they were brought to the city by their family relations who offered them accommodation and other basic needs before they were able to start life on their own. others said they followed their friends who were returning to the city after a short visit to the village. upon arrival in the city they were offered food and a place to sleep by their friends. migrants who came to accra independently were sometimes provided with accommodation by people from their home town now resident in accra. according to some of the respondents, a new migrant upon arrival in the city usually tries to find the location of sodom and gomorrah, and once they arrive they are further directed to the rooms of people from their village. if the co-villagers happened to be sleeping in an open space or in front of a shop then the new migrants simply joined them. such new migrants were received warmly and offered accommodation, food, and other basic needs. in sodom and gomorrah, the young northern migrants particularly the young girls had segregated themselves into quarters based on their kinship, village and suburban relations in the northern region. migrants from each of the villages formed their own quarters which were located in different parts of the settlements. these room-mates were always people of the same village origins. for instance, migrants from the tolon district of the northern region had their quarters which were separate from migrants from the savelugu district of the same region. in their local dagbani or mampruli languages, these quarters were referred to as savulgu nim du or tolon nim du or walewale nim du meaning savelugu quarters or tolon quarters. table-7. illustrates the sources of accommodation available to a new migrant upon arrival in the city. table-7. migrant‟s sources of accommodation in sodom and gomorrah people migrants put up with sex total male no. % female no. % no. % friends 7 33 4 14 11 22 family relations 5 24 7 24 12 24 co-villagers 7 33 15 52 22 44 living alone 2 10 1 3 3 6 other 2 7 2 4 total 21 100 29 100 50 100 source: field data. close to half of the respondents (44%) indicated that they were offered room by their co-villagers, followed by family relations (24%), and friends (22%) in that descending order. further analyses of the data according to gender, shows that the proportion of females (52%) who sought accommodation from their co-villagers when they arrive in the city was far more than that of the males (33%). also, there were a bigger proportion of males (33%) than females (14%) who obtained accommodation from friends. this could be attributed to the fact that a lot of the males had their own rooms and therefore could easily accommodate their friends and family relations. on the whole, table 7 demonstrates that socio cultural networks played a very significant role in supporting the fresh migrant to secure accommodation in the city. this finding confirms the position of kwankye et al. (2007) that accommodation or sleeping arrangements of child migrants from the northern parts of ghana to accra and kumasi was based on where they come from, with the aim of protecting one another. 5.2. personal and group safety strategies the young migrants were also confronted with the general insecurity associated with urban life which includes high risk of abuse, robbery, rape and other criminal acts. these insecurities were addressed by the migrants both at individual and group levels. the major source of security for the migrants was from family relations and friends. participants of the fgd in sodom and gomorrah explained that a lot of them were living with their close relations while others were staying with their friends who served as their guardians and offered them protection in the city. another female participant indicated that migrants who do not have a family relation usually adopt elderly persons in their rooms to serve as their guardians. the „guardians‟ offered them good parental advice and guarded them against all forms of insecurity. at the group level, migrants from the same origin were normally found to be living together in one room and this served as a great source of protection for them because by living together they were in a better position to resist any kind of foreign intrusion. for the young girls who slept in the open, they tried to avoid sexual harassment from men by sleeping together in large numbers to deter men from coming closer to them. if an attempt was made to rape one while they were asleep, the others quickly woke up to attack the intruder with their head pans until the rapist bolted. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 37 in fact, other respondents, mostly the young girls who slept in the frontage of shops claimed they paid money to the security men who took care of the shops to watch over them in the night. from the fgd report at sodom and gomorrah there were community leaders among the migrants who acted as chiefs and sub-chiefs to offer protection to these migrants. these community leaders were chosen by their fellow kinsmen. some of the chiefs identified include zaachi, nachin naa, volni naa, and saha naa. they were located at different parts of the community providing different kinds of services to people within their locality, and referring cases beyond their control to the police. 5.3. the role of voluntary associations there were a variety of voluntary associations formed by the migrants as an adaptive strategy to promote their interests in the city. the number of migrants who participated in some form of voluntary activity was quite high. these associations were fashioned on the basis of area of origin, ethnic group, gender, religion, occupation, and recreation. however, majority of the associations were simply primary youth groups which were formed irrespective of the tribe, age, and gender. some of the names of these associations include bonzali youth association, diboriyom youth association, zomyaa youth group, zosimli youth associations among others. these voluntary associations shared common objectives or functions which involved providing a measure of social security to its members. members regarded themselves brothers and sisters showing sympathy to one another when in need. they also made periodic collection of money during their regular meetings in other to provide assistance in the form of cash or household items to members in sickness, during outdooring and marriage ceremonies. this was, however, more common among the female groups. table 8 shows the type of associations to which the migrants belong. respondents who belonged to more than one association were asked to state the association they were most active members by their own standard. the table below outlines and discusses the kinds of associations, and the numbers of such associations that existed in sodom and gomorrah. table-8. association type and members. type of assoc. sex total male no. % female no. % no. % ethnic group assoc. 3 14 3 10 6 12 area of origin 3 14 5 17 8 16 occupational group 3 14 4 14 7 14 primary assoc. 4 19 9 31 13 26 women/men‟s groups 6 29 5 17 11 22 religious assoc. 1 5 2 7 3 6 non 1 5 1 4 2 4 total 21 100 29 100 50 100 source: field data. out of the six types of voluntary associations listed above in table 8, it is clear that primary association (youth groups irrespective of gender, occupation and ethnicity) was the most prevalent form of voluntary association consisting of 26% of the total respondents. followed by women/men‟s groups only (22%), area of origin (16%), occupational groups (14%) in that descending order with religious associations being the least (6%). it must also be noted that there were some of the respondents (4%) who had no relationship with any of the voluntary associations identified, therefore it cannot be concluded that all the migrants were involved in association activities. but it can be concluded that a significant proportion of the migrants resort to voluntary associations as a coping mechanism in their social life in the city. the findings showed that in contemporary time‟s migrant voluntary associations in urban centers are no more formed strictly on gender, ethnic, and area of origin, as reported in an earlier finding by barnes (1975). migrant youth associations in urban centres can now be fashioned out irrespective of gender, area of origin, and occupation to serve a common interest. 5.4. job seeking strategies family relations and friends play a major role in assisting the newly arrived northern migrants in getting employment in accra. the migrants in a discussion indicated that a migrant who had a family relation or friends already in the city had relatively less difficulty in securing a job. those without family relations and friends find it difficult though they are often assisted by their kinsmen and friends when in search of job. for most of the migrants, working as shop attendants is the greatest opportunity for them and every young lady aspired to work as a shop attendant. a 19 year old female porter said in an interview that because of the great benefits attached to working in a shop they always ensured that they brought their family relations to replace them anytime they were finally leaving accra to settle in their villages. this therefore served as a great opportunity for both the old migrants and the new arrivals. working as a shop attendant required a lot of trust and some times a little bit of formal education on the part of the migrant. so the migrants usually start as cleaners and porters in the shop until they earned the trust of the shop owner before they are allowed to take charge of some business activities in the shop. migrants who had some basic formal education stood a greater chance of securing the work (shop attendant) than those who did not have formal education because of their ability to use the calculator and also keep records of business transactions. apart from the kayayei business migrants who had close ties were also able to assist one another in getting jobs in the homes as domestic workers whilst others were assisted to get jobs in the bars. a female migrant who worked in a bakery, in an answer to the question how she got her job, replied that she was put there by her sister who was asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 38 formerly working there as a baker before going home. it was also reported in the discussions that a lot of young girls involved in head portage used it as an opportunity to raise capital to go into other occupations such as trading. 5.5. income management and savings strategies notwithstanding the difficulties encountered by the young migrants, there were some opportunities for them to earn income for themselves and their families. they had no fixed daily incomes but most of them could earn more on a good day. even though many of the respondents were very reluctant to volunteer information about their earnings, several of them particularly the female porters indicated that they earned an average of about eight to fifteen ghana cedis daily whilst the male porters and the scrap dealers claimed they could earn an average of about ten ghana cedis a day. they also indicated that on a bad day they went home with just a small amount to feed themselves. in terms of savings, the young migrants adopted several strategies of saving the income from their daily earnings. majority of the migrants interviewed said they saved their daily income with susu collectors who came around daily to collect their contributions whilst others particularly the female migrants said they were involved in adashie (rotating credit) as a means of saving their income. the adashie saving system was described as some kind of arrangement where groups of ten to twenty migrants usually from the same village contributed an amount daily to adashie ma 3 who would then pay out to a particular set of individuals in accordance with the turn-taking-rule of the group. in this way, each migrant stood a chance of getting a relatively large sum of money available to her which could be used to purchase her needs. a number of the migrants also said they were saving their daily income with their family relations who take care of them. a 16 year old baker from bimbila indicated in a discussion that she saved her daily earnings with a sister she was putting-up with at sodom and gomorrah. another 20 year old scrap dealer also disclosed in a fgd that because of the thieves in their room he usually gave his money to a brother who had a bank account to be kept for him. many of the migrants were also saving their earnings through the acquisition of property. most of the young girls bought items such as cooking utensils, clothes, jewelry, and sewing machines while some of the young boys acquired items such as sound systems, tv sets, bicycles, motor bikes, washing and welding machines etc. those with secure accommodation kept these items in their rooms whilst those without secure accommodation left them with their family relations or friends for safe keeping. in an interview, a 17 year old porter from walewale said she used the money obtained from the adashie to acquire some pieces of cloth and cooking utensils which she must acquire before returning home. table 9 presents the saving strategies of the young migrants interviewed. table-9. migrants savings strategies savings strategies sex total male no. % female no. % no. % rotating credit 2 10 6 21 8 16 susu 10 50 12 41 22 44 cash savings with a relative 2 10 3 10 5 10 material acquisition 4 15 8 28 12 24 bank 2 10 0 2 4 other 1 5 0 1 2 totals 21 100 29 100 50 100 source: field data. among these strategies, majority of the migrants representing 44% of the respondents saved their income through the informal susu system. the high patronage of the susu system could be attributed to the fact that the system was fairly convenient as the „bank‟ in this context moved to the client instead of the customer going to the bank as in the case of the formal banking system. this is also in a close agreement with the findings of alhassan et al. (2004) in a previous study among the young migrants in accra, which indicated that 46% of the migrants saved their money through daily susu contributions. close to a third (24%) of the migrants saved through the acquisition of physical assets such as cooking utensils, jewelry, and equipments such as sewing and welding machines to facilitate the learning of a trade in future. this suggests that the migrant‟s current jobs served as a means to attaining targeted future aspirations. again, 16% of the respondents were reported to be saving their money through the adashie system. this low patronage of the adashie was attributed to a high level of fraud associated with it in recent times. the analysis by gender shows that a larger proportion of females (21%) than males (10%) are involved in the adashie system. this reinforces the fact that the adashie system is increasingly becoming the preserve of women. the formal banking system formed the least saving strategy of the migrants representing 4% of the total respondents. only 10% male migrants reported having bank savings accounts with none of the female respondents reported having a bank account. this could probably be the result of high level of illiteracy among the migrants coupled with low levels of income. 5.6. food/nutrition habits of migrants due to the high cost of living in the city, most of the young migrants generally relied on street foods both as coping strategy and as part of normal consumption, with street foods contributing significantly to their nutrition requirements. in-depth interviews with some of the young migrants in the city showed that most of them purchase 3 adashie ma refers to the person who keeps the daily or weekly contribution asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 39 food daily because of income constraints. for some of them though buying food is expensive, it is a relatively cheaper compared to cooking, since one requires a lot of things such as food ingredients, cooking utensils, and fuel which are quite expensive. the migrants further indicated in the discussion that due to the high cost of food a lot of their colleagues have now engaged in the business of selling food to them at affordable prices. some of the porters were found selling the food to their colleagues in the evening as a form of part time business whilst others did so in full time especially during the day. to cope with the high prices of food most of the migrants found it convenient buying food from their colleagues which was far cheaper as compared to buying outside their fold. generally, most of the migrants interviewed claimed they eat three times daily, but some of them said they sometimes skipped their meals on the days that they did not have enough money. some of the migrants said that they usually skip breakfast because of their tight schedule in the morning. for these people the only period they can find time to eat is mid-day when business slows down a little. there were some who claimed they did not have specific times for eating but did so only when they were hungry and had some money on them. table 10 illustrates the wide variety of strategies used by the migrants to acquire food. table-10. strategies of acquiring food by the migrants strategies of getting food sex total male no. % female no. % no. % buying from street vendors 13 62 15 52 28 56 cooking with colleagues 4 19 8 34 12 24 eating from relative/friend 4 19 4 10 8 16 others (food sellers) 2 4 2 4 total 21 100 29 100 50 100 source: field data. from the table, a little more than half of the total respondents (56%) purchase food from street vendors. this suggests that majority of the young northern migrants eat on the street. it further reinforces maxwell (2000) position that the purchase of street foods in itself is a coping strategy. further analysis of the data shows that close to a third of the migrants cook with contributions from colleagues. this serves as a kind of a coping mechanism to deal with the high cost involved in cooking. analysis of the data by gender also indicated that the proportion of males (19%) involved in cooking was far lower than that of the females (34%). this could be explained by the cultural antecedents of the migrants which do not encourage men to cook. however, the proportion of males who depended on a relative or a friend for food was slightly higher than that of the female. an indication of the fact that more migrant males (19%) than females (10%) depended on relatives and friends for their food needs. 5.7. health seeking and environmental strategies from the fgd and the in-depth interviews, it emerged that many of the migrants addressed their numerous health problems by resorting to self medication. most of the migrants in the discussion said they accessed health care from the pharmacy and chemical shops in sodom and gomorrah. they simply walk over to the counter of any of the shops available to buy a drug of their choice whenever they fall sick. sometimes, these drugs were prescribed by friends and family relation who had suffered similar symptoms previously. in a direct conversation with a 17 year old female porter from kumbungu, she said, “i do not often fall sick, but any time i fall sick i inform my sister who gives me medicine or sends me to the chemist to buy some medicine for myself‟‟. even though there were others who claimed they visited the hospital or the clinic for treatment, they did so after unsuccessful self-medication. according to some of the migrants, the presence of so many retail drug outlets in sodom and gomorrah made it convenient for them to obtain drugs than going to the hospital which usually took a whole day to seek medical treatment. this was an indication that the convenient location of the chemical shops served as an intervening point for health service delivery, thus, making many migrants reluctant to go the hospital no matter the severity of the illness. a participant in one of the focused group discussions at sodom and gomorrah indicated that if a migrant is suffering from a major ailment such as cholera, they contribute money to either send the sick person to the hospital or back to his/her home town in the north. also, as part of their duties the community leaders in an interview said they arrange for people who suffer from major ailments to be sent back to their home villages for treatment. table 11 shows the health seeking behaviour of the northern migrants under study. table-11. health-seeking behaviours. sources of health care sex total male no. % female no. % no. % spiritual/devine healing 1 5 2 7 3 6 hospital/clinic 2 10 3 10 5 10 self medication 8 38 14 48 22 44 pharmacy/chemical shop 6 29 4 14 10 20 traditional medicine 3 14 5 17 8 16 non 1 4 1 4 2 4 total 21 100 29 100 50 100 source: field data. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 40 it can be seen from the table that close to half (44%) of the total migrants reported to have used self-medication to treat their ailments. this was followed by the pharmacy, with 20% of the respondents saying they had their drugs prescribed to them by the pharmacist. 16% of the respondents used traditional/herbal medicine with only a small proportion (10%) of the respondents reportedly attending the hospital or clinic for treatment. in this study, migrants‟ use of self-medication was very high, which is almost in agreement with a study carried out by kwankye et al. (2007) in kumasi and accra. the major reasons given for the soaring use of self-medication was its relative lower cost, availability of so many drug retail outlets, and most importantly the presence of family relations, friends and acquaintances who usually recommend drugs for their sick colleagues. the most frequent illness reported for self-medication was body pains, headache, fever, diarrheoa, cough, sexual transmitted diseases (stds), and abdominal pains. in terms of sex, females practiced more self-medication (48%) than males (38%) which was an indication of the fact that females were the worst victims in the consumption of drugs and employment of self-medication among the migrants. however, there were a higher proportion of males (29%) who accessed health care from pharmacist than females (14%). this indicates that more males obtained professional advice from the pharmacist than the females. further analysis of the data shows that less than a quarter of the respondents (10%) seek medical care from the hospital or the clinic. they usually attend hospital after self-medication fails to yield any positive results or when the condition of the sick person deteriorates. migrant‟s failure to seek medical care from the hospitals and clinics was attributed to the high cost of medical care at the hospitals. even though there is now health insurance in place to offer free medical care, none of the migrants interviewed qualified to access the free health delivery because they were not card bearing members of the national health insurance scheme. this probably explained the migrants‟ wide patronage of self medication. another reason for the low attendance to the hospitals was due to undue delays in accessing health care at the formal health centers. for some of them, the longer the time spent at the hospital, the more opportunities missed for making money. it is worth noting, that a significant number of the northern migrants at sodom and gomorrah relied on self medication as a coping strategy which could lead to fatal repercussions on their lives. therefore, though difficult to eliminate, interventions such as dissemination of information about self-medication and drug use at large, through the media, health education sessions, and posters can be made available to the migrants. alternatively, health insurance campaign should be given emphasis at sodom and gomorrah to enable the migrants also access the free medical care. 5.8. managing disaster the northern migrants in sodom and gomorrah generally lack protection from both natural and man made disasters like flood, fire, and outbreak of epidemics such as typhoid and cholera outbreaks as a result, the initial response to disasters of these kind was carried out by the migrants themselves. during epidemic outbreaks, for instance, migrants usually contribute money and other necessary resources in aid of the affected victims to seek medical attention at a nearby health institution. also, in this period many of the migrants said they resorted to religious institutions like the church and the mosque in the settlement for either spiritual healings or appeal for fund to assist victims to seek medical care. in the worst situations, the sick person‟s immediate kinsmen contribute money to transport him or her back to the village for treatment. in case of a fire outbreak in the area the first reaction of the people is to put out the fire by drawing water from the korle lagoon. in addition, people with stand pipes and water tanks nearby freely provide sufficient water to put out the fire before calling on the fire service to assist. the community leaders in an interview disclosed that as a precautionary measure, inhabitants were now being advised to desist from erecting structures so close to one another in order to lessen the spread of fire. besides, some of the migrants have now begun putting up concrete structures to minimize the impact of these fires. flooding was also identified as another kind of disaster that the migrants had difficulty in handling. flooding had become a regular occurrence in sodom and gomorrah especially during heavy down pours which called for various coping strategies. a good number of strategies for coping with flooding in sodom and gomorrah were identified during the discussions. some of the responses included bailing water out of the rooms to prevent damage to properties, placing children initially on raised items like tables and later removing them to unaffected dwellings. others said they used blocks, stones, and broken furniture to create higher places on which to place their valuables during the floods. some were reported to have dug trenches to divert water away from their homes whilst others used sandbags to block the water from getting into their rooms. essentially, there were more individual coping strategies rather than collective community action to construct drainage channels. there was no coordinated action for emergency response to flooding. 5.9. institutional support here, we now turn our attention to the support services that young migrants receive from government agencies and non-governmental organizations. many organizations are involved in providing support to the young northern migrants but those that were captured during the interviews included: department of children within the ministry of women and children affairs, ghana federation of the urban poor, peoples dialogue ghana, village of hope, street girls aid, and urban poor child organization (upch). 5.9.1. government support the government through the ministry of women and children affairs embarked on alternative livelihood skills training programmes for all the young northern migrants in sodom and gomorrah and other surrounding squatter settlements in accra. according to the programme coordinator, the training was aimed at equipping the young migrants with skills in dress-making, soap making, and hair dressing to become self-employed and capable of making a decent living while contributing their quota to the development of their home communities and the nation asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 41 at large. he added that after the training the ministry would assist the migrants with capital through its collaboration with the micro finance and small loans centre (masloc) to start their own businesses. the ministry is also currently embarking on a programme termed as „kayayei‟ project to collect data on the number and needs of all the kayayei in accra. the programme aims at withdrawing the young girls from northern parts of the country in accra and then resettling them in their home communities. the focus of the project is to make those below the age of 15 years go back to school. as part of an hiv/aids sensitization program for the migrants, the ministry of women and children affairs has conducted hiv/aids and female condom sensitization workshops for more that 2,000 „kayayee‟ at sodom and gomorrah, tema station and mallam atta markets all in the accra metropolitan area. these workshops were aimed at preventing the spread of the hiv/aids disease among the migrants. even though the ministry had good policies for the migrants it has not been able to capture the majority of the migrants in the skills training programmes probably due to lack of funding and support from the private sector. for instance out of about 1000 porters only 120 were recruited for the skills training pragrammes at the malam ata market. besides, the majority of the migrants interviewed were not even aware of the skills training programme possibly due to lack of effective communication and knowledge of the programme. also, the programme is gender imbalanced since it is targeted only at the female migrants particularly the kayayei perhaps due to their large numbers and the likely high levels of vulnerability. what then happens to the male migrants in the interim since they are also most likely to be involved in social vices like stealing and armed robbery? furthermore, the „kayayei project‟ which aims at repatriating the child migrants back to their home communities to attend schools may not yield the desired results if specific steps are not taken to empower their parents to be able to cater for them in school. these child migrants are most likely to run back to accra if they find out that their situation back home remained unchanged. 5.9.2. ngo and cbo support one of the several non-governmental organizations that had provided humanitarian services to the northern young migrants in sodom and gomorrah is ghana federation of the urban poor (gfup), a community based nongovernmental organization working in partnership with people‟s dialogue ghana (pdg). according to the director of the gfup at the sodom and gomorrah office, since the end of 2003 the federation has worked very hard to improve the living conditions of the migrants as well as exploring an alternative solution to the forced eviction from the area. in the past, there had been strenuous relationships between the officials of the accra metropolitan assembly (ama) and the migrants in sodom and gomorrah which resulted in frequent threat of eviction of the migrants in the area. with the establishment of the ghana federation of the urban poor (gfup) through collaboration with peoples dialogue ghana, a memorandum of understanding (mou) was signed with the accra metropolitan assembly which later resulted in a resettlement package for the migrants. the mou also temporarily eased the threat of forced mass evictions in the area. they also organized forums which provided the opportunity for the migrants to dialogue and interact with leaders of government and the private sector. the federation, in collaboration with slum dwellers international of india, built two hostel facilities for the head porters at old and new fadama. each of the hostels had five rooms which accommodated at least 14 people per room. the head porters paid gh¢ 0.10 daily which was used to manage the facility. the director of the federation added that the frequent fire outbreaks in sodom and gomorrah were the main motivation for putting up the hostels. in an interview with the porters at the hostels, most of them expressed satisfaction at their new location which they said was a better place to live than the makeshift structures they previously live. street girls aid is another relevant non-governmental organizations found to be working in the locality. according to the coordinator, the organization takes care of pregnant girls who lack support until delivery. upon delivery these young girls were educated on how to take good care of their babies. there was also a similar organization in the area called biyolni, which takes care of the babies of the young girls until they returned from the market. according to the overseer of this organization, she takes care of an average of about forty babies ranging from six months to two years a day. she explained that the parents paid gh¢ 0.50 daily to be used in feeding the babies. in an interview, a 19 year-old mother, from tolon said the organization is playing a very important role by saving their babies from going through the troubles with them in the market. another important organization found to be providing support to the young migrants in sodom and gomorrah is the urban poor child organization (upco). according to the coordinator of upco, the organization provides counseling services and health education for the migrants. they also provide training in various forms of handicrafts which includes bead making, drawing, painting, drumming, sculpture, and wood curving. this aims at equipping the migrants with some useful skills to generate income for themselves. again, most of the services provided by these non-governmental organizations in sodom and gomorrah centered more on the females than the males which calls for some opportunities for the males. the impact of the activities of these organizations was enjoyed by just a few people considering the large number of the migrants. there was also the lack of effective co-ordination of the activities of these non-governmental organizations working in sodom and gomorrah which often resulted in duplication of activities. a lot of them just existed on paper but were not actually doing anything concrete enough on the ground to improve the lot of the migrants. there is therefore the need for the department of social welfare to constantly evaluate the performance of the activities of these non-governmental organizations operating in the area. 6. concluding remarks to all intents and purposes, this paper sought to outline the various survival strategies and remedial actions that have been taken to mitigate the socio-cultural and economic challenges that confront these derelict young northern migrants in the accra metropolis. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 2(1): 25-43 42 the paper revealed that many of these young migrants in response to their challenges in the city choose to create informal social safety nets by establishing some social ties among themselves to collectively satisfy their basic needs. these networks enabled most of the migrants to quickly adjust and integrate very well in the city. there were various levels of networks which were being used as coping strategies. these include bonds with friends, kinship ties, covillagers, organizations, and network with migrants from the same region. these migrant networks provided diverse invaluable support in the areas of shelter, personal security, disaster prevention, food or nutrition, ill-health, job search, income savings, offering advice, information sharing, provision of emotional or psychological needs. this was done by collectively paying for their food and medicine, paying to live in makeshift structures made of wood and empty packing cases, formation of voluntary associations, 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licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 3, 250-257, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.250.257 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group effect of enterprise risk management (erm) on sustainability and survival of banks in nigeria orabueze, uchechukwu ebuka1 agbaji, joseph simon2 iyodo, baba yaro3 ( corresponding author) 1department of banking and finance, faculty of management science, university of jos, jos, plateau state – nigeria. 2department of banking and finance, kogi state university, anyigba – nigeria. 3 department of banking and finance, faculty of management science, university of jos, jos, plateau state – nigeria. abstract beyond question, risk management is the surviving engine to which enterprises are built upon for sound organizational sustainability. thus, this study assessed enterprise risk management and its effect on sustainability and survival of deposit money banks in nigeria. the study utilized survey research design, a non probability judgment sample of 111 participants extracted from 16 deposit money banks in jos north local government of plateau state responded to a re-validated 5 points likert scale questionnaire. data were analyzed using quantitative techniques and multiple regression analysis with aid of spssv23 to test the hypotheses. the result found significant relationship between erm and bank sustainability and survival indicators. to this effect, the study recommended that for a better opportunity to remain relevant and financially successful it is imperative for deposit money banks to readjust their strategic financial plans; increase their income diversification base to combat adverse impacts of risks and uncertainty in business transactions; more so, to keep up with global trends, banks should not underestimate the role sound administration and financial management play in reducing attendant cost and forestalling future financial crisis. keywords: enterprise risk management (erm), sustainability, survival, banks. jel classification: m00, m19, g00. citation | orabueze, uchechukwu ebuka; agbaji, joseph simon; iyodo, baba yaro (2020). effect of enterprise risk management (erm) on sustainability and survival of banks in nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(3): 250-257. history: received: 2 june 2020 revised: 10 july 2020 accepted: 12 august 2020 published: 7 september 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 251 2. literature review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 252 3. methodological framework ........................................................................................................................................................ 253 4. result and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 254 5. conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................. 256 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 257 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.250.257&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2102 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2695-8885 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 250-257 251 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature: this study assessed enterprise risk management and its effect on sustainability and survival of deposit money banks in nigeria. 1. introduction the advocacy of erm in banks centers on managing the objectives of banking business. these objectives are categorized into three; to successfully mobilize the desired capital that will sustain current business and future expansion opportunities, secondly, to maximize returns on investment (roi) given the risk inherent in every transaction; lastly, to sustain the bank capital adequacy and statutory risk governance enacted by authorities and rating agencies. without question, the role enterprise risk management play in profit maximization and survival of banks and any other company is indispensable. gates, nicolas, and walker (2012) averred that strategic risk management enhances management and improves organizational performance by leading to consensus among management and strengthening decision making and accountability. enterprise risk management increases risk awareness and subsequently increases knowledge that leads to sound decision making throughout the organization (kleffner, lee, & mcgannon, 2003). enterprise risk management (erm) as a discipline has received both local and international attention in recent years (arena, arnaboldi, & azzone, 2010). the growing interest in enterprise risk management has been attributed to a considerable numerous challenges ranging from global financial crises, corporate frauds etc. in nigeria, banking sector in their operations are exposed to arrays of impediments; they range from liquidation, exchange rates fluctuations, inflationary tendencies and other problems prominent in the industry. according to paape and speklè (2012) the aforementioned has prompted governments, law making bodies, regulators and other stakeholders within the global economic community to explore further insight and understanding of current and emerging risks facing organizations. in the search for sustainability and survival of deposit money banks, there is a great concern as to the extent to which banks mitigaterisk. one could argue that bank sustainability and survival indicators such as strategic and financial plan, income diversification scheme and sound administration and financial management of banks have not been met satisfactorily. in fact, m. beasley, branson, and hancock (2010) surmise that banks still need a readjustment of their internal processes to accommodate the requirement for erm assessment. aside the complexity of bank transactions which kerstin et al. 2014 described as dynamic changes or volatility, ambiguity of cause and effects of risks, uncertainty and disarrays surrounding banking institutions, other leading source of problems threatening the sustainability and survival of deposit money banks in nigeria can be attributed to insufficient resources available to meet bank objectives, high dependency on a single stream of income and inadequate provision for training of staff and risk officers. thus, there is an urgent need to identify, assesses and manage various individual risks inherent in the day to day operations of banks. professionals in the discipline of risk management surmise that financial crisis faced by banks and other financial institutions emanated from the failure of the corporate world to embrace erm globally, suggesting that the acceptance and implementation of erm may forestall reoccurrence (senior supervisors group, 2009). in addition, most nigerian banks still finds it difficult to embed risk appetite. it is envisaged that it will take longer for nigerian banks to completely integrate with the current international trend in risk management chris and orok (2017). the reasons are not farfetched as most of the banks have not completely implemented bank-wide risk management as such the need to institutionalize erm in the banking industry translates to the fact that each components of risk must be treated collectively. a major step taken in this direction is a paradigm shift from silo-based risk management to a holistic approach to risk management commonly known as enterprise risk management (gordon, loeb, & tseng, 2009; hoyt & liebenberg, 2011). in line with this, a number of firms and rating agencies have adopted and integrated enterprise risk management analysis into their credit rating processes, regulatory agencies have adopted risk based regulations built on the principles of enterprise risk management with specialized enterprise risk management units created by numerous consulting firms. prior studies pertaining to enterprise risk management and sustainability of deposit money banks in nigeria are limited, with numerous research uncovering enterprise risk management and performance of banks (muteti, 2014; nyagah, 2014; yegon, 2015). however, none of these studies examined enterprise risk management on sustainability and survival of banks in nigeria, adopting financial sustainability models developed by león (2001). therefore, it is on the premise of this gap, that the present paper seeks to assess enterprise risk management and its effects on sustainability and survival of deposit money banks in nigeria adopting model developed by león (2001) as indicators to bank sustainability and survival. the general objective of this study is to assess empirically the effect of enterprise risk management on sustainability and survival of deposit money banks in nigeria. the scope of the study is constrained to all the deposit money banks in existence within the period of 2014-2019 in nigeria. specific objectives are, thus; 1. to determine the effect of enterprise risk management on strategic and financial planning of deposit money banks. 2. to investigate the effect of enterprise risk management on income diversification of deposit money banks. 3. to examine the effects of enterprise risk management on sound administration and finance of deposit money banks. the following sub research questions are intended to sharpen the focus of the problem and are deduced from the above objectives: 1. to what extent does enterprise risk management influence strategic and financial planning of deposit money banks? 2. to what extent does enterprise risk management affect income diversification of deposit money banks? 3. to what extent does enterprise risk management affect sound administration and finance of deposit money banks? taking cognizance of the research objective together with the research question, the following hypothesis will be tested for the study; h01: enterprise risk management has no significant effect on strategic and financial planning of deposit money banks. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 250-257 252 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group h01: enterprise risk management has no significant effect on income diversification of deposit money banks. h01: enterprise risk management has no significant effect on sound administration and finance of deposit money banks. 2. literature review 2.1. conceptual framework the concept of risk can be said to as the possibility of loss or exposure to loss, a hazard and uncertainty. holistic risk management can be viewed as a paradigm shift, in which senior executives and management realign organizational risk management (gordon et al., 2009). rochette (2009) maintained that due to the changing risk environment, any strategic risk management approach must cover a range of projects, processes, products, and services. risk management helps make the presence of risk in a firm’s environment much clearer and more apparent, and management decides on the course of action based on the acceptability of each risk (dia & zéghal, 2008; mcshane, nair, & rustambekov, 2011; razali & tahir, 2011).according to brown, steen, and foreman (2009) erm is the method and the process organizations use to management risk, seize opportunities, and achieve objectives. de loach (2000) also defined it as a disciplined approach to align strategy, processes, people, technology, and knowledge, with the purpose of evaluating and managing uncertainty to create value. in the same vein, gordon et al. (2009) define erm as the overall process of managing an organization’s exposure to uncertainty with particular emphasis on identifying and managing the events that could potentially prevent the organization from achieving its objective. in this study, gordon et al. (2009) definition will be adopted. historically, risk management attempts to minimize the cost of risk through transfer, reduction, retention or avoidance of a risk exposure while an erm program attempts to optimize firm risk in order to maximize value. erm is hypothesized to add value by enabling risk quantification and optimization and increasing efficiency (nocco & stulz, 2006). 2.2. sustainability and survival of banks in nigeria sustainability should be considered not only as an emerging area of risk, but also as an agenda of the firm’s strategic management (narumon, 2013). according to the african institute of corporate citizenship (2004), “sustainability is about ensuring long term business success, while contributing to society’s present and future social, environmental and economic needs. in line with this, bouma, jeucken, and kilkers (2001) viewed sustainable banking as a decision by banks to provide products and services only to customers who take into consideration the environmental and social impacts of their activities. sustainability and of survival of an organization is viewed from the standpoint of its operations by considering the profit generated by its resources. the rationale behind the adaptation of sustainability and survival from operations is that this performance is within the reach of managers to control. león (2001) enumerated 3 sustainability and survival pillars adopted by banks worldwide; strategic and financial planning, income diversification and sound administration and finance. therefore as organizations grow in an emerging market like that of nigeria, it takes on an increasing number of activities and runs the risk of focusing on day to day management issues, losing sight of long range objectives. strategic planning is the mechanism to help clarify an organization’s mission and objectives as well as prioritize the actions needed to accomplish them. effective financial planning has become a prerequisite for enterprise risk management in nigeria. the role of the financial plan in erm is to determine if the organization is going to have sufficient resources available in the medium term to meet the objectives described in the strategic plan. the financial plan operates on the basis of scenarios, ranging from the minimum feasible to the ideal. the second pillar of financial sustainability is income diversification. it refers not only to internal income generation, but also to the number of income sources that serves as banks main funding. boas (2012) viewed income diversification to include a number of activities that reduces the bank dependence on a single stream of income. for sustainable growth, deposit money banks must not rely so much on a particular income source if it must achieve effectual risk management. lastly, sound administration and financepractices involves the process of managing the present and future of bank resources and determining how it strategic plan will be financed (león, 2001; lewis, 2011). a good strategic financial management practice ensures that banks are able to secure long term funding from it day to day operation. lewis (2011); león (2001) further stressed the need for bank to manage their finances and have a long term sustainable financial plan, this is because the business environment is changing so fast and the demand on bank are increasing due to several factors. 2.3. effect of enterprise risk management on sustainability and survival of banks in nigeria clearly, erm and sustainability are interrelated. doyle, hughes, and glaister (2009) surmised that risk management provides an operational mechanism ensuring ethical and sustainable decision-making. enterprise wide risk management also increases risk awareness and subsequently increases knowledge that leads to sound decision making throughout the organization (kleffner et al., 2003). it is necessary to employ a wide range of control mechanisms, such as risk management. as a management control system, the purpose of erm is to help an organization achieve sustainable outcomes. in the same vein, an effective erm program is essential for good corporate governance and sustainable development of an organization in nigeria. corporate scandals and diminished confidence in financial reporting among investors and creditors have renewed corporate governance as an acme-of-mind priority for boards of directors, management, auditors, and stakeholders. in nigeria, there is an extremely upturn in the number of banks trying to manage risks. thus, it is of great concern for banks to effectively integrate enterprise risk management with sustainability and survival. no doubt the effect of poor management of risk by insurance firms could lead to accumulation of claims from the clients and in turn could result to an increased organisational loss and weak financial performance. but by extension such piled up leverages also influence deposit money banks particularly in nigeria (magezi, 2003). with the capabilities inherent in enterprise risk management, management attain the entity’s performance and profitability targets and in turn resulting to sustainability and prevent loss of scarce resources. enterprise risk management helps an entity get to where it wants to go and avoid pitfalls and surprises along the way (nocco & asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 250-257 253 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group stulz, 2006). enterprise risk management helps ensure effective reporting and compliance with laws and regulations, and helps avoid damage to the entity’s reputation and associated consequences. lastly, enterprise risk management delivers a current, credible understanding of the risks unique to an organization across a broad spectrum that includes all types of risk (credit risk, operational risk, market risk, liquidity risk and trading risk), lines of business and other key dimensions. diagram 1. the conceptual model of enterprise risk management and it effect on the sustainability and survival of deposit money banks in nigeria. the proposed model seeks to determine whether enterprise risk management have a significant effect on strategic and financial planning, income diversification and sound administration and finance of banks in nigeria. 2.4. theoretical framework capital asset pricing model (capm) is an established theory in relation to enterprise risk management and bank sustainability and survival. 2.5 capital asset pricing model (capm) capm model which represents an extension and better simplification of the model put forward by markowitz (1952) which was at the foremost of theorizing a model on the relationship between return and risk. the capital asset pricing model states that all investors will hold the same efficient portfolio (the market portfolio) regardless of their individual risk preferences. in drawing a relationship on risk management on sustainability, gossy (2008) further confirms that capm is capable of determining the market price for risk and appropriate risk measure for a single asset. 2.6. empirical framework several studies, yegon (2015) studied the effect of erm determinants on financial performance of nse listed firms in kenya. similarly, nyagah (2014) undertook the study on the effect of enterprise risk management on financial performance of pension fund management in kenya. both studies uncovered that there is a positive relationship between the adoption of risk management practices and the financial performance in kenya. in addition, carried out a study on the relationship between a successful enterprise risk management system, a performance measurement system and the financial performance of thai listed companies. the findings evidenced that financial success seem to have moderate correlation as firms that successfully implement an erms are apparently also successful in implementing a pms. finally, muteti (2014) conducted a study on the relationship between financial risk administration and financial performance of kenyan business banks. the study revealed that credit risk, interest rate risk, foreign exchange risk, liquidity risk, capital management risk, bank deposits and bank size were significantly influencing financial performance of kenyan business banks. other empirical studies include, (j. beasley, barron, burnside, hamatake, & powers, 2005; chris & orok, 2017). in conclusion, studies pertaining to enterprise risk management and sustainability of deposit money banks in nigeria are limited, with numerous research uncovering enterprise risk management and financial performance of banks (muteti, 2014; nyagah, 2014; yegon, 2015). however, none of these studies examined enterprise risk management on sustainability and survival of banks in nigeria, adopting financial sustainability models developed by león (2001). in the same vein, none of these author conducted research on the sustainability and survival of significantly sized deposit money banks in north central and nigeria in general. 3. methodological framework survey research design was adopted for this study and primary source of data was utilized for the empirical section of the research. the targeted population of this study consist of credit risk managers and operational risk managers at all the deposit money banks in plateau state, north central nigeria. sampling framework comprises of a non-probability judgement sample of all 16 deposit money banks in jos metropolis. the rationale for this; was due to the close geographic proximity, to ensure good coverage and avoid bias selection so as to give a fair representation of the target population since the above mentioned managers are fully involved in management of bank risk. for a good representative sample, a convenient sample size of 111 participants. a re-validated 5 points likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5) questionnaire was utilized to mobilize the required data for this study. the rationale for issue of 111 questionnaires is because questionnaires were filled by the target population (credit risk managers and operational risk managers) who are presumed to be very few in each branch of the bank. the use of questionnaires as a source of data collection is justified in that: first, the nature of the research hypotheses demands the collection of data that is not coded already on secondary sources. secondly, the questionnaire method of data collection has advantage of simplicity, cost effective and time efficient. credit risk managers and operational risk managers were requested to complete a questionnaire consisting of three sections. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 250-257 254 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group section (a) was structured to amass demographic data. while section (b) was patterned to gather background information on enterprise risks management. the final section (section c) of the questionnaire was structured to collect information on the various indicators of bank sustainability and survival.the quantitative technique of data analysis was the employed to first describe the data. this was accompanied by multiple regression technique of analysis with aid of spssv23at 5% level of significance. 4. result and discussion out of the 111 questionnaires distributed, all questionnaires were validly filled and returned. a description of the sample’s demographic characteristics pertaining to their gender, age, marital status, educational qualification and years of work experience follows below; table-1.participants gender. gender f male 34 female 77 total 111 source: field survey, 2019. table 1 showed that 34 and 77 of participants were males and females, representing 31% and 69% respectively. this shows that fewer males were involved in the research than females. this could be due to the availability of females in the study areas where the questionnaire were issued. note that the percentages in the table have been rounded off. table-2.participants age distribution. age f 1825 18 26-35 57 36 -45 20 45-55 9 56 & above 7 total 111 source: field survey, 2019. the responses of participants based on age as shown in table 2 indicated that 18 of the respondents fell within the age range of 18-25 representing 16%, 51% fell within the age range of 26-35, while those who fell within the age bracket of 36-45, 46-55 and above 55 years represented 18%, and 6% respectively. those who fell within the age bracket of 26-35 are considered more in the study area than all other age range. note that the percentages in the table have been rounded off. table-3.participants marital status. marital status f married 62 single 31 divorce 7 widowed 5 separated 6 total 111 source: field survey, 2019. table 3, the marital status of participants considered indicated that 62 of the respondents were married, 31 were single, 7 were divorced, 5 were widowed 6 was separated. this represents 56%, 28%, 6%, 5% and 5% respectively. note that the percentages in the table have been rounded off. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 250-257 255 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-4.participants educational qualification. educational qualification f diploma 4 first degree 40 master degree 50 others 17 total 111 source: field survey, 2019. table 4, the level of education of participant indicated that, 4 were diploma certificate holders, 40 were first degree holders, 50 were master’s holders, while 17 of the participant were holders of other forms of certificates. this represents 4%, 36%, 45% and 15% respectively. note that the percentages in the table have been rounded off. table-5.participants years of work experience. work experience f below 5years 17 5-10 years 57 10-20 years 22 20-30 years 12 above 30 years 3 total 111 source: field survey, 2019. table 5, 17, 57, 22 and 3 of participants are said to have had working experience below 5years, 5-10years, 1020years, 20-30years and above 30 years. this represents 15%, 51%, 20%, 11% and 3% respectively. the low percentage of participants above 30 years indicated the low number of aged people in the banking services available in jos. note that the percentages in the table have been rounded off. 4.1. model specification the cronbach’s alpha reliability test of this study show that the reliability test is 0.78 thus suggesting the reliability of each factor. the result of the content validity test are acceptable while construct exhibited range of results higher than 0.60 and lower than 0.30. therefore, both the convergent and divergent validity construct have been satisfied. in order to establish an existing relationship between enterprise risk management and sustainability and survival of banks, multiple regression was adopted and the model was specified as thus: erm=f(sfp, incd, saf) (1) erm=β1 +β2 sfp +β3 incd +β4 saf +εt(2) where: erm= enterprise risk management. sfp= strategic and financial planning. incd=income diversification. saf=sound administration and finance. εt=error term. β1 β4= parameter estimates of erm, sfp, incd and saf. 4.2. a priori expectations the a priori expectation is; β1 β4 >0. that is, all the explanatory variables are expected to have positive effect on sustainability and survival of deposit money banks in the study area table-6. descriptive of dependent and explanatory variables models n minimum maximum mean std. deviation erm 111 1.40 4.40 3.4144 .66262 sfp 111 1.50 4.83 3.5135 .72060 incd 111 1.25 5.00 3.2815 .92817 saf 111 1.55 4.50 3.2027 .71867 the total observations of the dependent and explanatory variables are 111. the table showed the mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values for the dependent and independent variables. the mean of enterprise risk management was 3.4144 percent with 0.66262 percent standard deviation. this means that, on an average, more than 3 percent of the enterprises adopted risk management for sustainability and survival. enterprise risk management for the sample period ranges between 1.40 percent and 4.40 percent. the result further showed that strategic and financial planning of the sample banks used in the study is more than 3 percent with a standard deviation of 0.72060 percent. the strategic and financial planning of the deposit money banks ranges between 1.50 and 4.83 percent. the income diversification of the sample banks used in the study averaged 3.2815 percent with a standard deviation of 0.92817 percent. the income diversification of banks ranges between 1.25 percent and 5.00 percent. as for sound administration and financial management, it showed a asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 250-257 256 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group mean value of 3.2027 percent and a standard deviation of 0.71867 percent. the sound administration and financial management of deposit money banks ranges between 1.55 and 4.50 percent. 4.3. regression analysis linear regression was employed to help capture the individual effects of the independent variables in the model. this is to indicate enterprise risk management has a significant relationship with the sustainability and survival of deposit money banks in nigeria. therefore, this indicates the relative strength of different independent variables’ on the dependent variable. the model summary for the regression analysis is presented in table 7. table-7.model summary. model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate durbin-watson 1 0.686a 0.471 0.456 0.48887 1.972 the r value 0.686 indicates that there is a strong positive correlation between enterprise risk management and sustainability of deposit money banks in nigeria. this depicts that enterprise risk management is strongly associated with sustainability of deposit money banks. the r-square is 0.471, meaning that income diversification, sound administration and finance and strategic and financial planning accounted for 47.1% variation in enterprise risk management sustainability of deposit money banks in nigeria. this depicts that 47.1% variation in banks sustainability is explained by the independent variables. by implication, 52.9% variation in the dependent variable is unaccounted for in the model. thus, 52.9% variation in deposit money banks survival and sustainability is explained by the stochastic (other variables outside the model) variable. the f-statistic result is presented in table 8. table-8.anova. model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 22.724 3 7.575 31.694 .000b residual 25.573 107 0.239 total 48.297 110 findings in table 8 showed the f statistic of the result. the f value indicates whether the set of independent variables as a whole contribute to the variation in the dependent variable. an f value of 31.694 was found. findings in table 8 further revealed that the f value was insignificant (p=0.000) at 95% confidence level. this means that enterprise risk management is highly significant in predicting sustainability and survival deposit money banks in jos plateau state. this depicts that income diversification, sound administration and finance and strategic financial planning jointly explain enterprise risk management of banks in jos plateau state. by implication, despite other factors role in the determination of banks survival and sustainability, the explanatory factors in the model plays an imperative role. the result of the coefficients of the explanatory variables is presented in table 9. table-9.coefficients. model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 1.209 0.272 4.449 0.000 sfp 0.613 0.071 0.666 8.601 0.000 incd 0.066 0.059 0.092 1.117 0.267 saf 0.051 0.075 0.055 0.676 0.501 table 9 shows the contribution of each variable in explaining enterprise risk management with survival and sustainability of the banks as shown by unstandardized beta values which assess the contribution of each variable towards the prediction of the dependent variable. the coefficient of the constant is 1.209 and significant given the probability value of zero. this means that enterprise risk management toward banks’ sustainability is positive without the interplay of the explanatory variables in the model. however, strategic and financial planning has a positive coefficient of 0.613. this conformed to apriori expectation. though, the coefficient is positive and explained 61.3% contribution to banks’ sustainability, the variable remained significant at 5% level of significance (0.05 less than 0.000). this means that 1% increase in strategic and financial planning would amount to 61.3% increase in banks sustainability in nigeria. in addition, income diversification also conformed to apriori expectation of a positive value. this is depicted by the coefficient of 0.066. the probability value of 0.267 is greater than 0.05 level of significant. this means that the variable contributed positively to the tune of 6.6% to banks sustainability in jos. a 1% increase in income diversification of banks would lead to 6.6% increase in banks sustainability and survival in nigeria. on the other hand, sound administration and finance of bank is statistically significant given the probability of 0.501 which is greater than 0.05 level of significant. the coefficient of sound administration and financial management is 5.1%. this means that sound administration and financial management contributes positively to banks sustainability and survival to the tune of 5.1%. by implication, a 1% increase in sound administration and financial management bank would lead to 5.1% increase in banks sustainability and survival in nigeria. 5. conclusion and recommendations this study assessed the effect of enterprise risk management on sustainability and survival of deposit money banks in nigeria. on overall basis, findings revealed that enterprise risk management is a necessity for financial institutions to survive and thrive in the long term. it further reveals on individual basis that there is a significant relationship between erm andstrategic and financial plan, income diversification and sound administration and financial management. in view of the above assertion, the following recommendations were made: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 250-257 257 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group in other to remain relevant and financially successful in the face of growing competitive banking environment, shorter product lifecycle, and continuous modifications in innovative technologies, it is imperative that financial institutions readjust their strategic financial plans and increase their income diversification base to combat adverse impacts of risks and uncertainty in bank transactions; more so, 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(2015). effect of enterprise risk management determinants on financial performance of listed firms in kenya. published phd thesis, jomo kenyatta university of agriculture and technology, nairobi. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.thesustainablengo.org/improving-financialviability/financial-sustainability-indicators http://www.thesustainablengo.org/improving-financialviability/financial-sustainability-indicators http://www.thesustainablengo.org/improving-financialviability/financial-sustainability-indicators http://www.thesustainablengo.org/improving-financialviability/financial-sustainability-indicators http://www.sec.gov/news/press/2009/report102109.pdf http://www.sec.gov/news/press/2009/report102109.pdf 7 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 6, no. 1, 7-14, 2019 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2019.61.7.14 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group mapping the historical development and perceptions of democratic elections in china since 1949 zhaohui hong1 1fordham university, usa. abstract one of the key measures for reforming the chinese political system is to establish the checks and balances within the communist party. doing so in turn requires an open, competitive and comprehensive democratic intraparty election. this article focuses on the historical development of intraparty elections and the practice of a checks-and-balances system in china since 1949. the article examines five main perceptions of the current political situation in china, including the urgent need to hold intraparty elections, the necessity of implementing the multi-candidate election, the positive impact of competitive elections and effective supervision mechanism, the capability of tolerating competitive interest groups within the party, and the integration of the state and party policies on building a people-oriented harmonious society. the article argues that building a democratic mechanism is contingent upon competition, which requires public campaign and transparent elections. only in this way will the chinese communist party prove itself to be adaptable and resilient. keywords: chinese communist party, intra-party elections, checks and balances, political reform, competitive election, effective supervision. jel classification: k16; k19; z10; p48; p16. citation | zhaohui hong (2019). mapping the historical development and perceptions of democratic elections in china since 1949. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 6(1): 7-14. history: received: 25 january 2019 revised: 28 february 2019 accepted: 6 march 2019 published: 20 may 2019 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: the author would like to thank the university of macau research fund for funding this research project, and thank zhidong hao, yi sun, lu cao, jianfeng jin, shushu qian, and emma hong for their suggestions and assistance. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 8 2. research methodology ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8 3. mapping chinese communist party’s internal elections since 1949 ...................................................................................... 8 4. the perceptions of competitive elections within the chinese communist party ............................................................... 9 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 13 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2019.61.7.14&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/543 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/543 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 7-14 8 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 1. introduction as one of the key indications of the successful chinese political system, the checks and balances within the chinese communist party (ccp) is critical. this requires an open, competitive and comprehensive democratic election. deng xiaoping once said, “the essential question is election, for both the party and the state” (deng, 1994). this article focuses on the historical study of intraparty elections and building a checks-and-balances system in china since 1949. the article will examine five main perceptions of the current political situation in china, which can be summarized as follows: 1) the urgent need to hold intraparty elections; 2) the necessity of implementing the multicandidate election; 3) the positive impact of competitive elections and effective supervision mechanism; 4) the capability of tolerating competitive interest groups within the party; and 5) and the integration of the state and party policies on building a people-oriented harmonious society. the article will argue that, logically, building a democratic mechanism is contingent upon competition, which in turns requires public campaign and transparent elections. only in this way will the ccp prove itself to be adaptable and resilient (nathan, 2003). 2. research methodology this study uses the mixed method in conducting empirical research and examining a large quantity of secondary sources. adopting the “sandwich” research method (frechtling and sharp, 2007) a first round of preliminary and qualitative interviews were conducted with fifteen ccp officials and scholars in an effort to understand their opinions through the written questionnaires and interview questions. these conversations took place from june to december 2011, primarily via phone, email and face-to-face interviews. the second phase involved a quantitative study of 30 ccp officials and scholars through a written survey designed to discern their views on the current situation, problems and directions of the intra-party reform. it took place from january to march 2012, in the u.s., beijing, hong kong, shanghai, and zhejiang province, where the interviewees filled out questionnaires on site or via email correspondence. the third and final phase of the research consisted of a second round of qualitative in-depth interviews which took place from march to december of 2012 in beijing, shanghai, zhejiang, hong kong, macau and the u.s. the interview questions were mailed in advance to the participants so that they could make due preparations prior to the personal interviews. the participants in these interviews and surveys included current officials at the level of department secretary, retired officials and prominent scholars. in order to protect their identity and privacy, each of the twenty-two participants is denoted with a number. the seven main topics are identified with a capital letter, and each sub-topic is marked with a number. for instance, the answer provided by participant no. 1 is indicated by 1-g-1. the time of each interview is noted, but the specific place is omitted. 3. mapping chinese communist party’s internal elections since 1949 according to qian gang, “intraparty democracy” has become a key term in the ccp‟s prominent publications over the past decade. in 2009, over 150 articles published by the people‟s daily used the term “intraparty democracy,” almost a four-fold increase from 2003. the popular website baidu also saw a 13 times increase in the number of articles that used the term “intraparty democracy” between 2003 and 2007 (qian, 2012). in an effort to study the reforms within the ccp, it is essential to accurately understand the history and current situation of the ccp's internal elections. since 1949, the ccp‟s democratic elections and the intra-party checks and balances have shown some positive signals, though there has not been any substantial progress. the first signal appeared in september 1956 at the eighth national congress of the ccp when the ccp proposed to expand intra-party democracy, improve transparency of party affairs, establish a permanent system for party congress, develop intra-party supervision, institutionalize a term limited system for leadership positions, and protect the democratic rights of party members (liu, 1956). however, the anti-rightist movement in 1957 interrupted the process of the proposed party reform. in particular, the lushan conference in 1959 conducted massive ruthless persecution against peng dehuai who expressed different political opinions within the party. the second initiation of intra-party democracy was born at a special conference from january 11 to february 7, 1962, the so-called “seven thousand people conference.” mao zedong made an unprecedented self-criticism at the conference, emphasizing his opposition to personal arbitrariness and decisive decisions without group consultations. the meeting stressed the need to supervise and check the ccp leaders at all levels (zhang, 2006). however, the “four purifications” movement again capitalism in 1964 and the cultural revolution in 1966 led to the emergence of an authoritarian dictatorship and a more brutal persecution of dissident groups against liu shaoqi, deng xiaoping and others. the third dawn was ignited by the third plenary session of the eleventh ccp central committee in 1978. the conference initiated the process of modernization of contemporary china and the ccp itself. in 1981, the sixth plenary session of the eleventh central committee of the ccp adopted the “resolution on several historical issues of the party since the founding of the people's republic of china,” emphasizing that the ccp's power is excessively concentrated on individuals. thus, the ccp must oppose the personal arbitrariness and individual worship (tccoccp, 1981). however, the anti-spiritual pollution and anti-liberalization movement in 1986 purged the intra-party democratic forces headed by hu yaobang, and the third round of the ccp‟s internal democracy was extinguished. the fourth emergence of pro-democratic efforts was reflected in the 1987 report of the 13th ccp‟s national congress because the ccp first proposed the separation of party and government and comprehensively promoted its political reform (zhao, 1987). however, the june 4th incident of 1989 interrupted the ccp‟s democratic reforms, and the party‟s pro-democratic forces headed by zhao ziyang were again persecuted (shi, 1990; burns, 1999). since the 21st century, the ccp‟s important reports and regulations have proposed some new ideas and new directions. for example, the report of the 16th ccp‟s national congress in 2002 put forward that “the intra-party democracy is the life of the party” (jiang, 2002). also, its “decision on strengthening the construction of the party‟s governing capability” was adopted by the fourth plenary session of the 16th ccp‟s central committee in asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 7-14 9 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2004, proposing “gradual expansion of direct election to the local levels of party organizations” (tccoccp, 2004). furthermore, “the regulations on intra-party supervision of the communist party of china (trial),” issued in 2004, clearly stipulated the implemented measures for “strengthening intra-party supervision and developing intraparty democracy” (tccoccp, 2005). similarly, the ccp in 2006 issued “the rights protection regulations for ccp members” which protected party members‟ different political opinions within the party (tccoccp, 2007). in 2007, the report of the 17th ccp‟s national congress authorized party members as the main authority of the ccp and proposed the separation of the three powers with the ccp‟s characteristics: power of decision-making, power of execution, and power of supervision (hu, 2007). in addition, the provisional regulations on the tenure system of representatives of the ccp‟s national congress and local representatives, in 2008, emphasized the role of representatives of party congresses at all levels (tccoccp, 2008). meanwhile, xi jinping stated in 2010 that the power should be authorized by the people and should serve to the people, clearly acknowledging the fundamental source and foundation of power (xi, 2010). in 2012, the report of the 18th ccp‟s national congress added a special chapter on political reform, re-emphasizing its interest and attention to political reform (hu, 2012). it must be pointed out though that the leaders of the ccp often set up the restrictions for china's democracy, such as banning multi-party rotations, diversified leading ideology, separation of the three powers favored by the west, federalism, and privatization, etc (wu, 2011). in particular, xi jinping eliminated the term limit for the china‟s presidency in 2018 by aggressively revising the chinese constitution (people‟s congress, 2018). however, the ccp never treated democratic elections as a restricted issue and never resolutely opposed it in public. democratic election is a form of political governance that the ccp has practiced more or less since its founding. in terms of the specific implementation of intra-party democracy, since the 1980s, the ccp has conducted some liberal experiments selectively and locally. for example, the ccp implemented the competitive election of the grassroots officials in the party, combining both appointment and elections. it also conducted the execution of the permanent party congress, promoted the role of party representatives in the decision-making process, and attempted to decentralize the centralized party power through the separation of the decision making, execution, and supervision under the party congress. in particular, the ccp promoted institutionalizing different political opinions within the party, distinguishing the opinions and sects within the party (chen, 2011). in the process of party elections, the ccp has also conducted several local experiments, such as the permanent representatives of the party congress, the term limit of party representatives, the principle of majority voting system, and the direct elections at the local level. at the same time, for over 60 years, the ccp‟s internal party elections have also begun to develop from appointments, applause approval, verbal votes, hands-on voting, and single-candidate elections to partial, limited, and short-term anonymous ballots, multi-candidate elections, public campaign, and direct elections (yang, 2009). the 18th ccp‟s national congress, which ended in november 2012, proposed the implementation of the representative system of the party congress. in fact, in 2011, the 10th party congress of hunan province has implemented a representative proposal system in which the delegates submitted a total of 229 proposals and filed 181 cases. at the 13th party congress in 2012, zhejiang province also implemented the proxy system for the representative of the party congress, clarifying that more than 10 representatives can submit a proposal to the party congress. in the previous elections of the city, county and township party committees in zhejiang province, the party congresses at all levels also implemented the representative proposal system (cai and wang, 2012). however, the above-mentioned reforms have always been difficult to be expanded and sustained. it is so hard to implement competitive elections in line with democratic common sense, international rules, and world trends. the main reason is that the motivation of reform from the top leadership is insufficient, the pressure from the bottom is not enough, and the capability of balance is lacking. the election within the party is hard to directly relate to common people‟s daily life and social stability. although “there are massive demands to vote among leading cadres within the party, the major leadership is creating the greatest resistance in opposition to the substantive and democratic elections in the party" (chen, 2011). 4. the perceptions of competitive elections within the chinese communist party according to the historical process and current situation of the above-mentioned ccp's democratic elections and the development of checks and balances, it is necessary to sort out and summarize the basic perceptions within the ccp and explore the greatest common denominator that can be accepted by the majority, aiming at determining the direction of future political reform. the first basic perception is that democratic election within the ccp is the most urgent and inevitable choice. it is meaningless to debate whether or not the election is necessary or good thing (yu, 2006). obviously, if the current ccp intends to stop all political reforms, it may lead to a coup; if the ccp attempts to stop the reform, it may cause social instability and internal chaos; and if peaceful reform is dead, then a violent revolution will arise. a scholar from beijing (22-g-1) (the 22nd respondent answered the first question [1] on the seventh big question [g]), mentioned in the interview on december 8, 2012, that currently in china, violent revolution and peaceful reform look like two tigers that are fighting each other. no one knows which one will die and which one will prevail. in order to achieve political reform peacefully, we must take the competitive elections within the party as the starting point and regard the competitive election as the “fundamental system of democracy and dynamic mechanism” (xia, 2013). the painful and cruel history of ccp internal struggles reminds current rulers that democratic elections within the party may provide an institutional protection for the losers after the failure of intra-party fighting. when lin biao helped mao zedong get rid of liu shaoqi as a party opponent in 1966, lin did not know that five years later, in 1971, he would suffer even greater defeat; when hua guofeng helped deng xiaoping defeat the “gang of four” in 1976, hua became a similar victim less than five years later. in the same way, zhao ziyang accepted the senior leaders‟ instructions in 1986 to provide his cooperation and assistance persecuting hu yaobang. three years later, zhao disappeared from the central power and was under house arrest until he died. the ever-repetitive zero-sum game in party struggles should give an incumbent a serious warning: if there is no legal system to protect the different opinions of the party and if there are no competitive party elections, you and i tomorrow may become asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 7-14 10 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group yesterday's liu shaoqi, lin biao, gang of four, hu yaobang and zhao ziyang. the liberal or conservative political views should be quite normal, but the key is to establish and implement a fair, just and open procedure to allow different opinions within the party to be exchanged, debated and appealed. therefore, in order to avoid the tragedies of cruel tortures and ruthless persecutions, it is necessary to give the dissidents within the party an institutionalized survival opportunity: you can live, but he is not necessarily dead. in fact, the continued political struggle within the party is weakening the legitimacy of the ccp‟s ruling power, exhausting its dynamics, and destroying its reputations. only democratic elections can save the ccp and revive chinese civilization. the core of the soft power of any political party is political democracy, but the essential element of political democracy is competitive election (hu, 2010) which has no variance in different systems, countries, and classes. elections are the bottom line of democracy (diamond, 1996). vladimir lenin as a founder of the soviet communist regime also stated that everyone will probably agree that the “intensive democracy principle” should include the following two necessary conditions: first, complete democracy; second, all positions are elected (lenin, 1987). robert dahl asserts that the gradual expansion of the rights of election has finally created a representative government including all the people, thus ushering in our concept of democracy today (dahl, 1999). therefore, only democracy can restrict both political power and economic capital. otherwise, power will definitely form an alliance with capital (tian, 2011). in the interview, one official (1-g-1) said on march 15, 2002, “capitalism has an american dream, but the chinese power-capitalism has no future and no dream. the current confrontations caused by the gap between rich and poor and between fairness and injustice do not have adequate mechanisms for venting and complaining. as a result, the large number of migrants and intellectuals who are dissatisfied with the current situation are planning to create massive social crises. it is not just the crisis of trust, but a real threat to the ccp‟s foundation and governance.” the second basic perception about the intra-party reform is that the power originated from the people is a universal political idea, and democratic elections are the best way to implement this ideal. for the ccp, all party members should be “people.” the ccp‟s power is from its party members who offer the legitimacy to the ccp in leading the whole party. “power from the people” is a necessary procedure to implement the principle of “power by the people.” given that 80 million members of the communist party cannot directly elect their leaders, it is necessary for ccp members to transfer their power to representatives through competitive elections and to authorize the representatives to follow four basic steps. the first is to elect representatives of the ccp to form a ccp member congress; the second one is to ask the party representatives to elect the central committee of the ccp; the third one is to authorize the central committee of the ccp to elect the members of the central political bureau and the members of the standing committee; and the fourth one is to let the standing committee members elect the general secretary as the top leader of the ccp. thus, although power is authorized at various levels, the essence of the source of power is still controlled by every ordinary ccp member (zhang, 2008). in evaluating “the current operation of democratic centralism within the ccp,” about 74% of the 22 interviewed chinese officials and scholars believe that the biggest problem of the ccp is the lack of ccp members‟ rights of supervision, election, transparency, and speech see table 1. table-1. the statistical table of interviews on the ccp reform (question 1) (%). how do you evaluate the current operation of the democratic centralism within the ccp? agree disagree no comment 1) is the top leader‟s power too big? 52.6 15.8 31.6 2) is it difficult to implement effective supervision to the combined disciplinary committee and the party committee? 73.7 10.5 15.8 3) party members don‟t have enough rights of supervision, election, transparency, and speech. 73.7 15.8 10.5 4) does the party often not operate under the constitution? 26.3 36.8 36.8 5) are the party's financial powers not subject to supervision? 26.3 26.3 47.4 6) are the provincial and municipal level rights too large? 10.5 15.8 73.7 7) others 0 0 0 source: based on the survey with chinese scholars and officials on march 15, 2012 in china. in this regard, a government-level departmental cadre (2-a-3) said on march 16, 2012 that “every party member is clear as to what their rights are. what is unclear is the result of the use of their rights.” it demonstrates fear of exercising political rights. a departmental cadre who is engaged in party history research (9-a-3) believed on april 26, 2012 that “we can‟t blame an individual party member who had lack of rights to supervise and speech. they simply don‟t dare to express their honest opinion because they worry about their job security.” there is also a retired 81-year-old cadre (12-a-3) who argued on may 26, 2012 that with respect to the rights to vote, “the candidates are prearranged and scheduled in advance, thus, the voting rights are in vain. now the ccp emphasizes one voice, blocks the news, and does not allow a little noise. therefore, how can we have the rights to know and access?” also, in this retired official‟ view, “the freedom of speech must be punished, and once different opinions are expressed, the speeches will be locked up and may be sentenced as criminal. in particular, many senior comrades are seriously worried about the direction of the country and the benefits of the people.” a retired cadre at the upper middle level of official ranking (13-a-3) also believed on may 28, 2012 that “the name of the party's suffrage is absolutely absent. as for the rights of supervision, know and speech are completely gone.” another ccp official (17-a-3) said on june 6, 2012 that “the party members‟ rights to know are more critical, compared to their rights to supervision, voting, and speech. how can we guarantee supervision and speech without the right to know? at present, the right to know is very inadequate. there are some rights to vote for party members, but it is also limited. the „fake‟ ballot can‟t express their wishes.” a ccp‟s scholar (20-a-3) said on june 20, 2012: “the rights to supervise, vote, know, and speak are mainly how to ensure transparent disclosure. it is asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 7-14 11 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group necessary to formulate procedural regulations, and this stipulation cannot be a lip service. some top leaders use procedural democracy in name to practice their substantial dictatorship.” the third basic understanding about intra-party democracy is that democratic elections can produce a benign and effective monitoring mechanism. theoretically, all elected ccp officials should accept people‟s checks because their power comes from the ccp members. any ccp officials who evade, resist and suppress supervision should face the possibility of recall, impeachment and losing elections. therefore, the democratic election within the ccp can naturally strengthen the democratic culture, implement decision-making democracy, promote transparency of party affairs, establish a regular report system of the standing committee to the national committee, accept supervision, and be responsible for local party members. “the level of development of intra-party democracy determines the level of supervision within the party” (gao, 2008). moreover, competitive democratic elections can fundamentally smooth the relationship between officials and the public if the elected officials have power, responsibilities, and a greater driving force to connect to the people and serve the people. this will ultimately help save the legitimacy of the ccp officials in power (gao, 2008). when asked, “what is the easiest reform theme at the moment?” 53% of participants chose “different elections at all levels of leaders,” “direct election of party congress members” and “election method” reforms, including candidates‟ campaign and secret voting, etc. see table 2. table-2. the statistical table of interviews on ccp reform (question 3). 3. if there are many problems in democratic centralism, what reforms can be carried out within the party to transform the ccp from a revolutionary party to a modern ruling party? what is the most easily reformed theme at the moment? percentage (%) 1) implement competitive elections of party leaders at all levels 16 2) direct election of the party congress representatives 32 3) transparency of the party affairs 11 4) transparency of the party's finances 5 5) disclosure of party members and cadres‟ private property 26 6) reform election formats, including candidates‟ campaign, secret voting, etc. 5 7) resume the separation between party and government proposed by the ccp‟s 13th national congress in the late 1980s? 5 8) others none source: based on the survey with chinese scholars and officials on march 15, 2012 in china. this table shows that the current ccp officials and scholars mostly favor the reform of democratic elections within the party. the reason for this is that, according to a departmental official (3-c-6) on march 18, 2012, reforming the electoral system is operational and feasible with low political risk. an upper middle level official (1c-2) selected the option of direct election of the party congress representatives on the questionnaires above on march 15, 2012, but stressed: “only direct elections are not enough. the party members need to have the rights to recall, appeal, and there must be a special agency to process the grievances.” the fourth basic perception about the intra-party democracy is that the ccp‟s identity has been diversified, and the interests of the ccp have been divided in light of dramatic socio-economic development. therefore, the free election is necessary to select spokespersons who truly represent different opinions and interest groups, but the ccp must guarantee the legal status of these spokespersons. in view of the existing dissident groups, most interviewed scholars believe that the ccp should allow party members to express different opinions and recognize different interests in order to promote the ccp‟s “transparency and inclusiveness” and reconcile the interests of broad communities and special groups (wang, 2011). in fact, as early as 120 years ago, friedrich engels, one of the founding fathers of communist ideas, addressed that the survival and development of each party is usually accompanied by the confrontations between the moderate and radical factions within the party. in engels‟ view, the extremists will only promote the growth of this faction positively. in particular, engels argues that the success of the labor movement is to sharply criticize the existing society, and criticism is the lifeblood of the workers‟ movement. therefore, according to engels, how can the labor movement itself evade criticism and prohibit the debate? do we ask others to give ourselves freedom of speech, but eliminate others‟ freedom of speech? (engels, 1995). similarly, mao zedong used to state that it is common sense to have a party outside of the party and factions within the party. it is an emperor‟s dictatorship to prohibit a party outside of the party. it is very strange if there are no factions within the party (the literature research office of the ccp central committee, 2003). in 2000, jiang zemin proposed the “three represents” and began to allow capitalists to join the ccp. this was a substantial revision to the ccp‟s basic principle because ccp‟s constitution defines that “the ccp is the forerunner of the working class.” however, the 18th party congress began to re-emphasize that the ccp simultaneously is the forerunner of the chinese people and the chinese nation,” although meanwhile it is still representing the working class. the ccp is no longer just the vanguard of the working class (tccoccp, 2012). class stratification and class division have become evidence in the ccp (lewis and litai, 2003; dickson, 2004; sato and eto, 2008). as a result, the proletariat and the bourgeoisie have simultaneously become the main members of the ccp, and the bourgeoisie is increasingly leading the decision-making and soft power of the ccp. consequently, the real proletariat and the working class are increasingly marginalized. in particular, after the 16th national congress of the ccp in 2002 and after the fourth generation of the ccp leaders proposed the development of a new strategy, the ccp has already emerged as a prototype of different interest groups, providing an organizational basis and ideological condition for their institutionalization of different interest groups (zhang, 2000). for example, since 2002, hu jintao has proposed a different development strategy from deng xiaoping and jiang zemin, such as the scientific development and harmonious society. therefore, extreme economic development at an extraordinary pace is no longer the top priority. rich people cannot take all from poor people. they must let the poor share the pie. moreover, the traditional mentality that asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 7-14 12 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group stability means everything has made it difficult to guarantee sustainable and high-quality harmony in society. in this way, different development strategies and ideologies will inevitably affect and be reflected in different personnel arrangements, providing the possibility for the emergence of party factions. in fact, since the 17th ccp‟s national congress in 2007, the differences between the opinions and interests within the ccp have become increasingly clear. this difference is mainly reflected in the variances in their respective social and economic interests, focusing the conflict between capital and labor, developed coastal areas and developing heartland areas, and the central government and local governments. specifically, the liberal group, similar to the us democratic party, advocates for social harmony, fairness and justice, fiscal subsidy to underrepresented areas, reducing farmers‟ economic burdens, regulating the stock market, emphasizing environmental protection, controlling housing prices, and caring for disadvantaged groups. in contrast, the conservative group advocates prioritizing economic development, dismantling urban resident housing for profitable real estate, confiscating rural land for economic investment, supporting capital interests, improving the investment environment, reducing central and administrative intervention, and promoting the free development of the stock market and the housing market, which are similar to the “republicans” in the united states (hong, 2007). in this regard, li cheng also believed in 2007 that the existing political system is characterized by a “bipartisan” alliance formed by two major factions: one is the elitists and the other is the populists. such a system would result in more transparent political lobbying, more legitimate factional politics, and more real elections (li, 2007). social and economic divisions within the ccp have become possible (li, 2009). in the interview, a member of the chinese people's political consultative conference (cppcc) (7-d-1) who has been teaching at the university for 20 years argued on april 18, 2012 that “it is acceptable to have a transparent, institutionalized, and legalized party faction. at the current stage, this party faction issue is imminent. there is no need to cover up. in the future, party factions and differentiation will become more and more serious. although the authority of the first generation of leaders like mao zedong was capable of eliminating different factions, now it is not possible. in fact, there are many existing factions now.” but a high-level cadre (20-d-1) said on june 20, 2012 that “it is impossible now to open, institutionalize, and legalize the party factions because it may cause the division of the party. but the ccp should allow appropriate competition within the party. actually, competition and factions are connected each other. if there are more competitions, there will be more factions. under the premise of norms, the ccp should provide a stage for appropriate competition, and relevant policies should be formulated within certain limits, certain conditions, and certain places.” the fifth basic perception about ccp‟s democratization is that the principle of a harmonious society and the human being-oriented society should also apply to the ccp. it must and should be implemented within the party, rather than just focusing on this principle for disadvantaged groups outside the party. in theory, the essence of “human being-oriented” is that as long as he or she is a human being, whether he/she is a good person, a bad person or even a prisoner, he/she needs to be respected equally. however, at present, “human being-oriented” is more about emphasizing the poor, women, the disabled and the disadvantaged as human beings, and not treating the political opponents within the party as human beings. it seems that political opponents are neither humane nor dignified. given the fact that the key factors affecting a harmonious society are both politics and the economy, caring for the poor can only promote a harmonious economic society. only by treating the different political figures inside and outside the party can china build a harmonious political society. therefore, the establishment of a benign competition system with humanity is necessary for the ccp‟s reconstruction and for strengthening the country‟s soft and smart power and long-term social stability. therefore, acknowledging different opinions and interest groups in the ccp can maximize the establishment and improvement of the supervision and balance mechanism within the ccp. whether a party can be “great, glorious, and correct” depends to a large extent on whether there is a healthy and effective error correction mechanism within the party. legalizing different groups and different opinions is the organizational guarantee of the party‟s internal error correction. mao zedong had a wise judgment on the regularity of the ccp‟s intra-party confrontations that would take place once every seven or eight years. this profoundly shows that the political ecosystem of the ccp determines the inevitability of an internal conflict within seven or eight years. however, the fundamental reason for this constant political fighting is that there is no legal mechanism in the party that legitimizes different interest groups; thus, this leads to a political earthquake in the party on a regular basis. if there is a legalized and institutionalized competition for different interests and opinions, then the tension within the party may be released and relieved at all times, and it is also possible to make the hidden rules a clear rule, turn the conspiracy to transparent struggle, and transfer the disorderly fighting to the ordered competition. it would help the party members and cadres reserve their different opinions and protect their rights to know, supervise, question and speech. in the questionnaire survey of 30 chinese officials and scholars, the author found that nearly 94% of the participants believed that the arguments of different views in the party were normal; 87.5% supported that different views need to be institutionalized; 81.25% believed that different political opinions need to be made public; 81.25% considered that the ccp should legalize and publicize different opinions within the party see table 3. based on the above five basic perceptions, the basic logic of competitive democratic elections within the ccp is that democracy must have elections, elections must be competitive, competition must demonstrate different political views, political opinions must be publicized, public campaign must be pre-organized, and then organizations will inevitably promote and maintain different interest groups. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 7-14 13 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-3. the statistical table of interviews on the ccp reform (questions 6, 7, 9 & 10). question 6#: do you think that different views and arguments in the party are normal? yes no not clear others 93.75% 6.25% 0% 0% question 7#: if you think that it is normal to have different opinions in the party, is it necessary to institutionalize and protect such opinions? yes no not clear others 87.5% 0% 6.25% 6.25% question 9#: do you think that the expression of different opinions and interests in the party needs to be open and institutionalized? yes no not clear others 81.25% 12.5% 0% 6.25% question 10#: best way to handle dissidents within the party? establish a tolerant and relaxed institutional environment allow them to exist, but never publicize crack down immediately to maintain party unity and image others 81.25% 0% 6.25% 12.5% source: based on the survey with chinese scholars and officials on march 15, 2012 in china. 5. conclusion in light of the historical study and current understanding of the ccp‟s competitive elections, it is worth noting that the ccp has accumulated enough internal driving forces to advance its democratic reform. however, it is critical now to push the top leaders to take action in initiating and implementing political reform. given the historical lessons in china, it is easier to maintain the status quo in the name of social stability led or misled by one authoritarian leader. after all, the mainstream of chinese conservative culture and values still dominate over the majority of chinese people‟s minds (hong, 2015). therefore, it is essential to study the specific problems of the current elections within the party and design action plans to implement the concrete and constructive steps in advancing the ccp‟s competitive elections to the next level. references burns, j.p., 1999. 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that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 15 august 2015/ revised: 2 september 2015/ accepted: 14 september 2015/ published: 21 september 2015 publisher: asian online journal publishing group personality assessment is a complex process and there is an ongoing need for studies and for an improvement in the selection methods employed. most assessment processes and methods focus on simply describing the personality, but at least on the leadership level, the need is to understand and explain behavior. therefore this study suggests that the rorschach comprehensive system (rcs) will predict the leader’s performance more accurately than when performance is predicted only with selfreported personality methods. furthermore, this study suggests that the rcs variables moderate the relationship between the preferred personality and the actual personality congruence or job–person (jp) fit and the leader’s performance, when the jp fit personality is measured by the self-reported assessment tool. pearson correlations and stepwise hierarchical multiple regression analyses (n=203) confirmed several hypotheses and the results support the view that performance-based assessment method explains the personality more than the self-assessment based personality dimensions and should therefore be part of the personnel assessment process. keywords: rorschach comprehensive system (rcs), performance, leader, job–person fit. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.1/500.1.18.28 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 3(1): 18-28 19 1. introduction ―prediction is very difficult, especially about the future‖ nils bohr, nobel prize for physics in 1922 organizations all over the world are willing to pay for assessments conducted by psychologists, particularly when the organization is seeking to recruit leaders. one reason for this might be that two thirds of leaders fail in their work (hogan, 2007) and the primary reason for this are issues with personality functions (bentz, 1985; van velsor and leslie, 1995; dotlich and cairo, 2003). the decision to hire a new leader is based on estimation, likelihood, and incomplete information. psychologists are trusted to increase the likelihood of successful decisions by evaluating how the leader will behave under stress or when outside of their comfort zone. however, assessing a leader’s personality is a complex process, particularly if the assessment seeks to explain leader behavior rather than simply describing. therefore there is an evident need for studies of assessment processes and of the associated selection methods. psychologists first became concerned that people may not respond accurately to transparent items as long ago as the 1920s (hartshorne and may, 1928) revealing that the interest in measures indirectly related to the construct they are intended to indicate is not a new thing. however, even if respondents answer the questions as honestly as they can, the self-report personality assessment methods are difficult for people. most individuals—even those with the most stable personality traits—are only moderately capable of assessing their own behavior because of selfenhancement, social desirability, and lack of self-knowledge (john and robins, 1993; morgeson et al., 2007). it seems that the experts in this field want to understand the candidates at a deeper level and also they seem to need to explain the behavior and not just describe it. kets de vries (2006) wants to recognize ―the inner theatre,‖ pratch and levinson (2002) ―the personality structure,‖ and hogan and hogan (2001) ―the dark side of the personality.‖ prior studies support the view that the performance-based personality assessment methods may be the only way to acquire this kind of information (e.g., levinson (1994)). the rorschach inkblot test is one example of a performance-based assessment method that can provide more individualized and complex information concerning thinking, emotional management, self-image, and interpersonal tendencies (exner, 1993; 2003). the purpose of this article is to explore the potential uses of the rorschach comprehensive system (rcs) in the recruitment process. this study suggests that the rcs will predict the leader’s performance more accurately than if the performance is evaluated only on using self-reported personality methods. furthermore this study suggests that the rcs variables moderate the relationship between the preferred personality and the actual personality congruence known as job–person (jp) fit and the leader’s performance, when the jp fit personality is measured with the selfreported assessment tool. 1.1. personnel selection equal employment opportunity commission (1978) recommends that personnel selection should be conducted on the basis of a job analysis based on jp fit that is assessed by many different selection tools. there are several researchers who agree, that these three issues—job analysis, theory of fit, and the multi-method approach—lie at the core of personnel selection. each test measures some aspect of personality that the others do not. therefore the multimethod approach—combining different personnel assessment methods—is a widely used and recommended strategy for personnel assessment (schmidt and hunter, 1998; schuler, 2006). moreover, the multi-method approach can increase the validity of both the assessment process and the decision (schmidt and hunter, 1998; cortina et al., 2000). 1.2. theory of fit and job performance the theory of fit is the most widely used theory in the employee selection context (sekiguchi, 2004) and employee selection processes have particularly focused on achieving jp fit (werbel and gilliland, 1999; sekiguchi, 2004), which is the congruence between the abilities of a person and the demands of a job (edwards, 1991; kristof, 1996). the studies support the view that if there is jp fit employees will be satisfied with their work, which will have positive repercussions (hall et al., 1970; o’reilly, 1977; hollenbeck, 1989; caldwell and o’reilly, 1990; edwards, 1991; 1996; cable and judge, 1996; lauver and kristof-brown, 2001; kristof-brown et al., 2005). in order to achieve the fit, employers must analyze what kind of demands the job places on the employee, and the personal abilities required to meet them. accordingly, the main step at the beginning of the assessment process is to conduct a job analysis (anderson and wilson, 1997; voskuijl, 2005; schuler, 2006). traditionally, job analysis has highlighted only education, experience and knowledge, skills and abilities (ksas) (french et al., 1982; dawis and lofquist, 1984; caldwell and o’reilly, 1990; wilk and sackett, 1996) and neglected the personality. more recent studies have examined the validity of personality measures as predictors in personnel selection. these studies have found personality traits to predict job performance (barrick and mount, 1991; tett et al., 1991; hough, 1992; mount and barrick, 1995; salgado, 1997; 1998; 2002; 2003; hurtz and donovan, 2000; barrick et al., 2001). moreover, some studies have argued that personality traits may be an important determinant of fit in the case of specific jobs (o’reilly, 1977; jackson et al., 1980; paunonen et al., 1987). in addition, there is some evidence that those people with certain personality traits are satisfied and successful in certain vocations (spokane, 1985; assouline and meir, 1987). 1.3. personality and personality measurement personality is a concept lacking a single, approved definition or theory. one of the well-known models is the mcadams’ view (mcadams, 1996; 2009) that form implies that personality information can be acquired on three levels: 1) dispositional traits, 2) characteristic adaptions (e.g., motives, values), and 3) integrative life stories. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 3(1): 18-28 20 1.3.1. work personality inventory, wopi the trait approach, especially the big five, has dominated personality research. the trait perspective and the big five methods have been criticized for being vulnerable to impression management (e.g., neo five factor inventory; costa and mccrae (1992)); for measuring traits that are very easy to observe even in a stranger; and on the grounds that personality traits explain only a small part of human personality (mcadams, 1995). therefore the self-evaluation method selected in this study is not a big five one but the work personality inventory (wopi), which approaches the construct of personality from a multifactorial angle (nederström and niitamo, 2010). wopi measures motives, cognitive styles, and attitudes. 1.3.2. rorschach comprehensive system (rcs) one of the most widely used and scientifically researched performance-based assessment methods is the rorschach inkblot test (rorschach, 1921). the rorschach test can provide more individualized and complex information concerning ways of thinking, emotional management, self-image, and interpersonal tendencies (exner, 1993; 2003). in the leadership concept, the rorschach test could offer a method that could explain leader behavior rather than just describing it del giudice (2010a). the rorschach and the comprehensive system (= rcs) (exner, 1993; 2003) for administration and coding has been infrequently used in the selection process, even though some researchers (see viglione and hilsenroth (2001)) argue that one would need some 50 other methods to replace the rorschach process. one reason for the criticism may be that the reliability and validity of the rorschach test was at one time seriously questioned. however, the situation has changed since john exner developed the rcs and following the publication of hundreds of studies (meyer, 1997; 2000; 2001; 2002; meyer et al., 1998; erdberg and shaffer, 1999; viglione, 1999; viglione and hilsenroth, 2001; weiner, 2001; exner, 2003). if the rorschach test is administered, coded, and interpreted according to exner (1993; 2000; 2003) equivalent reliability, and validity ratings to self-report measures have been established (ganellen, 1996; 2001; society for personality assessment, 2005). secondly, some researchers still see that the rorschach is a projective test and criticize it accordingly. it should be noted that the american psychological association stresses that the rcs is not an associative method but a performance-based personality test that focuses on perceptual, cognitive, and decision-making tasks (meyer et al., 1998). thirdly, some argue that the rorschach is a method created to arrive at a clinical diagnosis and should not be used for other purposes (kottke et al., 2010). however, according to weiner (1997) the rcs is a method that the researcher can be used to gather information concerning personality states, traits, and motivations. these objectives are not dissimilar from other personality tests, such as the sixteen personality factor questionnaire (cattell et al., 1993) or myers briggs type indicator (myers and mccalley, 1985) and in essence only the methodology differs. one could also argue that clinical psychology is historically focused on assessing negative phenomena. however, this trend appears to be beginning to change in that field too (peterson and seligman, 2004). 1.4. rcs and personnel selection during the past few years, the use of the rcs has received some attention and generated discussion in the personnel selection context. for example, del giudice (2010a; 2010b) and kottke et al. (2010) have published some reviews on the topic. zacker (1997) suggests that the rcs may be a useful tool in pre-employment screening, while ganellen (1994; 1996) suggests that the rorschach may improve the quality of pre-employment screening, and especially when used in the conjunction with self-reported measures. güntert and nascimento (2000) studied the role of the high depi index in the executive selection concept. the depi index is an interesting indicator because recent studies suggest that executives are under considerable stress, which leads to a tendency to distance themselves from their own feelings, which in turn can increase the risk of their becoming depressed (lyons, 2002; o’roark, 2002). however, the papers concerning personnel assessment and recruitment are mainly reviews and empirical research is rare. prior research suggests the rorschach method is especially helpful when trying to evaluate how the individual will perform in unpredictable, unstructured, and unfamiliar situations (dies, 1995; finn, 1996). several studies concerning clinical settings have supported the view that the rorschach has the ability to predict future behavior (exner, 1993; 2003; hiller et al., 1999; viglione, 1999; smith et al., 2001). this may mean that if the rorschach is part of a battery of tests, it may improve the effectiveness of personality screening procedures. 2. research problems this study suggests first that rcs variables will explain a leader’s performance. second, this study argues that the rcs variables moderate the relationship between jp fit and the leader’s performance. the purpose of this research is to offer new insights into the things that affect the leader’s job performance. this study suggests that the rcs is a potentially very useful tool in the assessment process and that executive professionals should add it to their methods toolbox. the research problems addressed in this study are: h1. personality—as evaluated by both self-assessment methods and the rcs—is associated with job performance. h2. the rcs variables moderate the relationship between the jp fit and the leader’s performance. the current research evaluates earlier studies (exner, 1993; ganellen, 1994; 1996; dies, 1995; finn, 1996; zacker, 1997; hiller et al., 1999; viglione, 1999; del giudice, 2010a; 2010b) and concludes that the jp fit and rcs variables will explain the leader’s performance, and also moderate the relationship between the jp fit and the leader’s performance. the rcs variables of personality may either lead to bad performance (even when there is a fit measured with the self-report methods) or lead to good performance (even when there is no fit based on the selfreported method). for example, even if a leader had a good fit in the job (based on the self-reported methods), the performance will not be good if he/she does not have the required stress tolerance level. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 3(1): 18-28 21 3. methods data (n = 203) were collected in finland from a global manufacturing organization during 2010–2011. all but two of the firm’s lower and middle level leaders participated in this research. towards each leader it was selected between three and six subordinates who evaluated the leader’s performance with the wopi 360 tool. five nominated subordinates had either retired or were on long-term sick leave and were therefore replaced by the employees next on the list. the supervisor, who analyzed what kind of personality traits would be ideal in a certain job, conducted each job analysis. among the whole group of participants, 80 % were male and 20 % female, and their mean age was 46. 3.1. methods and study variables first internal consistencies were computed for the scales. the cronbach’s alpha value for the wopi 360 tool was 0.99, thus meeting the reliability criterion. in contrast the internal consistencies were 0.61 for the congruence of all dimensions. the congruence variable was constructed first by summing the single dimensions separately from the leaders’ and the ―ideal‖ person results that were evaluated by the supervisor, and then the absolute difference between the leader’s score and the ideal personality score was calculated. then the final sum dimension was calculated by summing these single sum dimensions. in spite of the low alpha values they are considered acceptable because newly developed scales may have values of under 0.7 (nunnaly and bernstein, 1994). the study involved 51 rorschach protocols, all of them relating to managerial positions. according to exner (1995) some 20% to 25% of all the protocols should be randomly selected by an independent professional. in this study, 20 randomly selected protocols were recoded by the clinician and researcher tuula ilonen. the intraclass correlations are presented in table 1. table-1. internal reliability: intraclass correlation coefficients variable intraclass coefficients (n = 20) p dd 1 < .001 s .98 < .001 dqo dqv dets non f fqo fq (2) cont p zf sum6 sum6 & nosum6 other spsc other spsc+otherspsc spsc spsc & nospsc .99 .95 .98 .97 .92 .96 .99 .99 .95 .98 .76 1 .88 .98 .80 .98 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 < .001 dependent variable (performance): leader’s performance was measured by 203 subordinates with the wopi 360 tool (niitamo, 2010). wopi 360 is a multi-rater tool for appraisal of competence resources and deficits (niitamo, 2010). independent variable (jpfit): personality was measured with a standardized self-report questionnaire, the work personality inventory (wopi) (nederström and niitamo, 2010; niitamo, 2010). the moderating variable(s): the personality was measured by the rcs (exner, 1993; 2000; 2003). personality and fit. personality was measured by a standardized self-report questionnaire, the work personality inventory (wopi) (nederström and niitamo, 2010; niitamo, 2010). wopi is based on the psychology of motivation (7 scales), thinking (4 scales) and attitudes (3 scales). the items were assessed on a dichotomous (true-false) scale (niitamo, 2010). the inventory comprises 224 items, each with 14 scales measured by 14 items (niitamo, 2010). these 14 dimensions are arranged along the five general competencies at work (niitamo, 2010). in this study the items were examined at the level of the sum of dimensions rather than that of single dimensions. the dimension was studied and calculated using the data from primary single dimensions. the difference between the subordinate’s evaluated ideal personality and leader’s actual personality factors were calculated for the dimension sum (jpfit = ideal personality – actual personality). personality was also measured by the rorschach test, a personality assessment method. there are ten inkblots in the test and five of them are black while another five contain at least some colored ink. the person being tested is asked to respond to the question ―what might this be?‖ for each card (exner, 1993; 2003). the rorschach and the comprehensive system (exner, 1993; 2000; 2003) has been proved to possess equivalent reliability and validity compared to self-report measures (ganellen, 1996; 2001). the test data falls into eight clusters and this study focuses on five of those and the variables that have received support in earlier studies, since it was not feasible to take all the variables from the rcs (piotrowski and rock, 1963; porcelli and meyer, 2002; exner, 2003; bornstein and masling, 2005; de villemor-amaral, 2007). the clusters in this study are 1) stress tolerance (d, adjd), 2) interpersonal perception (cdi, fd, phr, ghr, cop), 3) information processing (zf, zd), 4) cognitive mediation (xa%, x-%), and 5) self-perception (fr+rf, egoi, fd). furthermore, the depi (depression) index was absorbed into this study since it has received support in earlier studies (güntert and nascimento, 2000). all the variables are included in table 1. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 3(1): 18-28 22 table-2. variables, (exner, 2000; 2003) stress tolerance d the individual’s tendency to become disorganized when facing stressful situations and the individual’s tendency to act impulsively in the stressful situations. adjd the ability to maintain control under stress. interpersonal perception cdi the individual’s vulnerability to chronic interpersonal difficulties. high scores usually reflect chaotic interpersonal history and a lack of sensitivity to the needs of others. cdi includes 11 variables and can yield scores of 0–5. fd food (fd) responses typically indicates the dependency orientation. the value is expected to be zero. a value higher than zero suggests the behavior of the person reflects a higher level of dependency than is usual. people with one or more fd responses tend to be naïve in their expectations concerning the support available and interpersonal relations. phr poor human representation (phr) responses usually indicate an interpersonal history dominated by difficulties and failures. people with many phr responses are usually rejected by others. ghr good human representation (ghr) responses indicate an interpersonal history that has been dominated by adaptive behavior. cop cooperative movement (cop) responses indicate that the interpersonal exchanges are positive. the cop responses indicate an interest in cooperating with others. information processing zf zf is the frequency of the numbers of responses to which the z score has been assigned. the zf gives an estimation of the processing effort. zf has a positive correlation with intelligence and with the need for achievement (exner et al., 1984). zd the zd score gives an estimation of the efficiency of the scanning activity during processing operations. it may also give information on the motivation to process effectively. the value of zd is expected to be between +3.0 and -3.0. if the zd value is under -3.0, the person neglects some critical cues in the stimulus field. this may lead to less effective behavior. if the zd score is over +3.0, the person puts more effort into scanning activities than is necessary. this is usually a trait-like style because the person wants to avoid making mistakes. however this style may indicate a person finds it difficult to make decisions. cognitive mediation xa% xa% gives direct information on data mediation. more specifically, the xa% indicates how well the mediation activities are to yield behaviors that are appropriate to the situation. the lower the value, the more the subject is likely to struggle with mediation activities. x-% x-% indicates the frequency of the uncommon responses in the blot contours. a significant amount of negative answers usually indicates problems with the cognitive dysfunction that can be related to psychological or neurological problems. the x-% is expected to be less than 0.15. if the x-% is over 0.25 there may be some mediational dysfunctions and inappropriate behavior is to be expected. self-perception fr+rf reflections (fr + rf) typically indicate the narcissism-like personality features. typically people with this kind of personality tend to value themselves very highly. this does not automatically mean that there are some pathological features in the personality but in some cases it is possible. if the fr+rf is greater than zero, self-involvement tends to dominate perceptions. this feature typically has a strong influence on decision making and behavior. egoi the egocentricity index reflects self-concern and self-esteem. fd fd responses indicate introspective behavior. the complete description depi the depi (depression) index includes 14 variables and can attract scores from zero to seven. leader’s performance. leader’s performance was measured by the wopi 360 tool (niitamo, 2010). wopi 360 is a multi-rater tool for the appraisal of competence resources and deficits (niitamo, 2010). the leader’s behavior was appraised with 45 standard questions. questions were answered on a 0 (= not at all descriptive ) to 6 ( = very descriptive) likert scale. in this study only one rater group was used, the manager’s direct subordinates, the number of whom ranged from three to six for each manager. 3.2. analysis the data were analyzed with the spss 18.0 for windows program. the associations between the jpfit, the leader’s performance, and the rcs variables were examined by way of the pearson correlation. the moderating models were tested with hierarchical regression analyses. a series of stepwise hierarchical multiple regression analyses were examined to test the interaction effect of rcs variables on the relationship between jp fit and leader’s performance. the gender was entered in the first step of the analysis, the jp fit in the second step, the rcs variable in the third step, and the interaction term in the fourth step. 4. results the correlations between job–person fit, performance, and the rcs variables: table 3 illustrates correlations among the variables. the jp fit had statistically meaningful positive associations with the leader’s performance (r = 0.43, p < .001). the more similar the preferred personality and the actual personality congruence, the better the leader’s performance was. the jp fit had a positive correlation with the stress tolerance variables (d, r = 0.24, p < .01; adj d, r = 0.28, p < .001). it seems that the leaders with good fit with their work, also had high levels of stress tolerance. from the interpersonal perception variables, the cdi (r = -0.23, p < .01), fd (r = 0.20, p < .01), and cop (r = 0.22, p < .01) were related to the jp fit. leaders with a good fit on the personality level also seem to be interested asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 3(1): 18-28 23 in cooperating with others, have fewer interpersonal difficulties, and to be sensitive to the needs of others. among the interpersonal perception variables, the phr (r = .05, p > .05) and ghr (r = 0.10, p > 0.5) showed no correlation to jp fit. both variables concerning information processing were associated with jp fit (zf, r = 0.17, p < .05; zd, r = .22, p < .01). the closer the fit, the more effort the leader put into processing. neither of the cognitive mediation variables (xa%, r = 0.02, p > .05; x-%, r = 0.00, p > .05) were associated with jp fit and only fd (r = -.22, p < .01) among the self-perception variables (fr+rf, r = -0.01, p > .05; egoi r = 0.13, p > .05) was associated with that same jp fit. depi had negative association (r = -0.20, p > .01) with jp fit. it seems that the leader with a good jp fit experiences fewer feelings of depression. leader performance was associated with the jp fit (r = 0.43, p < .001). the more similar the preferred personality and the actual personality congruence, the better the leader’s performance was. performance was also related to gender (r = .15, p < .05) and the subordinates were more pleased with the female leaders’ performance than that of male leaders. the leaders’ performance was associated with both stress tolerance variables (d, r = 0.27, p < .001; adjd, r = 30, p < .001). the better a leader’s stress tolerance, the better the performance was. performance was associated with ghr (r = .15, p < .05) and cop (r = .15, p < .05) among the internal perception variables whereas there was no correlation with cdi (r = -0.06, p > .05), fd (r = 0.09, p > .05) and phr (r = .11, p > .05). if a leader had an adaptive interpersonal history and if the interpersonal exchanges were positive, the leader performance was also likely to be good. among the information processing variables only zd (r = -0.22, p < .01) was associated with performance. therefore the efficiency of the scanning activity during the processing operation is associated with the leader’s performance. the zf (r = 0.09, p > .05) had no correlation with leader performance. from the cognitive mediation variables the xa% (r = 0.15, p < .05) and x-% (r = -.23, p < .01) showed a connection to the leader’s performance. the result suggests that the better the leader is able to yield the mediational activities behaviors that are appropriate to the situation and the less the leader have the uncommon responses that in the blot contours the better the performance. the narcissism-like feature of personality (fr + rf) was the only variable among the self-perception variables that was correlated with performance (r = 0.15, p < .05). the more narcissism-like features the leader demonstrated, the better the performance. the depression index was also associated with performance (r = -.34, p < .01). the less the leader experienced feelings of depression, the better the performance. table-3. correlations between the leader’s performance, burnout, and the fit between the actual personality and the ideal job demands. |0.21 – 0.26| significant at the 0.05 level, |0.27 – 0.64| significant at the 0.01 level r = |.25-.96|, p < .001 r = |.20-.24|, p < .01 r = |.14-.19|, p < .05 job–person fit and the association of the rcs variables with the leader’s performance: regression analysis: to examine the hypothesis regarding the moderating effect of stress tolerance, interpersonal perception, information processing, cognitive mediation, self-perception and depi, 15 separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed. the first step assessed the effect of gender on the dependent variables and the second step assessed the jp fit. in the third step, the predictor variables were entered, followed by the inclusion of the interaction terms in the fourth step. the results concerning the hierarchical regression analysis are to be found in tables 4–9. stress tolerance: the moderating effect of stress tolerance on the relationship between job–person fit and leader’s performance was examined first. table 4 shows that jp fit (d, β = 0.35, p < .001 and adjd, β = 0.31, p < .001) has a significant impact on leader’s performance, after controlling for gender. in addition, adjd (β = -0.28, p < .05) had an impact on performance. the interaction terms d (β = -0.35, p < .05) and adjd (β = -0.53, p < .001) with jp fit both show a significant effect on leader performance and in both cases added significant incremental variance at step 4. the interaction term model with d explained 25 % and with adjd 29% in terms of leader performance. table-4. hierarchical regression analysis predicting moderation of stress tolerance d adj d independent variables β r² ∆r² β r² ∆r² step 1 .13* .02* .02* .14* .02* .02* gender (1 = male, 2 = female) step 2 .35*** .20*** .18*** .31*** .20*** .18*** fit continue asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 3(1): 18-28 24 step 3 -.14 .23* .03* -.28* .23** .03** d/adjd step 4 -.35* .25* .03* -.53*** .29*** .06*** fit × d/adjd ***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05 β = standardized coefficient on the last step., ∆r² = r² change interpersonal perception: the moderating effect of interpersonal perception on the relationship between job– person fit and the leader’s performance was confirmed for the variables fd, phr, and ghr. table 5 shows that the coefficients were significant in fd (β = -0.70, p < .001), phr (β = -0.77, p < .001), and ghr (β = -0.36, p < .05). the model with fd explained 33%, with phr 28%, and with ghr 23% in terms of leader performance. for cdi and cop, the coefficient was not significant and did not add significant incremental variance either in step 3 or step 4. table-5. hierarchical regression analysis predicting the moderation effect of interpersonal perception ***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05 β = standardized coefficient on the last step., ∆r² = r² change information processing: table 6 illustrates that the zd factor relates to performance (β = 0.70, p < .001). the zd at step 3 added significant incremental variance and the model explained 39 % of the leader’s performance. for zf, the coefficient was not significant. the model did not add significant incremental variance in either step 3 or step 4. table-6. hierarchical regression analysis predicting moderation of information processing zf zd independent variables β r² ∆r² β r² ∆r² step 1 .14* .02* .02* .10 .02* .02* gender (1 = male, 2 = female) step 2 .55* .20*** .18*** .52*** .20*** .18*** fit step 3 -.03 .20 .00 .30* .30*** .09*** zf/zd step 4 -.14 .20 .00 .70*** .39*** .09*** fit × zf/zd ***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05 β = standardized coefficient on the last step., ∆r² = r² change cognitive mediation: table 7 records how xa% and x-% at step 3 added significant incremental variance and the model explained 22% of the incremental variance in model xa% and 25% in the model x-%. the interaction terms at step 4 did not add significantly to the incremental variance and the cognitive mediators did not moderate the relationship between jp fit and leader performance. table-7. hierarchical regression analysis predicting moderation of cognitive mediation ***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05 β = standardized coefficient on the last step., ∆r² = r² change self-perception: the moderating effect of self-perception variables on the relationship between jp fit and leader performance was confirmed by the variables fr+rf and egoi. table 8 shows that only egoi (β = -0.93, p < .001) has a significant impact on a leader’s performance. the interaction terms in fr+rf and egoi with jp fit show a significant effect on a leader’s performance and in both cases added significant incremental variance at step 4. the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 3(1): 18-28 25 interaction term model with fr+rf explained 25 % and with egoi y 28% of the leaders’ performance. for fd, the coefficient was not significant and the model did not add significant incremental variance either in step 3 or step 4. table-8. hierarchical regression analysis predicting moderation of self-perception fr+rf egoi fd independent variables β r² ∆r² β r² ∆r² β r² ∆r² stepl 1 .16* .02* .02* .12* .02* .02* .14* .02* .02* gender (1 = male, 2 = female) step 2 .52*** .20*** .18*** 1.17*** .20*** .18*** .37*** .20*** .18*** fit step 3 -.15 .22* .02* -.56*** .20 .00 .31 .21 .01 fr+rf/egoi/fd step 4 -.34* .25* .02* -.93*** .28*** .07*** .27 .22 .01 fit × fr+rf /egoi/fd ***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05 β = standardized coefficient on the last step., ∆r² = r² change depi: the moderating effect of depi on the relationship between jp fit and a leader’s performance was confirmed (see table 9). depi (β = 0.66, p < .01) and had a significant impact on leaders’ performance and the interaction term with jp fit added significant incremental variance at step 4. the interaction term model with depi explained 28 % of a leader’s performance. table-9. hierarchical regression analysis predicting moderation of depi .depi independent variables β r² ∆r² step 1 .12 .02* .02* gender (1 = male, 2 = female) step 2 -.06 .20*** .18*** fit step 3 .16 .26*** .05*** depi step .66** .28** .03** fit × depi ***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05 β = standardized coefficient on the last step., ∆r² = r² change 5. discussion the present study conducted among leaders was designed to investigate the role of the rcs variables in the leaders’ performance. more specifically this study examined whether the rcs variables had a moderating effect on the relationship between the jp fit and a leader’s performance. most of the hypotheses were supported by the results of a series of multiple hierarchical regression analyses. leader performance was associated with the jp fit. the more similar the preferred personality and the actual personality congruence the better the leader’s performance. the leader’s performance was positively associated with both stress tolerance variables. the better the leader’s stress tolerance, the better the performance. among the interpersonal perception variables, the ghr and cop were positively associated with performance. it seems that if the leader has an adaptive interpersonal history and if the interpersonal exchange has been positive, the performance as a leader is likely to be strong. it is interesting to note that only the positive variables among the interpersonal perception variables were associated with performance whereas the variables (cdi, fd, and phr) that suggest some form of problem with interpersonal perceptions showed no correlation. the zd variable correlated with performance and therefore the efficiency of the scanning activity during the processing operation is associated with the leader’s performance. the result is as expected since the zd variable has an effect on the decision making. in contrast, the zf variable did not correlate with leader performance, which was unexpected since the variable gives an estimation of the processing effort, and is associated with intelligence and with the need for achievement. both cognitive mediation variables, xa% and x-%, had a connection with a leader’s performance. the better the leader is able to yield the meditational activities behaviors that are appropriate to the situation, and the fewer uncommon responses in the blot contours, the better the performance. the narcissism-like feature of personality (fr+rf) was the only variable from the self-perception variables that had a correlation with performance. unexpectedly the correlation was positive rather than negative. this means that the more narcissism-like features the leader possessed, the better the performance. the depression index was also associated with performance. as expected, the less prone the leader is to feelings of depression, the better the ultimate performance. the moderating effect of self-perception variables on the relationship between jp fit and leaders’ performance was confirmed with the variables d, adjd, fd, fr+rf, egoi, phr, ghr and depi. this means that even though there is a good fit between the ideal personality and the actual personality, the performance can still be poor if the leader does not have stress tolerance, has low self-esteem, or is suffering from feelings of depression. on the other hand, even when there is no fit, the performance may still be good, if the leader has strong interpersonal skills, or has high self-esteem. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2015, 3(1): 18-28 26 5.1. limitations when generalizing these results there are some limitations that should be noted. the study is cross sectional, making it impossible to draw any conclusions on the direction of causality. moreover, participants were mostly male, so these results best represent the situation prevalent in the manufacturing sector. it should also be noted that some variables were based on self-assessment. the weakness of self-assessment could lie in the socially desirable answering style or the unwillingness to answer some questions. the sample size (n = 203) is adequate to offer statistically significant results. however, it should also be noted that there might be some internal correlations since there were only 51 rorschach protocols but 203 performance evaluations. the survey response rate was extremely encouraging, as only two leaders and five subordinates could not participate in the research. 5.2. theoretical implications and future studies overall the theory of fit is an interesting and important background theory for many human resources management processes, particularly for the recruitment process. it should also be noted that the wopi-based jp fit was strongly associated with leaders’ performance and the sum dimensions did explain some 18% of the variance at the second step alone. the trait approach, especially the big five, has dominated personality research, but wopi and its multifactorial personality approach seem to be a strong alternative. moreover, the results of the use of the rcs in the job assessment context are very promising. based on this research, businesses might be wise to add the rcs method to their toolkits, and also to find the fit for deeper level personality features. however we cannot be certain about the causality of these variables. longitudinal studies would be needed to clarify the cause and effect relationship. it is also important to remember the recommendation about using multi-method tools, so the rcs method should never be used alone but as part of the method toolkit. while there were correlations between the rorschach variables and the wopi-based jp fit, there were no correlations with the thinking process variables or for example the narcissism-like personality trait. these are the variables that are extremely difficult for an individual to evaluate so this might also support the view from the multi-method evaluation that each test measures some aspect of personality that the others do not. perhaps the most important aspect is the suggestion that in the field of recruitment, the rorschach and self-report inventories complement each other and provide far more 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(ed.). research in personnel and human resource management. stamford, ct: jai press, 17: 209-243. wilk, s.l. and p.r. sackett, 1996. longitudinal analysis of ability-job complexity fit and job change. personnel psychology, 49(4): 937-967. zacker, j., 1997. rorschach responses of police applicants. psychological reports, 80(2): 523528. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 45 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 6, no. 2, 45-51, 2019 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2019.62.45.51 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group information system design based e-commerce in food marketing winarto1 yanda bara kusuma2 muhammad syarifudin3 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3faculty of social and political sciences, hang tuah university surabaya, indonesia. abstract information system based e-commerce is the most important method in food marketing in term of promotion costs and automatic data without human error. the system serves consumers by providing an easy and effective transaction.information system based e-commerce has proven to satisfyconsumer needs. therefore, this research aims to design a website-based information system marketing which is better than manual system applied in cv.sari kelapa group. cv. sari kelapa group is an individual company that develops into a large company and was founded in 1967s engaged in the production of gresik food producers. pudak is the first product of the company. promotion at cv. sari kelapa group, it is a fact that unavailability of appropriate promotional media in promoting the products are obvious. furthermore, the approach uses prototype research and descriptive qualitative by giving interview to the subject. the results show that the website is able to overcome the short comings of the manual system applied by cv.sari kelapa group and recommend a complete feature of online chat. keywords: e-commerce, food, marketing, pudak, traditional, information system. jel classification: m10 business administration: general. citation | winarto; yanda bara kusuma; muhammad syarifudin (2019). information system design based e-commerce in food marketing. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 6(2): 45-51. history: received: 5 september 2019 revised: 7 october 2019 accepted: 13 november 2019 published: 17 december 2019 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 46 2. review related of the literature ................................................................................................................................................. 46 3. research method ............................................................................................................................................................................. 49 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 50 5. conclusion and suggestion ............................................................................................................................................................ 51 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 51 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1169 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2019.62.45.51&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6172-2707 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0020-1163 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0897-8145 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 45-51 46 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this research aims to design a website-based information system marketing which is better than manual system applied in cv.sari kelapa group. cv. sari kelapa group is an individual company that develops into a large company and was founded in 1967s engaged in the production of gresik food producers. 1. introduction the information is useful to various kinds of activity in a company. if the system of marketing information is planned and conducted well by the company, there will be many benefits and simplify the process of management in decision making. the information system of marketing management provides the information for a company about the strategy of delivering the information of marketing promotion. the sale applies website which is called electronic commerce (e-commerce). e-commerce is the activity between business organization and consumer, that involve internet usage and world wide web in order to sell the product and services to the consumer. cv. sari kelapa group is a company that has culinary business from gresik. the products consist of various kinds of food from gresik in which the price is ranging from 5.000 50.000 rupiahs. in addition, it also serves the wholesale buying. promotion and sale strategy in cv. sari kelapa group are applied through instagram, facebook, and poster in gresik. transaction process in this company is still using manual method in which it doesn’t use computerized system so that the data disappears and the purchase invoice report is difficult to make. 2. review related of the literature 2.1. basic concepts of the system the systems emphasis on the elements that interact in order to achieve a certain goal. the two groups of definitions are true and not contradictory, but the difference is the approach. studying a system will be more effective if knowing in advance what a system is.system is a network of interconnected procedures to conduct an activity or to accomplish a certain target (jogiyanto, 2005). the system consists of eight characteristics (bahra, 2013). among them component, limitation, external influence, connector, input, output, processor, and objective.the purpose of design system is divided into three groups (jogiyanto, 2001). it’s covers integration system, efficient management, and decision for management.there are four system (jogiyanto, 2005) abstract system, natural system, particular system, and closed system. figure-1. general form of process. source: jogiyanto (2005). 2.2. basic concepts of information information is the data that has meaning and value for the receivers (turban, 2005). information system is a system that receives data input and instruction of data processing, suitable with instruction and outcomes (gordon, 2013). the quality of a system is affected by three aspects (sutabri, 2012). relevancy it’s means the information has benefit for the users. accuracy it’s means the information should not be affected by failures, bias, and not mislead. and the timeliness. the information given, must not be obstructed for the recipients.information system consists of six components (jogiyanto, 2005). among them input, model, output, technology, database, and control. information cycle is a raw data that needs further process. the data is processed using a method to produce information (jogiyanto, 2005). figure-2. information cycle. source: jogiyanto (2005). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 45-51 47 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the benefit of information system is to save work force, to increase efficiency, to accelerate the process, to improve documentation, and to improve decisions. 2.3. marketing concept marketing is a concept that focus on consumer needs. this philosophy is more concerned on feeling and responding to what consumers need (kotler, 2012). marketing is social and managerial process when a person/ group of people receive what they need and desirable from the production and the exchange and value of the product (kotler, 2007). there are three function of marketing, among themexchange, physical distribution, andmediator.there are three activity of marketing, among themto determine what consumer needs, to design and develop a product that can satisfy those needs, and determine the best method regarding quality accuracy, appropriate pricing, promotion and distribution of appropriate products. marketing process consist of four main steps (kotler, 2007). among them to analyze the market opportunities, to research and select the marketing target and apply the offering positions, to design the marketing strategy, and to design marketing program. marketing information system is a complex structure of interaction between people, machines and procedures to produce an orderly flow of information from the sources outside the company and can be used for decision making that can be accounted for by leaders. marketing information are divided into three types (kotler and armstrong, 2003). among them marketing information from the company environment, internal marketing information of a company, and marketing communication comes from a company to the environment surrounding.the benefit of marketing information system are to know the consumers needs, to know the effective design, and to know the threat. 2.4. website internet is global network that connects computers around the world. internet is also used as information dissemination, one of the examples is promotion activity of a company product. world wide web (www) is a service that can show information on the internet, and web is basic part of the information of www. website is the url address for data and information storage based on certain topic. electronic commerce or e-commerce is the dissemination, buying, selling, and marketing goods and services through electronic system, like internet or another computer network. e-commerce can involve transferring money, exchanging data, automatic inventory of management system, and automatic data collection. 2.5. conceptual framework figure-3. conceptual framework. the framework of design system consists of: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 45-51 48 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.6. flow map figure-4. proposed marketing system flow map. 2.7. context diagram figure-5. context diagram of the proposed system. and data flow diagram. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 45-51 49 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure-6. data flow diagram level 0 (overall) proposed. 3. research method this research uses descriptive qualitative method. the method is chosen because it illustrates a situation where the events and conditions of the research in cv. sari kelapa group as the case study. furthermore, it obtains an overview of the current processes and activities. in addition, this research uses prototype approach that develops a system to make program quickly and gradually, so that it can immediately be evaluated by the user. figure-7. mechanism of system development with prototypes. source: mcleod (2005). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 45-51 50 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group according to the research title and objectives, the focus of the research is to design e-commerce website for cv. sari kelapa group so that it can be used as the media for implementing marketing information system. in order to create the website, the researchers implement several proponent systems to create e-commerce sales website. the following proponentsystem for creating the website are open source, mysql, php, xampp, and wordpress. this research is conducted at cv. sari kelapa group which is located at jaksaagungsuprap to number 77,gresik, east java, post code 61116.the company is chosen because it is one of the largest specialty food sales store. however, the company needs to be improved because it still uses manual and conventional methods in sales and data processing system. the subjects of the research are the personnel of cv. sari kelapa group that also act as user in the use of websites that have been created.the other subject is a person who has the ability in information systems to analyze the feasibility and disadvantages of website design that has been created as a mean of implementing information system in cv. sari kelapa group. data collection performed with observation and interview. data analysis is the process of searching for and compiling data obtained from interviews, observations or field notes, documentation, conducted by organizing data into categories, describing units, doing synthetics, choosing which ones are important and which are will be studied, and making conclusions so that they are easily understood by themselves and others (sugiyono, 2011). qualitative research considers researchers as the main research instruments. the reason is that, everything has no definite form. problems, research focus, research procedures, hypotheses used, even expected results, all of which can not be determined with certainty and clearly in advance (sugiyono, 2011). 4. results and discussion cv. sari kelapa group is an individual company that develop into a large company and was founded in1967s engaged in the production of gresik food producers. pudak is the first product ofthe company. pudak is made from rice flour wrapped in corn stalks or areca nut fronds and steamed into a delicious meal. in 2000s, the company released its newest product, named otak-otak bandeng, which is made from milkfish and the bones are cleaned. this food is very popular among the people, especially for those who like spicy food. vision of cv. sari kelapa groups becoming the largest and most trusted producer of gresik food producers. the missions are creating the highest quality products and delicious taste, opening some branches in various regions and owning an official online sales shop, and cooperating with all media, from local, national and international in delivering marketing information. 4.1. organizational structure figure-8. organizational structure of cv. sari kelapa group. source: cv. sari kelapa group’s data. 4.2. finding promotion at cv. sari kelapa group, it is a fact that unavailability of appropriate promotional media in promoting the productsare obvious. the current promotion by the company is by selling through facebook and instagram as well as distributing posters and participating in food exhibitions in gresik. as consequences, the company will certainly spends a lot of time and money. transactions at cv. sari kelapa group is the method still uses conventional system in which every transaction with a customer occurs, the administrator of marketing makes proof of payment of two copies of the transaction by note taking for each product that has been purchased by consumers. whereas the first copy is kept as an archive by marketing for calculation and submitted to the shop owner. data management at cv. sari kelapa group is making report currently uses note taking in bookkeeping. the increase number of products and transactions make difficult for the company in term of the process of data finding. archiving is appliedby using paper so that it is easily lost and worn.providing information to consumers is felt to be less effective because the company cannot provide comprehensive and detailed information about the products offered, so consumers may not obtain accurate information. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 45-51 51 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.3. test result the system canfulfill the administrator expectation. the system facilitates the delivery of promotional information system, sales and shipping. the system meets theusersexpectation. the user easily makes payment and shipping transactions. furthermore, the company provides details of the product to be purchased. the results can be related with previous research in which e-commerce is applied as the information system. the difference is in marketing field, whereas the research is limited in the crm field. 5. conclusion and suggestion 5.1. conclusion the research entitled the design of information system based e-commerce in gresik food marketing, has found the following conclusion: 1. the effectiveness of using system information based e-commerce can change the transaction process manually into an online transaction. the system can provide comprehensive and accurate information about the products provided by cv. sari kelapa group. 2. the use of information system based e-commercepromotes the products and expands networks effectively and efficiently. 3. the implementation of information system based e-commerce provides convenience for customer in conducting the transaction process and for administrator to process sales transaction, data processing, and the automatic report. 5.2. suggestion the results of the research promote the development of information system based e-commerce because it uses prototype system that can be developed by using some suggestions: 1. there will be online chat facilities directly on the e-commerce website, so that customers can do personal questions on the website without asking questions via email. 2. there is a need for development in credit card and online payment systems such as pay-pal, for customers who do not have an atm, they can pay by credit card and online payment. 3. website interface can be made more attractive. 4. it is expected that there are multiple languages in the website to make it easier for customers to understand the content in website. 5. it is expected to improve search engine optimize (seo) so that it can be known and accessed by many people. references bahra, b.l., 2013. analyssed tenth system information. yogicata: grahailmu. gordon, d., 2013. mangad b. kranjica other system information. plumbing: rishikom. jogiyanto, h., 2001. analisisdan desain sistem informasi. yogyakarta: andi. jogiyanto, h., 2005. system information. yogyakarta: andi. kotler, p., 2007. marketing management. jakarta: salemba empat. kotler, p. and g. armstrong, 2003. principles of marketing. jakarta: erlangga. kotler, p.a.g., 2012. principe-principe. jakarta: airlingga. mcleod, r., 2005. sisteminformasi management. yogyakarta: accounting priciple. sugiyono, 2011. quantitative and qualitative research methods and r&d. bandung: alfabeta. sutabri, t., 2012. information systems analysis. yogyakarta: andi. turban, e., 2005. decisious support system and intelegent system. yogyakarta: andi. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 4, 256-265, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 256 muslim students and attitudes toward gay men sindung haryanto1 1 sociology departement, lampung university. no. 1 st sumantri brojonegoro street, bandar lampung, indonesia abstract the purpose of the present study was to determine the relationship between the socio-demographic variables, religiosity, childhood trauma scale and gender equitable men (gem) scale and attitudes toward gays. it was conducted at eight regular classes in lampung university, indonesia. a total of 336 muslim students participated in the study by answering the questionnaires. results indicate that the socio-demographic variables related to attitudes toward gays are the choice of political parties and the type of region of origin. it also shows that religiosity and childhood trauma scale were not related to attitudes toward gays, while the gem scale had a negative correlation with attitudes toward gays. among the sensitive issues with high resistance among students were legalization of gay marriage, gays in the military, gays in public institutions and the recognition of the rights of gays. keywords: religiosity, childhood trauma scale, gem scale, socio-demographics, attitudes toward gays, muslim students. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 257 2. methods .............................................................................................................................................................................. 258 3. results ................................................................................................................................................................................ 258 4. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................... 262 5. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 263 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 263 citation | sindung haryanto (2016). muslim students and attitudes toward gay men. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(4): 256-265. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.256.265 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: history: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. received: 18 may 2016/ revised: 26 june 2016/ accepted: 28 july 2016/ published: 10 august 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.256.265 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sindung haryanto http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.256.265 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.256.265 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sindung haryanto http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.256.265 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.256.265 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sindung haryanto http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.256.265 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 256-265 257 1. introduction gay men are a minority often suffering from discrimination and even victimization. various acts of violence include insult, ridicule and threats (barrientos et al., 2010), verbal abuse and physical violence (biçmen and bekiroğullari, 2014) and even murder (gruenewald, 2012). in the united states, 35% of homicide victims are gay men (national coalition of anti-violence programs (ncavp), 2015). the intensity of violence differs and it is influenced by their social position (meyer, 2010). violence against gay men occur worldwide (dworkin and yi, 2003). in addition to the real world, violence against gay men also occurs in the virtual world. for example, a study by padva (2008) showed that gays often experience bullying in various media, such as cinemas, television, journals, web sites, fiction, children‘s story books, comics, music, advertising and pornography. public places, such as schools or colleges constitute the ―dangerous‖ arenas for gay men. a study by ellis (2009) showed that homophobia remains an important issue in the uk where the campus still cannot fully accept gays. negative attitudes toward gays and lesbians also occur in the workplace (embrick et al., 2007). violence is not only carried out by individuals or other groups in society but also by the state institutions. a study by yu-rong and ping (2010) in taiwan, for example, showed that gays are often treated with prejudice, hostility and violence within the society in addition to government‘s discriminative treatment with hateful discourse. discrimination leads gay men to experiencing fundamental problems both with regard to personality and social relations in society. according to mcdermott et al. (2014) global data showed an increase in suicides and alcohol use among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (lgbt) of young age. in this case, there is a correlation between homophobia with self-destructive behavior. duncan et al. (2014) found a higher prevalence for marijuana use among lgbt groups representing the targets for crime/hostility. a study by kosciw et al. (2013) reported that victimization contributes to low academic achievement and self -esteem among gay men. in addition, other effects of victimization on gays in general are health and well-being (cunningham, 2011; heck et al., 2013; horton, 2014) as well as depressive symptoms (almeida et al., 2009). in connection with social relations, a study by knauer (2012) for example, pointed out that gays as a minority group do not have equality before law and are often forgotten in protection programs. for gay men themselves, the various acts of discrimination and victimization lead them to be in need for social supports. in fact, those social supports are relatively limited. there are several factors affecting those social supports. swank and fahs (2013) identified four factors: the level of education, communication, the ability to recognize heterosexuality and commitment to social justice. meanwhile, valenti and campbell (2009) reported that the fear of losing jobs, stigma/social charge of ―gay lifestyle‖ and the safety factor constitute obstacles for someone to provide support to gays. lack of social support from local communities leads gays to seek other alternative supports, such as in cyberspace. a study by dehaan et al. (2012) found that lgbt uses the internet as an efficient way to make friends, to obtain romantic couples, to join lgbt events offline and to get sexual health services. resistance to gay men occurs in all parts of the world, even in countries recognizing lgbt equal rights in various aspects, such as the uk and canada (browne and nash, 2014). discrimination and victimization against gay men are inseparable from the public perceptions of gay men. those perceptions are influenced by various factors. a study by besen and zicklin (2007) found that religiosity and fundamentalism have negative effects on community support. gender and race constitute other variables affecting attitudes toward gays. meanwhile, a study by lemelle and battle (2004) showed that males typically have more negative attitudes than females; and african americans have more negative attitudes than white residents. however, among african -americans, women are thought to have the greatest negative attitudes gay men. overall, the variables considered were age, income, education, residency and religiosity. theoretically, according to gerhards (2010) the theories of modernization and religious inheritance help explain differences in the degree of acceptance of homosexuality. the fact remains that there are differences in the acceptance of homosexuality in the 27 eu countries and turkey. the state policy toward homosexuality is quite varied. a study by moscati (2010) showed that, although italy and spain have in common in terms of the legal and socio-historical backgrounds (legal culture of both countries discriminates homosexuality), their treatment of gays (homosexuality) is different. spain allows same sex marriage, while italy disallows it. policy variations occur even among s tates in the us. according to killian (2010) such policy variations have an impact on social service programs and lgbt life itself. despite the controversial issue at the global level, homosexuality received less attention in the discipline of sociology. studies on gays or lgbt in general started in the 1980s. sociology in this case is a discipline that is lagging behind other disciplines. according to robertson (2014) the sociological perspective of the process that determines a person identifies himself as gay is the first contribution to the literature of sociology. ethnographic research found that sexuality is constructed through four processes: infringement of right to hetero sexuality, the search for an explanation, the exploration of sexuality and identity negotiations. according to stein and plummer (1994) several sociologists tend to use the assumption that lesbians and gays are less relevant issues. not only marginalizing the issue of ―sexual minorities‖, but sociology also has a weakness in explaining the phenomenon. the new ―queer theory‖ is also more developed by scholars outside sociology. ironically, those scholars use the social constructionist approach which represents a tradition in sociology. according to moore and stambolis-ruhstorfer (2013) future direction of sociological research development needs to be focused on households of same-sex couples and households where parents identify themselves as gays or lesbians. in connection with it, the purpose of the present study was to determine the relationships between several sociological variables and attitudes toward gays. sociological variables examined in this case were sociodemographic variables (gender, age, ethnicity, boyfriend-girlfriend relationships, organizational membership, the choice of political party and the type of region of origin), religiosity, childhood trauma scale and gender equitable men (gem) scale. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 256-265 258 2. methods questionnaires were distributed to eight regular classes in lampung university, indonesia. the researcher strictly complied with the rules of scientific research, such as the explanation that there is no compulsion for the participants to participate in the study. the principles of confidentiality (anonymity) and participant privacy were guaranteed through not stating participants‘ name and other identities in the questionnaire. participants were also informed that the study was not related to political aspects, but only to determine the students‘ attitudes toward gays currently at issue in indonesia. the researcher also informed that the study was only for muslim students. of 420 questionnaires distributed, 336 were fully completed. participants were 148 (44%) men and 188 (56%) women, aged 14 to 29 years (m = 20.07; sd = 1.4) who were attending universities located in bandar lampung, indonesia. in terms of ethnicity, the largest proportion (n = 174; 51.8%) was javanese, successively followed by lampung (n = 89; 26.5%), minang (n = 28; 8.3%), sundanese (n = 17; 15:15), batak (n = 8; 2.4%) and other (n = 20; 6.0%). a total of 203 (60.4%) students was active in student organizations and the remaining 133 (39.65) were not. a total of 51 people had jobs in addition to being college students. a total of 140 (41.7%) students had a boyfriend/partner and the remaining 196 (58.3%) did not. a total 141 (42%) students lived with their parents, 44 (13.1%) students lived with relatives and the remaining 151 (44.9%) students lived in boarding/rented houses. in terms of political parties, 81 (24.1%) students admitted to choose islamic/religion-based parties, 118 (35.1%) students to choose national parties and the remaining 137 (40.8%) students did not have political parties of choice. meanwhile, in terms of the type of region of origin, a total of 126 (37.5%) students came from rural areas (rural), 109 (32.4%) students from semi-urban areas and 101 (30.1%) came from urban areas. 2.1. instrument the questionnaire included five subgroups of questions related to characteristics of the students: demographics (i.e., sex, age, ethnicity, having a boyfriend or girlfriend, student organizational affiliation, monthly expenditure, where they live, political party preference, where they come from/area type), religiosity (how they describe their religious beliefs, experience, knowledge and practices), childhood trauma scale, attitudes toward male-female relationships (gem scale) and attitudes toward gays. religiosity was measured by using the scale of el-menouar (2014) consisting of 22 items: five items of basic religion, six items of central duties, four items of religious experience, three items of religious knowledge and four items of orthopraxis. there were 16 items with a 5-point response including ‗always‘, ‗often‘, ‗sometimes‘, ‗rarely/almost never‘ and ‗never‘. the alternative was ‗very sure‘, ‗sure‘, ‗hesitant‘, unsure, very unsure. a total of 4 items had three answer choices (‗yes‘, ‗sometimes‘, ‗never‘) and 2 items had two answer choices (‗ever‘, ‗never‘) and (‗yes‘, ‗no‘). the childhood trauma scale and attitudes related to men-women relationships (gem scale) in the present study were measured using the images (international men and gender equality survey) scale which has been tested in various countries (barker et al., 2011). the childhood trauma scale consisted of 15 items, each of which had four answer choices (‗never‘, ‗sometimes‘, ‗often‘ and ‗very often‘). meanwhile, gem scale consisted of 18 items, each of which had four answer choices (‗strongly agree‘, ‗agree‘, ‗disagree‘ and ‗strongly disagree‘). despite the high score of validity and reliability of the original scales, but it was still subjected to testing with regard to the different cultural settings. attitudes toward gays were measured using the scale developed by raja and stokes (1998). this scale consists of 22 items divided into three parts: 9 items of personal discomfort with gay men (pdg), 4 items of belief homosexuality as deviant (bhd) and 9 items of institutional homophobia toward gay men (ihg). 3. results 3.1. religiosity the present study measured religiosity using the scale of el-menouar (2014), which includes five dimensions: basic religion (br), central duties (cd), religion experience (re), religion knowledge (rk) and orthopraxis (op). the scale is a special scale to measure the religiosity of muslims. the first dimension (br) consists of 5 items that measure aspects of faith and devotional practices. the second dimension (cd) consists of 6 items that measure the implementation of the primary obligations of a muslim, among other, shalat (ritual prayer), ramadan fasting, pilgrimage to mecca and the rules of food consumption. the third dimension (re) consists of four items that measure one‘s religious experiences in relation to god. the fourth dimension (rk) consists of three items that measure one‘s own understanding of religion. the last dimension (op) consists of four items that measure the consequences of diversity for an individual. students‘ religiosity scores in the present study ranged 61 to 95 (m = 80.99; sd = 6.099). table 1 shows that there are several items not relevant as religious measures, especially in the context of student life. the obligation of pilgrimage to mecca, for example, remains difficult to fulfill by a student in terms of both time and cost. additionally, such obligation is also limited by quotas so that one must wait for the long waiting list. thus, whether or not an individual has fulfilled the obligation of pilgrimage to mecca does not necessarily indicate religiosity. the obligation to avoid shaking hands with the opposite sex is also an aspect of religious practice rarely carried out by the indonesian people, especially college students. the fact shows that the prohibition is not widely known by the indonesian muslims. the prohibition is only understood and implemented by a minority of muslims. results of the present study indicate a total of 116 (34.5%) participants said ―no‖ for avoiding handshake with the opposite sex and 220 (65.5%) said ―sometimes‖. in this case, none of the participants stated ―yes‖ (avoid handshake with the opposite sex). other obligation serving as an orthopraxis dimension is giving alms (donations) which, in the context of students, remains an obligation difficult to meet given the students‘ economic dependence to their parents. results of the present study shows that only 4 of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 256-265 259 participants stated ―often‖ for giving alms, 184 (54.8%) said ―sometimes‖, 129 (38.4%) stated ―rarely‖ (―almost never‖) and 19 (5.7%) said ―never‖. in this case, none of the participants stated ―always‖. therefore, the dimension of orthopraxis in this context is not relevant for measuring religiosity among the students. it is also evident from the results of the calculation of pearson correlation as shown in table 2. table-1. factor loading of religiosity items no item br cd re rk op comm 1 belief in allah 0.460** 0.231** 0.290** 0.250** 0.10 0.375** 2 belief in the qur‘an as unchanged revelation 0.478** 0.250** 0.245** 0.121** -0.001 0.323** 3 belief in the existence of jinn, angel etc. 0.584** 0.251** 0.191** 0.121** -0.027 0.328** 4 frequency of performing the ritual prayer 0.506** 0.811** 0.348** 0.475** 0.043 0.629** 5 pilgrimage to mecca -0.003 0.148** 0.029 0.043 0.070 0.073 6 fasting during ramadan 0.449** 0.708** 0.269** 0.261** 0.42 0.488** 7 celebrating end of ramadan 0.230** 0.483** 0.212** 0.122* -0.043 0.291** 8 frequency of personal prayer to allah 0.768** 0.542** 0.481** 0.425** 0.076 0.671** 9 frequency of recitation of the basmala 0.773** 0.437** 0.468** 0.485** 0.076 0.668** 10 feeling: allah is close 0.532** 0.376** 0.780** 0.393** 0.047 0.666** 11 feeling: allah tell you something 0.516** 0.336** 0.845** 0.355** 0.115 0.676** 12 feeling: allah is rewarding you 0.408** 0.371** 0.836** 0.360** 0.051 0.641** 13 feeling: allah is punishing you 0.325** 0.239** 0.788** 0.335** -0.001 0.551** 14 knowledge of islam in general 0.385** 0.310** 0.358** 0.800** 0.251** 0.620** 15 knowledge of the content of the quran 0.440** 0.439** 0.358** 0.854** 0.167** 0.675** 16 knowledge of the life and action of the prophet 0.369** 0.349** 0.358** 0.793** 0.325** 0.648** 17 drinking alcohol 0.158** 0.433** 0.120* 0.119* -0.070 0.291** 18 eating halal meat 0.162** 0.180** 0.174** 0.122* -0.001 0.193** 19 avoiding shaking hands with opposite sex -0.075 -0.051 -0.067 -0.044 0.625** 0.043 20 sex segregation at marriages and other celebration -0.068 -0.054 -0.027 0.112* 0.547** 0.097 21 muslims should not listen music 0.048 0.033 0.011 0.198** 0.497** 0.183** 22 religious donation (zakat) 0.181** 0.106 0.177** 0.383** 0.717** 0.401** note: ** = p-value <0.01; * = p-value <0.05 table-2. correlation matrix of five dimension of muslim religiosity br cd re rk op basic religiosity (br) 1 0.571** 0.549** 0.488** 0.056 central duties (cd) 1 0.407** 0.445** 0.26 religious experience (re) 1 0.445** 0.064 religious knowledge (rk) 1 0.289** orthopraxis (op) 1 note: ** p-value <0.01 3.2. childhood trauma scale in general, table 3 shows that the percentage of participants who experienced certain childhood violent traumas is not excessively high except for the trauma in the form of punishment in schools. the types of trauma most frequently experienced by participants are verbal violence within the family, physical violence both within the family and the school and spending time outdoors without being noticed by other family members. based on the score of trauma scale, a total of 331 (98.5%) participants belonged to the ―low‖ category and only 5 (1.5%) participants belonged to the ―moderate‖ category. in this case, there was no participant belonging to the ―high‖ category. the participants‘ scores of trauma scale were relatively low with a maximum score of 57 and a minimum score of 15. the mean was 18.71 (sd of 4.575 and variance of 20 933). the score of 57 was an extreme score since there was only one participant with such a score. the highest score after such a score was 35 in three participants. table-3. participants‘ childhood trauma scale no. types of trauma nv st of vo 1. before the age of 18, i did not have enough to eat. 264 59 9 4 2. before the age of 18, my family moved several times. 299 28 8 1 3. before the age of 18 years, i saw or heard my mother was beaten by her husband or boyfriend (the affair). 287 40 6 3 4. before the age of 18, there were members of my family who vilified me as lazy or stupid or weak. 179 117 27 13 5. before the age of 18, my buttocks or genital were touch or anyone told me to touch my buttocks or genital, but i did not want to. 307 27 1 1 6. before the age of 18, i was verbally abused or insulted by my family members in front of others. 279 45 9 3 7. before the age of 18, i was beaten up at home with a belt or a stick or a whip or other hard tools. 243 80 9 4 8. before the age of 18, i had sex 311 11 5 9 9. before the age of 18, my parents were often drunk or unconscious because of drugs (alcohols or local liquors) so they could not take care of me. 312 13 7 4 10. before the age of 18, i was beaten up at home so hard, leaving scars or bruises. 292 31 10 3 11. before the age of 18, i spent my time outside the home where the adults in the house did not know where i was. 207 94 15 20 12. before the age of 18, i had sex with someone because i was threatened or frightened or forced. 318 7 8 3 13. before the age of 18, i was beaten or physically punished by teachers or principals. 236 82 12 6 14. before the age of 18, were you mocked, teased, or harassed at schools or in your village? 286 46 9 1 15. before the age of 18, did you like making play with, teasing, or harassing others? 286 46 9 1 source: primary data analysis, 2016. note: nv = never, st = some time, of = often, vo = very often. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 256-265 260 3.3. gender equitable men scale table 4 shows that participants‘ attitudes toward men-women relationships are a mixture of ―traditional‖ (conservative) and modern views. examples of participants‘ traditional views are ―the main task of women is cooking‖, ―women have to endure violence for the sake of her family integrity‖, ―i think women should obey their husband‖, ―men should be tough‖ and ―men are the ultimate decision makers about various things in the house‖. participants‘ views of quite sensitive issues include ―i would be very embarrassed should i have homosexual boys (gay)‖. the percentage of participants stating ―agree‖ and ―strongly agree‖ for this variable is very high. these views reflect a gender bias among young people, such as students. additionally, there is also a variable that reflects ―modern‖ views‖. the majority of participants agreed or strongly agreed that ―men and women have the same right to decide the type of contraceptive‖, ―all people should be treated equally‖ and ―men opt in to share domestic chores‖. overall, with regard to participants‘ attitudes toward male-female relationships (gem scale), 289 (86%) of participants were at the level of ―moderate equity‖, 41 (12.2%) participants at the level of ―low equity‖ and only 6 (1.8%) participants at the level of ―high equity‖. tabel-4. participants‘ gem scale no. items “agree” and “strongly agree” answers % 1. the most important tasks of women are taking care of the home and cooking for her family. 301 89,6 2. men are more in need of sex than women. 228 67,9 3. sometimes women are allowed to be beaten. 55 16,4 4. it is women‘s responsibility for preventing pregnancy. 128 38,1 5. men are the ultimate decision makers about various things in the house 271 80,7 6. women have to endure violence for the sake of her family integrity. 104 30,9 7. men and women have the same right to decide the type of contraceptive. 315 93,7 8. i would be very upset if my wife asks me to use a condom. 166 49,5 9. if someone insults me, i will defend my honor by force, if necessary. 235 69,9 10. men should be tough. 325 96,8 11. i think everyone should be treated equally, both men and women 282 84.0 12. i think men should opt in to share domestic chores with women, such as washing dishes, cleaning the house and cooking. 297 85.5 13. i think women should obey their husband. 324 96.4 14. i think if the wife does make a mistake the husband has the right to punish her. 231 78.8 15. i think that women should not refuse to have sex with her husband. 263 78.3 16. i think when a woman is raped usually it is she who deserves the blame for making her be in that position. 113 33.6 17. i think if women did not fight physically, what happened to her is not a rape (consensual). 245 72.9 18. i would be very embarrassed should i have homosexual boys (gay). 304 90.5 source: primary data analysis, 2015. 3.4. attitudes toward gays the present study measured attitudes toward gays by using the scale developed by raja and stokes (1998). this scale consists of 22 items which can be grouped into 3 sections: personal discomfort with gay men (pdg), belief in homosexuality as deviant (bhd) and institutional homophobia toward gay men (ihg). each item has answer choices of ―strongly agree‖, ―agree‖, ―disagree‖ and ―strongly disagree‖. overall, the average score of attitudes toward gays was 59.2351. the lowest score was 37 and the highest was 87 and the standard deviation was 6.2396. of the total of 22 items on attitudes toward gay, theoretically, the lowest score was 22 and the highest was 88. the higher the score for attitudes toward gay, the more tolerant or positive the attitudes toward the presence of gays in their environment would be. furthermore, the scores for tolerance to gays are categorized into ―high‖ (the score of 6688), ―moderate‖ (the score of 4465) and ―low‖ (the score below 44). based on statistical calculations, 6 (1.8%) participants were categorized as ―low‖, 279 (83%) as ―moderate‖ and 51 (15.2%) as ―high‖. in general, participants‘ attitudes toward gays tended to be negative based on the pdg, bhd and ih g. the proportion of participants stating ―disagree‖ and ―strongly disagree‖ for several items was quite large, such as for ―working with a gay men‖, ―inviting gays to parties‖, ―going to gay marriage party‖ and also ―gay strategic roles in various social institutions‖. on the contrary, participants were likely to see gays as deviation and requiring great energy to ―recover‖ to the heterosexual condition. gay marriage is a sensitive issue in indonesia and it is also evidenced in the present study as an issue with the highest resistance. such views are inseparable from the general perspective that gays are ―deviation‖, ―disease‖, ―dregs of society‖ and so on. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 256-265 261 table-5. participants‘ attitudes toward gays no. items sa (%) ag (%) da (%) sd (%) 1. i wouldn‘t mind going to party that included gay men 32 (9.5) 133 (39.6) 98 (29.2) 73 (21.7) 2. i would not mind working with a gay men 7 (2.1) 57 (17.0) 151 (44.9) 121 (36.0) 3. i welcome new friend who are gay 11 (3.3) 85 (25.3) 132 (39.3) 108 (32.1) 4. i would be sure to invite the same-sex partner of my gay male friend to my party 9 (2.7) 65 (19.3) 140 (41.7) 122 (36.3) 5. i won‘t associate with gay men for fear of catching aids (r) 145 (43.2) 73 (21.7) 69 (20.5) 49 (16.6) 6. i don‘t think it would negatively affect our relationship if i learned that one of my close relation was gay 33 (9.8) 112 (33.3) 120 (35.7) 71 (21.1) 7. i am comfortable with the thought of two men being romantically involved 16 (4.8) 82 (24.4) 122 (36.3) 116 (34.5) 8. i would remove my child from class if i found out the teacher was gay (r) 134 (39.9) 124 (36.9) 54 (16.1) 24 (7.1) 9. it‘s all right with me if i see two men holding hands 23 (6.8) 50 (14.9) 148 (44.0) 115 (34.2) 10. male homosexuality is a psychological disease (r) 133 (39.6) 142 (42.3) 47 (14.0) 14 (4.2) 11. physicians and psychologist should strive to find a cure for male homosexuality (r) 202 (60.1) 95 (28.3) 29 (8.6) 10 (3.0) 12. gay men should undergo therapy to change their sexual orientation (r) 216 (64.3) 98 (29.2) 17 (5.1) 5 (1.5) 13. gay men could be heterosexual if they really wanted to be (r) 127 (37.8) 154 (45.8) 43 (12.8) 12 (3.6) 14. i don‘t mind companies using openly gay men celebrities to advertise their product 31 (9.2) 112 (33.3) 114 (33.9) 79 (23.5) 15. i would not vote for political candidate who was openly gay (r) 176 (52.4) 97 (28.9) 36 (10.7) 27 (8.0) 16. hospitals shouldn‘t hire gay male doctors (r) 161 (47.9) 106 (31.5) 50 (14.9) 19 (5.7) 17. gay men shouldn‘t be allowed to join the military (r) 179 (53.3) 92 (27.4) 46 (13.7) 19 (5.7) 18. movies that approve of male homosexuality bother me (r) 123 (36.6) 129 (38.4) 65 (19.3) 19 (5.7) 19. gay men should not be allowed to be leaders in religious organization (r) 225 (67.0) 81 (24.1) 15 (4.5) 15 (4.5) 20. marriage between two gay men should be legal 55 (16.4) 22 (6.5) 75 (22.3) 184 (54.8) 21. i am tired of hearing about gay men‘s problems (r) 85 (25.3) 164 (48.8) 64 (19.0) 23 (6.8) 22. gay men want too many right (r) 23 (6.8) 69 (20.5) 153 (45.5) 91 (27.1) note: r = reversed, sa=strongly agree, ag=agree, da= disagree, sd=strongly disagree. table-6. correlation matrix of attitutes toward gays pdg bhd ihg mhs-g scale personal discomfort with gay men (pdg) 1 0.571** 0.549** belief in homosexuality as deviant (bhd) 1 0.407** institutional homophobia toward gay men (ihg) 1 note: ** = p<0.01 after scoring the homophobia (communality) index, the scores were broadly categorized into ―low‖ (intolerance) for scores below 44, ―moderate‖ (moderate) for scores of 4566 and ―high‖ (tolerant) for scores above 66. furthermore, correlations among socio-demographic variables, such as gender, age, ethnicity, having a girlfriend/partner, political party preference, region of origin and expenditure, were calculated. correlations between socio-demographic variables and the homophobia index were calculated using the measures of relationships among the variables calculated, namely the phi coefficient (φ = 1, 0, +1) and cramer‘s v . the results show only types of region of origin and political party preference had significant relationships. gender, age, ethnicity, having a girlfriend, organizational membership and expenditures did not have significant relationships with attitudes toward gays. with regard to political party preference, participants preferring national parties tended to be more tolerant than those preferring religious/islamic parties and those with no political party preference. meanwhile, with regard to regions of origin, students coming from urban areas tended to be more tolerant than those coming from semi-urban and rural areas. overall, religiosity was associated with attitudes toward gays and so was childhood trauma scale. only gem scale was associated with attitudes toward gays. the association was negative, meaning that the higher the score of the gem scale, the more intolerant to gays would be. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 256-265 262 table-7. relationships between socio-demographic characteristics of the participants and their attitudes toward gays no. socio-demographic characteristics low/intolerant moderate high/toleran t statistic 1 gender phi = 0.082 men 2 128 18 cramer‘s v = 0.082 women 4 151 33 approx.sig = 0.326 2 age < 20 4 97 16 phi = 0.119 2023 2 165 34 cramer‘s v = 0.084 >24 0 17 1 approx.sig = 0.314 3 etnichity javanese 2 151 21 lampung 3 71 15 phi = 0.184 sundanese 1 12 4 cramer‘s v = 0.130 batak 0 7 1 approx.sig = 0.334 minang 0 20 8 other 0 18 2 4 havinga relationship with boyfriend/girlfriend yes 6 106 28 phi/cramer‘sv=0.201 no 0 173 23 approx.sig = 0.001 5 student organization phi = 0,144 yes 5 168 30 cramer‘s v =0.102 no 1 111 21 approx.sig = 0.140 6 political party preference islamic party 0 69 12 phi = 0,219 national party 0 92 26 cramer‘s v =0.155 no party 6 118 13 approx.sig = 0.013 7 type of region of origin rural 1 110 15 phi = 0,177 semi urban 0 91 18 cramer‘s v =0.125 urban 5 78 18 approx.sig = 0.033 8 expenditure (idr/month) < 1 million 3 201 30 phi = 0,146 15 million 3 72 21 cramer‘s v =0.103 510 million 0 2 0 approx.sig = 0.303 >10 milion 0 4 0 source: primary data analysis, 2016. table-8. matrix of correlations between some variables and attitudes toward gays no. variable/indicator attitudes toward gays pdg bhd ihg communality 1. religiousity 0.078 basic religion 0.164** 0.153* 0.068 0.018 central duties 0.119* 0.183** 0.137* 0.068 religion expression 0.058 0.160** 0.200** 0.140* religion knowledge 0.057 0.043 0.019 0.057 orthopraxis 0.012 0.093 0.019 0.111* 2. childhood trauma scale 0.060 0.129* 0.019 0.016 3. gem scale 0.028 0.174** 0.194** 0.193** source: primary data analysis, 2016. note: * p<0.05, ** p<0.01. 4. discussion attitudes toward gays and homosexuals in general vary among cultures and communities. according to gerhards (2010) the majority of the european people not support the idea of non-discrimination against homosexuals. a study showed that fifty-five percent of african countries have laws against sex between men. penalties range from fines, imprisonment, to death (sallar and somda, 2011). in america, homophobia is very evident in conservative christian circles (linneman, 2004) and more extreme among negro (blacks) (literte and hodge, 2012). meanwhile, a study by cashmore and cleland (2012) for example, showed that, among football fans, 93% claimed no place for homophobia. according to mccormack and anderson (2014) there are social trends in the u.s.: decreasing homophobia and changing behaviors of heterosexual males. there are several factors affecting attitudes toward homosexuality. a meta-analysis by whitley (2001) states that the best predictors of antigay behavior were hyper-participant gender and gender-role orientation; attitudes toward women and modern sexism were also predictors for men but not for women. meanwhile, whitehead (2013) identified that religious tradition, theological and political ideology, location, and demographic composition of congregations all influence the degree to which gays and lesbians are included into congregational life. the findings of verweij et al. (2008) showed that men tend to have negative attitudes toward homosexuals relative to women. non-heterosexuals encountered lower homophobia than homosexuals. age had no effect on homophobia. variation in homophobia scored could be explained by additive genetic (36%), shared environmental (18%) and unique environmental factors (46%). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 256-265 263 several other factors identified by researchers include concepts reproducing the social -moral bonds (buttaro and battle, 2012) micropanics (guittar, 2013) secure attachment style (jellison and mcconnell, 2003) racial discrimination against the ingroup (craig and richeson, 2014) the direct environment (blaauw, 2012) maternal attitudes (oksal, 2008) the intimacy of contact (heinze and horn, 2009; smith et al., 2009) levels of aversion toward homosexuals (ncanana and ige, 2014); educational attainment, communicating with full-fledged activists, having an ability to recognize heterosexism and maintaining a commitment to social justice (swank and fahs, 2013) age, educational level, religious affiliation, contact with homosexual persons (adela, 2010) higher levels of knowledge (alderson et al., 2009) public policy (hooghe and meeusen, 2013) and government institution (henshaw, 2014). gender represents a socio-demographic variable frequently taken into account by researchers and associated with attitudes toward gays or minority sexuality in general. the underlying argument is different patterns of gender role socialization between boys and girls which then produces different gender role const ructions. the fact is that such variable inconsistently affects their attitudes towards gay/minority sexuality. several studies showed that gender had an influence (kerns and fine, 1994; mandra, 2003; gelbal and duyan, 2006; olson et al., 2006; maher, 2013) however, a number of other researchers found the contrary (schellenberg et al., 1999; landicho et al., 2014; oti-boadi et al., 2014). in general, researchers who found an association between gender and attitudes toward gays stated that women had a more tolerant attitude than men. in addition to gender, religion or religiosity is also frequently associated with homophobia. unlike gender, the facts show that religiosity is consistently associated with homophobia. a number of researchers found a negative relationship between religiosity and attitudes toward homosexuals (hinrichs and rosenberg, 2002; gelbal and duyan, 2006; rowatt et al., 2009; sherkat et al., 2009; hooghe et al., 2010; cunningham and melton, 2012; clobert et al., 2014; cragun and sumerau, 2014; decoo, 2014; henshaw, 2014; kuptsevych, 2014; gilad and stepanova, 2015). results of the present study indicate that gender does not have a relationship with attitudes toward gays, while some aspects of religiosity have a relationship with attitudes toward gays. overall, religiosity is not associated with attitudes toward gays. political party preference has a relationship with attitudes toward gays. two interpretations can be made for this. first, the socialization of values both within the family and society is incapable of shaping a tolerant personality. or, in other words, the theme of tolerance for diversity doe s not constitute an important point in such socialization in both the primary and secondary levels. second, in the context of indonesian culture, the level of resistance to lgbt in general is quite high. indonesian people consider lgbt community as a form of deviation or ―disease‖ that should be avoided or cured. the primary to higher education has a high resistance to the presence of lgbt. this is evident in the highly significant relationships between the various aspects of religiosity and attitudes towards gays, as shown by the bhd (belief in homosexuals as deviants). correlation of various variables to bhd attitudes shows that people‘s understanding of lgbt remains low. a number of issues with resistance among communities include legalization of gay marriage, gays in the military, gay as a doctor and recognition of gay rights (see table 5). the item of the gem scale aimed at measuring homophobia is item number 18 (―i would be very embarrassed should i have homosexual boys (gay)‖. for this item, a total of 304 (90.5%) participants said ―strongly agree‖ and ―agree‖. this means that the level of homophobia among the participants was very high. this finding is consistent with the general attitudes towards gays which tend to be negative (intolerant). this is consistent with the finding of barker et al. (2011) that, of the various countries studied, homophobia constitutes the general attitude, despite the variations. overall, gem scale has a negative relationship with attitudes toward gays. 5. conclusion in general, students‘ attitudes toward gays tend to be negative. the socio -demographic variables that have a relationship with attitudes toward gays are political party preference and the type of region of origin. results of the present study also show that religiosity and childhood trauma scale are not related to attitudes toward gays, but gem scale is. issues related to gays and lgbt generally encounter resistance within communiti es. such sensitive issues include legalization of gay marriage, gays in the military, gays in public institutions and recognition of the rights of gays. based on these findings, further studies on lgbt in indonesia are required in order to design public policies that are acceptable to all parties. references adela, m., 2010. social perception of homosexuality in romania. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 2(2): 5726-5730. alderson, k.g., t.l. orzeck and s.c. mcewen, 2009. alberta high school counsellors‘ knowledge of homosexuality and their attitudes toward gay males. canadian journal of education, 32(1): 87-117. almeida, j., r.m. johnson, h.l. corliss, b.e. molnar and d. azrael, 2009. emotional distress among lgbt youth: the influence of perceived discrimination based on sexual orientation. journal of youth adolescence, 38(7): 1001–1014. barker, g., j.m. contreras, b. heilman, a.k. singh, r.k. verma and m. nascimento, 2011. evolving men: initial results from the international men and gender equality survey (images). washington, d.c.: international center for research on women (icrw) and rio de janeiro: instituto promundo. barrientos, j., j. silva, s. catalan, f. gomez and j. longuera, 2010. discrimination and victimization: parade for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (lgbt) pride, in chile. journal of homosexuality, 57(6): 760–775. doi 10.1080/00918369.2010.485880. besen, y. and g. zicklin, 2007. young men, religion and attitudes towards homosexuality. journal of men, masculinities and spirituality 1(3): 250-266. biçmen, z. and z. bekiroğullari, 2014. social problems of lgbt people in turkey. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 113(7/2): 224 – 233. blaauw, j., 2012. attitudes towards homosexuality: a study on contextual explanations of general and specific homonegativity among dutch secondary school students. nijmegen: radboud university. browne, k. and c.j. nash, 2014. resisting lgbt rights where ―we havewon‖: canada and great britain. journal of human rights, 13(3): 322–336. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 256-265 264 buttaro, a.j. and j. battle, 2012. more than meets the eye: an ecological perspective on homophobia within the black america. black women, gender, and families, 6(1): 1–22. cashmore, e. and j. cleland, 2012. fans, homophobia and masculinities in association football: evidence of a more inclusive environment. british journal of sociology, 63(2): 370-387. clobert, m., v. saroglou, k.-k. hwang and w.-l. soong, 2014. east asian religious tolerance—a myth or a reality? 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gumanti3 syamsul maarif4 ( corresponding author) 1doctoral program at faculty of political and social sciences, jember university, indonesia 2,3,4lecturer at faculty of political and social sciences, jember university, indonesia abstract this study focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of the policy implementation of disaster mitigation on mount semeru in the district of lumajang, east java province, indonesia. it uses case study approach. the results of interviews with a number of key informant persons lead us to conclude that the policy implementation of disaster mitigation of mount semeru is still not effective and less optimal. many factors are identified as the causes, amongst other include network conditions and communication, slow and lack of government response, small funding allocation and realization, lack of coordination between the government and the parties in lumajang, low of stakeholders’ participation, and weak of the regional representatives council role to control the regent’s performance in governance implementation. serious efforts need to be in place in order to make the disaster management is warranted and secured. keywords: policy, disaster management, mount semeru. citation | suhari; hary yuswadi; tatang ary gumanti; syamsul maarif (2017). study on the effectiveness of the policy implementation on disaster mitigation of mount semeruin lumajang, indonesia. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(2): 94-99. history: received: 29 june 2017 revised: 17 july 2017 accepted: 28 july 2017 published: 1 august 2017 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .......................................................................................................................................................................................95 2. literature review .............................................................................................................................................................................95 3. the methods of the study ..............................................................................................................................................................96 4. results and discussion ....................................................................................................................................................................97 5. conclusion ..........................................................................................................................................................................................98 references ...............................................................................................................................................................................................98 bibliography ...........................................................................................................................................................................................99 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=suhari https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=hary%20yuswadi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=tatang%20ary%20gumanti https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=syamsul%20maarif http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 94-99 95 1. introduction the existence of disaster all this time is often understood by many people with misconceptions, especially those who live in the remote area. this misunderstading occurs because they put the disaster as a condition that emerges due to natural factors and that is beyond of human control. to overcome this improper mind set, the indonesian government has responded by issuing law number 24 year 2007 on disaster management. article 1 of the law defines disaster: “the events or series of events that threaten or disrupt the lives and livelihoods, whether caused by natural factors and / or non-natural or human factors that lead to the emergence victims of human lives, environmental damage, loss of property, and the psychological impact”. the definition of disaster as stated in the indonesian legislation is believed to provide better understanding about the disaster among all the related parties (stakeholders). as disaster is generally to be threatening and damaging (hazard) and vulnerable in the middle of the community, the implementation of disaster risk reduction (drr) becomes an important part of efforts to minimize the risk of disaster. at least in the case of hazard, the public is not too vulnerable. in this respect, the head of indonesia national bureau of disaster management, maarif (2010) asserts that the community readinessto anticipate and to deal with disaster is improving as shown by the empowerment people efforts to have the ability and awareness to take the initiative in conducting rescue action. the efforts to disenchant public about how to deal with hazards and disasters are already contained in the book of national action plan of disaster risk reduction (nap-drr), which was launched on 24 january 2007 by the national development planning institution (bappenas) and the national coordinating agency on disaster management. furthermore, to strengthen the drr policy with regard to the supporting regulation, indonesian government has issued several follow up regulations, such as: 1. government regulation number 21 in 2007 on the disaster management. 2. government regulation number 22 of 2007 on financing and disaster relief. 3. government regulation number 23 of 2007 on role of government institutions and foreign nongovernment institutions. 4. minister of health decree number 145 of 2007 on the guidelines for disaster management and disaster mitigation. as indonesia has tens of provinces and hundreds of districts or cities spread over thousand miles with more than 17,000 islands, surrounded with two biggest ocean and many active volcanoes, collaboration between the central government and local governments is needed. this collaboration is needed to support the drr and the disaster management in the case of disaster. disaster cannot be predicted and because of the geographic characteristics, indonesia is said be vulnerable to large scale of disaster amongst other earthquake, tsunami, flood, typhoons, and volcano eruption. thus, management of disaster and drr is very important issues. mount semeru is located in district of lumajang. it is regarded as the most active volcano that can erupts at any time. it has erupted many times and most of the affected area is the district of lumajang. thus, to anticipate any possible eruption and its effect, the management of disaster caused by direct or indirect effects of mount semeru, the local government has to be prepare. that is why, the management of disaster as well as the drr is put in highly place. this study focuses on evaluating the response of local government of the district of lumajangin the effectiveness of the policy implementation on disaster mitigation of mount semeru. based on initial observations, it appears that the response of lumajang government of very slow. referring to the issuance of law number 24 year 2007, it took six years for the local government of lumajang to publish the regional regulation number 1 year 2013 about disaster management. the length of the period between the issuance of law number 24 of 2007 and the regional regulation number 1 of 2013 is seen asindication that disaster management in the district of lumajang is not a priority of the district development. this paper is expected to provide inputs for the local government to deal with risk inherent in the mount semeru related disasters. mount semeru is regarded as the most active volcano in the world and its eruption impact could be nightmare for people living in surrounding are and the environment.so, the government, in particular the local government, has to have a clear and fixed policy in dealing with the disaster management related to mount semeru. 2. literature review 2.1. the disaster policy implementation a policy shall be implemented to ascertain good government and seriousness of the government in serving the community. as expressed by patton et al. (2012) the policy shall be implemented in order to solve any problem faced by the stakeholders. in this respect, patton and sawicki assert that implementation deals with a variety of activities that is geared to realize the programs. in this respect, the executives set out to organize, interpret and implement policies that have been selected. however, prior to setting the policy, a comprehensive study shall be carried so to make sure that the policy is well defined. tangkilisan (2003) also advocates the importance of implementing the policy. the policy is not kept in the table. it shall be provided to the community. the executive agencies have the mandates to execute the policy in most effective and efficient ways. this is carried by using all available resources. dunn (1994) argues that the policy implementation is the implementation of the policy actions control in a certain period of time. thus, the policy implementation is the implementation of policy actions control in a certain time. the policy implementation in the disaster management is the focus of this study. point 9 of article 1 of chapter i of the law number 24 of 2007 defines disaster mitigation as “the effort to reduce disaster risk, either through physical development as well as awareness and developing ability in facing the threat of a disaster”. thus, disaster mitigation has two systems, namely the structural mitigation and non-structural mitigation. the structural mitigation is an effort to minimize the disaster through the development of a variety of physical infrastructure and using technological approaches, such as creating a channel, a detector volcanic activity, earthquake-resistant buildings, or early warning system, which is used to predict a volcanic disaster. the nonasian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 94-99 96 structural mitigation is an effort to reduce the impact of disasters, not classified as the physical effort. the nonstructural mitigation can be done by making the urban planning, community capacity building, legislation, regional planning, and insurance. the mitigation policies either structural or non-structural should mutually support each other. the usage of technology to predict, anticipate and reduce the risk of a disaster must be supported by the creation and enforcement of an adequate regulatory framework that is backed up by the appropriate spatial plan. some studies have been done on volcanic disasters, for example suhardjo (2011); juhaeni (2016) and lestari et al. (2016). there are some dangers that may occur accidentally during a volcanic eruption. the main (primary) danger from the volcanic eruptions is a hot cloud (pyroclastic flow), stones hurling (incandescent), heavy ash rain, flowing of lava (lava flow), and toxic gases. the secondary danger of volcanic eruptions is an accumulation of material in various sizes at the summit and upper slopes. in the rainy season, most of the material will be carried away by rainwater and it creates the mud dough which turns down to the valley as rocks flood or other types of flood. 2.2. model policy implementation policy implementation model varies that it depends on the environment. in addition, the process to carry out has also variation. van meter and van horn (1975) assert that the differences in the implementation process will be influenced by the policies’ charater that will be implemented. winarno (2007) and wahab (2008) summarize a number of aspects of policy implementation based on the model proposed by van meter and van horn. the following describes the intended aspects. the first aspect is the size and the purpose of the policy. in the policy implementation, size and purposes of the policy is an image of the direction of the policy that will bring a change in the society. according to van meter and van horn (1975) the achievement indicators identification is a crucial stage in the policy implementation analysis. the achievement indicators assess the extent of basic measures and policy purposes that have been realized. basic measures and goals are useful in representing all of goals of policy decisions. in addition, the basic measures and purposes are the evidence itself and can be easily measured in some cases. the second aspect is the policy resources. van meter and van horn (1975) explain that besides the basic measures and policy targets, we should pay more attention on the available resources. the sources could be in terms of funds or other incentive which encourage and facilitate effective implementation. the third aspect is communication between related organizations and implementation activities. according to van meter and van horn (1975) successful implementation often requires fixed mechanisms and procedures of the institution. it is actually executed to encourage a greater possibility for high officials to encourage the executive to act in a consistent event with the basic measures and policy goals. the officials must possess power as measured by first, recruitment and selection, second, giving an assignment and relocation, third, promotion, and fourth, the dismissal. the fourth aspect is the characteristics of the implementing agency van meter and van horn (1975) present some elements that may affect the organization in implementing the policy. they include competition and the staff size of an institution, the hierarchical control levels toward the decisions of the sub units and processes in implementing agencies, political resources of an organization (e.g. support among members of the legislative and executive), the vitalization of an organization, the level of communications “opened”, which is defined as a network of horizontal and vertical communication freely and the degree of freedom that are relatively high in communication with individuals outside the organization, and the formal and informal link an entity “decision maker” or “executive of decision”. the fifth aspect is related to the economic, social and political conditions. the impact of economic, social and political conditions on public policy is the center of attention. yet, the impact of these factors in the implementation receives a little attention. according to van meter and van horn (1975) these factors may have a profound effect on the achievement of the implementing agencies. the sixth aspect is the tendency of the implementers. van meter and van horn (1975) argue that every component of the model that is discussed above must be filtered through the implementers’ perceptions of the jurisdictions in which that policy is produced. the tendencies directions towards the basic measures and goals are also a very important thing. the executor may fail to execute the policies precisely because they reject the goals which are contained in those policies. on the contrary, the reception on basic measures and policy purposes is accepted widely by the policy implementers that will be a support for the successful policy implementation. a study by juhaeni (2016) shows that in the case of eruption of mount merapi, another most active volcano in the java island of indonesia, the involvement of many parties is crucial to support the disaster management. juhaeni identifies a number of key elements. yet, the most common elements of community involvement include partnership, participation, empowerment, and the local people ownership. nevertheless, juhaeni notices that when the disaster management efforts are sustainable at individual and community level, there will be difficulty in alleviating or reducing the losses and scale of the tragedy. a similar conclusion is also advanced by lestari et al. (2016) in their study of the impact of eruption of mount sinabung in west sumatera in the island of sumatera. another study reveals the importance of education (suhardjo, 2011). his study focuses on the mount merapi eruption and he advocate the use of education either formal or informal to strengthen the community awareness for risk reduction in the case of eruption. suhardjo comes to conclude that involvement of various parties to educate the people is a must. 3. the methods of the study this study uses qualitative approach in an attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of policy implementation with regard to disaster mitigation of mount semeru. a number of key informants were interviewed to gain knowledge and understanding on the effectiveness of policy implementation in an attempt to manage disaster and to reduce risk related to the eruption and potential eruption of mount semeru. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 94-99 97 4. results and discussion the effectiveness study of the policy implementation disaster mitigation of mount semeru in lumajang is influenced by many factors, either internal factors or external factors. the following are descriptions of the factors known to be associated with the drr and disaster management. 4.1. poor network and communication line condition on disastrous areas the role of communication in disaster mitigation policy implementation on mount semeru is important, whether it is done by the government to the public, or the conversely. conveying information quickly is one of the ways to support disaster mitigation on mount semeru effectively, because often the disasters escalation vulnerability at mount semeru increases. however, it was found that the implementation of the communication process in building a network and disastrous areas communication lines is still very weak. there are two causes leading to that weak network. firstly, the communications done by local government of lumajang is mainly carried out by the local disaster management agency (ldma) in sharing the information. in addition, reducing the stiffness in the disaster mitigation process is still not done effectively. the indication of that is that it is very often a miscommunication between ldma and societies in disastrous-prone areas, especially periodic information about disaster escalation of mount semeru. secondly, local government of lumajang is not responsive, especially the ldma in decision-making and communication systems building with other disaster care institutions. establishing communication with other disaster care institutions is important, as a part of the synergies and it will minimize the casualties when there is a disaster on mount semeru. it is not easy to manage disaster in a synergistic perspective. they need to build the effective communication among government agencies or with some parties. but, this is the biggest challenge for local government of lumajang in disaster mitigation implementation of mount semeru. it is not a secret anymore, that the coordination problems in governance is not uncommon. one possible reason for this is that there is unclear “job description” of governmental agencies, often handcuffed by the lack of communication between governmental and nongovernmental institutions. 4.2. slow response of local government local government of lumajang is the spearhead of the disaster mitigation process of mount semeru and it should be more responsive than the other parties. but, in the empirical facts, the response of the local government is still very slow. it can be indicated from the lack of regional regulation related to disaster mitigation, particularly in mitigation of mount semeru. the regulation is important to ensure that disaster mitigation process is in accordance with the needs of local society, especially peoples who live in disastrous prone areas around the mountain of semeru. the study finds that susceptibility toward the eruption potential of mount semeru is very high. that is due to the establishment of disastrous-prone areas become a settlement, the destruction of vegetation cover-up in mount semeru disastrous-prone areas. on the other hand, the population density in the disastrous-prone areas continue to grow and they are lack of understanding toward the threat of mount semeru eruption disaster. based on data from the ldma, during 2010-2013 period, mount semeru had erupted 181 times, either in small and medium scale. this is of course a threat. this threat is considered to be chronic, and the local government shall ready to response and anticipate for any possible worst condition. the government shall make policy response, provide human resources and offering facilities and infrastructure of disaster mitigation. 4.3. lack of funding allocation and realization the lack budget for disaster mitigation allocation, especially in disaster mitigation of mountsemeru. low allocation of funds for disaster mitigation is not in the spirit as amended by law number 24 year 2017 on disaster management, especially article 61 urging the government and local governments to allocate the adequate disaster management funds. the adequate context for disastrous-prone areas such as lumajang shall be the same as the allocation foreducation budget, that is 20 percent of the total budget. however, in practical, the budget for disaster management institutions such as ldma is still very minimal. 4.4. lack of mitigation policy implementation another weakness in the implementation of disaster mitigation policy is that it is too elitist and without involving many parties. so many parties, particularly the public are indifferent to the program implemented by the government of lumajang, through the ldma, such as the simulation program of disaster mitigation of mount semeru on october 17, 2015. the parties involved in the program are from the local government of lumajang and parties outside disastrous-prone areas. that condition makes it seem indifferent and its existence is ignored by the government of lumajang. even the negative perception of the public on disastrous-prone areas of mount semeru that the program is purely project only, without wanting to resolve the real problem, namely the risk mitigation of mount semeru. in this case, there ought to be a real action of the implementation process of disaster mitigation policy of mount semeru. thus it needs the stakeholders’ engagement and public participation. in the macro context, this concept is often called the deliberative policy. in the deliberative policy, the policy implementation done jointly between the parties facilitated by the experts to ensure that the policies are implemented according to the plan and the public’s desire. the involvement of citizens or citizen engagement is the core of deliberative policy implementation. the stakeholder engagement and public participation is still very minimal and is dominated by a handful of interest groups only. the deliberative policy is demanding and force a real solution in every implementation of policies, particularly in the policies implementation of disaster mitigation of mount semeru. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 94-99 98 4.5. absence of regional legal products the absence of local regulations of products related to disaster management in lumajang. the condition is very alarming because the district has the disaster threat of mount semeru that quite vulnerable, which at any moment it can be threatening and the safety of citizens in disastrous-prone areas of mount semeru is in danger. 4.6. lack of coordination of various parties lack of coordination between the local government of lumajang and the interested parties and the reluctance of local governments to cooperate with the parties is reinforcing the impression that the local government has not been able to run the principle of good governance. 4.7. low stakeholders participation the participation of the stakeholders in disaster mitigation is considered to be low. here seems to be less respect among stakeholders to participate in disaster mitigation and this has been known as the causes of disaster mitigation remain stagnant and less optimal. in fact, one of the officials in ldma in lumajang confuses with the disaster mitigation at this time. on the other hand, when the ldma apparatus has strong enthusiasm to work, the support of the executing parties of the district is minimal. even, it impresses that the ldma of lumajang has been used as a “discharge” the bureaucrats who considered not as an idea with the elite local government. 4.8. disaster management is not inserted into the regional medium term development plan disaster management has not been inserted into the regional medium term development plan (rmtdp) as one of the priority programs. whereas, the rmtdp has significance to every policy, because rmtdp includes the vision, mission, and program of the region head, local development strategy, public policy, and other work plan. 4.9. weak of regional representatives council role the weak of regional representatives council’s role to control the regent’s performance of the governance’s implementation program particularly in disaster mitigation of mount semeru. this can be evidenced in the case of disaster mitigation of mount semeru, which so far the parliament has not been able to push to become a priority to be executed quickly nor has not initiated a disaster management into the regional legislative program. on the other hand, weak of oversight function of parliament in lumajang is very common. this is caused by a number of issues that include the following. first is the norms that is governing the implementation of the oversight function of parliament put the parliament in the weak position that it is only as the party who discusses the supervision. second is the capability of the legislators has not been maximal in the monitoring field, so they seem to put the legislators as the audiences. third is the lack of communities’ involvement in each of controlling by parliament in lumajang. 5. conclusion this study evaluates the effectiveness of the policy implementation of disaster mitigation of mount semeru in the district of lumajang. we find that the implementation is still not effective and optimal. there are a number of factors that lead this inadequate implementation of policy for risk and disaster management of mount semeru. the followings are our main findings. 1. network conditions and communication lines of disaster area are not good enough to make disaster mitigation mechanisms work synergistically and be well coordinated. 2. the lack of the local government’s response to mitigate the disaster. 3. less than adequate of funding allocation and realization in disaster mitigation. 4. the implementation of disaster mitigation policies tends to be elitist and seems to be made just for the sake of the project, without addressing to the underlying problem. 5. the absence of local regulations products related to disaster management. 6. lack of coordination between the local government and other interested parties. 7. lack of stakeholders’ participation in disaster mitigation. 8. disaster management has not been inserted into the regional medium term development plan as one of the priority programs. 9. weak of the regional representatives council’s role in controlling the district’s performance in governance implementation of disaster mitigation. references dunn, w.n., 1994. public policy analysis: an introduction. new jersey: pearson education. juhaeni, j., 2016. strategies for community empowerment in mount merapi disaster of central java province indonesia. international journal of social sciences, 43(1): 24-41. lestari, p., e.t. paripurno, s.b. kusumayudha and b. ramadhaniyanto, 2016. komunikasi lingkungan untuk mitigasi bencana erupsi gunung sinabung. jurnal aspikom, 3(1): 56-64. view at google scholar | view at publisher maarif, s., 2010. bencana dan penanggulangannya tinjauan dari aspek sosisologis. jurnal dialog penanggulangan bencana, 1(1): 1-7. view at google scholar patton, c., d. sawicki and j. clark, 2012. basic methods of policy analysis and planning. new york: prentice hall. suhardjo, d., 2011. arti penting pendidikan mitigasi bencana dalam mengurangi resiko bencana. cakrawala pendidikan, 30(2): 174-188. view at google scholar tangkilisan, h.n.s., 2003. implementasi kebijakan publik transformasi pikiran george edwards. yogyakarta: lukman offset. van meter, d.s. and c.e. van horn, 1975. the policy implementation process. a conceptual framework. administration and society, 6(4): 445–488. view at google scholar wahab, s.a., 2008. analisis kebijaksanaan: dari formulasi ke implementasi kebijaksanaan negara. jakarta: sinar grafika. winarno, b., 2007. kebijakan publik: teori dan proses. yogyakarta: media pressindo. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=komunikasi%20lingkungan%20untuk%20mitigasi%20bencana%20erupsi%20gunung%20sinabung http://dx.doi.org/10.24329/aspikom.v3i1.98 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=bencana%20dan%20penanggulangannya%20tinjauan%20dari%20aspek%20sosisologis https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=bencana%20dan%20penanggulangannya%20tinjauan%20dari%20aspek%20sosisologis https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=arti%20penting%20pendidikan%20mitigasi%20bencana%20dalam%20mengurangi%20resiko%20bencana https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=he%20policy%20implementation%20process.%20a%20conceptual%20framework asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 94-99 99 bibliography government, 2007. government regulation no. 21 year 2007 on the implementation of disaster management. government, 2007. government regulation no. 22 year 2007 on financing and disaster relief. government, 2007. government regulation no. 23 year 2007 on the role of government and foreign non-government agencies. local, 2013. local government of lumajang rule number 1 of 2013 about the disaster management. the indonesian, 2007. the indonesian law number 24 year 2007 on disaster management. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 131 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 3, 131-136, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.131.136 reflections on war ethics in the employment of uavs zhaolei guo1  yiping zheng2 ( corresponding author) 1,2center for international strategy and security, nanjing university of aeronautics and astronautics, china abstract the debate over the ethical justification of unmanned aerial vehicles has been growing heated for years with the proliferation use of uavs. at the center of this debate are the underlying question of war ethics and the concerns of whether uavs will be able to fully comply with war ethics in future. this article is trying to articulate the relevant precepts and points out some misunderstanding clouding uavs. after focusing the moral debates based on the basic principles of the just war, this article contends that regulations should respond to the character that uavs is in incremental development to adjust themselves, rather than ban simply. keywords: uavs, autonomous weapon, just war, distinction, proportionality. citation | zhaolei guo; yiping zheng (2018). reflections on war ethics in the employment of uavs. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(3): 131-136. history: received: 2 june 2018 revised: 7 august 2018 accepted: 5 september 2018 published: 27 september 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: the research is supported by “the fundamental research funds for the central universities” no. nj20140035 competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 132 2. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 135 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 135 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.131.136&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1485 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1788-583x http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1485 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1788-583x http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1485 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1788-583x http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1485 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1788-583x asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 131-136 132 1. introduction in recent years, with the rapid rise in the employment of uavs and consequent damage to noncombatant, scholars and international organizations, such as human rights watch, the international committee of the red cross (icrc) has been shown continuous concern over the legal and moral deployment of uavs in the conflicts. according to attitudes towards uavs, scholars are divided on the extent to which uavs are moral and legal. their views spread just like a spectrum, at the one end, some assert that uavs is unlawful and should be forbidden as soon as possible; at the other side, some claim that uav not only satisfy all current law and ethical codes, it is also helpful to improve the efficiency. however, most of the scholars spread in the middle range of the spectrum, whether the deployment of uavs is lawful or ethical depend on the specific circumstances. those who think uavs should be forbidden as soon as possible hold two strands of arguments. one strand of views think uavs has violated the law or ethical principle, so we should forbid the employment and development of uavs. towards the argument, the paper will deal with it as below. however, for the other strand, what they actually object to is lethal autonomous weapons, rather than uavs. the opponents assert that the employment of uavs is on the slippery slope towards lethal autonomous weapons and autonomous weapons are morally impermissible, so the development of the uavs should be forbidden. the moral permissibility of lethal autonomous weapons is beyond the scope of my paper. we will point out that some objections to uav are out of the fear of the future imaginable horrible scene, or even are caused by misleading perceptions. in this article, we argue that in many cases grave moral reflections of uavs are distracted or weakened by ambiguous concept defines. this paper seeks to outline the current prevailing misunderstanding of the use of uavs. and examines debates pertaining to the distinction and proportionality of the deployment of uavs based on the just war theory. the paper is split into five areas: in the second section, considering criticism of uavs is partly due to the misconceived conception of uavs, which arouse many irrelevant discussion distracting our precious attention, we frame the definition of uavs and debunk some arguments misleading public debate, before going to the discussion about ethical concerns in the case of uavs. in the third section, we enter into the discussion of moral concerns surrounding uavs underpinned by the just war theory. in the fourth section, based on the above discussion, we make suggestions to improve moral performance of uavs. finally, we claim that to prompt uavs to satisfy moral norm, it is imperative to clarify the ambiguous text, make detailed guidelines more practical, improve transparency and adopt appropriate modification adapting to changes. 1.1. misunderstanding about uavs 1.1.1. the definition of uavs in the paper, we are referencing uavs as a weapon system commonly known as „unmanned aerial vehicles', a kind of autonomous weapons systems, but not fully autonomous. it has several other names, drones, robots or autonomous weapon system. they are colloquial and ambiguous. therefore, when the above-mentioned terms appear in a paper, they either refer to the same thing we are discussing or the other way around. the ambiguity of the definition is easier to arouse debates. more importantly, without accurate definition, there are greater possibilities that discussions do not occur in the same field. to avoid misunderstanding and unnecessary debates, we need to first classify the various level of the autonomous weapon system. according to the u.s. department of defense's definition, an autonomous weapon system means: “a weapon system that, once activated, can select and engage targets without further intervention by a human operator. this includes human-supervised autonomous weapon systems that are designed to allow human operators to override operation of the weapon system, but can select and engage targets without further human input after activation.” 1 in addition, u.k. ministry of defense identifies an autonomous system to be' capable of deciding a course of action, from a number of alternatives, without depending on human oversight and control, although these may still be present (mod, 2011). the crux of the matter in both definitions is that a system has the ability of making decision without human interface. however, to what extent the system can decide by itself, both definitions have grey areas. it is one of the reasons for the heated debates. according to different levels of autonomy, u.s department of defense classifies lethal unmanned weapon systems into three categories: that is, semi-autonomous systems, also called launch and leave weapons; humansupervised autonomous system and fully autonomous weapon system. correspondingly, human rights watch call them respectively: a human in the hoop; a human on the hoop. basically, one-to-one correspondence. the classification reiteration is primarily based on the relationship between the human operator and the system operation. we list them in the following table. table-1. classification of the autonomous weapon system classification by dod classification by human rights watch examples semi-autonomous weapon system (launch and leave weapons) a human in the loop a human to direct the system to select a target and attack it agm-130,agm65 the human-supervised autonomous weapon system a human on the loop under human operator oversight u.s.: the aegis at sea/ the patriot on land; israel: iron dome the fully autonomous weapon system a human out of the loop without any human interface 1 dep‟t of def., directive 3000.09, autonomy in weapon systems 13–14 (nov. 2, 2012). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 131-136 133 based on the above discussion, we can infer that the semi-autonomous weapon system is a commonplace of contemporary warfare and the human-supervised autonomous weapon system is in operation, but a fully autonomous weapon system is still in the future. therefore, what we discuss is semi-autonomous weapon system and human-supervised autonomous weapon system, rather than a fully autonomous weapon system. 1.2. distinction between autonomous and automate some of the continuing moral debates over uavs obscure the distinction between autonomous and automate. current applied artificial intelligence is still based on the binary if/then statement, which means that the machine decision is still based on the limited and certain information, far short of human decision based on uncertainty. actually, just as peter lee said, the current autonomous weapons falls far short of the criterion of autonomy, precisely, should be called „pseudo-autonomy‟, „a high level of automation‟. lee (2018) fully autonomy has not yet come into reality and the uavs we are now discussing are a far cry from the fully autonomous weapon. therefore, the worry that the autonomy of the machine will take a human out of the firing loop is suffering from imaginary fears. in reality, many criticisms over uavs in operation is leveling at the deployment of a military weapon of ai technology, rather than uavs. this is not actually an objection specific to uavs in principle but rather aiming to ai. some believe that perfect mix of ai and the lethal autonomous weapon will produce a fully lethal autonomous weapon, which will achieve or even surpass human autonomy. those taking a sanguine view think it will benefit the entire population, while the pessimistic view thinks that „spell the end of the human race'. the discussion over the issue is entered into the „terminator conundrum‟, kiggins (2018) which far exceeds the scope of our paper. coming back to the current context, the worry seems to fall short of logic. the worry is a sentiment, but not rather a coherent and compelling ethical argument. the logic reasoning of those who persist on thoroughly ban uavs is that we should now forego taking morally correct action (protect our warriors as best we can to avoid unnecessary harm to them) to prevent ourselves from acting unjustly in the future. the moral reasoning seems odd. just like strawser said it is like that „we should do something wrong now to better stop ourselves from doing something wrong in the future‟ (strawser, 2010). 1.3. policymakers or uavs? in addition, the bad reputation of uav partly caused by the utilization in some military strike actions whose morally justification itself is in dispute. it is wrong or even illegal or unmoral military decisions, rather than uav caused excessive losses to civilians and civilian facilities. therefore, uavs should not take full responsibility for the harm caused by these attacks and the incurred criticism thereby. some criticism leveling at uavs are making a scapegoat for moral disasters, which will disguise some deep problems. it is unhelpful to solve the moral problems and even distract attention from constructive discussions. if it is the wrong military decision that caused excessive collateral damage, who should take the responsibility, the policymakers who make the decision or uavs employed by decisions? as the saying goes, “a sword is never a killer, it is a tool in the killer's hands." certain munitions can be used in some operations to violate the law and ethical rule, but in other circumstances, the same munitions may be used to protect and innocent civilians justice warriors. the crux of the problem is that how the man holding the sword use the munition. it is unfair to make uavs the scapegoat for the immoral action of policymakers. 1.4. debates about the principles of just war theory after the definition of the issue and clarification of the misunderstanding, the following analysis focuses on the moral concerns revolving around principles of distinction and proportionality as the centerpiece of the just war theory. 1. the principle of distinction distinction is reflected in several rules, the most invoked code is article 48 of the protocol additional to the geneva convention, which prescribes that “in order to ensure respect for and protection of the civilian population and civilian objects, the parties to the conflict shall at all times distinguish between the civilian population and combatants and between civilian objects and military objectives and accordingly shall direct their operations only against military objectives.” 1.5. noncombatant discrimination one focus of the debates is whether uavs have the ability to „better at noncombatant discrimination'. proponents claim that uavs are „better at noncombatant discrimination‟. it is an empirical question, namely, it can be verified by the data. plaw (2013) has calculated uav attacks carried out by the united states in pakistan from 2004 to 2007 and concluded that compared to other operations in comparable condition, uav is able to decrease civilian causality ratio, or at least, not to increase the ratio. the study purportedly provides a powerful empirical evidence to back up the view that uav is not only ethically permissible but also „ethically obligatory for military use‟ (yoram, 2004). admittedly, the fact based on the data is noncontroversial. however, there is the logic fallacy in the inference course, which make their conclusions unsound (international committee of the red cross, 1977). the first loophole is that proponents mix up uavs and the operator of uavs. current uavs still need an operator to make a decision, namely, „human in the loop'. otherwise, we will come back into the discussion of autonomous weapon. therefore, the precise statement should be that it is the pilots with the help of uavs, rather than uavs are "capable of making determinations of proper target discrimination” (walzer, 2006). what uavs do is to improve the accuracy of the targeting technically. the second loophole is that they fail to distinguish the value from the fact. just as sarah and john (2012) pointed out, sound ethical decisions based on the distinction between distinguish value and fact (chris, 2010). if we asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 131-136 134 assume that uav is „better at noncombatant discrimination‟, then the assumption implicitly imply that uav can identify precisely who is noncombatant. however, the definition of noncombatant itself is highly contentious because it involves the judgement of innocent. the nub of the problem is that the judgement of innocence is a value judgement, rather than factual declaration. a factual statement is empirical while value judgement is normative. the former is uncontroversial, such as accounted data about casualties, whereas the latter is full of controversy, such as civilian casualties, because the defining of „civilian‟ involves value judgement so that those who hold different moral perceptions will make different judgement to the same individual. therefore, in terms of „noncombatant discrimination', human beings still have many problems to solve, how we can declare uavs in the present have a better ability to „noncombatant discrimination‟? precisely, we agree that uavs have accurate targeting ability, rather than noncombatant discrimination ability. 1.6. the identification of legal military objectives article 52 (2) of the protocol additional to the geneva convention, defines military objectives as “limited to those objects which by their nature, location, purpose or use make an effective contribution to military action and whose total or partial destruction, capture or neutralization, in the circumstances ruling at the time, offers a definite military advantage.” and article 57 makes a further requirement that strikers must “do everything feasible” to ascertain that the objective should be a legal military objective. while everyone would agree with the principle, it is difficult to turn the idealistic principle into a practical scheme. it is an acid test for a commander or operator in warfare to verify that directing only those objects that present „definite military advantage'. we need both humanitarian concerns and a workable operation manual to put it in operation. the forms of the conflict have experienced great changes, ranging from traditional war to asymmetric conflict, from states actors to non-state actors, from conventional battlefields with straightforward distinction between civilians and combatants to highly controversial civilian-combatant intermingled populated areas, even population centers. all these make it more difficult to make a proper distinction between legal military objectives and illegal objectives. especially for war on terror, civilians are intermingled with combatants, and many civilian facilities can be transformed into military objectives, let alone those dual-use facilities and technologies. just as antonio cassese comment, the definition of the military objectives is “so sweeping that it can cover practically anything”(sarah and john, 2012). 2. the principle of proportionality proportionality is the most contentious issue in the moral debate about uavs, although it is seemingly outlined in the law clearly. the standard of proportionality is delineated in articles 51(5)(b) and 57(2)( iii) of additional protocol i, which proscribe” an attack which may be expected to cause incidental loss of civilian life , injury to civilians, damage to civilian object, or a combination thereof, which would be excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated” (braun and brunstetter, 2013). according to waltzer‟s definition, the principle of proportionality can be concisely described that „the anticipated collateral damage of an action cannot be excessive in relation to the anticipated military advantage‟ (us department of the army, 2007). it is the proportionality calculation that makes the interpretation and assessment of the principle become the most controversial issue. how to define and measure „anticipated collateral damage‟ and „anticipated military advantage‟ determine whether the calculating conclusion is „excessive‟, which is moral base of „military necessity‟. disagreements over the issue are partly a matter of subjective preferences caused by inherent moral concerns, partly a matter of ambiguous concepts. akin to the problems facing the principle of distinction, what is in issue is not literal meaning, but rather problems of interpretation and feasible solutions. 1.7. contentious proportionality calculation proportionality calculation is not a simply calculus based on straightforward and unambiguous algorithms, but rather predictive calculations of future possibilities, full of uncertainty. more importantly, it is a tough value-laden ethical decision of attaching weights to the variables at stake. the course of valuating is subjective, influenced by a set of factors, such as circumstances….in addition, it is important to bear in mind the point that proportionality calculation is probabilistic. the calculating determination is highly based on personal experience and evaluation, the accuracy of accessible intelligence. christian (2017) therefore, it is virtually impossible to “identify a clear, uncontroversial threshold at which anticipated military advantage exceeds anticipated civilian damage” (joseph, 2017). a good example to illustrate this issue is the comparison study made by braun and brunstetter (2013). considering the difficulty of delineating the tolerant threshold of damage, they choose collateral damage ratio as a proxy for proportionality to compare the proportionality of cia's drone strikes and u.s. military's strikes. the result shows that cia apparently is more tolerant of civilian casualties than the military (thomas, 2017). ostensibly, both the military and cia are under the same umbrella of the proportionality principle, within the same external restraint, decision-making circumstances, decision-making procedure and so on, but cia and the military adopt divergent threshold respectively. however, the u.s. military and cia show respectively divergent tolerant thresholds for collateral damage. probably there's a couple of reasons for the difference. what deserves close consideration is that the influence of strategic ends on proportionality calculation. considering the role of the subjective factors in the ethical decision, it is a serious problem to avoid the policymakers' temptation to weight the proportionality calculation in favor of the propensity they intend to wage a war. otherwise, plausible proposition calculation would turn into the means of the belligerent to attempt to justify their behavior of waging war. 1.8. anticipated military advantage vs collateral damage how to calculate military advantage, the us military gives an operational guide. the us counterinsurgency field manual describe that “advantage is best calculated not in terms of how many insurgents are killed or asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 131-136 135 detained, but rather which enemies are killed and detained. if certain insurgent leaders are essential to the insurgents‟ ability to conduct operations, then military leaders need to consider their relative importance when determining how best to pursue them” (marcus, 2016). here the „relative importance' in the paragraph means that attaching corresponding values to various targets according to the target's value. admittedly, it is generally accepted that a high-value target deserves a high weighted proportion in the calculation. however, when it comes to try to give a specific value to lives, it would never be an easy work. specifically, to kill a top-level opposite combatant, how much civilian casualties in risk is acceptable? besides the target's value, there are a complex of factors should be considered, such as the confidence level of intelligence. the fulcrum of the requirement is the term "relative importance". if the war goals is open-ended, such as the eradication of evil, the battlefield border would be more open, even unlimited, and a military adversary would be broader, thereby the greater military advantage. it is a temptation for decision makers to weight a proportionality calculation in favor of the warfare they want. especially without adequate transparency and outsider supervise, it is easier to give a partial evaluation because policymakers are easily influenced by their own subject sentiment preference when evaluating proportionality and converting „relative importance‟ into practical proportionality calculating result. 1.9. reflections on debates based on the reflections over debates revolving around the use of uavs, the paper suggests that there are some deficiencies for further refinement to avoid misleading discussion and better the current moral performance. 1.9.1. the percision of the language admittedly, the ambiguity of the language in the field of ethic is unavoidable. and sometimes ambiguity itself is a kind of strategy, reducing the entry cost to attract more states to ratify treaty or something, which is beneficial to build the way to the consensus of the international community. however, the cost of ambiguity is clearly evident. ambiguity easily incur disputes, or make the involved party easier to dodge the obligation for its role. more importantly, ambiguity produce meaningless, unconstructive debates which are unhelpful to accumulate wisdom, and even cause wrongly judge. in addition, interpretations should be more workable and pragmatic. actually, there is not too much disagreement in principle. nevertheless, some articles elaborating the principle are either too opacity in text to grasp their inherent meanings precisely or impractical to be achieved, which impede the way to obey the principles in a workable way. moral debates should not only produce ideas or theories, should also take the responsibilities of working towards a pragmatic solution to moral problems of uavs in the real world. 1.9.2. the transparency what is most disputable over the principle of proportionality is the justification of proportionality calculation. disputes partly arise from the different interpretation of the term, but more stems from the scarce data and extremely opaque decision process. with more transparency, the government would be under more oversight and its action would be more restricted. at the same time, with more transparency the government could persuade the populace to believe in their accountability and their justification of their waged strikes in either traditional war or war on terror. 2. conclusion in conclusion, we tend to agree that the hope to ban thoroughly is unrealistic. there are too many handles on the way. the first reason is that neither in the technological field nor policy circle has common sense about the issue. the second reason is that interests. now a hard-bounding treaty has not existed. due to the incremental character of the technological advancement from automation to autonomy, there are many uncertainties in development which are beyond the human cognition in the current phrase. therefore, defining the key term precisely is an impossible fulfilled work. the only solution is that substitute precise statement by an ambiguous statement and the subsequent consequence is that ambiguity arouses confusing, conflating and so on, just like the awkward situation discussed in the above context. even the treaty has come into being, it would be difficult to persuade parties with respective interests to ratify a treaty with effective bounding power. substantial military advantages will constitute a prisoner dilemma. based on the view, we contend that ban is unfeasible. compared to banning, it is more feasible to keep constant vigilance, make incremental modification according to continuous changing. specifically, in the fields of language precision and information transparency, adjust cognition and adapt to changes. references braun, m. and d.r. brunstetter, 2013. rethinking the criterion for assessing cia-targeted killings: drones, proportionality and jus ad vim. journal of military ethics, 12(4): 304-324.available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15027570.2013.869390. chris, j., 2010. law from above: unmanned aerial systems, use of force, and the law of armed conflict. north dakota law review, 85: 649– 671. christian, e., 2017. drones, risk, and moral injury. critical military studies: 1-18.available at: 10.1080/23337486.2017.1384979. international committee of the red cross, 1977. protocols additional to the geneva conventions of 12 august 1949: resolutions of the diplomatic conference: extracts from the final act of the diplomatic conference. international committee of the red cross. joseph, c.o., 2017. remotely piloted aircraft, risk, and killing as sacrifice: the cost of remote warfare. journal of military ethics, 16(3-4): 256-271.available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15027570.2018.1440501. kiggins, r., 2018. robots and political economy. in the political economy of robots. cham: palgrave macmillan. pp: 1-16. lee, p., 2018. armed drones: automation, autonomy, and ethical decision-making. in the political economy of robots. cham: palgrave macmillan. pp: 291-315. marcus, s., 2016. rethinking military virtue ethics in an age of unmanned weapons. journal of military ethics, 15(3): 187-204.available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15027570.2016.1257851. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 131-136 136 mod, u.k., 2011. joint doctrine note 2/11 the uk approach to unmanned aircraft systems. swindon, wiltshire: uk mod the development, concepts and doctrine centre, 30. plaw, a., 2013. counting the dead: the proportionality of predation in pakistan. killing by remote control: the ethics of an unmanned military: 126-153. sarah, k. and k. john, 2012. the use of unmanned aerial vehicles in contemporary conflict: a legal and ethical analysis. poli ty, 44(2): 260285.available at: https://doi.org/10.1057/pol.2012.2. strawser, b.j., 2010. moral predators: the duty to employ uninhabited aerial vehicles. journal of military ethics, 9(4): 342-368.available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15027570.2010.536403. thomas, g., 2017. targeted killings: drones, noncombatant immunity, and the politics of killing. contemporary security policy, 38(2): 212236.available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2017.1336296. us department of the army, 2007. counterinsurgency field manual, fm 3-24, mcwp 3-33.5. london: university of chicago press. pp: 7– 21. walzer, m., 2006. just and unjust wars: a moral argument with historical illustrations. 4th edn., new york: basic books. yoram, d., 2004. the conduct of hostilities under the law of international armed conflict. cambridge; new york: cambridge university press. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 4, no. 2, 70-75, 2017 issn(e) 2313-7401/issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2017.42.70.75 70 does entrepreneurial university support entrepreneurship education? dedi purwana1  umi widyastuti2 ( corresponding author) 1,2universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia abstract this study aims to develop the model of character-based entrepreneurship education in an entrepreneurial university. entrepreneurship education was viewed from the aspects of curricular and non-curricular learnings. this study employed a mixed method and described the empirical facts using a descriptive analysis. data from 278 university students and 6 lecturers was collected using questionnaires and interviews. data of curricular aspects show that: 1) theoretical matters of entrepreneurship are more emphasized than the practical ones; 2) a student-centered approach has been employed, but lack of practical varieties; 3 entrepreneurial learning resources, like seminars, workshops, trainings are required. of non-curricular matters, it is found that: 1) the infrastructure is restricted and thus, requires the development of business incubators and laboratories for students to empirically gain experience of entrepreneurship; 2) university-business relationship has not yet accommodated entrepreneurship cultures, even though they have been truly academic and incidental events; 3) leader’s commitment towards entrepreneurial culture is inconsistent. entrepreneurial culture has not been institutionalized within the entire organization of the university. keywords: entrepreneurship education, curriculum, learning, entrepreneurial university. citation | dedi purwana; umi widyastuti (2017). does entrepreneurial university support entrepreneurship education? asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(2): 7075. history: received: 19 may 2017 revised: 9 june 2017 accepted: 13 june 2017 published: 20 june 2017 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 71 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 71 3. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................... 72 4. results and discussions .................................................................................................................................................................. 72 5. conclusion and recommendation ................................................................................................................................................ 75 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 75 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=dedi%20purwana https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=umi%20widyastuti https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=dedi%20purwana https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=umi%20widyastuti https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=dedi%20purwana https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=umi%20widyastuti asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 70-75 71 1. introduction based on the global entrepreneurship monitor (gem), entrepreneurial intention in indonesia was 27.4% in 2014, a declining trend of 35.1% in 2013. entrepreneurial intention rate describes of individuals age of 18-64 with the intention to create new business in the next three years. indonesia is a country with high negative growth in terms of entrepreneurial intention rate (-7,7%) compared to asian countries likethailand and china with positive growth (gem, 2014). the development of entrepreneurship in indonesia has become a national strategic requirement to enhance economic resilience. since 1995, the government of indonesia has encouraged the growth of entrepreneurship by issuing policies to develop entrepreneurship programs (susilaningsih, 2015). this is driven by the assertion that a country can reach the prosperity if there are at least 2 percent entrepreneurs of the population. the number of entrepreneurs in indonesia was only about 1.65 % of the population in 2015, while singapore reached 7%, malaysia accounted for 5%, and thailand was 4% (republika, 2015). to cope with the condition, indonesia needs a strategic plan to strengthen the competencies of its human resources, especially in promoting entrepreneurship skills through entrepreneurship education. entrepreneurship education has been actually introduced from primary school up to higher education (susilaningsih, 2015). the education is suggested to be carried out in a long term through gradual process and continuous learning (wiratno, 2012; kasih, 2013). being an entrepreneur takes time and requires restless efforts. therefore, a life-long education must be the foundation in cultivating entrepreneurship education. research on entrepreneurship education describes some important aspects that must be taken into account in entrepreneurship education which includes both, curricular and non-curricular aspects (kasih, 2013). susilaningsih (2012) even emphasizes the non-curricular aspects to support the success of entrepreneurship education in higher education. purwana et al. (2015) assert that universities, government, or other parties who are concerned with entrepreneurial education may design an entrepreneurial program to encourage students to be young entrepreneurs. this study aims to develop a model of entrepreneurship education as an alternative that can be used by universitas negeri jakarta a public higher education in indonesia – to build the entrepreneurial mindset. entrepreneurship education in this study emphases on analyzing the curriculum content and non-curricular activities related to the creation of an entrepreneurial university. 2. literature review entrepreneurship is a set of behaviors, skills and attitudes shown by someone (heinonen and anne (2006). through entrepreneurship education, the entrepreneurial skills and attitudes possessed by individuals are then integrated through the process of behavior formation. rigley and rönnqvist (2010) claim that entrepreneurial education affects entrepreneurial characteristics, such as motivation, opportunity identification, risk and uncertainty, and ability to work. furthermore, these characteristics could plausibly determine outcome, which is a change in attitude towards the entrepreneurial characteristics. there are two distinguishing types of entrepreneurship education: theoretically oriented courses and practically oriented courses (piperopoulos and dimov, 2015). as found by piperopoulos and dimov (2015) there were different results of those who were in the theoretical oriented courses compared to those who were in the practically oriented relating to self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention. elmuti et al. (2012) found that entrepreneurial education and training programs affected openness, confidence, and trust. furthermore, hsu et al. (2014) looked at the role of entrepreneurship education on students’ motivation to pursue an entrepreneurial career. these scholars employed the expectancy theory to predict this behavioural intention. they demonstrated that entrepreneurial education could impact both motivation and intention. referring to linan (2004); lorz (2011) entrepreneurship education can be divided into four types. first, entrepreneurial awareness education is an education that aims to improve knowledge of entrepreneurship and influence attitudes that will generate entrepreneurial intention. second, education is intended to encourage a person to be able to establish a business (education for start-up). this program is intended for people who have business ideas and need solutions to answer the questions about how to become self-employed (self-employed). the third category is "education for entrepreneurial dynamism" is the education given to people who have been running a business but want to improve their business behavior after experiencing the initial phase of a business establishment. fourth, continuing education for entrepreneurs (continuing education for entrepreneurs) depicts an all-time learning program that is intended for experienced entrepreneurs. the quality assurance agency for higher education (2012) explains that entrepreneurial education should be able to provide students with enterprise skills and entrepreneurial skills. the important thing to discuss is about how to put the business (enterprise) and entrepreneurship into the curriculum design. moreover, saptono and dedi (2016) found that learning environment has direct positive impact on entrepeneurial intention. kasih (2013) also emphasizes on four aspects that determine and influence the effectiveness of entrepreneurial learning in higher education. the first is the curriculum design in which entrepreneurship subjects / materials emphasize the development of entrepreneurial values among students. the second is learning methods which switch the learning methods from teacher-centered-learning (tcl) to student-centered-learning (scl). the third is the lecturers that must have a paradigm and entrepreneurial mindset and able to encourage students to be entrepreneurial, even to become entrepreneurs. the fourth is the creation of entrepreneurship atmosphere that can be conducted in several ways such as setting up agencies or entrepreneurial organizations, university-business external relationship for knowledge exchange; creating business units or student cooperatives; hosting and taking part in various competitions; and participating in various seminars, workshops and trainings. the model of entrepreneurship education in universities should have the dimensions of organization and management (susilaningsih, 2012). it includes (1) leader’s commitment to develop entrepreneurship culture; (2) main programs to change students’ mindset followed up by the sub-programs; (3) sufficient infrastructure support; and (4) establishing the relationship between universities and external institutions to improve entrepreneurship education programs. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 70-75 72 gibb (2005) defines an entrepreneurial university as a concept that describes a condition in which the university provides opportunities, practices, culture and environment to encourage and engage students actively in entrepreneurship. according to clark (2001) as cited in purwana (2015) keys to successful implementation of entrepreneurship in higher education lie in: 1) strong leadership (strengthened steering core), 2) focusing on the development of cooperation networks (expanded developmental periphery), 3) having a diversified funding base, 4) strengthening academic quality as a core competence of institutions (academic stimulated heartland), and 5) integrated entrepreneurial culture. furthermore, the european commision (2012) explains that in order to create an entrepreneurial university, higher education has to put concern on some aspects that include: (1) leadership and governance; (2) organizational capacity, people and incentives; (3) entrepreneurship development in teaching and learning; (4) pathways for entrepreneurs; (5) university external business relationships for knowledge exchange; (6) the entrepreneurial university as an international institution; (7) measuring the impact of the entrepreneurial university. 3. research methodology a mixed method was employed in this study and the technique of applied descriptive statistics method was used to analyze the data. data was collected through in-depth interviews, questionnaires to students, triangulation of data and literature. in total, there were 278 respondents of universitas negeri jakarta students. the in-depth interview was also administered to six lecturers who teach entrepreneurship courses. entrepreneurship education in this study is viewed from two aspects of learnings, curriculum and noncurriculum bases. curriculum-based learning is to observe the implementation of entrepreneurship through several indicators: (1) learning outcomes, (2) attitude, (3) skills, (4) learning and teaching methods, (5) learning sources, and (6) assessment. non-curriculum-based learning is the availability of supporting infrastructure such as business units, laboratories, student activity units, and business incubators. on this aspect, this study analysed the factors that support the creation of entrepreneurial university, such as: (1) leader’s commitment and culture towards entrepreneurship, (2) diversity of sources of funds, (3) relationship and collaboration with stakeholders, (4) development of entrepreneurship in the teaching and learning aimed at knowledge exchange. 4. results and discussions entrepreneurship education is a learning program that aims to improve understanding of entrepreneurship, students’ entrepreneurial traits, students’ entrepreneurial intention and students’ capability to become entrepreneurs through a process of structured learning in the curriculum and supporting non-curricular activities. the character-based entrepreneurship education model developed in this research will be used by universitas negeri jakarta as a continuous learning. the purpose of entrepreneurship education is not only learning to understand cognitive aspects, but also emphasizing on affective aspects of being entrepreneurial as well as equipping students with the skills to start new businesses. based on the structure of the curriculum, the aspects which are observed are as follows: 4.1 learning outcomes learning outcomes in entrepreneurship education, according to gorman et al. (1997) is to understand entrepreneurship concept, to have an entrepreneurial mindset and to be entrepreneurs. the learning process in the entrepreneurship courses, as a part of entrepreneurship education in universitas negeri jakarta, has been covering all of three learning outcomes. however, to achieve the required three learning outcomes, the outcomes have to be organized gradually and continuously (kasih, 2013). it is also stated by gorman et al. (1997) that the early stages of entrepreneurial learning is aimed to create an entrepreneurial mindset and enhance the understanding of entrepreneurship. in the long run, learning is meant to guide students to become entrepreneurs. in practice, the entrepreneurship course at universitas negeri jakarta still emphasizes on theories and the understanding of entrepreneurship. therefore, entrepreneurial mindset as the most important aspect of entrepreneurship education could not be achieved optimally. in addition, according to gibb (2005) if one wants to create an entrepreneurial university, the concept of entrepreneurship education should be embedded and integrated into the curriculum of the faculty. entrepreneurship education at universitas negeri jakarta is not a compulsory subject in every faculty and the course is 3 credit hours. susilaningsih (2015) states that entrepreneurship education in higher education is required in any kind of professions, regardless of their major/faculty. 4.2 attitude in addition to the aspect of knowledge, entrepreneurship education is organized with the aim to develop an attitude or entrepreneurial mindset. entrepreneurship education at universitas negeri jakarta concerns with the development of achievement motivation and communication. in relation to these aspects, entrepreneurship education should be able to develop entrepreneurial skills such as creative and innovative, risk-taking, as well as the ability to identify opportunities. while ras and pretorius (2007) found that some attitudes to be developed in their model of entrepreneurship education are like commitment; personal leadership; obsession on opportunities; tolerance for risk and ambiguity; creativity and achievement motivation. heinonen and anne (2006) added one important aspect, which is the ability to solve problems. in general, based on the data analysis, the implementation of entrepreneurship education should be improved in terms of the development of attitudes such as creative and innovative, hardworking, self-confidence, risk-taking, decision making, solving problem, proactive and teamwork. 4.3 skills the quality assurance agency for higher education (2012) emphasizes that the skills to be developed through entrepreneurship education include enterprise skills. entrepreneurial education model developed by pretorius et al. (2005) explains that the entrepreneurial performance is a function of motivation, entrepreneurial skills and business skills. based on data analysis, enterprise skills have to be provided in entrepreneurship education with the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 70-75 73 focus to develop some business skills such as grasping opportunities, preparing and compiling business plan, solving problems, managerial skill, the ability to produce products, the ability to communicate products to customers and financial skill including how to prepare financial reports and evaluate the business. in fact, business skills include skills in financial management, marketing, operations, human resources, law, communication, management and skills in drawing up business plans (pretorius et al., 2005). 4.4 learning methods in reference to the entrepreneurship education model that is implemented in several universities in china, learning activities in the classrooms must be shifted from teacher-centered to student-centered with its learning cultivation paradigm (li and li, 2015). the interaction of teachers and students demands active participation and involvement of students in improving the learning process. bruff (2009) argues that through active participation of students in learning, knowledge can be built independently and is expected be an experience to solve problems in the future. the entrepreneurial education model developed by heinonen and anne (2006) applies a new teaching approach that is by placing learners as subjects of the learning process, so that students will participate actively in their classes. in order to create a fun classroom environment, an important aspect to consider is the relationship between teachers and students as well as how the physical environment is managed (muijs and david, 2008). therefore, a teacher will act as a facilitator in the learning process. an experience can be prepared on a theoretical basis, while learning is organized by combining theories and experiences through internship, making use of laboratories or business incubators. in fact, universitas negeri jakarta has already organized the learning process that focus on students, but the methods employed in the classrooms still need to be variously developed as they have not optimally supported and enriched student’s entrepreneurship experience yet. 4.5 learning sources in general, student needs some sources of learning materials or information to support learning process, any kind of sources that allow or facilitate someone in the learning process are known as learning sources. recently, many students rely on their lecturers as the main source of learning, but actually, lecturers are not the only source. there are many other learning sources that could be used in learning, especially in entrepreneurship education. kasih (2013) asserts that other learning resources are guest lecturers and practitioners in entrepreneurship, success stories, as well as seminars. thus, universitas negeri jakarta has to routinely organize events and invite more practitioners, as an effort to enhance student entrepreneurial intention. 4.6 evaluation evaluation of the learning process were conducted by lecturers who provides measurement and assessment. the measurement is related to converting the learning outcomes in a quantitative form, while the assessment is related to the quality of the learning that has been carried out. one aspect that taken into account in the evaluation process includes the understanding of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial experience gained through practices in laboratories. not all students in universitas negeri jakarta get the opportunities to practice their enterprise skills during the lessons because some faculties do not have the laboratories to practice entrepreneurships. non-curricular entrepreneurship education is still less optimal because of some limited aspects. universitas negeri jakarta has not yet provided the necessary supporting facilities such as business incubators, entrepreneurship units for student activities, business units, laboratories of entrepreneurship, mentoring in entrepreneurship and competitive climate. entrepreneurship education should be complemented with entrepreneurial climate in universitas negeri jakarta. entrepreneurial climate and culture could be gained through the leader's commitment for sustainable entrepreneurship program in collaboration with external parties, the diversity of source of funds and the process of teaching and learning that support entrepreneurship. leader’s commitment to create entrepreneurial climate in universitas negeri jakarta has not yet optimally been shown. the commitment to create entrepreneurial university has shown some volatility. it is due to the different of perceptions in translating institutional mission. therefore, the culture of entrepreneurship has not yet identified in the entire organization elements, including the lecturers. the lecturers lack of entrepreneurial mindset and entrepreneurial awareness. it is indicated by low number of scientific publications in national and international levels in terms of funding sources, universitas negeri jakarta depends on the source of funds from the government and the community. the university has not yet optimally explored the potential of its own resources to contribute to the revenue. the relationship with external parties in terms of entrepreneurship education is still limited on academic and incidental events. it has not led to routine programs conducted by the university to generate other sources of income. based on the qualitative and quantitative analysis, this study results in a conceptual model of entrepreneurship education based on the characters as shown in figure 1. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 70-75 74 figure-1. character based entrepreneurship education model source: developed by the author character-based entrepreneurship education model is developed as a derivative of the mission of universitas negeri jakarta so that it is internalized into the academic climate both in the curriculum and non-curriculum activities. entrepreneurship education in the curriculum is organized in a general subjects which is called fundamental of entrepreneurship and having 3 credits hours that is required for all students. this subject aims to equip students with the understanding of entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship mindset and to encourage them to become an entrepreneur. learning outcomes that should be achieved during the process of learning include three aspects: (1) knowledge (cognitive), (2) attitude (affective) and (3) business skills (psychomotor). based on this model, the development of attitudes (affective) emphasizes on creativity and innovation, drive to excel, selfconfidence, taking risks, commitment, leadership and problem solving skills. this attitude is developed through learning methods such as discussions, symposia, brainstorming and experimental methods. in addition to classroom learning, students are also equipped with the real experience through practices in a laboratory, internship or business incubator, as one form of assessment in the learning process in the subject of entrepreneurship. through practice, students are expected to apply their skills in managing the business. in the character-based models of entrepreneurship education, lecturers as facilitators must also possess the character of entrepreneur. therefore, lecturers in this subject must meet some requirements. the lecturers must (1) have got entrepreneurship teaching experience for at least 5 years, (2) have attended entrepreneurial training or seminar; and had a background of entrepreneurs. the supporting document as an output of this research is blue print of learning plan during one semester and is provided weekly in a form of lesson plan. entrepreneurship education must be equipped with learning sources in the forms of seminars, workshops, trainings and provide the experience through internships, as sources of information. internships are held at the end of the learning and are needed to improve the skills in managing the business. students may choose certain learning sources and attend the event to fulfill the requirement for passing this subject. it could be arranged as one of the prerequisite before their graduation. in terms of non-curricular aspect of entrepreneurship education, leaders have to build entrepreneurial atmosphere within the university or faculty. it could be arranged through activities which are held to encourage the competitiveness. the university or faculty should facilitate the provision of competitions in various fields. to strengthen the enterprise skills and to develop entrepreneurial mindset, faculty must equip their students with "business plan competitions". the events are attended by students enrolling in the entrepreneurship subject. during the preparation of business plans competitions, students should be supervised by assigned lecturers. to create good entrepreneurship climate, faculty or university must revitalize and involve student organizations as an effort to inculcate entrepreneurship. the commitment of university and faculty leaders as the effort to create the entrepreneurial university in universitas negeri jakarta should be consistently maintained. this can be achieved through the policies that lead to a more conducive entrepreneurial climate. it is also with respect to some aspects of steering core, expanded developmental periphery, diversified funding base, stimulated academic heartland and integrated entrepreneurial culture, the entrepreneurial university can be manifested. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 70-75 75 thus, entrepreneurship education that is designed both in curricular and non-curricular activities is expected to improve the intentions of students in entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship shaping behavior. 5. conclusion and recommendation it can be concluded that successful entrepreneurship education depends on the existence of entrepreneurial university. the entrepreneurial university should be treated as a hidden curriculum. based on the data analysis, the research revealed that entrepreneurship subjects should be a compulsory subject that can be designed as one of general subjects, to be directed into the formation of the entrepreneurial characters. this subject is preferably to be embedded into other subjects that will include the uniqueness of each study program. through entrepreneurship education, graduates will have entrepreneurship mindset that encouraged them to be intrapreneurs and entrepreneur. the other important thing to be considered beyond the curriculum is the availability of infrastructures, especially incubators and laboratories as places for students to gain entrepreneurship experience. moreover, to 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context of kosovo egzonis hajdari1  fulya erlüle2 ( corresponding author) 1lecturer at college “iliria” , pristina, kosovo 2professor at marmara university, istambul, turkey abstract divorce is an ancient institution of marital law that was born shortly after marriage. this institution is known by ancient laws, as well as by contemporary laws. in kosovo the issue of divorce is regulated by family law. this law addresses besides principle divorce issues (divorce modalities, initiative and decision-making subjects, proceedings etc.), as well as the causes of divorces. such issues, in an identical manner are regulated also by turkish civil code. modest results of this scientific paper indicate the fact that the issue of divorce in kosovo constitutes a complicated and a relatively wide extent phenomenon. consequently, in kosovo society of these past five years (2010 – 2014) were recorded 6388 divorce cases. divorce cases have manifested a different presence degree observing this in the context of causes determining this harmful phenomenon. divorce whenever and wherever happens it causes numerous social and psychological consequences etc. which significantly hit spouses, their children but also society in general. during the preparation of this scientific paper we used historical-legal, legal, comparative, statistical and sampling methods. keywords: marriage, divorce, fidelity, unbearable life, intention. citation | egzonis hajdari; fulya erlüle (2018). causes and consequences of divorce the context of kosovo. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(1): 32-39. history: received: 24 january 2018 revised: 16 february 2018 accepted: 20 february 2018 published: 23 february 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 33 2. the meaning of divorce ................................................................................................................................................................ 33 3. divorce under the respective laws of kosovo and turkey ................................................................................................... 33 4. data regarding divorce in kosovo during the period of time 2010-2014 ........................................................................ 33 5. the causes of divorce .................................................................................................................................................................... 34 6. divorce causes ................................................................................................................................................................................. 38 7. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 39 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 39 bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 39 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.51.32.39&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3275-5454 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=fulya erlüle https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3275-5454 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=fulya erlüle https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3275-5454 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=fulya erlüle asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 32-39 33 1. introduction divorce as a marital law institution occupies an important place in the relevant laws and in the theory of family law. divorce has a long history that has been treated in old laws as well as in modern ones. divorce is a complicated phenomenon. it was such in the past, but also nowadays. it is determined by numerous causes and expresses a lot of consequences of different natures. this research of divorce is focused in kosovo. the result of this scientific paper prove that in the appearance of divorce in kosovo society during the research period (2010 2014) have influenced numerous circumstances, such making spouses life unbearable including adultery, assassination against the life of the spouse, serious maltreatment, ill-intended and unjustifiable abandonment, incurable mental illness and continuous incapacity to act, unreasonable interruption of factual cohabitation for more than one year and divorce by mutual agreements. regarding these issues were presented, analyzed and commented important statistical data. in the following of this scientific paper has been treated the consequences of divorce.in this regard were elaborated in terms of existing data, social, psychological and other consequences which hit divorced spouses, their family and children and society in general. in addition, in this scientific paper, although briefly were treated also determining factors of divorce in kosovo society. in this regard has been emphasized the role of social and family democratic transition that included kosovo society, the advancement of educational, cultural and social women position, deep multi-dimensional transformation that included kosovo family by hitting patriarchal family, economic, residential problems etc. 2. the meaning of divorce marriage is one of the oldest institutions, and certainly the most important social-law institution (janić et al., 1990). it is defined as a free union of life of a man and a woman bond in front of the competent body by expressing freely the consent according to the procedure foreseen by legal provisions, a solemn act based on moral and legal equality, in the sense of love, respect and mutual understanding (podvorica, 2011). on the other hand, divorce is an ancient institution of marital law estimated to have been born shortly after the birth marriage. divorce throughout the human history until nowadays it is considered to be the most faithful ally of marriage. it was recognized and regulated by roman, greek, byzantine law etc. (janić et al., 1990). as well as turkish early law and albanian customary law (elezi, 1983). these laws mainly recognized two forms of marriage dissolution: the one resulting by spouse's agreement and dissolution of marriage by the request of one spouse. in fact divorce as a marital law institution is known without limitations by all contemporary laws. consequently, by divorce is understood the dissolution of a valid marriage based on grounds determined by the law and according to the legal proceedings finalized with the issuance of decision by a competent body-court (podvorica, 2011). this definition it makes clear the fact that by divorce is only dissolved the valid marriage. this means that invalid marriage is not dissolved but it is annulled (luarasi, 2001). 3. divorce under the respective laws of kosovo and turkey in contemporary societies issues related to marriage, including divorce are regulated by respective laws. regarding kosovo this issue is regulated by family law.1 this law addresses divorce in articles 68 and 69. in the article 68 paragraphs 1-4 are regulated some of the divorce principal issues and divorce modalities, initiative and decision-making subjects, as well as divorce proceedings (gashi et al., 2012). according to solutions foreseen in this article marriage may be dissolved by divorce only upon decision of a court or if one spouse or both by mutual agreement may request a divorce by filing a claim with the competent court. the right to file a claim cannot be passed on to successors but the successors of the plaintiff may continue the commenced procedure, to verify the foundation of the complaint. the decision-making concerning divorce is an exclusively right of the court, which concerning this issue conducts main hearing in which are invited and can be declared about it both spouses. in meanwhile, the article 69, paragraph 1 regulates the issue of divorce causes. according to the solutions foreseen in this provision the spouse may request divorce when marital relations have seriously and continuously become disordered or when due to other reasons the marriage has irretrievably broken down. whereas the paragraph 2 of this article addresses the special reasons of divorce. such reasons pursuant to this legal provision may be considered: unbearable life of spouses, adultery, assassination against the life of the spouse, serious maltreatment, ill-intended and unjustifiable abandonment, incurable mental illness and continuous incapacity to act, unreasonable interruption of factual cohabitation for more than one year and divorce by mutual agreement. turkish civil code the issue of divorce causes has regulated by articles 161-166. by articles 161-165 this code addresses specific causes of divorce. as such causes legal solutions included in these articles consider: adultery, bad and degrading behavior (offensive etc), crimes and unfair behaviors, ill-intended and unjustifiable abandonment and mental illness (helvacı and erlüle, 2014) whereas general causes of divorce the civil code of the republic of turkey addresses in the article 166. as such causes this code considers: instability in the unity of marriage (paragraphs 1 and 2), divorce by contract (paragraph 3) and divorce due to the repeated failure in order to create a joint life (paragraph 4). certainly this code, similar as kosovo marital law through its solutions regulates also the principled issues of divorce, including those addressed by initiative and decision-making divorce subjects (sahatqija, 1987). 4. data regarding divorce in kosovo during the period of time 2010-2014 in kosovo the issue of divorce in the last fifteen years is quite current. the actuality of this issue has been determined by the fact that divorces during the post-war period (1999) are more frequent in comparison to the past. thus, in 2010 were divorced 1488 couples of spouses, whereas in 2014 were divorced 1249 other couples of spouses. in a special diagram, due to the lack of data for previous years, will be presented the data for the number and performance of divorces in kosovo during the period of time 2010-2014. 1law on family (2013). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 32-39 34 diagram no-1. the number and performance of divorces according to these data during the period of time 2010-2014 in kosovo were divorced 6388 couples of spouses.2 data reflected in this table indicate that during the five years research period the number of divorces is relatively high. this situation is considered to be as a result of democratization reports processes that included kosovo society generally, the advancement of educational, cultural and economic women position, family transition (from patriarchal families to contemporary) but also the existence of many accumulated problems from the past determined by customary rules handed down from generation to generation. 5. the causes of divorce the causes of divorce are facts and circumstances arising after the marriage. they constitute grounds for which may be requested the dissolution of marriage. the causes of divorce are numerous and diverse. as such they are general and special (traljić and babić, 2004). 5.1. the general causes as general causes of divorce are considered serious and constant disorders of marital relations, to such a high level as the realization of the purpose of marriage and further continuation of joint living spouses make it impossible. serious disorder element it cannot be separated from the element that continuation of marriage it makes impossible (sahatqija, 1987). these two elements are closely linked to each other, because marriage is considered to be shocked exactly when its continuation is impossible. marital relations are disordered usually due to the violation of marital obligations by one or both spouses. these violations of obligations are required to be severe and constant such that wedlock life becomes unbearable. the continuity of violating the obligations 3 indicates non-perspective of community and deepening of disorder (janić et al., 1990). due to the large number of general causes which may include different facts and circumstances, it is impossible to count them as specified by law. but as such may be considered: severe economic situation, religious and cultural tensions, frustration in marriage, profound family transition, the advancement of women educational position etc. 5.2. special causes special causes of divorce are numerous and of different nature. they are facts and circumstances specified explicitly by legal norms. as it is specified above, the article 69 of family law of kosovo has determined these divorce causes: unbearable life of spouses, adultery, assassination against the life of the spouse, serious maltreatment, ill-intended and unjustifiable abandonment, incurable mental illness and continuous incapacity to act, unreasonable interruption of factual cohabitation for more than one year and divorce by mutual agreement. in the following of this scientific paper will be discussed about each of these causes separately. in this case, unable to study all the court cases of divorce the analysis will focus in analyzing of 90 studied court decisions related to divorce. 5.2.1. unbearable life of spouses unbearable life of spouses may happen due to the different circumstances which create disorders in well-being of a harmonious life of spouses (gashi et al., 2012). they are of different natures such as: constant fights, the variance of characters, alcoholism, drug addiction etc. in some cases such circumstances may be not important, but their effect can be such that life of spouses disorder seriously. thus, in a court case the cause of divorce was husband's negligence (the defendant) to complete visa documents.4 this circumstance motivated frequent verbal conflicts between spouses, such that life of spouses led to constant conflicts. how is manifested the influence of this cause in kosovo divorce appearance during the period of time 20102014, observed this in the context of studied judgments it may see from data presented in the following diagram. 2general statistics during the years 2010-2014 (2014). 3 the continuity of violating the obligations comes due to the repetition of marital relations disorder during a long period of time. 4district court (2008). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 32-39 35 diagram no2. number of divorces due to the circumstances that made spouses life unbearable according to these data from 90 court cases studied in six cases cause of divorces were circumstances that make spouses life unbearable. as it turns out, this cause participates in general number of divorce court studied cases to 6.66%. among these circumstances in two cases to the divorce had come because of alcoholism and drug addiction, in a case due to the constant fights, in another case due to the variance of characters and in two cases because of other circumstances of this nature. within these two causes one of the divorces had resulted due to the lack of children, whereas another case due to the continuing refusal of the spouse to engage in kitchen chores. these data indicate that in current conditions when kosovo society has been included by a profound democratic process, which includes the promotion of socio-economic women position, new circumstances, unknown from the past, are becoming the cause of not few divorces in kosovo. 5.2.2. adultery matrimonial faithfulness is estimated to be an influential factor in preservation and functioning of the marriage. in this regard, by family law of kosovo (article 42, paragraph 3) spouse marital fidelity is defined as a legal obligation (gashi et al., 2012). therefore, the violation of marital fidelity constitutes a crucial influential factor in the trend of divorces characterizing kosovo modern society. the violation of marital fidelity exists when one or both spouses enter into intimate relationships with other persons. how is manifested the influence of this cause in the appearance of divorces in kosovo during the period of time 2010-2014, observed this in the context of studied judgments it may be seen from the data presented in the following diagram. diagram no-3. the number of divorces due to the violation of marital fidelity according to these data from 90 studied court cases in 10 cases the cause of divorce was adultery. as it turns out, this cause participates in the general number of divorce studied court cases to 11.11%. from studied court cases results that in six cases had come to the divorce due to the adultery of the husband, whereas in other four cases due to the adultery of wife. the cause of husband higher participation in adultery cases must be linked with the role and bigger commitments that continue to have men in daily life activities. this circumstance puts them more than women to face different challenges, some of these challenges made them to be more provoked in order to violate spouse faithfulness. 5.2.3. assassination against the life of the spouse the commission of criminal offences against the life of the spouse constitutes a ground that also may lead to the divorce. thus, when one of the spouses commits criminal offence against the life of the other spouse, the spouse against whom the criminal offence has been committed has the right to request divorce (gashi et al., 2012). in fact regarding this cause of divorce, it is about criminal offences committed against the life of the spouse for example: serious injury, attempted murder etc. in these cases the decision concerning divorce depends on the determination of existence or not of criminal offence through final judgment in criminal procedure. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 32-39 36 how is manifested the influence of this cause in the appearance of divorces in kosovo during the period of time 2010-2014, observed this in the context of studied judgments it may be seen from the data presented in the following diagram. diagram no-4. the number of divorces because of assassination against the life of the spouse according to these data from 90 studied court cases in 7 cases the cause of divorce was the assassination against the life of the spouse. as it turns out, this cause participates in the general number of divorce studied court cases to 7.77%. from studied court cases results that in two cases had come to the divorce due to the commission of criminal offence attempted murder against the other spouse, whereas in other five cases due to the commission of criminal offence serious injury against other spouse. from the studied court cases results that in six cases were men who committed criminal offences against their wives, whereas only in one case was the opposite. the cause of husband higher participation within this divorce cause must be linked with the dominant position they continue to have in family and society and existing concepts of female obedience to the family demands. 5.2.4. serious maltreatments maltreatment means unfair treatment, respectively depreciatory, insulting treatment, rude, arrogant behavior as well as behaviors accompanied by physical violence (slapping, pulling hair, isolation etc.) all these exercised against the spouse. in order to use maltreatment as a cause for divorce the legislator requests to be serious, respectively unbearable by the spouse who leads in disruption of marital relations. how is manifested the influence of this cause in the appearance of divorces in kosovo during the period of time 2010-2014, observed this in the context of studied judgments it may be seen from the data presented in the following diagram. diagram no-5. the number of divorces due to the serious maltreatment according to these data from 90 studied court cases in 18 cases the cause of divorce was the serious maltreatment of the spouse. as it turns out, this cause participates in the general number of divorce studied court cases to 20 %. from studied court cases results that in 11 cases had come to the divorce due to the constant beating of the spouse, whereas in 3 cases due to its isolation within house, whereas in other 4 cases due to other serious maltreatment manners (serious contempt, insult etc.). from the studied court cases results that in 15 cases were men who maltreated their wives, whereas only in 3 cases was the opposite. the cause of husband higher participation within this divorce cause just like abovementioned must be linked with the dominant position they continue to have in family and society and existing concepts of female obedience to the family demands. 5.2.5. ill-intended and unjustifiable abandonment care and mutual assistance between spouses is one of the marital obligations during the existence of marriage. therefore, the violation of this obligation corresponding with ill-intended and unjustifiable abandonment, gives cause to the other spouse to request divorce. ill-intended and unjustifiable abandonment means facts and circumstances when one spouse abandons another spouse without necessary help and care, whether material or asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 32-39 37 moral and does this without any reason. it includes cases when to the spouse is not offered assistance in food, clothing, care in case of illness etc (gashi et al., 2012). how is manifested the influence of this cause in the appearance of divorces in kosovo during the period of time 2010-2014, observed this in the context of studied judgments it may be seen from the data presented in the following diagram. diagram no-6. the number of divorces due to the ill-intended and unjustifiable abandonment according to these data from 90 studied court cases in 11 cases the cause of divorce was ill-intended and unjustifiable abandonment. as it turns out, this cause participates in the general number of divorce studied court cases to 11.22%. from studied court cases results that in 5 cases had come to the divorce due to the non-providing food aid to the spouse, whereas in 3 cases due to non-health care to the spouse, whereas in other 3 cases due to other manners of ill-intended and unjustifiable abandonment of the spouse (non-providing help in clothing etc.). from the studied court cases results that in 7 cases were men who conducted ill-intended and unjustifiable abandonment, whereas only in 4 cases was the opposite. according to the results of this research in 7 cases unjustifiable abandonment resulted with the escape of the spouse abroad by leaving him without basic care. a relatively high presence of this cause in the appearance of divorces in kosovo must be linked with the difficult economic situation prevailing in country and with non-perspective of population towards developments trends extremely slow of economic recovery. 5.2.6. incurable mental illness and continuous incapacity to act family law of kosovo obliges the spouse to take care of other spouse, meaning also taking care in case of any diseases. nevertheless this law foresees also the right to divorce in the case of spouse's illness or the occurrence of incapacity to act. it is estimated that the right to divorce due to this cause is related to the existence of severe mental illness, such making the spouses life unbearable. consequently, any mental illness should not be considered as a cause of divorce (gashi et al., 2012). whereas when it comes to incapacity to act, it must be emphasized that this circumstance as a divorce cause may arise when it is proven with relevant decision by court.5 how is manifested the influence of this cause in the appearance of divorces in kosovo during the period of time 2010-2014, observed this in the context of studied judgments it may be seen from the data presented in the following diagram. diagram no-7. the number of divorces due to the incurable mental illness and constant incapacity to act according to these data from 90 studied court cases in 8 cases the cause of divorce was incurable mental illness and constant incapacity to act. as it turns out, these two causes participate in the general number of divorce studied court cases to 8.88%. from studied court cases results that in 6 cases had come to the divorce due to the incurable mental illness, whereas in 2 other cases due to the constant incapacity to act. from studied court cases results that all the cases for which had come to the divorce due to the incurable mental illness and constant incapacity to act were of severe nature, such making the spouses life unbearable. observing this in a gender context among court cases studied in 5 cases these two causes were related with the persons of feminine gender, and only in 3 cases with those of masculine gender. from studied court cases is not seen whether the claimant spouse has been 5 it is worth mentioning the fact that mental illness may be one of the causes that can lead in taking the ability to act. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 32-39 38 consistent in fulfillment of marital obligations concerning undertaken actions to heal or facilitate such spiritual situations of the spouse facing such situations. 5.2.7. other causes of divorce as facts, respectively other divorce circumstances observing in the context of article 69 of family law of kosovo are considered also unreasonable interruption of factual cohabitation for more than one year and divorce by mutual agreement. unreasonable interruption of factual cohabitation exists when one of the spouses for more than one year actually does not live with other spouse. such is the case when one of the spouses goes abroad and for more than one year does not communicate with the other spouse, and the other spouse does not even know its location either reasons of its departure. whereas mutual agreements of spouses as a cause of divorce exists when they request divorce by mutual agreement, respectively when they make joint proposal for divorce (gashi et al., 2012). how is manifested the influence of this cause in the appearance of divorces in kosovo during the period of time 2010-2014, observed this in the context of studied judgments it may be seen from the data presented in the following diagram. diagram no-8. the number of divorces due to the unreasonable interruption of factual cohabitation for more than one year and divorce by mutual agreement: according to these data from 90 studied court cases in 30 cases the cause of divorce was unreasonable interruption of factual cohabitation for more than one year and divorce by mutual agreement. as it turns out, these two causes participate in the general number of divorce studied court cases to 33.33%. from studied court cases results that in 21 cases had come to the divorce due to the divorce by mutual agreement, whereas in 9 other cases due to the unreasonable interruption of factual cohabitation for more than one year. from studied court cases results that when they reached an agreement for divorce basically did not tell the reasons that dictated divorce. in meantime concerning unreasonable interruption of factual cohabitation for more than one year claimant spouses in 6 cases had emphasized the fact that the other spouse had lost traces and did not communicate for more than one year, whereas in 3 other cases they communicate but let them know about the fact that their marriage had come to an end. 6. divorce causes by dissolution of marriage are presented a numerous legal consequences, social and property nature. these consequences hit spouses and their children. social circumstances have to deal with the separation of joint property, gifts return, the obligation of food, housing, inheritance, maintenance and raising children etc. in meanwhile, psychological consequences are manifested in the appearance of desperation feeling, aggression, anger and fear etc., (podvorica, 2011). social consequences of divorce manifested in the life of former spouses and their children inevitably are dictated by severe economic and social situation in country. these consequences in kosovo society mainly hit the feminine gender which continues to be preoccupied with the low level of education and its high unemployment degree. these consequences extend their effects especially in the family of divorced women origin, based on the fact that in more than 85% of divorce cases, the divorced woman goes in her genus family by becoming a burden of that family. the social consequences of divorce are manifested also in social aspect. criminological researches prove that many divorced women and their children continue to become a burden of society. they due to the severe economic situation (by not being employed) are obliged to request for a social support. bearing in mind the fact kosovo has an annual budget of only 1 billion and 500 million euro is clear that the increase of social assistance cases is estimated to be a severe burden for the state. psychological consequences of divorce also hit divorced spouses and their children. psychological consequences that mostly hit spouses are manifested through the appearance of strong anger feelings, anxiety, depression, loneliness, unease and lack of courage for life and activity. this situation creates a different family environment such that affects also children's psychology. observing in this aspect, children are those who most suffer parent's separation. they feel sadness, fear, anger and are not friendly. often they feel guilty and helpless for their parent's separation. to those children appear real problems at school, reflected in behavior, communication, collaboration with peers etc. divorce also causes other circumstances. in most of the cases divorce causes the reduction of female reproductive ability, giving up from re-marriage, giving up from births in re-marriage, stress, sadness, inadequate children care, low success in teaching of divorced parents children and finally spreading of negative phenomenon as: prostitution, drug, alcoholism and other phenomenon. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 32-39 39 7. conclusion from modest results of this scientific paper we have come to these conclusions: 1. by divorce should be implied the dissolution of a valid marriage based on the causes specified by law and according to legal proceedings finalized by the issuance of the judgment by court. this definition makes clear the fact that by divorce only a valid marriage has come to dissolution. this means that invalid marriage does not come to dissolution but it is annulled. 2. in kosovo the divorce issue in these last fifteen years is quite current. the relevance of this issue is determined by the fact that divorces during the post-war period (1999) are more frequent comparison to the past. according to statistical data of the statistics agency of kosovo during the period of time 20102014 were recorded 6388 divorces. 3. the causes of divorce appearance are linked with the democratization process of relations that included kosovo society in general, the advancement of educational, cultural and economic women's position, family transition (from patriarchal family to modern one), but also the existence of many problems accumulated from the past determined by customary rules handed down from generation to generation. 4. the causes of divorces are of different nature (serious and constant disorders of marital relations) and special. as a special causes are considered to be: unbearable life of spouses, adultery, assassination against the life of the spouse, serious maltreatment, ill-intended and unjustifiable abandonment, incurable mental illness and continuous incapacity to act, unreasonable interruption of factual cohabitation for more than one year and divorce by mutual agreement. 5. by dissolution of marriage are presented a numerous legal consequences, social nature as well as property nature. these consequences hit spouses and their children. social consequences have to deal with the separation of joint property, gifts return, the obligation of food, housing, inheritance, maintenance and raising children etc. the dissolution of marriage causes also numerous psychological consequences. these consequences which hit divorced spouses and their children are manifested in the appearance of desperation feeling, aggression, anger and fear etc. references district court, 2008. former judgment of district court in prishtina c.no.67/2088 date 18.06.2008. elezi, i., 1983. albanian criminal customary law. tirana: university of tirana. pp: 37 – 39. gashi, h., a. aliu and a. vokshi, 2012. family law of kosovo. prishtina: commentary. pp: 191-197. general statistics during the years 2010-2014, 2014. kosovo statistical agency. retrieved from ask.rks-gov.net/ publications/kat_view/36general publications. helvacı, s. and f. erlüle, 2014. civil law. i̇stanbul: marmara university. pp: 174. janić, m., r. korać and z. panjović, 1990. family law, commentary. beograd: university of beograde. pp: 144-153. law on family, 2013. law on family 2013, (law no.2004/32) entered into force on 20 january 2006. luarasi, a., 2001. family relations. tirana: university of tirana. pp: 114-133. podvorica, h., 2011. family law. prishtina: university of prishtina. pp: 60-118. sahatqija, b., 1987. family laws in people's socialist republic of albania, tirana: 270. traljić, n. and s. babić, 2004. family law. sarajevo: university of sarajevo. pp: 211. bibliography dural, m., 2014. item tufan and silver mustafa alper, turkish private law, family law. istanbul: university of istanbul, 3: 74. turkish civil code (8049 – code number 4721), entered into force on 8 december 2001. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 4, no. 2, 76-81, 2017 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2017.42.76.81 76 positive organizational study: a comparison between private and government university teacher farah iqbal1 sobia shahzad2 sarwat amin rattani3  sadaf mustafa4 ( corresponding author) 1,3department of psychology, university of karachi, karachi, pakistan 2department of sociology, university of karachi, karachi, pakistan 4department of commerce, university of karachi, karachi, pakistan abstract the study conducted explored the relation between psychological capital, general health and organizational citizenship behavior and its variation between the teachers of private and government universities of karachi, pakistan. based on existing literature, following hypotheses were formulated; (1) difference would be observed in psychological capital of private and government university teachers, (2) difference would be observed in efficacy levels of private and government university teachers, (3) individuals with good health will have high psychological capital, (4) individuals with high ocb will have high psychological capital. through convenient sampling, 261 teachers teaching at graduate-level were taken as participants. psychological capital questionnaire, general health questionnaire and organizational citizenship behavior checklist were employed. all the hypotheses were proved when results were analyzed through spss. in conclusion, people having high psychological capital live healthier life and are more likely to indulge in pro-social activities and organizational citizenship behavior. keywords: psychological capital, organizational citizenship behavior, general health questionnaire. citation | farah iqbal; sobia shahzad; sarwat amin rattani; sadaf mustafa (2017). positive organizational study: a comparison between private and government university teacher. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(2): 76-81. history: received: 5 may 2017 revised: 9 june 2017 accepted: 13 june 2017 published: 20 june 2017 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 77 2. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 78 3. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 78 4. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 79 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 79 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 80 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=farah iqbal https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sobia shahzad https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sarwat amin rattani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sadaf mustafa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=farah iqbal https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sobia shahzad https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sarwat amin rattani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sadaf mustafa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=farah iqbal https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sobia shahzad https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sarwat amin rattani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sadaf mustafa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=farah iqbal https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sobia shahzad https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sarwat amin rattani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sadaf mustafa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=farah iqbal https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sobia shahzad https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sarwat amin rattani https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sadaf mustafa asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 76-81 77 1. introduction positive psychology has its roots from psychologist martin seligman, who proposed to concentrate more on the good sides of people than on the problems. according to seligman, too often people get wedged on the negative sides of themselves and their personal history (seligman, 1998). drawing from literature, positive psychology has brought an uplifting and novel view pertaining to human nature and other interrelated characteristics, which had somehow been neglected (luthans, 2002; bright et al., 2006). the concept of psychological capital is central in positive psychology. psychological capital is distinct from traditional economic capital, human capital and social capital. traditional economic capital includes typically finance and tangible assets; human capital includes experiences, education, skills, knowledge, and ideas; social capital stresses relationships, network of contacts, and friends; and positive psychological capital stresses on optimism, confidence, resilience, and hope (luthans et al., 2004). psychological capital is concerned about ‘who you are?’ and more importantly, on ‘who you are becoming?’. psychological capital is defined here as; an individual’s positive psychological state of development that is characterized by: 1) having confidence (selfefficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks, 2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future, 3) persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed, and 4) when surrounded by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resiliency) to attain success luthans et al. (2007). studies suggest that psychological capital has an impact on individual and organizational outputs and performance in work environment. examples of such positive impacts include increased satisfaction, performance and commitment (goldsmith et al., 1997; luthans et al., 2008). according to world health organization, health is defined as ‘a state of complete physical, social and mental well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ (world health organization, 1948). wellbeing has been found to be related to both work and personal life outcomes. there is considerable research on the relationship between psychological wellbeing and performance at work (cropanzano and wright, 1999; wright and cropanzano, 2000) and successful relationships (diener and seligman, 2002). also, superior mental and physical health and longevity have been found to co vary with happiness and positivity levels (danner et al., 2001; roysamb et al., 2003; koivumaa-honkanen et al., 2004). this in turn draws inferences about the relation of psychological capital and an individual’s health. a more recent focus has been to recognize and demonstrate the important role that positivity may play in well-being. in a meta-analysis, the results clearly indicated that positive, happy people had better physical and mental health outcomes and behavior (lyubomirsky et al., 2005) and in another study, lyubomirsky (2008) concluded that happier, more positive people are more resilient toward problems, have stronger immune systems, and are physically healthier. psychological capital has been linked to several other workplace outcomes including organizational commitment, larson and luthans (2006) decreases in stress and turnover, avey et al. (2009) reduced absenteeism (avey et al., 2006) and organizational citizenship behaviors (gooty et al., 2009). research shows that the four components (self-efficacy, hope, resilience and optimism) of psychological capital have positive relationships with performance, happiness, well-being, and satisfaction of workers. self-efficacy has been found to have a positive impact on performance (stajkovic and luthans, 1998; legal and meyer, 2009). employees’ optimism is related to their performance, satisfaction, and happiness (luthans et al., 2007). hope is related to employees’ performance, satisfaction, happiness, and retention (luthans et al., 2007). resilience has a positive relationship with employee performance and happiness and satisfaction (luthans et al., 2007). moreover, researches indicate a difference in the psychological capital, level of performance and efficacy between private and government sector workers-bank employees (singh and khan, 2013). the third construct in question is organizational citizenship behavior (ocb). individual behaviors carried out to promote effective functioning of an organization, by contributing to its social and psychological environment are categorized under organizational citizenship behavior. these are voluntary behaviors that do not form part of the employee’s job description. such behaviors include helping another employee finish a project, providing helpful advice or suggestions, and offering positive feedback on work tasks (podsakoff et al., 1993; organ and ryan, 1995). ocb is also referred to as ‘contextual performance’ or ‘pro-social organizational behavior’ (borman and motowidlo, 1997). studies indicate that, individuals in a positive mood are more likely to help others than those in a negative or neutral mood (isen and baron, 1991). avey et al. (2008) found that psychological capital was related to attitudes (engagement and cynicism) and behaviors (organizational citizenship) in a study on 132 employees from a broad cross-section of organizations. wen-yu (2004) also found that self-efficacy is correlated with organizational citizenship behavior. learned optimism, confrontation and pro-action also have a significant influence on organizational citizenship behavior (niranjana and biswajeet, 2005). the present study aims to investigate the relationship between psychological capital, general health and organization citizenship behavior of graduate-level teachers (figure 1). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 76-81 78 figure-1. happy employee considering the above literature, the formulated hypotheses are:  a difference would be seen in the mean score of psychological capital of teachers in the private and the government sector.  a difference would be seen in the mean score of efficacy of teachers in the private and the government sector.  teachers with good health (a low score on ghq) will have a high psychological capital. (implying a negative correlation between the scores of ghq and psycap).  teachers with high organizational citizenship behavior will have high psychological capital. (implying a positive correlation between the scores of ocb and psycap). 2. methodology 2.1. sample the participants were 261 teachers, 140 from private sector and 121 from government sector, from different departments of several universities and colleges. the sample was selected through convenience sampling. teachers teaching at graduate and post-graduate level with a minimum master degree were approached for this study. 2.2. measures 2.2.1. psychological capital questionnaire (pcq-12) psycap was measured using the pcq-12 made by luthans et al. (2007). psycap is a 12-item construct, consisting of four subscales which include efficacy (3 items), hope (4 items), resilience (3items), and optimism (2 items). all items were measured using a 6-point likert scale of agreement, with response options ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree. the sum of the averages of the four subscales of psycap is the psychological capital of an individual. 2.2.2. general health questionnaire (ghq) general health questionnaire by goldberg (1972) is a commonly accepted measure of mental health/wellbeing that measures aspects of affect, general health and psychological distress. respondents rate themselves on a four-point likert scale of 12 items, according to how they have recently experienced each ghq item, ranging from ‘better than usual’, ‘same as usual’, 'worse than usual' to 'much worse than usual.' a total score is computed by adding the scores of each individual item. 2.2.3. organizational citizenship behavior checklist (ocb-c) the organizational citizenship behavior checklist (ocb-c) is a 10-item scale designed by spector et al. (2010) to assess the frequency of citizenship behaviors in the workplace. items ask respondents to indicate how often each behavior is performed by themselves or others (e.g., coworkers or subordinates). the ocb-c uses a 5-point rating scale ranging from 1 = never to 5 = every day. a total score is the sum of responses to all items. 2.3. procedure the data collection procedure that was followed was approaching graduate-level teachers and requesting them to fill the questionnaire within 3 days. the formatted questionnaire had consent form, demographic sheet, university’s permission letter followed by psycap-12, ocb-c and ghq-10 measures. after collecting data from the sample, spss was applied to analyze the results. 3. results the results were analyzed using independent samples t-test and pearson’s product moment correlation. there was a significant mean difference between the psychological capital of private and government university teachers, such that government sector teachers had higher psychological capital as compared to the teachers of private sector universities (table 1). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 76-81 79 table-1. mean difference for psychological capital & general health questionnaire private sector govt sector mean difference sig (2-tailed), α-level = 0.05 psycap 18.0028 18.7554 -0.75261 0.031 ghq 15.1857 10.6942 4.4915 0.000 on ghq questionnaire, teachers from private universities scored significantly higher as compared to teachers from government universities (table 1). a higher score on ghq as indicates poor health; it can be inferred that government universities teachers are in comparatively healthier state. table-2. mean difference for psychological capital subscales private sector govt sector mean difference sig (2-tailed), α-level = 0.05 efficacy 4.6544 4.8790 -0.22458 0.047 optimism 4.6500 4.9669 -0.31694 0.016 mean difference for subscales of psycap was also calculated. significant difference emerged on two out of the four subscales. a table 2 shows, there was a significant difference between the efficacy & optimism level of private and government university teachers such that government teachers had higher efficacy and optimism score on average as compared to private teachers. correlation results show a significant, negative correlation (r = 0.171, p < 0.01) between the score of ghq and that of psycap, implying that healthier individuals (low score on ghq) will have high psychological capital (high score on psycap). each of the four dimensions contribute to the psychological capital of an individual. furthermore, a positive, moderate correlation (r ~ + 0.4, p < 0.01) was found between psychological capital and organizational citizenship behavior. 4. discussion luthans et al. (2004) advocated that the dimensions of psychological capital are ‘state’ and not trait dispositions and therefore could be developed in the organizations by careful planning. hence, different organizations might differ in terms of how much effort is put in by the organizations or employees to develop the psychological capital. the present study examined the relation between psychological capital, health and organizational citizenship behavior and its variation in the government and private sector teachers. one of the findings of the present study denotes that a difference was found between the psychological capital of private and government university teachers which is in accordance to the formulated hypothesis. government sector teachers had a higher psychological capital as compared to the teachers of private sector universities. other research, on the contrary, indicates that private sector bank employees have a higher psychological capital and level of happiness (singh and khan, 2013). this might be due to difference of the domain of job in question as well as the policies involved. another finding, as was hypothesized, indicated a significant difference between the efficacy of private and government university teachers. this finding is substantiated by the results of the study conducted by sharma (1977) where he found significant difference in the level of efficacy of government and private secondary school teachers. degrees of efficacy vary in accordance with the exposure given to the teachers as well as the environment given to them (sharma, 1977). we found reason to believe that healthier individuals are linked to having a high psychological capital. each of the four dimensions separately contributes to the psychological capital of an individual. findings suggest that selfefficacy beliefs have been found related to clinical problems such as phobias (bandura, 1983) addiction (marlatt et al., 1995) depression (davis and yates, 1982) social skills (moe and zeiss, 1982) assertiveness (lee, 1983; 1984) to stress in a variety of contexts (jerusalem and mittag, 1995) to smoking behavior (garcia et al., 1990) to pain control (manning and wright, 1983) and to health (o’leary, 1985). optimistic people report a higher quality of life and have lower risks of all-cause death (powers and dawn, 2004) and are less likely to develop physical ill health or suicidal tendencies when they face major stressful life events than individuals with a pessimistic style (carr and alan, 2004). there was also a link between psychological capital and organizational citizenship behavior. prior researches indicate employees’ hope, optimism, self-efficacy and resiliency separately had positive impacts on their organizational citizenship behavior. in a recent update, it was indicated that the employees’ psychological capital (a combined construct of hope, optimism, self-efficacy and resiliency) had positive impacts on their job performance, organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior (zhong, 2007). studies indicate that hope predicts resilience (worrell and hale, 2001) academic success (snyder, 2002) and persistence (snyder, 2002). within positive psychology, hope is positively correlated with self-esteem, optimism, and positive affect (snyder, 2002) which are related to citizenship behavior (walumbwa et al., 2011). the study also found that positive psychological capital and its separate four dimensions contribute to both general health and organizational citizenship behavior. higher psychological capital amplifies health and prosocial behavior within an employee, leading to better organizational development. furthermore, a significant difference was seen in the psychological capital and level of efficacy between the teachers of private and government universities, implying that environmental, managerial and other related factors may have a significant role in enhancing or reducing psychological capital and self-efficacy of an individual. further research in this domain is recommended, along with added variables such as personality traits, work motivation, past academic success and gender differences. 5. conclusion it is incredibly important for organizations of today to focus on psychological capital of their employees. here the employees in question are teachers. positive grooming may result in healthier and committed teachers. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 76-81 80 it is important to remember, that personality of teachers and their work, impacts leaders of tomorrow that is their students. by concentrating on building the psychological capital of teachers, organizations will not only ensure their own success but also make significant positive contribution to the future. 5.1. geolocation information this study was conducted in universities located in karachi, pakistan. references avey, j.b., f. luthans and s. jensen, 2009. psychological capital: a positive resource for 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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=psychological%20well-being%20and%20job%20satisfaction%20as%20predictors%20of%20job%20performance http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.84 1 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 6, no. 1, 1-6, 2019 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2019.61.1.6 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group online pragmatic language use in asperger syndrome and learning disability discussion forums francesca dansereau1 tara flanagan2 ( corresponding author) 1,2department of educational and counselling psychology, mcgill university, canada abstract research has indicated that self-expression for individuals on the autism spectrum may be facilitated through written language by promoting a more flexible environment within which to express beliefs, opinions, ideologies and expectations—in essence, creating a safe place for communication. such safe places have burgeoned with the evolution of the internet, and many individuals with autism have taken the opportunity to express themselves publicly by developing their own virtual communities, some of which have taken place on discussion forums, websites and weblogs. this research study evaluates natural discourse in an asperger syndrome discussion forum to explore social communication in the autism spectrum community by using the pragmatic profile questionnaire of the celf. a discussion forum for individuals with learning disabilities was used to explore similarities and differences in online pragmatic language use among people who self-identified as belonging to one of the two groups. the findings highlight the nuances in pragmatic language use in online discussion forums and the need to consider these skills in context. researchers and practitioners should refrain from making one-size-fits-all recommendations regarding the creation of supportive social spaces for individuals on the autism spectrum. keywords: asperger syndrome, learning disabilities, pragmatic language, online discussion forums. jel classification: i00 health, education and welfare: general. citation | francesca dansereau; tara flanagan (2019). online pragmatic language use in asperger syndrome and learning disability discussion forums. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 6(1): 1-6. history: received: 18 october 2018 revised: 15 november 2018 accepted: 31 december 2018 published: 21 january 2019 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 2. methodology ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 3 3. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4 4. discussion ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 5 5. limitations ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 5 6. conclusions and future directions ................................................................................................................................................. 5 references ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2019.61.1.6&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/542 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9450-9072 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/542 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9450-9072 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/542 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9450-9072 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 1-6 2 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 1. introduction the oral and written modalities differ in many different ways. the main difference concerns the processing speed of the speaker and the listener. in spoken language, the processing is initiated from the time the speaker states their first word and stops when they finish their statement. it is only at this time that the listener validates their understanding or interpretation of what was stated, which demands a certain amount of short-term memory usage. according to alloway et al. (2009) children with asperger syndrome show difficulties with verbal shortterm memory, a component of oral language. asperger syndrome, considered under the umbrella of autism spectrum disorder (asd), is a neurological disorder that impacts social interaction and communication across multiple contexts (american psychiatric association, 1994). short-term memory for verbal material is essential in reciprocal speech; one must remember what is said in order to respond appropriately. however, the written modality permits the writer to process the information on their timeline as they may reread the information as many times as necessary, until the recipient receives the message. this process increases the possibility of comprehension and reduces the processing speed of the reader when compared to the listener in the oral modality (auer, 2009). this processing delay is considered a main reason why individuals on the autism spectrum are able to increase their communication capabilities within the written modality (schairer and nelson, 1996; alloway et al., 2009). in addition to the research findings that support this notion, anecdotal evidence, such as autobiographies, provide further explanation as to why the written modality is favoured by individuals on the autism spectrum. two individuals on the autism spectrum write; ―i still have problems in groups where there is too much information going on, or where the informational flow is too fast. i simply can‘t shift my attention quickly enough to the relevant part of the interaction process. consequently, i miss a lot of vital information needed to interpret social messages. there is no such thing as adequate delayed social reactions. one either is quick enough to keep up, or one is weird and socially disabled‖ (prince-hughes, 2002). ―i find the written word much easier to comprehend than the spoken word. it takes me a lot longer to process conversation and work out the meaning behind the words than it does to scan the words on a written page. i think this is because i must read the expressions on a person‘s face and study their body language‖ (lawson, 1998). 1.1. the written modality facilitates communication the written modality, facilitating communication for those on the autism spectrum, has increased their possibilities for self-expression and advocacy. in their research, schairer and nelson (1996) found that the written modality increases the communication capabilities for individuals who are on the autism spectrum since the sentence length was significantly higher in the written modality even though the number of utterances was greater in the oral modality; meaning that spoken language occurs more rapidly than written language. for example, their sentence structure in the written modality was more complex than their short to the point spoken answers in the oral modality. they also noticed that pragmatics such as ―turn-taking‖ and ―topic matching,‖ showed no significant difference. concluding that the written modality provided a better communication medium even if the number of utterances were exceeded in the oral modality (schairer and nelson, 1996). the research article by schairer and nelson (1996) is the only study providing empirical quantitative evidence between the oral and written modality among individuals on the autism spectrum. in a study exploring the written modality, the linguistic inquiry and word count dictionaries were used to compare the written language of individuals on the autism spectrum to neurotypical individuals (newton et al., 2009). no differences were found in the rate of word usage between both groups with the small exception that there was more variation in social language use individuals with asd (newton et al., 2009). evidence from personal accounts seems to corroborate these findings of facility with the written word among individuals on the autism spectrum. ―i have no problems expressing my emotions on paper at all‖ (prince-hughes, 2002). ―i could write essays all day – they do not bite back at me. the written word has a form all its own. the pen between my fingers feels solid and tangible. it moves with me and allows the symbols of my pain or ecstasy to reveal themselves. words express my distress through the pen and onto the paper and back into my mind. i can see them on the paper; they talk to me and help me to make sense of my life. . . . then words are pure and not distorted by grimaces and gestures. i can listen better to the tone of someone‘s voice when i am not confused by the unwritten words of their facial expressions‖ (lawson, 1998). ―on paper, [...words poured out of me. i liked writing and was very good at spelling – in fact i simply couldn‘t make spelling mistakes‖ (gerland, 1996). these autobiographies provide evidence that the written modality has facilitated abilities related to selfexpression by providing an environment that is better built for communication. further, written expression may help provide an opportunity to gain some control over one‘s often over-stimulating environment. according to davidson (2007) awkward behaviour within the neurotypical environment might be caused by a discomfort that becomes expressed as a self-defense mechanism (davidson, 2007). for instance, one individual on the spectrum writes, ―this oversensitive hearing is often a problem because sounds that other people don‘t even notice are disturbing and even painful to me. i have huge problems filtering out what i want to hear. for comprehension, i tend to rely on context a lot. this type of hearing problem makes social life very tiring, because as soon as there are more than two people present, listening to conversations means having to put in a lot of effort piecing together what people might be saying‖ (prince-hughes, 2002). every person on the autism spectrum deals with these overstimulating environments differently (rutter et al., 2005) though computer-mediated communication (jones et al., 2001; newton et al., 2009) and written expression might serve as vehicles of effective coping and communication, as well as community-building. . 1.2. online communities and discussion forums individuals on the autism spectrum use the written modality across a variety of online platforms to express their feelings, to have important discussions and debates about ―autism,‖ and to combat stigmatization (chamak, 2008). these discussion forums seem to provide a way for individuals on the autism spectrum to socialize with other individuals who have autism or asperger syndrome, to create safe spaces, and to actively participate in their asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 1-6 3 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group communities. for instance, an increasingly popular online association for individuals who have autism called ―autism network international‖ has not obtained a significant amount of media coverage, but is continuously expanding through the internet. it is renown as the first community for individuals on the autism spectrum and continues to be the largest organization of its kind (sinclair, 2005). according to chamak (2008) the internet has facilitated the exchange of ideas and opinions that can otherwise be difficult to establish for individuals on the autism spectrum and has facilitated the development of online and offline social networks (sinclair, 2005). 1.3. this study in line with the views of the oral versus the written modality mentioned earlier in this paper, this study explores natural discourse of individuals on the autism spectrum in an asynchronous discussion forum. in accordance with the research conducted by brownlow and o'dell (2006) and newton et al. (2009) the written modality should facilitate social communication for a number of reasons; removal of face-to-face didactic conversation (blume, 1997) removal of an over stimulating environment (davidson, 2007); (rutter et al., 2005) and the ability to re-read their response providing them with a processing delay that would be required in social auditory language (schairer and nelson, 1996; prince-hughes, 2002; auer, 2009). the main purpose of this research study is to contribute to the empirical data related in exploring the online social communication of individuals on the autism spectrum by using a standardized measure of pragmatic language and by choosing a suitable comparison group. pragmatic language is an umbrella term for the language abilities that are specifically tied to communication (e.g., initiating conversations, understanding inferences and sarcasm, staying on topic and asking appropriate questions, and engaging in reciprocal conversations) (semel et al., 2003). the comparison group for this study is comprised of individuals who identify as having a learning disability (ld) (with and without attention deficit (add) or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd))). similarly to individuals with asd those with an ld also follows a spectrum (mayes et al., 2000) and may equally display difficulties with self-expression. the participants who disclosed a possible diagnosis of add or adhd, even without the comorbidity of an ld, were not been excluded from this study since they also express difficulties with processing speeds (chhabildas et al., 2001). in addition, the same way that autism spectrum disorder is diagnosed 4 times more frequently in males than in females, add and adhd have both been shown to be more prevalent among males than females (apa, 2013). therefore, it was believed that the ld group was a good comparison match. as the diversity in the asd community is impossible to capture in one study, only individuals who selfidentified as asperger (aspies) were included. previous research studies stipulate that individuals on the autism spectrum benefit from online platforms for self-expression and self-advocacy purposes (gerland, 1996; schairer and nelson, 1996; lawson, 1998; princehughes, 2002; semel et al., 2003; brownlow and o'dell, 2006; chamak, 2008). therefore, this paper explores the online pragmatic language use of individuals on the autism spectrum by comparing their natural written discourse and comparing it to individuals with an ld and/ or add/ adhd. this will be accomplished by using the ―pragmatic language profile questionnaire‖ of the clinical evaluation of language fundamentals-fourth edition (celf) to better determine which aspects of social language are implicated in online social communication in discussion forums among the two groups. this study is exploratory in nature and will hopefully contribute empirical data to an emerging field. 2. methodology participants. 19 individuals who self-identified as having a diagnosis of asperger syndrome (as) and 9individuals who self-identifies as having a diagnosis of a learning and/or an attention disability (ld) participated in this study via publicly available discussion forums. due to online anonymity, the individuals‘ complete demographics cannot be reported for this study. in addition, all participants who posted on multiple occasions, meaning more than once across the posts selected, were removed from the study. furthermore, one individual in the ld group and two from the as group were removed from the study since inter-rater reliability was not established for the content of their discussions. instruments. to create a pragmatic profile for each participant, the observation questionnaire called ―pragmatics profile‖ of the clinical evaluation of language fundamentals-fourth edition (celf) was administered. the clinical evaluation of language fundamentals fourth edition (celf-4) is a psychometric assessment that was published in 1980 and was designed to identify, diagnose, and evaluate language and communication disorders in learners between 5 to 21 years of age. it facilitates an adaptable, multi-perspective assessment process that distinguishes a learner‘s language and communication strengths and weaknesses, and provides educationally pertinent interventions and accommodations (semel et al., 2003). procedure. for the asperger group, the asynchronous discussion forum used was called ―aspies for freedom.‖ as a passive observer, the main researcher randomly chose five different conversations that seemed to have the most replies by the participants. the topics of conversations were not considered, since we were solely assessing the nature of the social conversation and not the specific topics listed. to determine the actual difference in social interaction, the asynchronous discussion forum of the comparison group was called, ―learning disability support group‖. both of these discussion forums had to meet the following criteria in order to be used in this study: 1) be asynchronous discussion forums, 2) the person with the disability participated in discussions and not their parent(s) or friend(s), 3) be accessible via major search engines (i.e.: google.com). five conversations having the highest number of posts were reviewed at random from both forums. both discussion forums were not closed to the public, but fully accessible through google.com search engine. the active participants had to be members of the forums in order to post, but the general public has full access to read any post or overall discussion. the researchers remained observers throughout the duration of the study and never registered or posted as a way to add to conversation. the discussions selected had to meet the following criteria: 1) identifying with a diagnostic group that is considered to be a spectrum, 2) the individual with a diagnosis is the one participating in conversation, 3) the individual must mention in one of their posts that they are either on the autism spectrum or have an ld (any type), 4) the individuals are expressing their opinions or beliefs asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 1-6 4 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group or emotions, and 5) the conversations had to be longer than two postings. each observer rated each participant using the ―pragmatic profile questionnaire‖ of the celf. to explore naturally developing online discourse, this study used already existing discussions instead of using a pilot with consented forums. since there are no guidelines for using this information for research purposes, the participants of this study were not contacted prior to the analysis of their posts (brownlow and o'dell, 2002). many researchers have discussed the ethical issues related to collecting qualitative data through open sources such as blogs, discussion forums, and other social networking sites (brownlow and o'dell, 2002; berry, 2004) but they do not discuss the issues concerning quantitative data collection as the main concern is regarding how to maintain the confidentiality and safety of the participant (brownlow and o'dell, 2002). the subtest, the pragmatic profile observation questionnaire, of the celf was the only psychometric assessment used in this study since it provides an overview of the pragmatics in social communication situations. observing only the written aspects of language, all questions relating to body movements such as eye contact, appropriate body posture during conversation, and the likes have been rated as ―not applicable‖. to properly establish inter-rater reliability, prior to analysis of the posts, a rating criteria list was established among the three evaluators (the main researcher and two raters who were blind to the diagnoses and purpose of the study). 3. results to ensure reliability among the three ratters when using the celf, a kappa calculator was used since it calculates the chance-adjusted measure of agreement between any number of cases, categories and ratters. the calculator provided two types of variations, siegel and castellan (1988) fixed-marginal multi-rater as well as randolph‘s free-marginal multi-rater (randolph, 2005; warrens, 2010). the kappa values can range between -1.0 to 1.0, where -1.0 indicates perfect disagreement below chance, 0.0 agreements equal to chance, and 1.0 perfect agreement above chance. adequate inter-rater agreement must be 0.7 or above. after including only the discussions where inter-rater reliability was established according to the kappa calculator, an anova was conducted to see if there was a significant difference between the kappa‘s found between groups (as vs. ld). after this analysis no significant difference was found suggesting high inter-rater reliability (p = .162, p < 0.5). the data collected were on a likert scale (0-4) so there was little variance among scores in such that there were no outliers. in addition, there were no missing data as each rater completed each of the questions on each pragmatic profile. furthermore, the responses of each profile predictor were skewed. there were more positively skewed predictors (observes turn-taking rules in the classroom or in social interactions (z = 1.05), introduces appropriate topics of conversation (z = .34), asks appropriate questions during conversations and discussions (z = 1.49), asks for/ responds for clarification during conversation (z = 5.14), uses the language (jargon/ lingo) of his/her peer group appropriately (z = 1.05), uses appropriate strategies for getting attention (z = 5.43), asks for help from others appropriately (z = 7.62), offers to help others appropriately (z = 7.99), gives/ responds to advice or suggestions appropriately (z = 1.90), asks for clarification if he/ she is confused or if the situation is unclear (z = 7.99), offers/ responds to expressions of affection (z = 5.43)) than negatively skewed predictors (begins/ ends conversations appropriately (z = -12.01), maintains topic using appropriate strategies (z = -12.01), makes relevant contributions to a topic during conversation and discussion (z = -12.01), adjusts/ modifies language based on the communication situation (z = -12.01), tells/ understands jokes/stories that are appropriate to the situation (z = 3.34), joins or leaves an ongoing communicative interaction appropriately (z = -7.99), gives/ asks for reasons and causes for actions/ conditions/ choices (z = -4.75)). a log, square root, and inverse transformation were attempted as a way to deal with the skewness, but all three methods were ineffective. each of these predictors demonstrated significant differences amongst scores especially when considering the frequencies of responses. this should not be surprising as the two groups are different and this should affect their communication profiles. between group comparisons. a frequency count was used to explore the instances of behaviours related to each question of the pragmatic profile questionnaire of the celf (please see table 1). as some participants were involved in more than one discussion and in order to better equate the groups, group differences are discussed only for individuals who participated in only one discussion. both groups demonstrated a large number of skills as assessed by the celf. the asperger group demonstrated higher frequencies related to maintaining conversation, leaving and joining conversation, giving/ asking for reasons and causes for actions/ conditions/ choices, asking for help from others appropriately, and agreeing and disagreeing using appropriate language. however, the ld group demonstrated higher frequencies related to being able to better begin and end conversations, turn-take, make relevant contributions to conversation, and to use appropriate strategies for getting attention. both groups were able to avoid the use of repetitive language, showed appropriate sense of humour, and asked for clarification if they were confused or if the situation is unclear. more specifically, the asperger group showed differences when introducing appropriate topics of conversation since they were not always appropriate in comparison to the ld group who maintained appropriateness throughout. even though it was more observable throughout the asperger group than the ld group, it was noticed that the asperger group asks appropriate questions more frequently during conversations and discussions than the ld group, but the ld group used language (jargon/ lingo) of his/her peer group appropriately more frequently than the asperger group. although the ld group showed a percentage of 11.1% when asking for/ responding to clarification during conversation, the asperger group ranged between 10.5% for ―often‖ and 5.3% for ―always‖; showing that the asperger group was able to do this more frequently than the ld group. the ld group was able to adjusts/ modifies language based on the communication situation all the time whereas the asperger group ranged between 5.3% for ―often‖ and ―94.7%‖ for always. it was noticed that the ld group offers to help others appropriately whereas in the asperger group this part of pragmatics was never observed. a small difference was noticed between groups when assessing telling/ understanding jokes/ stories (as = 78.9% and ld = 77.8%). the asperger group ranged between ―often‖ and ―always‖ for giving/ responding to advice or suggestions appropriately, whereas the ld group maintained a percentage in the ―always‖ column. however, the ld group asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 1-6 5 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group ranged between ―sometimes‖ and ―always‖ for offering/ responding to expressions of affection, appreciation appropriately, whereas the asperger group maintained a percentage in the ―always‖ column. although some of these are slight discrepancies, it shows that different pragmatic aspects were better reached among one group than another demonstrating slight discrepancies on the overall usage of language between groups. to further explore pragmatic language profiles a cluster analysis was conducted to determine the similarities or differences within and between the two groups. similarly to studies assessing pragmatic language profiles by either using the celf-4 assessment (lewis et al., 2006) or the western aphasia battery (lewis et al., 2007) we conducted a hierarchical cluster analysis. four types of clusters were formed within both groups (ld and asd). within the ld group, the four clusters were divided so that 6 participants were part of cluster 1 and the other 3 clusters only contained 1 participant each. this shows that 6 out of the 9 participants had similar online pragmatic language profiles whereas 3 remain distinct from the others. the clusters within the as groups were slightly more varied when compared to the ld group; cluster 1 contained 13 participants, cluster 2 contained 1 participant, cluster 3 contained 2 participants, and cluster 4 contained 3 participants. this shows the diversity among the as group. these results highlight that the common clinical practice of creating profiles that can later become associated with particular types of interventions should be used with caution as our online pragmatic language profiles differed between and within groups. 4. discussion the main purpose of this research was to explore the online pragmatic language of individuals on the autism spectrum in relation to individuals with learning disabilities to contribute empirical data in the area. this was an initial step toward better understanding the potential of online forums to be flexible and facilitative spaces for social communication among individuals on the autism spectrum. the main finding from this research is that group differences in pragmatic language did still exist even in an environment that has been discussed as facilitative for social communication. the as and ld groups displayed rather different profiles of pragmatic language even through the use of the written modality. in general the asperger members were able to introduce appropriate topics of conversation, and avoid using repetitive/redundant information when participating in one or multiple discussions. the ld group members used many more components of pragmatic language within their discussions than the asperger group, but were still lacking in different areas. for instance, in the one group discussion it was noticed that the asperger group was better at maintaining conversation, leaving and joining conversation, giving/ asking for reasons and causes for actions/ conditions/ choices, asking for help from others appropriately, and agreeing as well as disagreeing using appropriate language. there is not enough evidence to suggest that the as group showed more difficulty with pragmatic language, but it seems that the as and ld may use pragmatic language for different purposes in online discussion forums. both groups demonstrated a distinct pragmatic language profile with higher frequencies of certain components of the celf being salient. the hierarchal cluster analysis furthered the notion that diversity exists both between groups (as and ld), but also within each group. therefore, there is no distinct pragmatic language profile for each group based on a particular diagnosis, nor would there be a one-size-fits-all approach to addressing difficulties in social communication. 5. limitations this exploratory study using asynchronous discussion forums as a primary source of data was limited by the necessity of participant anonymity. though there were instances where demographic information such as age, education, and marital status were mentioned, they were not recorded. though the pragmatic profile questionnaire of the celf was deemed the most appropriate measure for the purposes of this study, we were not able to adhere to the recommendation that it should be administered by an examiner who knows the participant well (semel et al., 2003). thus, some of the nuances of pragmatic language use by individual participants may have been missed due to the objectivity of the observers. finally, passive observation in online forums is limited by the inability to validate the information (e.g., diagnosis) provided by the participants. 6. conclusions and future directions at the start, we noted that individuals on the autism spectrum (here the as group) might benefit from discussion forums and asynchronous social networking sites since these environments remove face-to-face didactic conversation (blume, 1997) over-stimulating environments (rutter et al., 2005; davidson, 2007) and provide the speech delay required to better process information (schairer and nelson, 1996; prince-hughes, 2002; auer, 2009). previous studies have noted increased use of pragmatic vocabulary on social networking sites among individuals on the autism spectrum (newton et al., 2009) and that online forums facilitate the expression of opinions (brownlow and o'dell, 2006) and of feelings and emotions (jones et al., 2001). however, previous studies have largely neglected to study naturally developing discourse in asynchronous discussion forums, have not included standardized measures of pragmatic language, and have not used comparison groups. in contrast, we explored online pragmatic language use in as and ld discussion forums using the pragmatic profile questionnaire of the celf, and found quite a bit of between and within group diversity. future research could build on this work by exploring the barriers and facilitators of online pragmatic language use among individuals on the autism spectrum by making comparisons using different reference groups, and by studying the motivations behind and experiences with participating in online forums. our findings, though exploratory in nature, highlight the need to recognize the diversity inherent to pragmatic language use, provide initial support for the use of standardized measures in online research, and provide an example of how to incorporate comparison groups in online research. researchers and practitioners should distance themselves from one-size-fits-all approaches to working with individuals on the autism spectrum and find ways to create safe spaces that capitalize on the diversity in the community. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 1-6 6 © 2019 by the authors; 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(eric document reproduction service no. ed490661). rutter, m., a. le couteur and c. lord, 2005. autism diagnostic interview-revised. los angeles: western psychological services. schairer, k.s. and n.w. nelson, 1996. communicative possibilities of written conversations with adolescents who have autism. child language teaching and therapy, 12(2): 164-180. available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/026565909601200206. semel, e., e.h. wiig and w.a. secord, 2003. clinical evaluation of language fundamentals examiner‘s manual. 4th edn., san antonio, tx: harcourt assessment, inc. siegel, s. and castellan, 1988. nonparametric statistics for the social sciences. 2nd edn., new york: mcgraw-hill. sinclair, j., 2005. autism network international: the development of a community and its culture. available from http://www.autreat.com/history_of_ani.html. warrens, m.j., 2010. inequalities between multi-rater kappas. advances in data analysis and classification, 4(4): 271-286. available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11634-010-0073-4. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://nytimes.com/library/cyber/techcol/063097techcol.html http://www.autreat.com/history_of_ani.html asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 4, 272-279, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 272 a study on south korea’s public confidence regarding its police authority jinsik pak1 julak lee2  1 institute of criminal justice studies, university of portsmouth 1 department of security management, kyonggi university ( corresponding author) abstract this paper explores the serious issue of a low public confidence in south korea’s police authority. a low public confidence hinders legitimate law-enforcement activities and weakens the organizational capacity for the maintenance of security. through a cross-national analysis, this paper reveals an exceptionally low level of public confidence regarding south korea’s police authority and the problematic nature of the public’s legal cynicism; furthermore, it is suggested that these factors contribute to the citizens’ overall lack of compliance with regulations. since the country’s transition to democracy, south korea’s police authority has implemented different reformative measures and has strived to earn the public’s confidence; however, despite this effort, its goal has not been fully accomplished. this paper examines the recent police-governance reform of england and wales as a reference point and explores the applicable policies. keywords: public confidence, south korean, policing, police authority. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 273 2. the low public confidence in south korea’s police authority ...................................................................................... 273 3. consequences of a low public confidence ....................................................................................................................... 276 4. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 278 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 278 citation | jinsik pak; julak lee (2016). a study on south korea’s public confidence regarding its police authority. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(4): 272-279. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.272.279 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 8 may 2016/ revised: 23 august 2013/ accepted: 2 september 2016/ published: 12 september 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.272.279 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jinsik pak https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=julak lee http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.272.279 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.272.279 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jinsik pak https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=julak lee http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.272.279 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.272.279 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jinsik pak https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=julak lee http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.272.279 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.272.279 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=jinsik pak https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=julak lee http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.272.279 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 272-279 273 1. introduction south koreans often ignore south korea’s police authority, and the nation’s police officers are also less confident with using their powers, even in situations that require the proper and firm actions of law-enforcement officers. weak law enforcement in south korea is often cited as a critical impediment to national development. the korea national police agency (2011) presented korea’s ranking of 27, out of 30 oecd countries, in the law-and-order index from 1991 to 2003, and the agency estimated that south korea could earn 1 % of additional economic growth if it remained at the average index level for oecd countries. the low level of law and order is one of the examples that show the low extent of public confidence in south korea’s police authority. many scholars and police officers agree that citizens’ distrust of their police authority is the fundamental reason that leads to a trend whereby both the law and police power are ignored, and it weakens the capability of a police authority to fulfill its own duties for the maintenance of law and order. many studies (kim et al., 2002; moon, 2004; roh and choo, 2007; han, 2008; roh et al., 2013) point out the historical background of south korea’s police authority as the cause of low public confidence. it is widely considered that the ―darkest era‖ of korean history occurred during the japanese colonial period between 1910 and 1945. at the time, the japanese-run police authority in south korea brutally and violently exercised unlimited power as a tool of colonial exploitation and it was consequently feared by the people. after independence and the korean war during the beginning of the 1950s, south korea’s police authority played the role of the ―maid‖ of the autocratic regime in support of the illegitimate dictatorship. this role continued up until the late 1980s when the military regime finally receded and democracy arrived in the country. the unfavorable image of the police that developed during the periods of the japanese occupation and the military autocracy still persists and it continues to adversely affect the levels of public confidence in the police authority (roh et al., 2013). in response, the korean national police agency has worked intensively to restore public confidence since the 1990s, a time when democracy was being established in south korean society. against the previously mentioned background, this paper will use internationally comparable data to examine the full extent of the low public confidence and distrust of south korea’s citizens regarding its police authority. the problems and limitations that stem from this situation will then be identified. through the remarkable economic development that has been achieved in south korea, the nation experienced a rapid socio-economic change that has also given rise to many policing problems. the case of south korea could serve as a precedent for an understanding of the corresponding difficulties and the importance of police-policy development in countries where the transition to an advanced economic democracy has rapidly occurred; however, there are only a few studies regarding south korean policing problems that have been published abroad, and this paper adds value in this respect. this study is also the first of its type to carry out an international comparison using the data of the korea crime victim survey (kcvs) and the international crime victimization survey (icvs) to study the problem of low confidence in south korea. the korean institute of criminology, which is a government-sponsored research institute on crime and criminal justice, carried out seven nationwide crime-victimization surveys from 1994 to 2009. the survey conducted in 2000 applied icvs standards to render the possibility of international comparisons (jang, 2000) but a comparative study between the kcvs (jang, 2000) and the icvs (van et al., 2000) has not been carried out to date. this study ensures that criminal trends in south korea and policing differences between south korea and other countries are analyzed using comparable data from both the icvs and kcvs. 2. the low public confidence in south korea’s police authority 2.1. analysis of crime-victimization surveys this section analyzes the data from the kcvs (jang, 2000) and icvs (van et al., 2000) to present the policingbackground differences between south korea and other countries. while several reports on the nationwide victimization surveys in south korea have been completed, only the kcvs that was carried out by jang (2000) used the standardized icvs questionnaire. he followed the un protocol of restricting the data to only people over 16 years old, and used the same questionnaire as the one suggested by the un. the sample size in the kcvs 2000, selected according to a multistage stratified-cluster sampling, is 2,043. the kcvs 2000 investigated the victimization related to the following 13 offenses: burglary, attempted burglary, robbery, car theft, theft from cars, car vandalism, motorcycle theft, bicycle theft, personal theft, sexual offenses, assaults/threats, consumer fraud, and corruption (jang, 2000). unfortunately, the other crime-victimization surveys in south korea use different types of standards and questionnaires, so they cannot be used in the same way as the icvs for the purpose of an international comparison. for example, the survey carried out in 2003 divided the crimes into only the following eight categories: personal theft, personal robbery, assault, sexual incidents, theft from cars, car theft, burglary-theft, and burglary-robbery (choi et al., 2003). before a comparison of the kcvs 2000 and icvs 2000 proceeds, it is important to note that the kcvs 2000 focuses on the average prevalence rates—the percentages of those aged 16 years or more who experienced a specific crime once or more—over the past five years, whereas the icvs 2000 focuses on the prevalence rates of only the previous one year. van et al. (2000) noted that ―the icvs allows for prevalence-rate estimates for both the calendar year preceding the survey, and for the last five years … findings regarding the last year (1999 in the case of the 2000 icvs) will be the most accurate, because less serious incidents which took place some time ago tend to be forgotten.‖ fortunately, the kcvs 2000 also provides prevalence rates for the year of 1999 (jang, 2000) therefore, in this study, the comparison will be based on the data from 1999, whereby the kcvs 2000 will be used for south korean data and the icvs 2000 will be used for the data of other countries. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 272-279 274 2.2. comparison of victimization rates as presented in table 1 the first general finding from the victimization rate is that south korea shows a very high level of security compared to other countries in the icvs. except for the burglary rate that is relatively high (4.7 %), and ranks south korea in third place after australia (6.6 %) and england and wales (5.2 %), other categories of crimes such as robbery, assaults, and threats show almost the lowest victimization rates. table-1. victimization rates (%) in the kcvs 2000 and icvs 2000 country burglary robbery assaults & threats australia 6.6 1.2 6.4 belgium 4.1 1.0 4.6 canada 4.4 0.9 8.5 catalonia(spain) 1.9 0.9 2.4 denmark 4.2 0.7 4.7 england & wales 5.2 1.2 12.4 finland 1.2 0.6 6.1 france 2.3 1.1 6.0 japan 1.8 0.1 0.6 netherlands 3.6 0.8 5.3 poland 3.1 1.8 5.4 portugal 2.5 1.1 2.0 south korea 4.7 0.3 1.2 sweden 2.3 0.9 6.5 switzerland 2.7 0.7 3.9 usa 3.8 0.6 6.5 sources: south korean figures from the kcvs 2000 (jang, 2000) and other countries’ figures from the icvs 2000 (van et al., 2000) the high levels of public order and security of south korea is also confirmed in many other studies. roh et al. (2013) claimed that south korea’s police authority has maintained a relatively crime-free society for their 2013 paper, roh et al. compare the crime rates of violent offences between south korea and the united states, finding that while the homicide rate of the former in 2007 is 2.3 per 100,000, it is 5.6 in the u.s. similarly, the robbery rate is 9.3 per 100,000 in south korea, whereas it is 147.6 in the u.s., and the security of south korea even shows a continually improving trend after the year 2000. further, hwang (2009) demonstrated that the victimization rates in south korea have decreased from the 1990s to the late 2000s, citing the crime-victimization surveys during the same period (see figure 1). figure-1. victimization rates of kcvs and official crime rates source: hwang (2009) this high level of security is especially exceptional because south korea has experienced fast economic growth and institutional and cultural changes. in the case of western, developed countries, sharp increases in the crime rates were observed during the fast industrialization and urbanization processes of the early 20 th century. when a city grows at a rapid pace, varying types of social problems that are associated with education, public health, and welfare typically emerge, and child labor and crime are not exceptions (cote, 2002). the corresponding social disorder was so serious that it even led to the invention of the chicago school of sociology that attempts to identify certain environmental factors that are linked to criminal behaviour and to specify the relationships among these conditions. roh et al. (2013) evaluated the stable security of south korea in the following way. korean society did not witness an abrupt increase in crime rates in the midst of urbanization and industrialization. although the rapid urbanization in the twentieth-century usa was accompanied by many social problems, including high crime rates in urban cities, urbanization and industrialization in south korea, propelled by the military regime during the 1960s and 1970s, did not cause the same problems, because socio-cultural homogeneity in korean society functioned as a buffer for the disruptive impact of rapid social changes on social asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 272-279 275 control mechanisms. in addition, the urbanization of korean society occurred with an increased growth of the economy, which enabled urban areas to maintain their ability to provide economic resources to immigrants from rural areas, thereby preventing social disorganization. this evaluation seems ironic in consideration of the lack of respect or value that is accorded to south korea’s police authority by the people it serves; moreover, this attitude is prevalent despite the high level of security that the authority has successfully achieved. 2.3. official crime rates and satisfaction with police as shown in table 2 the south korean public’s level of satisfaction and confidence in the police is indicated as very low. the percentage of crimes that have been reported to the police is as low as 21.9 %, and the satisfaction percentage after reporting is even lower at 16.5 %. further, this problem is highlighted more markedly in a comparison with the other countries in the icvs 2000, as shown in table 2 whereby south korea’s crime-reporting and satisfaction rates are the lowest. these low rates mean that people are much less likely to be reliant on the police authority in south korea, and that they are less satisfied with the performance of their police officers regardless of the high level of security. table-2. percentages of crimes reported to the police and percentages of people satisfied with the police response after reporting country reporting rates (%) satisfaction rate (%) denmark 56 77 catalonia(spain) 41 75 finland 41 74 australia 50 71 canada 48 71 sweden 57 71 netherlands 58 70 switzerland 52 70 england & wales 53 66 usa 52 65 belgium 53 62 france 49 47 japan 39 45 poland 40 39 portugal 36 31 south korea 21.9 16.8 1 sources: south korean figures from kcvs 2000 (jang, 2000) and other countries’ figures from icvs 2000 (van kesteren et al., 2000) even though most victims do not report their cases in south korea, as tak (2010) claims, a number of studies have still been delivered on the issue. tak suggested several reasons for why crime victims decided not to notify their victimization to the police, following an examination of 459 theft cases and 247 fraud cases that are recorded in the kcvs 2009. tak concluded that the victims’ reporting behaviors were affected by the following factors: ―lack of seriousness of crime‖; ―the relationship with the offender‖; ―the perceived likelihood of victimization in victim’s neighborhood‖; and ―victim’s age and sex.‖ his conclusion is consistent with other research studies (black, 1976; skogan, 1984; laub, 1997; avakame et al., 1999; hart and rennison, 2003; rand and catalano, 2007; baumer and lauristen, 2010) from the same field that were conducted abroad. judging from tak (2010) and the prior research studies on the determination factors of crime reporting, it is possible to presume that the low crime-reporting rate is related to a low confidence in a police authority for the reasons that are presented next. the first and most-relevant factor of a reporting decision is the category of the crime. victims are more reluctant to make a report when the victimization accompanies personal shame (baumer and lauristen, 2010) for example, rape victims are relatively reluctant to a considerable extent to report victimization compared to robbery or theft victims. in cases where the victims avoid reporting out of shame, the avoidance tendency will be strengthened if the victim suspects that secondary victimization could occur after the reporting process during the course of the investigation process. if the victim expects the police to treat him/her in impertinent ways with a lack of consideration regarding their personal rights and sentiments, then the victim will be less likely to report the crime. distrust in the police’s capability and fairness also affects the decision regarding whether or not the victimization is reported (anderson, 2000; schnebly, 2008; baumer and lauristen, 2010; tak, 2010). in particular, it is generally accepted that ethnic minorities are far more reluctant to report a victimization, because they assume that police officers will treat them unfairly (anderson, 2000). another deciding factor in the reporting-decision process is the social-demographic characteristics of the victim. many studies (black, 1976; avakame et al., 1999; hart and rennison, 2003) argue that victims who are white, male, and wealthy are more likely to report a crime since he/she expects that the necessary investigations will proceed as a consequence. again, these findings are related to the assumption that the victim will decide whether or not to report a victimization based on their degree of trust regarding a police authority. judging from the previously mentioned findings, it seems fair to conclude that the level of confidence in a police authority affects the reporting rate, and this 1 the categories of the crimes have been recalculated to incorporate only the following five main crime types from the icvs satisfaction rate: theft from car, burglary with entry, robbery, assault, and threats. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 272-279 276 suspicion is confirmed by one of the surveys in the kcvs 2000. the kcvs 2000 surveyed the reasons that resulted in a victim making a decision not to report a victimization to the police, and found that while 37.7 % of respondents said that it was because the damage that was incurred was not serious, a high level of 23.0 % replied that it was because they did not trust police officers (jang, 2000). there is also a question in the survey that asks, ―do you think the police do a good job in controlling crime in the area?‖, and only 37 % of the respondents said ―very good‖ or ―fairly good,‖ whereas 63 % of the respondents provided an unfavorable assessment. such a low percentage of favorable assessments is almost the lowest level compared with the countries in the icvs 2000, and is even lower than countries such as poland and portugal (see table 3). table-3. the percentages of people who think the police do a good job controlling crime country percentage usa 89 canada 87 australia 76 england & wales 72 denmark 71 finland 70 switzerland 67 france 65 belgium 64 sweden 61 japan 54 catalonia(spain) 53 netherlands 52 poland 46 portugal 45 south korea 37 sources: south korean figure from kcvs 2000 (jang, 2000) and other countries’ figures from icvs 2000 (van et al., 2000) it is therefore evident that south korea’s police authority is suffering a low extent of public confidence despite the high level of security that it has achieved. as noted in the introduction, a low level of confidence in the police is detrimental to social development since it causes ignorance regarding the public order and police power that can potentially hinder a timely and adequate delivery of public power. 3. consequences of a low public confidence 3.1. the absence of a law-abiding spirit a police authority is the most crucial vehicle for the enforcement of the law and order in a society; therefore, weak confidence in the police deteriorates the manner in which a society’s people accept the law. south koreans often bear unfavorable opinions regarding the fairness of their nation’s laws, and they have weak commitment to the abiding of such laws when the laws are considered inconvenient. yi and lee (2008) surveyed 3,007 south koreans to ascertain first impressions in response to the word ―laws.‖ the most-frequent expression in their results is ―authoritative‖ (43.6 %), followed by ―unfair‖ (32.6 %); meanwhile, only 14.2 % of the respondents said ―fair,‖ and 8.9 % said ―democratic.‖ the researchers also found that 58.3 % of the respondents believed that south korea’s laws are not closely adhered to, and 4.6 % stated that the laws are rarely obeyed, meaning that more than 60 % of the respondents believed that south koreans generally do not adhere to their nation’s laws. further, according to the ―survey on law observance and police-order acceptance‖ that was delivered by the korea national police agency in 2011 (knpa, 2012) the level of law observance was very low. out of one hundred points for full observance, the ―level of public order‖ category scored 44.5, ―traffic regulations‖ scored 49.0, ―regulations for the process of investigation‖ is 57.1, ―demonstrations regulations‖ is 48.1, and lastly, ―internet regulations‖ scored only 38.1. kim et al. (2010) argued that one of the main reasons that explain the low extent of law observance is the generous law enforcement of police officers, whereby they used a comparison between the offenders of ―public-order regulations‖ and ―traffic regulations‖ to derive this conclusion. according to their findings, while only 21.3 % of offenders were released with only a caution—the lowest level of punishment that is not accompanied by a physical or financial burden—after traffic-regulation offences were committed, 88 % of the offenders of the public-order regulations were released with a caution. as most of the offenders of public-order regulations are not actually punished, people acquired an impression whereby public-order regulations are merely ―suggestions‖ rather than the laws that they are governed by. while kim et al. clearly show the correlation between public-law observance and the extent of the customary punishments of the police, causality is not very clear; that is, it is not certain whether the dispensation of a light punishment to the offenders of public-order regulations causes a low extent of law observance, or whether the converse is true. when so many people are skeptical regarding public-order regulations, it is very difficult for police officers to impose harsh punishments, since they are concerned about a backfire effect. indeed, conflicts arise frequently when police officers try to investigate the offenders of public-order regulations since the offenders resist; however, this resistance is due to the way that public-order regulations are often described in a relatively unclear and arbitrary manner compared to traffic regulations. for example, speeding or signal violations are judged against clear numbers or with technical evidence that is less disputable; meanwhile, public-order asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 272-279 277 regulations are often described qualitatively, so that they often appear vague to the offenders. the lack of clarity regarding noise-level allowances in public places is another example; as a result, offenders demonstrate resistance when they are punished according to public-order regulations, and this resistance intensifies if the punishment is harsh. if police officers are concerned that offenders will complain and protest during the investigation and punishment processes, they deliberately impose a light punishment to avoid fuss and inconvenience in the future. a public’s low confidence and distrust in police encourages the resistance of offenders. those who believe that the police force is not a respectable authority will feel less guilty when they resist a police order; consequently, police power is weakened and a police officer who delivers an operation typically feels intimidated and shirks the responsibilities of legitimate enforcement. 3.2. citizen violence against police officers in south korea’s media, the infliction of citizen violence upon police officers is often reported. some people not only ignore legitimate police orders, but they also sometimes assault and threaten police officers; for example, in september 2012, one criminal defendant was accused of interfering in the enforcement of public affairs due to a resistance against an illegal-parking penalty, and crashed into a police substation with an excavator. during the same month, a drink-driving offender also crashed into a police substation with his car (kang and hwang, 2012). according to the police statistical yearbook 2013 (knpa, 2014) the annual cases from 2008 to 2013 where public-power operations were interfered with amount to numbers of incidences from 10,000 to 15,000; furthermore, the number of cases where public officers were also injured amounts to 200 to 400 every year (see table 4). table-4. the numbers of interferences in public-affair law enforcement year criminals officer injuries 2008 16,226 370 2009 16,673 308 2010 13,360 231 2011 13,052 201 2012 14,389 272 2013 13,407 228 source: police statistical year book 2013, (knpa, 2014) roh and choo (2007) indicate that, although the risk of violence by suspects is regarded as an inevitable element of police work, the level of citizen violence against police officers in south korea is beyond the typical parameters. to find out the causal mechanisms of assaults by citizens against police officers in south korea, roh and choo (2007) analyzed 189 assault cases against police officers from busanjin police station, which manages 18 police substations, from july 2001 to june 2002. a police substation consists of approximately 25 officers who patrol local areas and respond to security-service calls. the researchers analyzed various circumstantial factors, the motives leading up to the police attacks, and the verbal abuse from the suspects against the police, and they found a number of notable results. first of all, the number of violent cases against police officers that occurred in association with minor offenses, or even without any specific reason, is not small. this differs from the general expectation that violence is likely to arise when the offenders are seriously violent and the officers try physical arrest; in fact, many of the violent cases started from small disputes regarding the fairness of law enforcement. when police officers tried to enforce the law against misdemeanor offences, most of the offenders would not follow the authority of the corresponding officer(s), and asked for their offences to be overlooked; if their demands were not accepted, they then turned into violent offenders. roh and choo claim that such violence is an expression of the public’s negative perception of the police in south korea. roh and choo (2007) also argue that research results on the motives for such violence show a similar implication whereby south korean people might have a deep-seated distrust of the police authority in their nation, as the majority of assaults (25.9 %) resulted from the motive of ―expression of contempt.‖ this finding differs from the study of toch (1992) wherein ―defense of personal autonomy‖ is the dominant motive for assaults on police, both at oakland police department and san francisco police department. roh and choo claim that this difference could indicate that the unfavorable perceptions of south koreans regarding their police authority are stronger than those of americans. 3.3. the collapse of police morale the public’s distrust of their police authority in south korea has even led to weak support for legitimate policeenforcement operations, and it eventually caused the collapse of police morale. according to the ―job satisfaction survey‖ regarding 759 occupations during 2010 and 2011 that was undertaken by the korean employment information service, the ranking of police officers is 571 (knpa, 2012). this ranking significantly contrasts with other public officers such as judge (93), prosecutor (82), civil servants in the administration (70), prosecution investigation officer (68), and fire department (66). while numerous empirical studies (wexler and logan, 1983; white and marino, 1983; crank et al., 1995; kirkcaldy et al., 1995; brown et al., 1996; juniper, 1996) have been conducted on the stress factors for police officers in the developed countries, there is a dearth of studies regarding the connection between a perceived lack of public respect and police-officer stress. morash et al. (2008) however, conducted valuable research to understand the police-stress factors that are both common across nations and unique to south korea including a perceived public disrespect. morash et al. (2008) identified the following 12 independent variables that might have a considerable influence on police officers’ stress by reviewing previous research on the subject: ―sexual harassment‖; ―invisibility‖; ―language harassment‖; ―public disrespect toward police‖; ―attitudes toward women working outside of the home‖; asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 272-279 278 ―ridicule and set-ups‖; ―superiors’ support‖; ―expressed feelings‖; ―changed jobs‖; ―get others to like me‖; ―keep written records‖; and ―stay in a group.‖ they adapted the items to measure the perceived disrespect of police officers in south korea from moon and maxwell (2004) which introduced a novel method of measuring the relation between a perceived public disrespect of correctional officers and their stress in south korea. morash et al. collected questionnaires from 676 police officers and examined the data using an ordinary least-squares analysis. based on this analysis, they identified the following three main predictors of police officers’ stress in south korea: the strongest factor of stress is perceived ridicule and set-ups, and to a lesser extent, a lack of support from superiors and perceived public disrespect. alternatively, in western countries, harassment regarding racial, ethnic, and gender biases are strong predictors of police stress, whereas ridicule and set-ups is not particularly strong. morash et al. (2008) claimed that cultural differences could be the explanation for why particular stress factors were more important in south korea. the country’s culture values a collectivism that emphasizes harmony, conformity, group cohesion, and interdependence, whereas western countries value an individual culture wherein the emphasis is on individual rights and independence. according to the research of hwang (2009) a fear of losing face that is indicated by a fear of ridicule is the highest for the most collectivist country of singapore, whereas it is the lowest for the individualist country the united states. morash et al. (2008) also argued that the finding that a perceived public disrespect was a rather significant factor of stress in south korea is consistent with the ―maintaining face‖ value of its culture. according to the finding of morash et al. that a perceived lack of public confidence is one of the main factors of police-officer stress, the public’s distrust toward its police authority can therefore seriously undermine police officers’ job satisfaction and motivation. 4. conclusion south korea’s police authority faces many challenges such as the absence of a law-abiding spirit among the public, citizen violence against its police officers, and the low morale of its police force. these challenges not only hinder appropriate and legitimate police operations, but they also jeopardize social security whereby the ultimate victim is the public. as highlighted in a comparison with other countries, the low level of public confidence regarding the police authority of south korea is exceptionally serious. as mentioned previously, the low public confidence regarding south korea’s police authority is due to the negative image of the police from the time of japanese occupation and military autocracy. throughout history since that time, koreans have been distrustful and hostile toward their police authority (roh et al., 2013). south korea’s people continue to perceive their police authority as authoritative and repressive. given the profoundness of the previously mentioned problematic legacy, it is natural that such an image cannot be ameliorated overnight. after the country made the transition to democracy, the police tried many reformative actions to shed their unfavorable image and secure political neutrality, and a large number of them contributed to the achievement of some progress; however, they were not enough to fully secure the public’s confidence. it therefore appears that more innovative, steady reformative efforts are necessary to overcome the police authority’s ongoing, unfavorable legacy in south korea. accordingly, a recent police-reform process in england and wales bears implications. in 2010, the coalition government proposed a direct election process for the appointment of ―police and crime commissioners‖ (pccs). the first pcc election was held on 15 november 2012 in 41 police-force areas outside london and the elected pccs assumed office from 22 november 2012. the new pccs replaced the now-abolished police authorities that had held local police forces to account, ending the tripartite shared-responsibility structure of the chief constable, police authority, and home secretary. this change of police governance has been described as one of the most significant policing reforms of england and wales for almost 50 years (loveday, 2012). the new police governance of england and wales seeks to regain operational independence of the police in relation to political influence and the public’s trust toward the police, both of which south korea’s police authority is trying to tackle as main challenges. it is too early to evaluate the reform of england and wales yet, since it was introduced very recently and is only at an early stage; however, the evaluations since inception are generally favorable. applying the case of england and wales in south korea is not straightforward, as their fundamental police systems are different; that is, while the local-community police system of england and wales is decentralized, the south korean system is far more centralized. in spite of this difference, the ongoing self-governing police-program pilot in jeju province provides a chance for south korea’s police authority to test the applicability of the pcc system in south korea. while more time is needed to establish a municipal police system in south korea, once a favorable outcome is demonstrated in both the jeju province and england and wales, it will be much easier to expand a decentralized police-operation system to other parts of south 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institute. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://news.donga.com/3/all/20120919/49511677/ http://moodle.port.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=62481 http://rechten.uvt.nl/icvs/pdffiles/industr2000a.pdf http://rechten.uvt.nl/ 39 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 6, no. 2, 39-44, 2019 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2019.62.39.44 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group statistical analysis of basic necessities and facilities related to human development index anam javaid1 shahbaz nawaz2 muhammad waheed3 ( corresponding author) 1lecturer, department of statistics, the women university, multan, pakistan; (phd scholar) school of mathematical sciences, universiti sains malaysia, penang, malaysia. 2visiting lecturer, bahauddin zakariya university multan, pakistan; (phd scholar) school of quantitative sciences, college of arts and sciences, universiti utara malaysia. 3mba/ms in finances, institute of management sciences; visiting faculty member, bahauddin zakariya university multan, pakistan. abstract human development index measures the status of economy for a country. it is based on education index, health index and on gross domestic product (gdp). human development index can also be seen by looking the basic necessities and facilities that are available to people in a specific area. in this research, the analysis is made on the basis of basic necessities and facilities for multan district that people have in the specific areas. the data has been taken from mics survey (2007-2008) with 2892 observations. cluster sampling is used in collecting observations. the data is collected through different developed and underdeveloped areas of the district. the purpose is to observe the availability of necessities and facilities to that area. frequency distribution is used for assessing the facilities that people have in their homes. the results indicate that there is a great difference between availability of basic necessities and facilities between the people belonging to developed and underdeveloped areas. so by focusing these factors, the difference between the developed and underdeveloped areas can be reduced. keywords: human development, frequency, economy, facilities, necessities, survey. citation | anam javaid; shahbaz nawaz; muhammad waheed (2019). statistical analysis of basic necessities and facilities related to human development index. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 6(2): 39-44. history: received: 2 september 2019 revised: 4 october 2019 accepted: 6 november 2019 published: 16 december 2019 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 2. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 3. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 40 4. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 43 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 43 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2019.62.39.44&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1160 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9774-9234 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6133-6518 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1725-4667 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1160 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9774-9234 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6133-6518 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1725-4667 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1160 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9774-9234 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6133-6518 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1725-4667 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1160 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9774-9234 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6133-6518 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1725-4667 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1160 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9774-9234 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6133-6518 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1725-4667 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 39-44 40 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the study contributes to the existing literature by examining the basic necessities and facilities for multan district of pakistan that people have in the specific areas. 1. introduction human development index enable us to judge the development level of a country or for a specific area.it is basically depends on it depends on education index, health index and on gdp. if hdi of a country is increased, it’s mean that its stability level has been increased and the people of that country or of that area has many facilities as compare to the underdeveloped country or areas. in this research, the study is made on analysing the basic necessities and facilities that people have in different areas of multan district. the data is based on mics (multiple indicator cluster survey) data of 2007-2008 for multan district. any works has been done on hdi. quimbo et al. (2008) in their study found relationship between health, poverty and education by using data quality improvement demonstration study (qids) on children those were under 5 years from philippines. huisman and smits (2009) studied primary school enrolment by taking data from 30 different developing countries for 340 districts with 220,000 children observations (idrees and ahmad, 2010) studied the inequalities in food and non food consumption by taking data in pakistan and used gini coefficient as measure of inequality. zhao and glewwe (2010) studied education school attainment of children for poor and rural areas of china. faridi et al. (2010) studied education impact on employment in pakistan by using the data of rural area from bahawalpur district. abbas and hiemenz (2011) studied different social, political, economical and demographic variables of health care in pakistan by taking data from 1972-2006. peykarjou et al. (2011) examined relationship between health and economic growth in islamic conference organization members by using data from 2001-2009. ahmad and riaz (2011) studied the poverty in pakistan by using data from 1974 -2009. ajmair and akhtar (2012) analysed factors effecting on household consumption. they used data from district bhimber, ajk (azad jammu kashmir).many reserachers are working on human development index as miletzki and broten (2017) worked on a study to show that human development is considered as a freedom for the residents. mukhtar and javaid (2018) conducted a study among students for different factors like income, job, status of their parents effecting on the pocket money. later on kail and cavanaugh (2018) performed a study to review the life span in hdi for people with different standard of living. javaid and nawaz (2018) reviewed about the study realted to agriculture side as it is a main source of hdi. vondracek et al. (2019) worked out for a career development approach of people after that javaid et al. (2018) conducted a study on review of different reserachers related to hdi. one of the study conducted by ghaffar et al. (2019) for the economic growth. from the above literature, it is clear that many people are still working on hdi as it is important for a country. so the current study is about the basic facilities and necessities of hdi that has its importance in calculation of human development index. 2. methodology frequency distribution is used to study the availability of basic necessities and facilities that people have in different areas of multan district. the study indicated the distribution of different basic necessities and facilities that people have and also it indicate the frequency of people that do not have that facilities. different questions were asked from the people about the facilities and basic necessities that they have in their homes. it help us to distinguish the people belonging to developed, developing and under developed areas. 3. results and discussion different factors are taken related to hdi from mics (multiple indicator cluster survey) 0f 2007-2008 for multan region in different towns like mumtazabad, bosan town, mumtazabad, sher shah town,shah-rukn-ealam, shujabad town jalal pur peer wala. total of 2892 observations are used for the analysis purpose. different questions were asked from people regarding different facilities related to hdi and the frequency distribution for them can be seen as below. cluster sampling is used in taking observations. electricity is considered as the basic main facility as without electricity, it is difficult to survive as the other facilities also depend on electricity so one of the important questions was for the availability of electricity in 2007 to 2008 survey and the answers were observed in table 1. table-1. frequency distribution for electricity. electricity count yes 2708 no 184 total 2892 it can seen that from 2892 people, 2708 have the electricity facility while 184 did not have electricity facility. it means that in the survey, majority of the people had this facility while few people did not have the facility and he reason can be that they belong to the less developed area. another important main facility is gas as it is considered as a basic need for the people even for cooking, this facility matters a lot. so the answers can be analysed as in table 2. table-2. frequency distribution for sui gas. sui gas count yes 1431 no 1461 total 28992 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 39-44 41 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group it can be seen that almost there is a half ratio that people do not have this facility and again the reason can be that the people belong to backward areas. for interaction to the world, social media is also considered as the important factor in facilities so regarding that, different questions were asked and the answers can be seen as in table 3. table-3. frequency distribution for radio. radio count yes 1394 no 1498 total 2892 the question was asked whether they have radio or tape recorder and from the answer, it is clear that not so many people have the facility of radio or tape recorder in that survey time. another question was related to facility of t.v and the answers can be seen as in table 4. table-4. frequency distribution for t.v. t.v count yes 1827 no 1065 total 2892 it is clear that 1827 have t.v in their homes out of 2892 people. another facility was cable tv and the answers can be seen as in table 5. table-5. frequency distribution for cable t.v. cable tv count yes 844 no 2048 total 2892 so out of 2892, only 844 have cable facility while other people do not have this facility. another question was regarding telephone facility in their home as it is also considered as the important facility for connection of the people and the responses were as in table 6. table-6. frequency distribution for telephone. telephone count yes 461 no 2431 total 2892 the answers reveal that majority of the people do not have the telephone facility in their home. instead of the telephone, mobile phone facility is now everywhere so one question was asked about the mobile phone facility and the answers can be analysed as in table 7. table-7. frequency distribution for mobile phone. mobile phone count yes 1891 no 1001 total 2892 it is clear that 1891 have the mobile facility while other people did not have this facility at their home at that time. another important facility is the computer system as it is a great source of social connection even from this facility, people also can have many chances for online jobs so the answers can be analysed as in table 8. table-8. frequency distribution for computer. computer count yes 257 no 2635 total 2892 the above answers reveals regarding the computer system in their houses and it can be seen that in 2007 to 2008 , many people did not have this facility in their homes but now a days, the computer facility is common in almost every house as without this, many works cannot be done. internet connection is also very important factor now a days as if any household has a computer facility then it is considered as incomplete without internet connection so the answers for this facility are as in table 9. table-9. frequency distribution for internet connection. internet connection count yes 144 no 2748 total 2892 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 39-44 42 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the answers show regarding facility of internet connection and it is clear that majority people did not have internet facility in their homes at that time. refrigerator is a basic facility for the people so one question was regarding the facility of refrigerator and the answers were as in table 10. table-10. frequency distribution for refrigerator. refrigerator count yes 1147 no 1745 total 2892 it can be seen that majority people did not have refrigerator facility in their homes. one important facility is air conditioner as it is becoming a necessity now days so in the survey, this is also considered as the important question and the answers can be seen as in table 11. table-11. frequency distribution for air conditioner. air conditioner count yes 231 no 2661 total 2892 it is clear that only 231 people had air conditioner facility in 2008 survey. this can be the reason that at that time, these facilities were not so common among people. another this kind of facility is washing machine and the answers can be seen as in table 12. table-12. frequency distribution for washing machine. washing machine count yes 1427 no 1465 total 2892 the answer for the question can be seen as above and it is clear that majority of the people did not have the facility of washing machine in that survey. the results are in table 13. table-13. frequency distribution for microwave. microwave/cooking range count yes 174 no 2718 total 2892 from the above answers, it is clear that many people did not have the facility of microwave or the cooking range while only 174 have the cooking range facility at that time. the responses for stitching machine facilities can be observed as in table 14. table-14. frequency distribution for stitching machine. stitching machine count yes 2114 no 778 total 2892 from the above result, the majority people have the stitching machine facility while only 778 people did not have the stitching machines in their homes. another question regarding iron facility was asked and the responses can be seen as in table 15. table-15. frequency distribution for iron. iron count yes 2278 no 614 total 2892 majority of the people had iron facility in their homes while only 614 did not have the facility of iron in their homes. water filter is considered also one of the important facility. the question was also asked for it and the answers were as in table 16. table-16. frequency distribution for water filter. water filter count yes 137 no 2755 total 2892 the above results shows that not so many people had the water filter facility as only 137 people had the water filter facility in their houses. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 39-44 43 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-17. frequency distribution for motorcycle. motorcycle/scooter count yes 896 no 1996 total 2892 majority of the people did not have the facility of scooter or motor cycle as only 896 respondents from table 17 had the facility of motorcycle. another transportation question was asked about the car or truck facility and the answers can be seen as in table 18. table-18. frequency distribution for car or truck. car or truck count yes 204 no 2688 total 2892 the majority of people did not have the facility of car or truck at their homes as only 204 people have this facility in their homes. another question regarding agricultural land was asked from the people and the answers can be seen as under. table-19. frequency distribution for own agricultural land. own agricultural land count yes 618 no 2274 total 2892 the answers in table 19 reveal that only 618 households had the facility of their own agricultural land while majority households did not have their own agricultural land. the reason can be behind that they may be did not belong to agricultural background or many of them may be working under some other person so they did not have their own agricultural land. table-20. frequency distribution for own livestock. own livestock count yes 887 no 2005 total 2892 it is clear from table 20 that not so many people have their own livestock. the reason can be again that majority of them did not belong from agricultural background. our main concern is regarding human development. to do this, we have found different factors, i.e. education, health, house ownership, living standard and socio economic status of people in that area. so, in our study and in previous studies, we have observed that main factor of human development are electricity, gas, tv, telephone, refrigerator, car or truck, own live stock, toilet, foreign remittances, domestic remittances, house area in marla, education at different level, main material of roof, own agriculture land, house value in rs., main material of wall, gender, type of dwelling, motorcycle or scooter, animal driven cart, mobile phone, house ownership, distance to nearest health facility, consider government utility store as beneficial to a common man, air conditioner, gender, family structure, biological child, number of sisters in a family, number of brother in a family, occupation father, education father, education mother, house wealth, rural area, average distance of school, pupil child ratio, pupil teacher s ratio, %age of men with a white collar job, %age of women with a white collar job, district development index, national gdp per capita, household size, per capita expenditure, age cohort, income, and respiratory problem, index of quality of structure, number of floors, utility variables, wall and rooms are the main determinants of human development. from the above determinants, some variables we found in our study and some were found to be in previous studies conducted by different researchers for hdi. 4. conclusion the result of the study indicate about the basic necessities and facilities that people have in the specific areas. it is clear that the people belonging from developed areas have more facilities as compare to under developed areas of multan district. it can also be seen that the people that are belonging to agricultural areas have more facilities related to agriculture as compare to others. for the further study, the latest survey can be taken for the frequency distribution study to see the comparison. multivariate analysis can be used for identification of multiple factors. references abbas, f. and u. hiemenz, 2011. determinants of public health expenditures in pakistan. zef-discussion papers on development policy no. 158. ahmad, k. and a. riaz, 2011. an econometric model of poverty in pakistan: ardl approach to co-integration. asian journal of business and management sciences, 1(3): 75-84. ajmair, m. and n. akhtar, 2012. household consumption in pakistan (a case study of district bhimber, ajk). european journal of scientific research, 75(3): 448-457. faridi, m.z., s. malik and r.i. ahmad, 2010. impact of education and health on employment in pakistan: a case study. european journal of economics, finance and administrative sciences, 18: 58-68. ghaffar, s., h. munir, s. nawaz and a. javaid, 2019. the impact of international trade on economic growth: a case study of pakistan. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 6(2): 15-22.available at: https://doi.org/10.20448/journal.500.2019.62.15.22. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 39-44 44 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group huisman, j. and j. smits, 2009. effects of household-and district-level factors on primary school enrollment in 30 developing countries. world development, 37(1): 179-193.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.01.007. idrees, m. and e. ahmad, 2010. measurement and decomposition of consumption inequality in pakistan.the lahore journal of economics, 15(2): 97-112.available at: https://doi.org/10.35536/lje.2010.v15.is.a5. javaid, a., a. akbar and s. nawaz, 2018. a review on human development index. pakistan journal of humanities and social sciences, 6(3): 357-369. javaid, a. and s. nawaz, 2018. review analysis on agricultural sector in pakistan. international journal of research and innovation in social sciences, 2(10): 93-94. kail, r.v. and j.c. cavanaugh, 2018. human development: a life-span view. cengage learning. miletzki, j. and n. broten, 2017. development as freedom. macat library. mukhtar, i. and a. javaid, 2018. factor identification and usage of pocket money among students: a case study. international journal of research and innovation in social sciences, 2(9): 36-39. peykarjou, k., r.b. gollu, h. gashti and r.b. shahrivar, 2011. studying the relationship between health and economic growth in oic member states. interdisciplinary journal of contemporary research in business, 3(8): 1041-1054. quimbo, s.a., a.d. kraft and j.j. capuno, 2008. . health, education and the household: explaining poverty webs (no. 2008, 09). upse discussion paper. vondracek, f.w., r.m. lerner and j.e. schulenberg, 2019. career development: a life-span developmental approach. routledge: 6783.available at: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315792705-4. zhao, m. and p. glewwe, 2010. what determines basic school attainment in developing countries? evidence from rural china. economics of education review, 29(3): 451-460.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2009.10.008. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 102 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 3, 102-104, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.102.104 can artificial intelligence change the way in which companies recruit, train, develop and manage human resources in workplace? faiyaz md. iqbal1 1c/o advocate farid uddin akhtar, 61/1 naya paltan (3rd floor), opposite paltan thana, dhaka-1000, bangladesh abstract the purpose of this research is to find out the impact that artificial intelligence (ai) is having on the recruitment, training, development and retention of workers in organizations. although, a very recent phenomena in the human resource (hr) world, ai is already having significant impact in this sector and this paper focuses on those impacts in details. the research focuses on some external articles to demonstrate some of the findings of the impact of ai in modern day organizations. the study finds that ai is having positive impacts on the management of workers in companies and comes up with a recommendation to invest more in ai processes to take hr management to the next level. keywords: artificial intelligence, human resource management, revolutionizing recruitment, training and development of human resources, preventing employee turnover. citation | faiyaz md. iqbal (2018). can artificial intelligence change the way in which companies recruit, train, develop and manage human resources in workplace? asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(3): 102-104. history: received: 25 april 2018 revised: 23 may 2018 accepted: 28 may 2018 published: 31 may 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 103 2. methodology of the paper ........................................................................................................................................................... 103 3. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 103 4. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 104 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 104 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.102.104&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8571-793x asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 102-104 103 1. introduction artificial intelligence has had a major impact in transforming the way in which companies have traditionally recruited, trained and developed people in organizations. moreover, predictive and other ai technology has also made it possible for hr managers to target and attract staffs who would otherwise leave the organization, reducing the cost and hassles associated with employee turnover. the research analyzes in details how ai is revolutionizing all these aforementioned aspects of managing people in organizations. it also goes on to explore some of the disadvantages of ai processes in hr and comes up with suggestions to incorporate some form of human control in the ai-aided hr processes to counter the deficiencies. it acknowledges the growing importance and likewise increasing use of ai in the hr world and encourages more investment in the ai processes to make them more efficient. 2. methodology of the paper the research paper uses valuable inputs from a number of other articles mentioned in the references section to illustrate how artificial intelligence is becoming an increasingly significant tool used by modern day hr managers in organizations to source, recruit, train, develop as well as retain the best possible employees. the input obtained from the articles help to discuss in details the type of ai-processes currently in place to source the best possible employees and facilitate recruitment. it also points to the impact of ai-aided technology in training and developing potential among employees as well as taking measures to retain talented staffs. in addition the cases of underarmour and firstjob are discussed as aid to vividly illustrating how ai-aided systems are simplifying the recruitment processes, again with the aim of showing the enormous contribution ai-aided processes are making in the hr world. 3. discussion artificial intelligence (ai) is a very recent phenomena in the human resource (hr) world, making it’s mark felt in the hr world as recent as 2017. nonetheless it has made a significant impact in people management, making it’s significance felt in the recruitment, training, development and retention of employees in the workplace (sextonbrown, 2018). according to human capital trends report by deloitte, 38% of companies in us already use ai methods in hr management while 62% expect to do so by the end of 2018 (erickson, 2018). that being said, just like with any change, the transformation in adopting artificial intelligence in human resource is fraught with some drawbacks and uncertainties. however, this new trend towards making hr practices dependent on machine learning and ai tools has the potential of leading to massive gains in terms of enhancing employee motivation and productivity in the workplace. artificial intelligence has revolutionized the way in which companies recruit employees. unfortunately, after 60 years of traditional recruiting, where employers pay placement fees and almost 15 years since linkedin was founded, nothing dramatic changed in the global recruitment industry prior to the arrival of artificial intelligence in hr. relying on linkedin and other traditional methods to attract and recruit the right employees has not been successful in recent times since most companies these days want passive candidatesthose who already have jobs and are not seeking to make a move. switching to adopting artificial intelligence can help companies find these passive talents. that is because ai uses bots to crawl the web and scour hundreds of sites including personal websites, meetup groups and tech chat rooms, in addition to traditional social media sites. the bots not only find a good match for the job but they also predict the likelihood that someone is open to a job change, making it efficient for companies to poach talents which are rare to find (almog, 2018). moreover, by using ai-aided technology, companies can make the recruitment process much quicker and smoother. for instance, under armour , an american company which manufactures footwear, sports and casual apparel receives more than 30,000 resumes per month. handling so many resumes from prospective candidates is indeed a very difficult task and unsurprisingly, the company’s recruitment process was cumbersome, where it was difficult to monitor or track applicants properly. to solve this problem, the company put in place an ai-enabled digital recruitment system called hirevue to bring innovation to their recruitment process. using this system, managers in the organization could create candidate interview with pre-recorded questions. only the candidates who met the requirements were then invited for interview via webcam or mobile devices, enabling retail managers to hire the best candidates very quickly. another instance of a company using ai-aided technology to improve recruitment efficiency is illustrated by firstjob, an online recruitment firm implementing mya. it is an ai recruiting assistant which can talk to thousands of candidates at once. it asks candidates pre-screening questions, ranks them based on pre-defined factors and alerts them when a position has been filled. by using this ai-aided technology, hiring managers at firstjob do not have to spend time managing large candidate pool and instead can only focus on interviews and closing offers. thus ai technology can change the process of candidate sourcing and recruiting them from manual to automated processes, saving time and money for hiring managers. in addition, ai algorithms can cure the problem of poor job descriptions, which a company’s poorly drafted exhaustive list of job requirements may make. ai algorithms can apply different skills scenarios, allowing employers to see how minor revisions in the description of jobs can return different results in real time. this can help employers move away from the habit of publishing unrealistic exhaustive job requirements to advertising descriptions which reflect what is truly essential for the job, helping to find the right fit. nevertheless, while the artificial intelligence technology can render remarkable results, the human element in hiring is also important. recruiting managers need to work with technology leaders in their business to assess which artificial intelligence tools and processes work best, to ensure that the results derived from using ai in recruiting can help in finding and attracting the best talents (almog, 2018). artificial intelligence is already starting to have a huge impact in the way in which companies train and develop their employees. when recruiting and inducting new employees, the main challenge is to rapidly, yet efficiently give them a thorough knowledge and understanding of the organization’s internal policies and procedures. interestingly, the prospect of adding machine-learning capabilities to various hr software systems to facilitate with induction training has arrived (baillie-stewart, 2017). according to ari kopoulos , writer for asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 102-104 104 employeeconnect.com, ai can handle many of the employees’ routine requests about the organization’s policies and benefits. moreover, machine learning ai can recommend training programs and external events that would interest an employee for better holistic management. machine learning ai is also providing many vocational training to employees, thus freeing up considerable time for hr managers to focus on other priorities. mass personalization of information, especially around employee training and development can have a significant effect on the hr functions of organizations. the good news is that very recently, ai-enriched learning systems are able to offer customizable, employee related training programs based on individual employee performances. these are likely to facilitate enormous increases in workforce productivity as these ai-learning systems can act as personal tutors to employees, helping to develop their potential and capability (baillie-stewart, 2017). nonetheless using artificial intelligence in training and development of employees carries some disadvantages as well. ai processes can take over repetitive tasks formerly performed by humans in organization leading to redundancy for these positions. nonetheless, these drawbacks can be nullified by using ai processes to improve the digital skills of employees, in which case their former repetitive jobs become boring to them in any event and employees replaced by ai in repetitive jobs can now perform digitally enriched jobs after undergoing training with the use of these ai processes. moreover, constant human control and intervention can be used to minimize the risks associated with transitioning to ai systems in an organization. ai can also be used to understand how employees are doing within an organization and at times taking right steps to prevent turnover. employee turnover is a significant area, which if better handled, can save a lot of money for the organizations. companies can use ai assisted predictive technology to reduce employee turnover. such technology can be used to determine when an employee’s engagement falls. this data can then be used by hr managers to proactively intervene and provide vital support to help solve the problems the employee is facing within the organization. this in turn will lead to lower turnover and save costs associated with the replacement of human capital (fraser, 2018). ai technology can also help companies to spot patterns in historic data to predict future behavior. if the data shows that staff engagement falls at a certain point for specific roles or upon attaining certain milestones, companies can use that data to take steps to break that pattern recurring in the future. if the ai obtained data leads to a more profound revelation, for example, that the company acts as a stepping stone for millennials in their careers, then being mindful of this pattern can help ensure that recruitment is set up to deal with this engagement curve (fraser, 2018). this helps to ensure that customers of the organization do not suffer due to unpredictable employee churn. 4. conclusion artificial intelligence has already made significant contributions in the hr world through revolutionizing the way that recruitment, training and development takes place in organizations. it has made it possible for companies to advertise themselves to attract the best possible talents, even if that means attracting passive candidates, something which traditional recruitment processes and linkedin failed to offer. moreover, ai algorithms have made it possible for recruiters to see in real time how revising job descriptions to reflect what is truly essential can help attract and find the best possible talents. moreover, ai enriched machine learning is providing employees with induction training and the support of other vocational courses to acclimatize to workplace environment. what is more, mass personalization of information is now possible with ai-enriched learning systems that are able to provide employees with customizable training programs that better address their needs and priorities. ai enriched systems have also been able to reduce employee turnover in organizations by analyzing data obtained from aiassisted predictive and other technologies and taking preventive steps to reduce staff turnover. however, there is always a need for human intervention to determine which ai-assisted technologies work best to render highest workforce productivity increases and to counter the effects of ai-technology replacing many repetitive manual jobs. nevertheless, ai-technology should be seen as a key area for investment by hr managers as the technology has the potential to take human resource management to the next level. references almog, g., 2018. traditional recruiting isn't enough: how ai is changing the rules in the human capital market. baillie-stewart, a., 2017. artificial intelligence for employee training and development. erickson, r., 2018. infographic: insights into a highly mature talent acquisition team. hr daily advisor. fraser, s., 2018. preventing employee turnover with artificial intelligence. sexton-brown, e., 2018. how is artificial intelligence developing hr? hrd connect. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 16 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 1, 16-22, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.51.16.22 identifying and aligning product ‘attributes’ with latent consumer purchase motivations khairun nisa mustaffa halabi1  david hands2 1,2lancaster institute for the contemporary arts (lica), lancaster university, united kingdom ( corresponding author) abstract the characteristics and elements of a product play a significant role as a medium to convey product value to consumers. this paper offers a theoretical reflection from numerous research case studies on the understanding of consumer purchase behaviour in engaging with a particular product's elements and characteristics and to explore consumers' emotional experience and perceptions to achieve the desired position in consumers' minds. this paper compares the perspectives of product attributes and consumer behaviour through discussing two theoretical models (behavioural perspective, purchase motivation, product attributes, product aesthetic) that are useful for an understanding of the functions of product attributes. furthermore, this study emphasises aspects for markets and designers to contemplate in their efforts to increase consumer awareness and create the brand through their experiences and emotions. finally, the implications of a stronger theoretical approach to consumer behaviour research and practice are discussed. keywords: consumer behaviour, perceived value, purchase behaviour, packaging design. citation | khairun nisa mustaffa halabi; david hands (2018). identifying and aligning product ‘attributes’ with latent consumer purchase motivations. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(1): 16-22. history: received: 29 may 2017 revised: 20 july 2017 accepted: 13 december 2017 published: 26 january 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 17 2. packaging .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 17 3. packaging and consumer motivation ......................................................................................................................................... 18 4. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 21 5. limitation and further research ................................................................................................................................................. 21 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 21 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.51.16.22&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=khairun%20nisa%20mustaffa%20halabi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=david%20hands http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 16-22 17 1. introduction motivation is an acquired human behaviour, such as thoughts and feelings in the mind which prompt action in a certain way and depicted by conscious or unconscious decision processes (nwankwo et al., 2014). the tangible product attributes motivate consumers to purchase a product with latent needs. the product attributes must fulfil the expectations to satisfy consumer desires and needs and are highly significant in getting consumers to perceive the product’s essential values and are also an influential medium for consumers to assess the product values directly. the product attributes, features and other factors can influence consumer perceptions and behaviour and have an effect on their purchase decisions. consumer motivation is a significant focus for marketers in determining a business strategy to create brand awareness and increase sales. the paper sheds light on consumer understanding and motivation through the role of product attributes’ effect on consumer behaviour in a purchase motivation context. the strategy for influencing consumer purchase decision leads to a discussion on various factors affecting purchase behaviour and motivations. the paper concludes with a conclusion of the results and suggestions for future research that may further an understanding of the topic of interest. 2. packaging previous studies suggest that consumer motivation is often associated with product attributes, such as packaging design, in influencing consumer decision-making, brand awareness and individual perceived relevance. the intrinsic and extrinsic function of product plays a very important role in consumer assessment, which determines consumer judgement about product quality (herrmann et al., 2000). researchers have identified various factors associated with consumer purchase motivation: physical product elements, brand name and aesthetic features (orth and malkewitz, 2008; noble and kumar, 2010). however, as mentioned, the psychological ownership has an impact on the consumer’ decision-making process and may affect the result of the final decision underlying the product’s appearance (fuchs et al., 2010). 2.1. packaging attributes packaging is an important medium in business marketing. the elements of packaging also have a significant impact on consumer purchase behaviour. there are various definitions of packaging. packaging is a significant tool for marketing and is used in generating competitive advantage for a business (rundh, 2013). westerman et al. (2013) emphasise that packaging is an interactive instrument at the point of sale that can communicate with consumers directly. the image of a brand affects consumer purchase intention and the decision-making process through the visual elements of packaging: shape, colour, orientation and graphics (westerman et al., 2013). however, rundh (2009) highlights that the packaging is particularly important and is considered as part of the product in terms of marketing; packaging elements are also significant to promote the brand and in effectively adding value to the product to fulfil consumer needs. marketers should distinguish the key packaging elements which need to be emphasised in terms of perceived consumer brand preferences, quality and value, such as colour, typeface, logo, graphics and size (wang, 2013). the key factors can be identified as the following five packaging elements: 2.1.1. colour colour is an integral element of corporate and marketing communications. it induces moods and emotions, influences consumer perceptions and behaviour and helps companies position or differentiate from the competition (aslam, 2006). the colour of the packaging design stimulates consumer attention and the decision-making process. the specific choice of colour gives positive influence and associates to the consumer's favourable feelings (wang, 2013). colours can change the meaning of the objects or situations with which they are associated and colour preferences can predict consumer behavior (aslam, 2006). aslam (2006) also states that colours have great effects, also stimulate consumer responses based on feelings and associations. the success of packaging depends heavily on colour, which gives strong association to a specific brand when it is unique (silayoi and speece, 2004). in low decision involvement, colour is crucial when the evaluation of product attributes is insignificant (grossman and wisenblit, 1999). 2.1.2. typeface package design has two important components, graphics (colour, typeface, logo), also structural elements (shape, size, materials) to indicate symbolism, because these product attributes can represent specific meanings in a culture (underwood, 2003). a typeface can seek to change a specific desired consumer perception among different target of groups: upper class, middle class and lower class (ampuero and vila, 2006). the classification of typeface represents the product characteristics; for example, roman typography, bold, large, letters with upper case and expanded characters associated with a packaging represent elegance, on the other hand, the typography of serif and sans serif are associated for reasonable price and accessible products (ampuero and vila, 2006). this shows that the typeface is capable of measuring marketing positioning strategy, by which it can transmit the desired perception to the consumers' minds (blankson and kalafatis, 2001). 2.1.3. logo the logo is a significant attribute for consumers to identify and distinguish the product from other competitors, and is also a form of brand identifier and enhances brand personality (rundh, 2009; noble and kumar, 2010). sundar and noseworthy (2014) emphasise that strategic logo placement on the packaging can capitalise on brands firmly established in the marketplace and the logo can evoke instant consumers' responses. on the other hand, underwood (2003) argued that there is a significant interaction between the corporate and brand identity with consumers through the logo. the logo represents the brand’s power and is viewed as a leader in positioning it asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 16-22 18 above the consumer, which leads consumers to better evaluate the brand and then influence consumer perception of the social brand standing within its set of comparative (huang et al., 2013). 2.1.4. graphics there is a significant correlation between the graphics of packaging and consumer purchase intention and motivation. graphics, such as the packaging image, have an impact on positive attitude impact regarding packages, brands and consumer purchase intention (olawepo and ibojo, 2015). underwood et al. (2001) pointed out that a images of product can increase consumer attention for brands especially brands that are unfamiliar, also communicate its experiential benefits to consumers. the visual package information creates positive imaging, which conveys the attributes desired from the product, leading to improved perceptions of these attributes, and elevated brand evaluations underwood and klein (2002). figure 2.1 shows that the graphics on the packaging affect consumer attitude and stimulates their attention as regards either positive or negative information about the product. the product image sets certain expectations for the content of the product and consumers spontaneously elicit a positive evaluation of product, such as looks, taste, feel, smells or sounds (underwood and klein, 2002). figure0.1. conceptualisation of package image effects by underwood and klein (2002) source: underwood and klein (2002). 2.1.5. size according to wansink (1996) size plays a significant role in consumers’ product evaluation and that packaging size is the most significant ingredient to distinguish from other competition and in the market share (rundh, 2009). marketers should focus on with economic stagnation, since, as the public is aware of waste and overconsumption, the packaging size becomes a crucial element to avoid negative consumer response (ordabayeva and chandon, 2013). therefore, marketers need to understand that size can bias a consumer's impression and preferences. 3. packaging and consumer motivation the role of a product is to communicate with consumers through its physical attributes. the physical attributes aim to attract consumers’ attention, perception and stimulate their purchase motivation. the ‘aesthetic' is the term most commonly related to the appearance of a product and which hold the consumers’ symbolic values (crilly et al., 2004). the use of aesthetic features in product design has a significant influence on consumer perception and purchase motivation. the development of product attributes generates a massive impact and influences aesthetic assurance in human lives and concerns. hung and chen (2012) stated that consumers’ perceptions are influenced by three significant fundamental dimensions in terms of aesthetic preferences: (1) trendiness, (2) complexity and (3) emotion. these dimensions have a specific contribution in influencing consumer perception towards a product’s aesthetic design. however, bloch (1995) points out that the ‘prevailing styles and fashion’ have strong implications for consumer perception and emotion and change in their product preferences. moreover, blijlevens et al. (2009) support the argument that product complexity is an important aspect in motivating consumer purchase preferences and stimulating purchase intention. the product complexity corresponds to the simplicity or complexity of the product’s design elements (hung and chen, 2012). in the context of emotions, consumers’ reactions and feelings are affected by the visual product aesthetic. it is significant for a product to be adequate in the selection process in consumers’ minds. further, marinković et al. (2012) argue that the product aesthetic is significant in that it can trigger consumer satisfaction and establish a psychological attachment to the consumer. they highlight that an object without a good design is incomplete and becomes invisible to the consumers’ eyes because they see it as an incomplete product with no design elements or characteristics. in order to gain consumer appreciation value towards product design, it is important to have a knowledge of the social, cultural and historical elements involved in the product's features and its functional quality to stimulate consumer motivations. nevertheless, forsey (2013) argues that product aesthetic cannot be seen through a simple direct observation, but through the product’s features and functions. the product features quality represents the ‘functional' and the more ‘attractive' in the context of ‘fit form' with the surrounding environment. consumer consumption behaviour changing through interaction with product design reveals social and cultural values according to by bhamra et al. (2011). the solicited opinions, perceptions and beliefs are an effective combination in stimulating consumer behaviour due to continuously changing social norms. consumer expectation is not only emphasised on product aesthetic preferences, but also how they perceive product images in the display (law et al., 2012). in this context, product aesthetic values are stimulating by the use of an overall pleasant image to enhance consumers’ cognitive and affective responses. the purchase decision response is stimulated by the aesthetic and symbolic features of function-oriented products. the process of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 16-22 19 communication between designers and consumers is accessible in the visual domain in product form. consumer responses are affected by its functionality and represent the owner's personality (crilly et al., 2004). the product forms quality elements, and provides semantic interpretations, symbolic associations and aesthetic impression. 3.1. factors influencing the decision-making process the packaging design will foster different levels of consumer perceptions. the product designer needs to create an overall product quality with an attractive product image in order to create emotional value, simplicity, recollection and technological assurance in creating a sophisticated product for consumers. the first impression of a consumer's judgement is the significant style of the product’s visual appearance. underwood et al. (2001) highlight that consumer decision-making is influenced by the various elements of packaging and the decision is dependent on packaging elements which induce positive feelings intrinsically associated with the product. the correlation between the elements of package design and consumer response is important for marketers to understand that how consumers perceive the product appearance has a significant impact on consumer purchase behaviour. the relevant product elements can trigger consumers' pleasure and simulation feelings and have an impact on their perceptions (bloch, 1995). the visual domain, in the form of product, creates psychological responses, which include both cognitive and affective aspects (bloch, 1995; crilly et al., 2004). in the context of consumption, consumer response to the visual of a product form which is moderated by particular previous experiences increases the product’s attraction. despite the importance of the visual appeal to business, the visual references may also be affected by the individual's experience and personality traits. the experience is created by the consumer's cognitive response and associates with memories and cultural facts (crilly et al., 2009). furthermore, packaging is also associated with consumer purchase decisions; products presented in appealing packaging can influence consumer choice and is a key element of marketing strategy success (gofman et al., 2010). furthermore, an attractive packaging conveys messages to consumers in promoting products and the package attributes make the product more noticeable and, thereby, enhance brand awareness to consumers. a distinctive package design communicates with consumers in the form of unique attributes to influence their judgement and purchase decision as well as to represent the overall strength of brand value in the market (ahmed et al., 2014). the aesthetic of packaging components, such as the graphics, shape, colour, size and typography, plays an important role in product differentiation in order to influence consumers' product preferences and to trigger consumer purchase intention (ampuero and vila, 2006; wang, 2013). also, geistfeld et al. (1977) stated that consumers perceive product's characteristics by using its appearance factors in order to differentiate the physical properties that underlie the product’s appearance. consumers perceive product appearance value through its appearance factors, such as visual design and physical characteristics. the product and package design is a superior medium for manufacturers to convey brand personalities and impressions (orth and malkewitz, 2008). figure-0.1. a two-step model of consumer perception towards product attributes (as cited in blijlevens et al. (2009)) source: blijlevens et al. (2009). blijlevens et al. (2009) point out that product appearance perception by consumers can be assessed in two ways, physical properties and other physical attributes. the combination of colour, shape, texture, materials and other physical features can define a product's individuality to meet consumer preference needs (figure 3.1). it's an overall perception view on how the consumer perceives value to distinguish some product attributes from others at a quick glance. today’s product is mainly perceived by consumers through its visual aesthetic. consumers use alternative symbolic meaning to describe the aesthetic of product appearance due to a lack of design knowledge. the consumer’s acceptance is critical for a product's sensory evaluation by which they describe the product’s characteristics using specific subjects or terms, such as playful, rugged, simplicity and modern. the perception value can create a stronger brand affection and influence of brand identification on brand loyalty within consumers (kumar et al., 2014). however, bloch (1995) asserts that, in a design goals context, the performance aspiration goals should greatly influence consumers. the design elements increasingly influence consumers’ visual perceptions and the perceived product value as a whole. figure 3.2 shows the combinations of engineering, art, psychology and ethology are significant elements in consumer marketing in the context of psychological and behavioural reactions (bloch, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 16-22 20 1995). bloch (1995) emphasised that consumers perceived the product form value through tangible and intangible factors whereby all elements merged as a visual whole. bloch pointed out that consumer responses to product form constrained their preferences and tastes from one product to another; hence the product needs to be visually attractive to evoke their emotional desires and influence their purchase decision motivations. figure-0.2. a model of consumer responses to product form (bloch, 1995) source: bloch (1995). the previous section articulated that the product quality appearances encourage consumers’ emotional attachment development and that consumers perceived the design details within their environment as well as how consumers observe and are attracted by the product presentation. however, this model has neglected the designers' intention on how to consider how a product will be experienced (crilly et al., 2004). crilly et al. (2004) argued that the product attributes are also influenced by three aspects, cognition, affect and behaviour, which manipulate consumer perceptions, besides the visual packaging attributes factors. crilly et al. (2004) pointed out that a product’s visual appearance is valuable in developing and understanding consumer requirements and quality-of-life and that the consumers’ product judgements and decision-making process are influenced by both product appearance and their subjective experiences. designers also play a significant role in finding a strategic brand identity to create the visual intention for consumers (person et al., 2008). the product visual aesthetic appearance is significant in determining consumers’ aesthetic evaluation and encouraging positive impression. kumar and noble (2015) assert that theme values, such as social, altruistic value, functional and aesthetic, are significant factors in meeting consumers’ buying perception regarding product design. product design values are defined by a better interpretation in identifying the product’s dimension through comprehensive evaluation within consumer value. designers must consider the ergonomics and human-factor elements which drive consumers’ perceptions in the context of a product's functionality and efficiency. 3.2. packaging attributes determinants of consumer purchase behaviour this section discusses how packaging attributes can affect consumer purchase behaviour and decision-making process. the discussion addresses the important five packaging attributes. in comparing the theoretical and existing models to form a broad and articulate perspective within the context of product appearance perspective, this study identifies that how consumers perceive product values contributes significantly to the success of a company’s marketing strategy. the framework shows the extent to which researchers agreed that product attributes are significant factors to gain an insight and understanding of consumer needs and desires. the success of a product is measured based on how consumers value the quality of product and the visual packaging appearances, which are a powerful influence on consumer purchase motivation. this study points out that the product attributes change consumer behaviour and affect their intangible image perceptions. from this point of view, the designer can use an analytical model to get a direction for the design approach and outcome of the process. it is significant for the marketers and designers to develop and maintain the brand strategy to meet consumers’ needs and desires. in order to establish a greater understanding of consumer choice of product, it would be a mistake to ignore the greater subject of the package design attributes roles of new product evolution and market success. in addition, a qualitative research approach will be used that allows constructing a model based on the fundamental descriptions. furthermore, we aim to determine how additional product attributes can be achieved, such as optimisation of deeper analytical product appearances performance to motivate consumer purchase intention, and also to what extent the effects of a product’s design elements, such as graphics, shapes, sizes, typeface and colours, influences consumer purchase orientation as an ‘attention-grabbing' product. furthermore, the final product design achievement is driven by efforts of designers in determining how a product will be experienced to correspond with consumers' responses (person et al., 2008). hence, the marketers need to understand that the product form and attributes are not the only factors that can influence consumers' asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(1): 16-22 21 intentions, but other various factors which can influence consumer purchase intention and shape the products should also be taken into account (tovey, 1997). 4. conclusion this review observed that product attributes are attached to brand values so as to suit consumers' tastes and wants (blijlevens et al., 2009). however, the consumers perceived value comes from not only physical attributes, but also how the product satisfies their needs and desires on many levels (kumar and noble, 2016). the evolution of product development is defined as a process of designers and manufacturers responding to opportunity and demand in creating a new product. there are strong interactions between product design manipulating in the context of consumers’ assessments and purchase decisions. despite a product being designed for creating a simpler life, the purpose of the product is in stimulating people's experience, attitude or behavior (da silva et al., 2015). consumers engage with product aesthetic values by how they perceive their intentions related to their personal and social values. in summary, this paper yields several important insights. firstly, this paper emphasises the designers and marketers’ concerns in the context of mass-market aesthetic sensibilities in clarifying product attributes that affect consumer purchase motivations. as such, five important packaging attributes, colour, typeface, logo, graphics and size, are recommended to marketers in developing a new product and understanding consumer responses to their packages to achieve brand success in the marketplace. moreover, other intervening factors, such as culture, society, beliefs and the environment can also influence consumer attitude and alter their purchase decision. the results show strong internal and external factors influence in response to packaging. this suggests that the packaging design is expected to enhance consumers' expectations, judgements and perceptions towards product quality. therefore, marketers should convey clear product information, specific colours and shapes and follow specific segments to fulfil consumers' needs and desires. the correlation between consumer purchase motivation and packaging design is a significant issue that marketers must understand and give attention in order to develop effective marketing strategies, including uncovering a product’s unique selling point. the packaging design is important in enhancing consumer-perceived product value and brand preferences and attracting consumers at the point of sale. certainly, more research is needed in this area. 5. limitation and further research the aim of this study was to determine the factors that affect consumer purchase motivation from product attributes. the research process of identifying and supporting product attributes that motivate consumer purchase behaviour is underlined by a number of theory approaches. thus, further research is called for and primary research will be carried out which comprises of original and new data collected by the research to define the timeframe, human behaviour, perceptions and product attributes which motivate purchase intention. it will address question such as: ‘what is the effect of package design attributes on building brand awareness and how does it have an impact on brand image?' second, future research could explore the subtle relationships between societal and environmental considerations on conscious consumer behaviour. for example, the symbiotic interaction between consumers and packaging that can trigger consumers to purchase the product including influence the process of decision-making. it is possible that the elements of product packaging are significant in communicating the value of product whilst building brand impressions with consumers for corporations striving to maximise innovation solutions in productivity and consumption value for the product through packaging. third, an important difference should be made in exploring different packaging systems that have an impact on the societal and environmental consciousness within consumers. for example, the positioning of the packaging is competent of manipulating the brand identity, also strengthening the relationship between brand and consumers. the functional packaging elements have strong influence on consumer cognition, attitude and behaviour. therefore, further research is required to investigate the distinctions in various 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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=the%20design%20of%20consumer%20packaging:%20effects%20of%20manipulations%20of%20shape,%20orientation,%20and%20alignment%20of%20graphical%20forms%20on%20consumers’%20assessments http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2012.05.007 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 3, 208-213, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 208 an exploratory comparative analysis of asian markets: china versus india sooun lee1  sumit sircar2 1,2 department of information systems and analytics, farmer school of business, miami university, oxford, ohio, usa ( corresponding author) abstract this study investigates the differences in the business environments of the two most populous asian countries-china and india--which are also two of the most important economies in the world in terms of size and influence. although china started its economic reform and development earlier than india did, india is quickly catching up and these two countries have become a battleground for attracting direct foreign investments. an understanding of what is happening in these two countries has become an urgent, important topic in global business. for this study, an exploratory descriptive analysis is performed to cross-examine various economic, demographic, and cultural data of these two giants to uncover both their differences and commonalities. keywords: business, china, culture, economy, india, life, population. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 209 2. analysis .............................................................................................................................................................................. 209 3. the road ahead ................................................................................................................................................................ 212 4. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 213 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 213 citation | sooun lee; sumit sircar (2016). an exploratory comparative analysis of asian markets: china versus india. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(3): 208-213. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.208.213 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/ acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 18 february 2016/ revised: 28 april 2016/ accepted: 2 may 2016/ published: 6 may 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.208.213 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sooun lee https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sumit sircar http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.208.213 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.208.213 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sooun lee https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sumit sircar http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.208.213 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.208.213 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sooun lee https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sumit sircar http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.208.213 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.208.213 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sooun lee https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sumit sircar http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.208.213 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 208-213 209 1. introduction this study investigates the business environments of two of asia’s biggest economies: china and india. the significance of these two countries for international business can easily be inferred by the massive size of their populations (1 st and 2 nd most populous countries in the world; comprising about 37 % of the global population). their abundant cheap labor has attracted the attention of manufacturing industries worldwide and their rapidly rising numbers of middle income people have opened up a wide range of business opportunities. although china started its economic reform and development earlier than india, india is quickly catching up and these two countries have become a battleground for attracting direct foreign investments. an understanding about what is happening in these two asian countries becomes an urgent, important topic in global business. in this study, recent economic, demographic, and cultural data, and also subjective assessments from people who have visited/lived in the countries are examined, and their data are also compared to those of the us as an example of a leading advanced economy. although many data sources are used in this exploratory study, the world factbook-cia and world bank data are relied upon for most of the analysis. 2. analysis 2.1. comparison of population data the population of a country is an important starting point for any international business decisions, as size is an indicator for a potential consumer base/market size and has implication relating to the cost and availability of labor in a country. for this study, in addition to the current population size, the fertility rate and demographics are further explored to understand trends of each country’s population. table-1. population comparison: china and india usa china india population (million) (the world factbook-cia (twf-cia), 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, & 2015) 321 1,357 1,251 fertility (twf-cia, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, & 2015) 1.87 1.60 2.48 demographics (24 years old or younger) (indexmundi, 2010) 33.1% 31.8% 46.6% source: the world factbook-cia (twf-cia) and indexmundi population: china and india are the two most populous countries in the world comprising about 37% of global population (calculated based on un dept of economics and social affairs data (2013). the authors believe the combined population size of these two countries may be even higher than 37% if people not reported in china to avoid the ‘one child’ policy penalty are properly counted and a better census counting system is available in india. a rapidly rising income level has resulted in a significant portion of their populations moving to a different class of potential consumer. fertility rate: the fertility rate i.e. the number of babies a woman gives births to, implies an interesting future trend in these two countries. considering the fact that fertility rate of 2.1 (stein, 2007) is needed to sustain the current population size in the future, it is predicted that india will become the most populous country in the not too distant future. a recent un report predicts it will be in 2028 (bbc, 2013). the authors think this growth may present a strategic juncture point for consumer product/service industries, especially industries catering to the young. at the current chinese rate 1.60, far below the self-replacement level, its population will shrink gradually and may cause labor shortages, especially young workers. age demographics: the age demographic data for people age 24 and under shows india has the highest percentage of young people (46.6%) compared to that of china and us. it is interesting to note that the china’s rate (31.8%) is even less than that of us 33.1%; indicating that china’s population is aging. 2.2. economy there are two important economic data to consider when a company makes a business decision in a country: gdp (gross domestic product) and gdp per capita (gdp divided by population). gdp, commonly used as an indicator of the economic power and health of a country, is the monetary value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a year and it includes all of private and public consumption, government outlays, investments and exports less imports that occur within a country. table-2. economy comparison: china vs. india usa china india gdp (us$ trillion) (twf-cia, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, & 2015) $17.97 11.38 $2.183 gdp pc (the world bank data, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, & 2015) $53,042 $7,590 $1,581 gdp pc (ppp) (twf-cia, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, & 2015) $56,300 $14,300 $6,300 number of billionaires (dolan and kroll, 2015) 536 ( # 1) 213 (# 2) 90 (# 4) gdp growth rate 2015/2016 est. (s., 2015) 2.7% & 2.8% 7.1% & 7.0% 7.5% & 7.9% fdi net inflows(billion) (twbd, 2014) us$295 us$289 us$33 export (billion) (twf-cia, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, & 2015) $1,598 $2,270 $287.6 import (billion) (twf-cia, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, & 2015) $2,347 $1,596 $432.3 source: s. (2015); dolan and kroll (2015) the world bank data, & the world factbook-cia (twf-cia) gdp and gdp per capita: china recently became the second largest economy in the world right after the us and its gdp (on an exchange rate basis) is now over 10 trillion dollars, while india recently passed the 2 trillion dollar mark this year (table 2). notably, india’s economy is merely 20% of china’s. to understand economic productivity and consumption level at a personal level, the gdp per capita figures are investigated. both countries’ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 208-213 210 gdp pcs (exchange rate basis) are still far behind those of developed countries; they are even lower than the poverty line of us at us$ 11,770 (us federal poverty guidelines, 2015). china’s and india’s gdp pcs (exchange rate basis) are merely 14% and 3% of those of us respectively. even after being adjusted for living cost (purchasing power parity), they are merely 25% and 11% of the u.s. respectively. china’s per capita (gdp pc) is 5 times bigger than that of india. it would appear that different business strategies should be formulated to conduct business in each of these two countries as these differences will lead to different patterns of consumption and consumer behavior. interestingly, china and india are both ranked very high in terms of the number of billionaires. comparing this data with the gdp per capita figures there exists a serious level of income disparity between the rich and poor in these two countries. gdp growth rate: china had been recognized as the fastest growing economy (in terms of gdp) of the world over the last decade or so, but this was changed. based on the gdp growth outlooks (table 2) india already outgrew china in 2015 and it is projected that india’s growth rate will increase to 7.5% and china’s growth rate will slip to 7.0% in 2016. lower oil prices and the weak us dollar have propelled the recent growth of the indian economy. india has therefore become attractive for emerging market investors. based on the trending chart (figure 1) of the gdp growth rates during the recent global recession period, although both china and india experienced the slowing growth during 2010-2012, the gdp growth rate in india had been increasing rapidly since 2012 while the gdp growth rate in china had been stagnant and declining during 2012-2014 and this trend seems to continue. it is also noteworthy for further investigation that the global recession in 2008 did not affect the growth rate in india; in fact india’s growth rate was even accelerating in 2009 and 2010. figure-1. gdp growth rate source: the world bank data (2008-2014) it should be remembered, however, that even though china’s growth rate is slowing, its prodigious growth rate over the last 35 years has given it a very large lead over india in terms of overall gdp (matt, 2015). fdi and international trade: foreign direct investment (fdi) data is a good indicator of a country’s financial health and also how attractive a country is for foreign investment. as shown in table 2 the fdi in india is merely 11.4 % of fdi in china; 289 billion (usd) worth of fdi inflows were made to china while 33 billion dollars of fdi inflows went to india in 2014. what may make the india’s financial situation more difficult is its trade balance. in 2014, china produced 674 billion dollars’ worth of excess foreign reserves through trade (export minus import). on the contrary, india incurred a shortage of 144 billion dollars of foreign currency. this leads to two markedly different financial situations of the two countries: china as a creditor and india as a debtor. india’s burden of paying interest on debts will be not lessened in the near future and, unlike china, india may carry a major financial burden and inflationary risks due to the foreign reserve shortage. 2.3. business environments for this study, amongst many areas, average employee wage, difficulty of starting a business, corruption, pollution, and internet penetration and average speed data are examined to understand the business environments in china and india. table-3. business environment comparison: china and india usa china india employee earning monthly (ilo (international labor organization), 2015) $3,518.60 $629.36 (3897.4 cny) $163.43 (10291.3 inr) start a business ranking (days to register) (twbd, 2014) 46th (5.6d) /189 countries 128 th (31.4d) /189 countries 158 th (28.4d) /189 countries transparency rate (transparency, 2014) 17 th /175 countries 100th /175 countries 85th /175 countries pollution status (top 20 most polluted cities (numbeo (2015) 0 cities 4 cities 5 cities internet penetration (internetlivestats, 2014) 86.75% 46.03% 19.19% internet speed (mbps: megabits per second) (economiza, 2014) 11.5 mbps rank 11 3.8 mbps rank 40 2.0 mbps rank 51 source: economiza, ilo (international labor organization), internetlivestats, numbeo, & transparency average wage: as shown in table 3 the wage difference between these two countries is significant. for this study, the average employee monthly wage figures shown in the global wage report in 2012 are referenced. it is noteworthy that, after being recalculated in us dollars (2014 exchange rate), the nominal average employee monthly wages are very low compared to developed countries. us monthly wage is us$ 3,500 a month, whereas in china it asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 208-213 211 is us$ 629 a month and india only us$ 163 a month, i.e. 1/7 th and 1/20 th of the us respectively, and the wage in china is almost 4 times that in india. although the labor cost does not take the quality of labor into account, and there are other important factors to consider such as infrastructure constraints, the potential financial benefits from the cheap labor cost in india is currently so great and obvious that many companies (especially in labor intensive industries) move their facilities and business centers to india. considering the potential labor shortage concerns in china, the transition of labor intensive industries to india may accelerate in the next decade. china’s growth engine for the last several decades has been in manufacturing, and it has been considered the world’s factory. china is attempting to transition to a more service-based economy, because much of its advantage in low manufacturing cost has disappeared. in 2014, the average manufacturing labor cost per hour in china was $3.52, while it was only $0.92 in india (bruce, 2014). starting a business: the start a business index, published in the world bank, provides useful information to measure how easy or difficult it is to start/conduct a business in a country. for this paper, we use data from 2014. china ranked 128 th and india ranked 158 th out of 189 countries in this category. these data indicate how difficult and time consuming the process is to initiate and operate a business in these two countries. china is not new in this category due to its political structure as a socialistic, one-party controlled country, but it is very surprising to note that india is ranked even lower than china, and in fact, is rated as one of the lowest in the global ranking. a further study is needed to find a cause. corruption: to compare the corruption levels of both countries, we used transparency international’s cpi (corruption perceptions index) 2014 figures (the index measures people’s perceptions of how corrupt their public sector is.). as table 3 shows, both china and india ranked low in their transparency ratings; china 100 th and india 85 th out of 175 countries. this presents a huge operational challenge to foreign companies and investors. for example, us companies are subject to the anti-corruption foreign corrupt practices act (fcpa), which makes it illegal for companies and their supervisors to influence anyone with any personal payments or rewards in overseas business operations. unfortunately corruption in china and india is rampant throughout their societies and enrooted/embedded in their culture so this problem cannot be easily overcome soon. it is thus very important to find an ethical, reliable local partner to initiate/conduct business in these two countries. pollution: to understand the pollution situations of these two countries, numbeo.com data (world’s largest database of user contributed data about cities and countries worldwide) from april 2015 is referenced (numbeo, 2015). the pollution index is an estimation of the overall pollution in the city. the biggest weight is given to air pollution, then to water pollution/accessibility, the two main pollution factors. lesser weight is given to other pollution types. the results clearly indicate that china and india are among the most polluted countries in the world. 4 chinese cities (3 cities in the top 10) and 5 indian cities are included in the top 20 most polluted city list. in the 2014 who (world health organization) survey, which included 1,600 cities, delhi, india has the highest level of the airborne particulate matter, called pm 2.5, considered most harmful to health and half of the top 20 cities in the world with the highest levels of pm 2.5 are located in india (park, 2014). it is worrisome to note about three-fourths of the top 20 most polluted cities now lie in asia, especially in china and india and the countries sit in between the two. these two countries continue to compete to attract more foreign investments and factories without adopting/practicing an effective anti-pollution strategy. furthermore, the pollution situation continues to get worse in this region. doubtlessly, the anti-pollution industry is booming with promising future in these two countries. internet infrastructure: the internet penetration and speed of a country is a useful indicator to understand the status of technology development and infrastructure. both china and india’s internet penetration rates (46% and 19% respectively) and its average speeds (3.8 mbps and 2.0 mbps respectively) are far behind those of the united states’ penetration rate 86.75% and speed (11.5 mbps). these data clearly show these two countries are in urgent need of improving their digital networking and computing infrastructure. 2.4. culture and living conditions for this study, education/literacy rate, religion, main language, life span, sanitation, and happiness index data are examined to explore the similarities and differences of cultures and living conditions in china and india. table-4. culture and living: china and india usa china india pisa test 2009 (lehmann, 2015) 1st (out of 74 countries) 73rd (out of 74 countries) literacy (twf-cia, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, & 2015) 99% (2003 est.) 95.1% (2010 est.) 74% (2011 est.) religion (% unaffiliated) (censusindia, 2001; pewforum, 2014) 15% 52.2% 0% largest religion (censusindia, 2001; pewforum, 2014) christian (78%) folk religion (21.9%) hindu (80.5%) main language (census, 2010) english mandarin 22 official languages/ 2,000 dialects life expectancy (twf-cia, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, & 2015) 79.68 75.41 68.13 sanitation facility access (twf-cia, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, & 2015) 100% 76.5% 36% happiness index (nef (new economics foundation), 2012) 37.3 44.7 50.9 source: census, censusindia, jacob s., lehmann (2015) new economics forundation), pewforum, & the world factbook-cia (twf-cia) education and literacy: it is in this area that the most glaring difference exists between india and china. in the 2009 program for international student assessment (pisa) test for fifteen year olds in reading, math and science from seventy-four countries, india ranked seventy-third (second to last), whereas china was first (lehmann, 2015). the chinese results were from shanghai, which isn’t representative of all of china, but the difference is stark. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 208-213 212 looking toward the future, where jobs will be far more dependent on a higher level of education, the future looks bleak for india. companies looking for highly trained workers will have to do undertake much of the responsibility for education themselves. the prospect of a rapidly rising population qualified for mostly menial jobs is quite alarming in terms of the probability of social unrest. the literacy rate of these two countries affirms similar findings. compared to china’s (95.1%), the india’s literacy rate is merely 74%. in another words, 26% of indians are illiterate; not able to read and write. this can pose a challenging concern in marketing and also hiring and training new employees for a local operation for a foreign company. religion: there are significant differences in religions between two countries. while over 50% of chinese are listed as unaffiliated (officially regarded as atheists’ country), almost all indians are affiliated (0% unaffiliated) with a religion, especially hinduism (80.5%) and muslim (13.4%). religious practices and beliefs need to be properly understood and accommodated in order to conduct business effectively in india. language: it is interesting to note the number of official languages in india compared to china. while china has one official language, mandarin, for the country, there are 22 official languages and 2,000 dialects in india. it clearly shows the diversity of cultures, society, and living environments in india. this presents an enormous business challenge to foreign firms due to the difficulty in communicating with locals and developing an effective marketing strategy in india. life expectancy and sanitary conditions: life expectancy and sanitation data (table 4) help to understand the overall quality of life and living conditions of each country as these are important inputs to decisions related to operating a business and/or living in a foreign country. life expectancy at birth data shows the mortality at all ages. it is noteworthy that china’s and india’s average life span is 4.3 years and almost 12 years shorter than that of the us respectively. china is rated 99 th and india rated 163 th out of 224 countries (twf-cia, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, & 2015). the gap, about 7.5 years, between china and india is significant. although further investigation is needed, sanitary conditions, medical infrastructure, and environmental conditions are known to be the major contributing factors for a shorter life span. it is troubling to note the sanitary conditions (65% and 36% respectively) of these two countries are far behind that of us (100%). this sanitation data refers to the percentage of the population using improved sanitation facilities. the improved sanitation facilities include flush/pour flush (to piped sewer system, septic tank, and pit latrine), ventilated improved pit (vip) latrine, pit latrine with slap, and composing toilet. there are two sides of a coin with these social concerns. the problem areas in these countries present enormous business opportunities especially to those industries such as anti-pollution, medicine, construction, etc. and at the same time this can be a serious challenge for the companies that send expatriates to operate a local business and live in these countries. happiness index: ironically, the hpi (happy planet index) data shows very interesting results; indians seem to the happiest people among three countries; happier than chinese and americans and chinese are happier than americans. based on its global rankings, india ranked 30 th , china 62 nd , and the us 105 th . 3. the road ahead the planet’s largest countries (by population) have a long list of issues to resolve in order to achieve their aspirations. even though india’s population is almost as large as china’s and is expected to overtake it in the near future, its economy is only half of china’s size, meaning its people are much poorer on average, having a lower standard of living. india’s gdp pc in 2015 at purchasing power parity was just $6,300, compared to china’s $14,300 (twf-cia, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, & 2015). india’s literacy rate, mortality rate and other measures of quality of life are also inferior to china’s. the chinese yuan has just been admitted to the international monetary fund’s global currency basket, i.e. the status of a reserve currency, an indication of the status of the chinese economy. however, india’s economy is currently growing at about 7.5%, whereas china’s growth has slowed to what many western observers think is lower than 5%, despite china’s claim of a 6.9% rate. they base their conclusion on commodity consumption in china, shipping tonnage, and the like. if these rates continue for several years (which is certainly implausible), then india’s economy will gradually catch up with china’s in size. india’s major advantage over china is in demographics, because its population is much younger and the work force is growing, not contracting, whereas china’s labor supply is dwindling. about half of its 1.25 billion population is under the age of 25 (indexmundi, 2014). china has just done away with its one-child per family policy to combat its problem, but it is not clear what impact this will have because of the desires of chinese parents may not be consistent with larger families. the chinese economy is currently undergoing major restructuring, because the previous growth model can no longer succeed. the chinese economy was built on exports, mostly of manufactured goods, made possible by cheap labor and an efficient manufacturing infrastructure. however, success has increased chinese labor costs to the point that the cost difference between chinese goods and western goods has narrowed to the point where many are either being made in customers’ home countries, or in other cheaper countries. china is now therefore attempting to convert to a consumption economy, which will take a few years to take hold (the consumer accounts for a much smaller share of the economy than in developed countries). related issues such as mass urbanization (500 million people have moved to urban areas since the late 1970s), pollution, social tensions and a restive middle class, have all popped up. along with these problems, there is corruption on a massive scale, which the chinese leadership is attempting to stamp out. india too has many of the same problems—massive urbanization, pollution, and pervasive corruption. infrastructure is woeful across the board. there is a serious shortage of electric power, causing prolonged power cuts almost everywhere, again making manufacturing and commerce very difficult. huge amounts of food rot because of the lack of suitable storage facilities, refrigerated trucks and suitable roads. being a democracy, india also finds it difficult to make needed reforms/changes to laws affecting land ownership, taxes and other needed reforms. india also has a large number of archaic labor laws, both at the state and federal levels, which make it very difficult to asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 208-213 213 manage labor forces efficiently. the prime minister was elected in a landslide and controls the lower house of parliament, but the upper house is controlled by the opposition parties, who have blocked much of his significant legislative agenda. this situation is expected to improve with time, in favor of the ruling party. in addition, there are thus major challenges facing both china and india, some similar and some quite different. how they are addressed will greatly affect the future of the planet. 4. conclusion the two asian giants, china and india, present unique problems for international companies seeking to do business there. they do possess the same characteristics of huge populations, vast numbers of very poor people, many of them working in agriculture and living in rural areas; corruption; poor infrastructure; environmental pollution; and poor living conditions. of course, there are considerable differences between them--in culture, religion, languages, political structure, diversity, demographics, and education. companies doing business in these countries find they need to modify their marketing techniques to be successful. doing business is far more difficult owing to government red tape and the absence of logistical and financial support systems common in developed countries. although it is easier to focus on the rapidly burgeoning middle class in both countries that lives in mostly urban areas, the real challenge is in reaching the vast hinterland, where the poorest people live. these people are not reachable by traditional marketing methods, nor are their villages easily reached by modern transportation. furthermore, they are too poor to afford western quantities of goods, so companies need to downsize their products to sell very small portions of goods like soap, toothpaste, food, lotion, etc. there is almost no refrigeration, so goods have to be redesigned to survive without it. payment is usually in cash, and not through credit cards. it is true, however, that large sections of both countries have leapfrogged a whole generation of communications technology, i.e. wired telecommunications. poor people in huge numbers are using mobile computing via cell phones to communicate and conduct business. phones have begun to replace credit cards and cash as a payment mechanism in many areas. one of the world’s greatest business stories is unfolding right now. references bbc, 2013. un: india to be world's most populous country by 2028. bbc. available from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-22907307. bruce, e., 2014. india vs. china: the battle for global manufacturing. bloomberg business. available from http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2014-11-06/india-vs-dot-china-the-battle-for-global-manufacturing. census, 2010. language-china. available from 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2015. no, india’s economy is not about to catch up with china’s anytime soon. quartz. available from http://qz.com/342923/noindias-economy-is-not-about-to-catch-up-with-chinas-anytime-soon/. nef (new economics foundation), 2012. happiness index. available from http://www.happyplanetindex.org/. numbeo, 2015. pollution status. available from http://www.numbeo.com. park, m., 2014. top 20 most polluted cities in the world. cnn. available from http://www.cnn.com/2014/05/08/world/asia/india-pollutionwho/. pewforum, 2014. religion usa. available from http://www.pewforum.org/2014/04/04/global-religious-diversity/. s., a., 2015. india to surpass china’s economic growth in 2015-16: imf. available from http://indianexpress.com/article/india/indiaothers/indias-economic-growth-to-beat-china-in-2015-16-imf/. stein, r., 2007. us fertility rate hits 35-year high, stabilizing population. washington post. available from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/20/ar2007122002725.html. the world bank data, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, & 2015. available from http://www.worldbank.org/. the world factbook-cia (twf-cia), 2003, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, & 2015. available from https://www.cia.gov/index.html. transparency, 2014. transparency rate. available from https://www.transparency.org/. un dept of economics and social affairs data, 2013. available from http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/index.html. us federal poverty guidelines, 2015. available from http://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty/15poverty.cfm. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-22907307 http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2014-11-06/india-vs-dot-china-the-battle-for-global-manufacturing http://www.travelchinaguide.com/essential/language.htm http://censusindia.gov.in/census_and_you/religion.aspx http://www.forbes.com/ http://www.economiza.com/wp-content/uploads/akamai-soti-a4-q214.pdf http://www.ilo.org/global/lang--en/index.html http://www.indexmundi.com/china/demographics_profile.html http://www.indexmundi.com/ http://www.internetlivestats.com/ http://www.forbes.com/sites/jplehmann/2015/05/11/the-very-serious-implications-of-indias-education-crisis/ http://qz.com/342923/no-indias-economy-is-not-about-to-catch-up-with-chinas-anytime-soon/ http://qz.com/342923/no-indias-economy-is-not-about-to-catch-up-with-chinas-anytime-soon/ http://www.happyplanetindex.org/ http://www.numbeo.com/ http://www.cnn.com/2014/05/08/world/asia/india-pollution-who/ http://www.cnn.com/2014/05/08/world/asia/india-pollution-who/ http://www.pewforum.org/2014/04/04/global-religious-diversity/ http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/indias-economic-growth-to-beat-china-in-2015-16-imf/ http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/indias-economic-growth-to-beat-china-in-2015-16-imf/ http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/20/ar2007122002725.html http://www.worldbank.org/ http://www.cia.gov/index.html http://www.transparency.org/ http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/index.html http://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty/15poverty.cfm 15 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 6, no. 2, 15-22, 2019 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2019.62.15.22 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the impact of international trade on economic growth: a case study of pakistan suleman ghaffar1 humaira munir2 shahbaz nawaz3 anam javaid4 ( corresponding author) 1m.phil, public administration, department of iss bzu, multan, pakistan. 2ms economics, umt lahore, pakistan. 3phd scholar, school of quantitative sciences universiti utara malaysia. 4phd scholar, school of mathematical sciences universiti sains malaysia and lecturer, department of statistics, the women university, multan, pakistan. abstract international trade has its importance in economic growth of a country. country that is good in international trade means that it is stable in its economic conditions. international trade also shows the relationship of a country with other countries. pakistan also has relationship with other countries in terms of international trade throughout different years. conducted study focus on international trade impact on economic growth in pakistan. for this purpose, yearly data set is taken from period of 1972 to 2012. ardl regression analysis is used to deal with see the long run and short run relationship among the effect of worldwide exchange on financial development of pakistan. descriptive statistics, kpss unit root test and vif are obtained for analysis purpose. eview software is used to obtain results in analysis. the finding of this examination shows that outside direct speculation, genuine successful worldwide rate and urbanization have huge and negative effect on financial development. as worldwide exchange is arrangement instrument may have more impacts in future to the impact on exchange aggressiveness keywords: impact, trade, economics, pakistan, growth, trade balance, exchange rate, money supply. citation | suleman ghaffar; humaira munir; shahbaz nawaz; anam javaid (2019). the impact of international trade on economic growth: a case study of pakistan. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 6(2): 15-22. history: received: 27 june 2019 revised: 30 july 2019 accepted: 2 september 2019 published: 27 september 2019 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 16 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 17 3. data source and methodological framework ........................................................................................................................... 18 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 18 5. conclusion and policy implications ............................................................................................................................................. 21 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 21 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2019.62.15.22&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3929-6585 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4584-3111 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6133-6518 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9774-9234 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1023 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1023 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 15-22 16 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to the existing literature by examining international trade impact on economic growth. 1. introduction pakistan faces high boundaries to international trade over its eastern just as western and north-western fringes. generally significant east-west trade courses associating india with focal asia and china passed however pakistan. nonetheless, stressed relations with india, war and political precariousness in afghanistan, absence of improvement of transportation foundation for land courses to china, and difficulty in inborn zones and baluchistan have hindered pakistan's trade towards east and west. development of east-west trade displays an extraordinary open door for pakistan to increment its economic growth (nabi, 2013). there has been much enthusiasm for investigating the impact of trade progression with india. the ongoing china-pakistan economic corridor (cpec) venture has moreover animated enthusiasm for the potential for trade development with china. trade deficit is not generally a natural risky. it is persistence, size, and creation and causes of the deficit that determine if and to what extent the trade deficit should be a matter of concern. the exchange rate is an important policy variable that influences trade flows, capital flows, inflation, international reserves, and remittances. many empirical results show how exchange rate changes affect the trade balance of developing countries. there is still the considerable disagreement that the effectiveness of currency deficit as a tool for increasing the international trade. along these lines, pakistan is one of those nations who are going toward exchange lack from last different years. pakistan was going toward exchange deficiency in budgetary year (fy) 1957-58. outside exchange division was sensibly phenomenal amidst money related year 1953, 1954 and 1956. its common tolls were 161 million us dollar more than its imports. in money related year 1956 57 and in budgetary year 2003-4 pakistan has surplus change of exchange. this was the financial year in which pakistan had a positive adjust of exchange. regardless, these years pakistan is confronting the issue of exchange and current record deficiency (abbas, 2013). later on a review on human development factors was made by javaid et al. (2018) in pakistan. moreover, pakistan needs different financial arrangements to improve the adjust of exchange and increment the monetary action and development included like: levy structures, conversion scale, remote trade designation framework, import control and fare tax assessment. pakistan should make and change their outside exchange strategies however nothing is done in this respects and the hole between exchange going extend step by step. the critical success factors empirically examine the impact of exchange rate on trade balance using annual data set on gross domestic product per capita (gdppc), foreign direct investment, exchange rate, urbanization and money supply and for the period of 1972 to 2012. additional, this study uses the ardl co integration approach; error correction models analyze the causal relationship among the variables. the objective only focuses on the international trade on economic growth likewise effects of money supply, and exchange rate depreciation on trade balance and this study also capture the effects of other factors on international trade as well as economic growth. in the past, there were many more studies conducted to determine the impact of trade in which few are mentioned beneath literature review. but, there is some uncertainties’ and fluctuations continuously create as per change in the economic crises or stability so the subjective work displays a key conclusion in order to justify the current situation as per time series data for the better understanding as well as for better policy implications in future ahead. nonetheless, numerous studies on the impact of trade on economic growth have been done in the past era, yet there are constrained writing connecting the impacts of government trade, cash supply and swelling to economic growth. for instance, the accompanying exact investigations prohibited government use and cash supply in examining the impact of expansion as well as cash supply to economic growth in the nation (idalu, 2015). in spite of the fact that their works have indicated out some significant regions be assessed, especially the confound between the economic growth and cash supply and expansion and the objective swelling, however unfilled hole stays in writings for relating trade, cash supply, swelling and economic growth in the nation. 1.1. significance of the study this study will be fruitful for the foster growth of economy in pakistan to build up the strong international trade through which poverty reduce, as well as government spending find out those areas which needs to be specifically more work in order to overcome the poverty reduction as well as for the strong infrastructure. hence, this investigation will add to advertise examiners; money related master, academicians, strategy creators and national financial specialist's authorities i.e. how the gdp change due to advance in swelling so they can carry extraordinary approaches to hold an expansion rate important for generation in the economy (non-unsafe expansion rate). 1.2. objective to check the impact of international trade on economic growth and their factors; extraneous direct investment net inflows, gdp per capita, money supply and urbanization on the trade balance of pakistan. this paper also suggests some measures for decreasing trade deficit in future to increase the economic growth. 1.3. research question  what are the key determinants of international trade on economic growth in pakistan?  what are the factors hampering the economic growth?  how current international trade put impact on “the economic growth of pakistan”? asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 15-22 17 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 1.4. theoretical model theoritical methods used in this study can be explained as in figure 1. figure-1. factors related to trade balance. source: https://www.economicshelp.org/macroeconomics/bop/. whatever remains of the paper is sorted out as takes after: section two quickly audits the empirical writing on the determinants of global exchange. section three discusses the data and the methodology in the study, while section four presents the results and discussion of this study. the last segment introduces the conclusion and arrangement suggestions. 2. literature review neighboring nations take part in extensive trade with one another utilizing land transportation. pakistan imparts a typical fringe to two huge rising economies, china and india. in any case, the land course represents just a little portion of the complete trade between china and pakistan. this is on the grounds that, as of not long ago, there were no achievable minimal effort land courses for transportation of products between the two nations. there are very much created land courses among pakistan and india, however high tax and nontariff hindrances emerging from stressed relations have fundamentally obstructed pakistan-india trade. trade with other neighboring nations, afghanistan and iran, has likewise been hampered by struggle in afghanistan and conflict in ancestral zones what's more, baluchistan. generally significant east-west trade courses interfacing india with focal asia what's more, china passed however pakistan. these courses are never again utilized and pakistan has depended to a great extent on international trade via ocean through the port of karachi. development of east-west trade presents an incredible open door for pakistan to build its economic growth (nabi, 2013). there has been much enthusiasm for investigating the impact of trade advancement with india (ameer, 2013). the ongoing chinapakistan economic corridor (cpec) venture has moreover invigorated enthusiasm for the potential for the development of overland trade with china. bahmani-oskooee and kandil (2009) assess the impacts of exchange rate deterioration on yield growth for an example of fourteen mena nations. by applying cointegration and mistake revision displaying, they separated the growth impacts of expostulation in the short run and long run. they likewise recognize the foreseen and unexpected parts of genuine exchange rate. their outcomes demonstrate that foreseen devaluation is expansionary for bahrain, oman, saudi arabia, syria and tunisia yet contractionary for lebanon and libya over the long haul. unexpected deterioration has no expansionary impact over the long haul while it is just apparent in the short run. interestingly, it has a contractionary impact in jordan, kuwait and qatar over the long haul. dash et al. (2009) inspected the fare drove growth theory for india and utilized cointegration and ecm to investigated the causal connection between fare growth and economic growth in india for post-advancement period (1992[q1]–2007[q4]). mukhtar and javaid (2018) conducted study on factors effecting on expenses in pakistan. he found the outcome which shows that a long haul relationship exists among yield and fares and it was unidirectional, from fares to yield growth. alam (2011) examined the fare drove theory if there should be an occurrence of pakistan for the time of twenty seven years (19712007) utilized quarterly time arrangement. this examination has connected the co-coordination system and ecm to research the relationship among the fare, import and gdp growth. he discovered that there is certain connection between economic growth, import and fare. imports and exports are decidedly related with autonomous variable gdp. in spite of the fact that in the short run, the consequence of ecm demonstrated the short run impacts of autonomous factors for example, import and fare on the needy variable economic growth. mishra et al. (2010) considered the connection among fare and yield for 1970 to 2009 for india and applying time arrangement econometric strategies of co-coordination and vecm. he discovered the affirmation of stationary of time arrangement factors, and uncovered the presence of long-run harmony connection between them. be that as it may, he dismissed the fare drove growth speculation by the granger causality test which depended on vecm estimation for india. further he likewise discovered some observational confirmation that the long haul pattern may not be sends out drove growth in india. temiz and gökmen (2011) examined the relationship of genuine send out and economic growth which was spoken to by genuine gdp by utilizing time arrangement information for the period 1950-2006 for turkey. this examination utilizes acclaimed adf unit root test, johansen co-incorporation test, vecm, and granger causality test. the outcome uncovered that there is a long run and short run causality connection between the genuine fare and the economic growth and the heading of the causality is from economic growth (genuine gdp) to genuine fare. arif and ahmad (2012) analyzed the long run connection between yield growth and trade transparency. the study was conveyed by requiring some investment arrangement information from 1972 to 2010. co-mix and https://www.economicshelp.org/macroeconomics/bop/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 15-22 18 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group blunder revision was utilized for econometric estimation to set up connection between yield growth and trade transparency. yield growth and trade receptiveness had positive relationship and the outcome showed the long run connection between two factors and there exist bi-directional huge causality between trade transparency and yield growth. aurangzeb and haq (2012) they analyze that exchange rate, foreign direct investment, economic growth and remittances as significant factors which affect 'trade deficit in pakistan' in the long run for the period from 1981 to 2010. this study also provides the evidence of bidirectional causality between foreign direct investments be that as it may, it additionally discovered unidirectional causality running from exchange shortage to financial development in pakistan. hassan et al. (2012) discovered negative and critical impact of urbanization on exchange transparency over the long haul yet positive and huge impact of urbanization on exchange receptiveness in the short keep running in pakistan for the period from 1975 to 2010.this examination additionally was likewise locate the bidirectional causality amongst urbanization and exchange receptiveness in the short run however unidirectional causality running from urbanization to exchange transparency over the long haul was obvious in pakistan; the creators inferred that urbanization could profit exchange receptiveness in the short run yet it could hurt exchange receptiveness over the long haul. "owoye and onafowora (2013)" in this examination he break down the constructive outcomes of spending deficiency on exchange shortfall into both “long run and short run”, nigeria for the period 1970-2001.the discoveries additionally uncovered that cash supply, conversion standard, yield development and loan fee were contrarily influencing exchange shortage over the long haul. . 3. data source and methodological framework 3.1. data source the information on exports and imports of products and enterprises, foreign direct venture, gdp per capita. utilizing the yearly information the example time frame ranges from 1972 to 2012. the previously mentioned factors like: imports, exports, gdp per capita have consistent on neighbourhood money units, while, the remote direct venture net inflows taken as proportion of gdp. 3.2. methodological framework in this examination the twofold logged demonstrate has been utilized on the grounds that the log shape approach gives more productive outcomes when contrasted with basic frame approach.the models are proposed as: lntbt = a0 + a1tlnext + a2tlnmst + a3tlngdppct + a4tlnfdit + a5tlnurbt +λ lt moreover, the construction of each variable is represented in table 1. table-1. construction of variables. variables code variable name variable construction source lngdp per capita real gdp ln(real gdp/total pop) wdi 2016 1972-2012 lntb international trade balance ln(exports/imports) wdi 2016 1972-2012 lnurb urbanization % of gdp ln(urb) wdi 2016 1972-2012 lnms money supply ln(board money supply/cpi) (100*real ms/real gdp) wdi 2016 1972-2012 lnfdi direct foreign-aid, net inflows (% of gdp) ln(fdi) wdi 2016 1972-2012 lnex real effective exchange rate ln(reer) wdi 2016 1972-2012 source: https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators. 4. results and discussion inspect the empirical outcomes for conceptualized models and their discourse are exhibited. the examination begins from assessing descriptive measurements of the two indicators and result factors of this investigation. the outcomes are appeared in table 2. table-2. descriptive statistics. lnfdi lngdppc lnms lnreer lntb lnurb mean -29.6324 10.63733 -0.51565 4.810161 -0.60794 3.472148 median -29.5781 10.65654 -0.61945 4.732387 -0.53269 3.468607 maximum -28.4846 10.91276 -0.01704 5.433626 -0.09635 3.622419 minimum -30.9192 10.26462 -0.82048 4.540283 -1.45972 3.334559 std. dev. 0.572507 0.189662 0.246202 0.279865 0.330626 0.084081 skewness -0.17302 -0.19906 0.684576 1.061278 -0.68592 0.11816 kurtosis 3.132529 2.120838 2.031132 2.731493 2.806019 1.894816 jarque-bera 0.188798 1.280715 3.868261 6.293844 2.639443 1.756257 probability 0.90992 0.527104 0.14455 0.042984 0.26721 0.41556 sum -977.869 351.0319 -17.0165 158.7353 -20.0619 114.5809 sum sq. dev. 10.48845 1.151088 1.939692 2.506377 3.498031 0.22623 observations 33 33 33 33 33 33 source: eviews is used for analysis purpose. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 15-22 19 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 2 reveals the fundamental information regarding the factors of the study. in the following table, the mean, median and standard deviation (among others) are reported. the j.b tests are not significant except then real effective exchange rate and showed all the variables into this study are normally distributed. table-3. coefficient of covariance. lnfdi lngdppc lnms lnreer lntb lnurb lnfdi 1 0.333235 0.274608 -0.37917 0.213517 0.223322 lngdppc 0.333235 1 0.888299 -0.90225 0.880034 0.982525 lnms 0.274608 0.888299 1 -0.68105 0.701217 0.913767 lnreer -0.37917 -0.90225 -0.68105 1 -0.91321 -0.861 lntb 0.213517 0.880034 0.701217 -0.91321 1 0.858665 lnurb 0.223322 0.982525 0.913767 -0.861 0.858665 1 source: eview is used for analysis. table-4. variance inflation factor. vif lnfdi lngdppc lnms lnreer lntb lnurb lnfdi lngdppc 1.124917 lnms 1.08156 4.741028 lnreer 1.167914 5.377739 1.865057 lntb 1.047767 4.433784 1.967363 6.022259 lnurb 1.05249 28.86484 6.059478 3.865838 3.806714 source: eview is used for analysis. the vif matrix in table 4 suggests that is there "multicollinearity" between variables vif value exceeding 10 or not. for the rest of the variables, the values of vif are less than 10 except then urbanization then so it can be concluded that the "multicollinearity" doesn’t exist among these variables except then urbanization. in the wake of examining the descriptive measurements, covariance and difference swelling element all things considered and result factors, the stationary of information arrangement utilizing "shin and schmidt (1992)" unit root test are assessed. "shin and schmidt (1992)" is capable test for modest number of perceptions. the invalid theory of this test expresses that information arrangement is stationary though elective speculation demonstrates that arrangement is non-stationary. assessed consequences of this test are appeared in table 3 that, it presume that evaluated estimation of "kpss" unit pull test for urbanization and "gdp" per capita, has been discovered that more prominent than its comparing basic incentive at one for each penny level of essentialness. the invalid theory for these two factors is rejected and it is reason that these two factors are observed to be non-stationary at level. be that as it may; the evaluated estimations of "kpss" unit pull test for trade adjust, exchange rate, money supply and foreign direct speculation net inflows "(% of gdp)" have observed to be not as much as the comparing basic incentive at one for every penny level of essentialness at level. hence, the invalid speculation might be acknowledged and it might be reasoned that these four factors have observed to be stationary at level. table-5. kpss unit root test. variables at level decision variables at 1st difference decision lntb 0.713269 stationary ∆ lntb 0.046621 stationary lngdppc 0.773669 non-stationary ∆ lngdppc 0.225085 stationary lnex 0.639784 stationary ∆ lnex 0.323894 stationary lnurb 0.799332 non-stationary ∆ lnurb 0.253172 stationary lnfdi 0.358347 stationary ∆ lnfdi 0.075215 stationary lnms 0.640351 stationary ∆ lnms 0.295705 stationary asymptotic critical values of kwiatkowski-phillips-schmidt-shin unit root test significance level 01 per cent 0.7390 05 per cent 0.4630 10 per cent 0.3470 source: eviews software is used for analysis. therefore, table 5 concludes that a few variables are stationary at level and some are stationary at first distinction. in this way, the information arrangement of the present examination has blended request of mix like i(0) and i(1). afterward, with a specific end goal to explore the long-run co-joining between the trade adjust and its factors the "ardl" limits testing approach was utilized. the evaluated comes about are exhibited in table 4. to locate a long run relationship the "ardl" bounding testing approach connected and the assessed comes about revealed in table 4, affirm the presence of long run connections between trade adjust and its elements as f measurement has observed to be more noteworthy than the upper basic bound at 5% level of centrality. the assessed comes about because of table 4 demonstrate that the figured estimation of f test6.0153is more prominent than its upper security basic esteem 4.5464at 5% level of centrality; along these lines, this affirms the confirmation of long run co joining among trade adjust and its predicators. the evaluated likelihood esteems for all the diagnostics tests were not observed to be huge which uncovers that there are no hetero "scedasticityand" serial relationship issues. additionally, the blunder term of the chose ardl show is typically appropriated and the practical type of the chose ardl demonstrate is likewise effectively indicated. results can be viewed in table 6. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 15-22 20 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-6. ardl regression. estimated models tbt = f(,ext,mst,fdit,gdppct,urbt) optimal lags (1,0,0,0,0,1) f – statistics 6.0153 w – statistics 36.0916 significance level critical bounds for f – statistics critical bounds for w – statistics lower critical bound upper critical bound lower critical bound upper critical bound 5 per cent 3.1120 4.5464 18.6722 27.2786 10 per cent 2.5577 3.8302 15.3460 22.9810 diagnostic tests r2 .92735 serial correlation .61136[.434] adjusted – r2 .90616 functional form .033749[.854] f – statistics 43.762 normality 7.0468[.129] p – value [f – statistics] 0.000 heteroscedasticity .85205[.356] dw – statistic 2.1515 durbin h – statistic -.64613[.518] the values within [ ] represents the probability values. afterwards, the short run and long run coefficients of trade balance along with other variables have been estimated, and the results have been presented in table 7. table-7. long run coefficients and ecm. estimated long run coefficients using ardl error correction model using ardl apporch dependent variable: lntbt dependent variable: älntbt variables coefficient [p value] variables coefficient [p value] lngdppc -.54940[.588] ∆ lngdppc -.57136[.573] lnex -4.3283[.000] ∆ lnex -5.4502[.000] lnurb -1.0558[.002] ∆ lnurb 3.6632[.001] lnfdi -1.9444[.064] ∆ lnfdi -1.9217[.066] lnms .72397[.476] ∆ lnms .72705[.474] c 1.8525[.076] ecmt-1 -4.9054[.000] source: eviews is used for analysis. the estimates for long term and short term coefficients reported in table 7 reveals that real effective exchange rate and foreign direct investment net inflows (% of gdp) has an significant but negative impact on trade balance of pakistan in the long term as well as in the short term. it is also evident the money supply have positive but insignificant impact on long and short run. the urbanization have positive and significant effect on trade balance in short run but in long run it give negative impact to our economy and impact trade balance in future. subsequent to looking at the short-run coefficients the soundness test is connected to see whether coefficients of indicators of estimation of trade adjust are steady after some time or not. for this reason, the "cusum" and "cusum" squared charts are utilized. on the off chance that the diagrams of "cusum" and "cusum" squared are found inside their basic limits, at that point it inferred that the assessed parameters in given period are steady. in addition; the soundness of "cusum" alludes to the dependability of mean of mistake term after some time and the solidness of "cusum" squared alludes to the strength of difference of blunder term over the long run. the "cusum" and "cusum" square are presented in figure 2. figure-2. plot of cumulative sum of recursive residuals. source: using eviews software the results are obtained. hence, the graph starts in 1990, since recursive estimation begins using the blue line (can’t estimate a regression with n<k). the graph suggests that parameter constancy may have broken down around 1997 (on the basis of this model – other models will give different results as shown in figure 3. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 15-22 21 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure-3. plot of cumulative sum of recursive residuals of other model. source: eviews is used to obtain the graphical analysis. subsequently, in the cusum of square laid out that blue line unexpectedly tumble down and up with fluctuating ploted so the results in total square test grow that elements are enduring and moreover put abrupt impact as changing happens at any rate the taken components are consistent so on the base of following outlines depiction in the cusum square test blue line fall over the red lines which in like manner exhibits that the given variable in the model as such we dismiss our elective speculation. 5. conclusion and policy implications this paper explores the components which impact the trade with reference to pakistan. the examination uses the yearly data from 1972 to 2012, and applies the ardl bounds testing approach to recognize and assess the long-run relationship. the examination also uses the slip-up cure model to evaluate the short-run coefficients. to check the security of evaluated parameters, the examination applies the cusum and cusum of squares remaining plots. using the two points of interest the examination finds that markers of trade inadequacy have co-organizing relationship with one another. this examination additionally finds that exchange balance and outside direct speculation have critical effect in long run. so the cash supply has unimportant effect on the grounds that as cash supply diminishes the exchange deficiency happen and the swapping scale under control so the conversion scale additionally affect negative in long haul. because of high pattern of utilization, pakistan is attempting to pull in remote and direct interest in the nation. fdi can add to build the gdp growth since it demonstrates critical qualities. legislature of pakistan can embrace progressively straightforward structural changes to quicken and speed up advancement, privatization and deguideline exercises inside the nation. so as to encourage the venture exercises defensive obligations/charges on the business ought to be expelled to advance challenge and raise sends out. throughout the previous couple of months, because of low degree of swelling, expansionary money related arrangement is being pursued which can decrease the expense of generation and builds the aggressiveness of fares. low degrees of loan cost can help those businesses where venture is expected to advance and improved the fare businesses. stable trade rates are the first and the best arrangement alternatives for the expansion in fares and deal with the imports. conversion standard likewise supports the fdi in the two terms, in the case of expanding or diminishing. the costs which are forced behind the fringe ought to be overseen in light of the fact that it decays the intensity of potential fare. the exchange expenses of fare in creating nations are a few times higher than that of the created countries. export expansion is extensively known as an empowering trade arrangement for supporting economic growth. it makes nations less powerless against face the issues of terms of trade, stuns of fare income and increment in comes back to scale. as of late many creating nations are receiving item expansion approaches to maintain a strategic distance from expected or startling changes in term of trade. these outcomes have strategy suggestions to enhance the exchange execution through increment the cash supply and government should control the swapping scale arrangements. at long last investigation affirm that conversion standard devaluation can enhance the exchange adjust it is additionally prescribed that swapping scale arrangements ought not be abused and it can't work alone out of the macroeconomic strategies in light of the fact that the conversion scale is a strategy instrument which have more impacts notwithstanding sway on exchange intensity. references abbas, m., 2013. interdisciplinary journal of contemporary research in business. alam, h., 2011. an econometric analysis of export-led growth hypothesis: reflections from pakistan. interdisciplinary journal of contemporary research in business, 2(12): 329-338. ameer, b., 2013. corporate governance-issues and challenges in pakistan. international journal of academic research in business and social sciences, 3(4): 79-96. arif, a. and h. ahmad, 2012. impact of trade openness on output growth: co integration and error correction model approach. international journal of economics and financial issues, 2(4): 379-385. aurangzeb and a.u. haq, 2012. factors affecting the trade balance in pakistan. economics and finance review, 1(11): 25-30. bahmani-oskooee, m. and m. kandil, 2009. are devaluations contractionary in mena countries?. applied economics, 41(2): 139-150. dash, d., v. kantere and a. ailamaki, 2009. an economic model for self-tuned cloud caching. in 2009 ieee 25th international conference on data engineering. ieee. pp: 1687-1693. hassan, m.s., a. wajid and k. ahmed, 2012. urbanization as a way to open economy: empirical evidence from pakistan. world applied sciences journal, 20(7): 931-940. idalu, e.r., 2015. impact of inflation in economic growth: case study of nigeria, unpublished masters thesis, university of benini, edo, nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(1): 15-22 22 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group javaid, a., a. akbar and s. nawaz, 2018. a review on human development index. pakistan journal of humanities and social sciences, 6(3): 357-369. mishra, p., u.s. mishra, b.r. mishra and p. mishra, 2010. capital market efficiency and economic growth: the case of india. european journal of economics, finance and administrative sciences, 27(18): 130-138. mukhtar, a. and a. javaid, 2018. factor identification and usage of pocket money among students:a case study. international journal of research and innovation in social sciences, 2(9): 2454-6186. nabi, i., 2013. a growth vent anchored in history and geography. igc discussion paper. owoye, o. and o.a. onafowora, 2013. carbon emissions and income trajectory in eight heterogeneous countries: the role of trade openness, energy consumption and population dynamics. journal of global economy, 9(2): 87-125. shin, y. and p. schmidt, 1992. the kpss stationarity test as a unit root test. economics letters, 38(4): 387-392.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1765(92)90023-r. temiz, d. and a. gökmen, 2011. foreign direct investment (fdi) and export relation in turkey: 1991–2010. journal of transnational management, 16(3): 157-180.available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15475778.2011.596779. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 158 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 2, 158-165, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.158.165 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group professional women behavior pertaining to online shopping in pakistan syeda tayyaba fasih1 ayesha shoukat2 marium mateen khan3 ( corresponding author) 1,3phd scholar, institute of business management, pakistan. 2assistant professor, islamic university of bahawalpur, pakistan. abstract while developing countries are increasingly benefitting from the convenience and time savings brought by online shopping, the concept has not gained much popularity in pakistan. keeping in view the rise in the number of professional women in pakistan and their struggle with work-life balance. the paper attempts to find out why professional women in pakistan are not taking advantage of online shopping facility followed by recommendations regarding how online shopping experience can be made better for them. purposive sampling was used to select 30 professional females for collecting the data. a semi-structured questionnaire comprising of 20 items was used to obtain the data. grounded theory was used to identify the key factors involved in the online shopping behavior of professional women. the research findings revealed, firstly, that professional women are more likely to purchase online when complete product information in terms of price, variants, mode of payment and brand history was provided. secondly, seller credibility was found to be a major factor influencing the online purchase decision. and lastly, buyers prefer delivery within 3 days to one week along with an exchange/return option to increase their confidence level in online purchases. this research shall help in increasing the online shopping trend in pakistan which will help professional women in maintaining work-life balance through a suggested online shopping framework. keywords: online shopping, professional women, cash on delivery, convenience, online shopping platforms, information search. citation | syeda tayyaba fasih; ayesha shoukat; marium mateen khan (2020). professional women behavior pertaining to online shopping in pakistan. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(2): 158-165. history: received: 8 april 2020 revised: 12 may 2020 accepted: 4 june 2020 published: 30 june 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 159 2. literature review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 159 3. research methodology and data collection............................................................................................................................ 161 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................. 162 5. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 164 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 164 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.158.165&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1813 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3753-3156 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1813 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3753-3156 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1813 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3753-3156 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 158-165 159 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the paper highlights the emerging trends of online shopping seen in professional women. the study explores the situtations in which professional women tend to opt for online shopping and other factors that influence the amount spent and number of occasions online shopping is opted by them. 1. introduction 1.1. background of study the online shopping phenomenon has changed the dimensions of e-business in the entire world. due to convenience and cost-effectiveness, the online shopping experience is growing around the world as well as in pakistan. but this enhancement of online shopping in pakistan is not showing exponential growth due to the conventional mindset (sajjad, tayyab, sajid, ur rashid, & javed, 2012). in pakistan, the main sources of online shopping are social media, e-shopping stores and websites. however, the female perception of enjoying traditional shopping over online shopping is the biggest hurdle towards making this trend common (nasir, vel, & mateen, 2012). according to the labor survey report, there is an increase in the labor force participation rate of women from 16.2 % in 2001-02 to 24.3% in 2013 (labour force survey, 2015). this transition in workforce dynamics drew researchers’ attention to make the lives of professional women easy by exploring the online shopping behavior of professional women and providing an online shopping framework that improves their online experience. the eshopping framework is constructed through grounded theory, which is based on the responses received from the research participants using a semi-structured questionnaire developed through the existing literature. the categorization of axial codes that extract interdependent themes of the e-shopping behavior of professional women was then converted into the framework. 1.2. problem statement the workforce dynamics of pakistan is changing due to the inclusion of professional women, this change in dynamics makes the life of professional women more challenging in terms of work-life balance (statistics, 2014). online shopping is a growing phenomenon around the world but the inclination towards online shopping in pakistani culture is still in its nascent phase (sajjad et al., 2012). 1.3. research question 1. what are the main factors causing professional women to shop online? 2. why are the professional women of pakistan not inclined towards online shopping? 1.4. objectives of the study 1. to analyze the online shopping behavior of professional women of pakistan. 2. to develop an e-shopping framework for professional women to enhance online shopping trends in pakistan. 1.5. significance of the study this research contributes by suggesting an e-shopping framework that includes key factors such as the availability of information, seller credibility, and pre & post customer service. this suggested model will create online shopping an exciting experience for the professional women of pakistan. 1.6. scope of the study the scope of the study includes the online consumer behavior of professional women associated with different business institutes of pakistan. business institutes were selected since they were academic institutes where the researchers have access to the desired participants for this study. the institutes comprised of full-time teachers and students who are working in different organizations, both of whom can be included in the category of working professionals. from amongst those researchers identified the professional women for the research study. 2. literature review the term online shopping refers to the act of making a purchase through an online store at one’s own convenience in the comfort of one’s chosen location (jusoh & ling, 2012). understanding consumer behavior is one of the important factors leading to the success of businesses, both online and offline. although customers involved in both categories of businesses must go through the same stages of the buying process, the time it takes to go through a complete buying process varies along with the two categories mentioned earlier. the online buying behavior comprises of five stages just as the offline or conventional buying behavior does. this includes need recognition leading to information search carried out online. once sufficient information is available evaluation is made among various options available which may satisfy the same need. once a choice has been made, the consumer proceeds to the purchase decision which is followed by postpurchase behavior comprising of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the purchase made (wagoner, 2014). while the stages from need recognition to evaluation tend to speed up during online purchases, there are certain factors that slow down the process at the purchase stage as compared to the conventional method of in-store shopping. the behavior of each individual consumer especially for online purchasing may vary based on demographic factors including gender, age, education and income, frequency and intensity of internet usage, personal trait such as innovativeness, psychological traits such as the perception of benefit and risk and lastly previous purchase experiences (zhou, dai, & zhang, 2007). with increasingly easy access to the internet, consumers have all the information available on a few clicks along with a large number of product choices to choose from. this has led to an increase in online shopping over the years changing the dynamics of buying behavior altogether. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 158-165 160 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the major motivators for online shopping include convenience which ensures that now people can simply place orders and buy anything they want from anywhere they want. it no longer requires one to wait in long queues and shop in crowded stores. the availability of access to the internet which allows one to obtain all the information needed before making a purchase decision. when making online purchases, such information is very important so that the buyer is confident about the choice of product or service being made. in the traditional method of shopping, such information can only be obtained through sales staff or word of mouth (katawetawaraks & wang, 2011). furthermore, online shopping allows the option of making brand comparisons based on the information available on one click. this helps in intelligent decision making. brown, pope, and voges (2003) online shopping also becomes an attractive alternative in case of products of personal use which consumers might not be comfortable purchasing in a store. monsuwe, dellaert, and ruyter (2004) the availability of a variety of products and services to choose from is another motivator. an individual has access to all the types of products and services available as opposed to in-store shopping where it is not possible to perhaps stock all the brands available in the market. lastly, the time and costs saved by shopping online is also an important factor affecting the growing trend among consumers to shop online (katawetawaraks & wang, 2011). this is particularly applicable in the case of grocery and other items of regular use. since the consumer already knows which brand to buy and how much, he can simply make the purchase online instead of going through the hassle of traditional shopping. brown et al. (2003) however in-spite of all the motivators influencing buyers to increasingly choose to shop online, there are certain factors that limit the attractiveness of online shopping. these factors include the security risk involved in providing credit card and bank details which might be misused, inability to try or touch the product online before finalizing purchase decision, dissatisfactory online shopping experience in the past which is most likely to influence future purchase decision and lastly shopping online will affect the ability of an individual to meet his social needs negatively as there will be no human exposure (katawetawaraks & wang, 2011). in order to motivate more consumers to shop online and reduce cart abandonment, websites need to incorporate an easy to understand and user-friendly interface along with extensive product descriptions available so that the consumers can know what they're buying. it is important that payment systems are made more secure and guest checkouts (which do not require the user to register first) are made available and websites demand as little information as possible so that buyers may not feel that the buying process is complicated. pakistan is considered as a late entrant into the world of e-commerce, being the 2nd slowest adopter of internet shopping globally (bashir., mehboob, & bhatti, 2015). most of the countries in the european, asia-pacific and latin american regions have an internet penetration rate of above 50% and as high as 95%. with the internet penetration rate of only 15% in the country, there’s still a long way to go. most of the people either still do not have access to the internet or are not inclined to use it. due to this fact, online shopping in pakistan is mostly limited to buying clothing, computer hardware or occasional gifts. this is because the majority of the shoppers are reluctant to enter their credit card information or banking details online or have a bad past shopping experience online. the absence of a convenient payment system like paypal in pakistan, which ensures full security is also a major cause of reluctance to shop online (bashir. et al., 2015). traditionally, women tend to be associated more with carrying out shopping activities as compared to men. although, internet shopping patterns around the world have proven men spend almost the same when shopping online. men are more likely to buy hardware, software, and electronics, whereas women are more inclined to buy food, beverages, and clothing (zhou et al., 2007). in a study conducted by jain (2014) on the professional women of banglore, it was found out that professional women are inclined towards online shopping because it saves time, convenience and provides a safe mode of shopping. the study revealed a relationship between education background and preference towards online shopping as respondents having a master's degree were more inclined towards online shopping compared to undergraduates. it was also found that females were inclined towards online shopping because it provides the best prices, deals, and access to a wide range of products. where a wide variety of products are available online, clothing and accessories seemed to be most popular among the professional women of bangalore. this makes perfect sense, as for professional women to appear professional, she must pay attention to her dressing. according to another research online shopping is getting popular in the younger generation especially employed women of india as compared to the men. the employed women of india prefer online shopping because of the convenience and timesaving. the research also highlighted the safety issue and a low level of trust in the online store (kumar & kashyap, 2018). literature suggests that online apparel shopping seems to be popular among females. a study was conducted in the united kingdom, studying differences between female purchasers and nonpurchasers of apparel online. it was found that those females who purchase clothes online are the ones who have higher incomes compared to purchasers and such females find the online shopping environment safe. females who do not purchase apparel online are the ones who are afraid of online theft. this finding is consistent with the literature mentioned above and leaves room for retailers to improve the online shopping experience (zhou et al., 2007). while literature shows an inclination of females towards online apparel shopping, there is also evidence that consumers are not comfortable in purchasing apparel online. levin, levin, and heath (2003) mentioned two product categories. digital products and non-digital products. the former includes products that can be completely evaluated online and hence have a greater chance of being purchased online whereas the latter includes products that can be better evaluated in a physical store hence have a lower chance of being purchased online. as per the scholars, apparels fall in this category as consumers like to touch, feel and see the fabric before purchasing making it difficult for one to buy such products online. this leaves room for retailers to develop mechanisms that can help to resolve the concerns of consumers and boost the sales of apparel online. dai, forsythe, and kwon (2014) conducted research on product risk, financial risk and privacy risk pertaining to digital and non-digital products. the term product risk refers to whether or not the product will perform as per expectations, financial risk refers to cyber frauds and whether or not the product is being purchased at the best price whereas privacy risk refers to the fear of buyers that their personal information might be misused. it was found that in the case of non-digital products like apparel, the more consumer purchases online, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 158-165 161 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the less becomes the product risk, financial risk, and privacy risk. this is consistent with the findings mentioned above that show an inclination towards online apparel purchasing. in the case of digital products, the more the online shopping experience, the lower the product and financial risk such as in the case of buying software online, however, the study showed that prior online buying experience of a digital product has no impact on privacy risk. it is interesting to note that, in the case of non-digital products, product and finacial risk negatively influences purchase intention, whereas the digital product, only product risk has a significant negative impact on purchase intention followed by a marginal impact of financial risk. privacy risk does not have any impact on the purchase intention for either of the product categories. another research further validated that website security or a low privacy risk created little satisfaction in online shopping and consumers placed more value on website reliability, website fulfillment website design (shergill & chen, 2005). this research is supported by three other studies on online shopping i-e human-computer interaction, behavior and consumerist orientations (jain, 2014). human-computer interaction is concerned with website designing and easiness to use the website for online shopping. the consumers who are goal-oriented possessed utilitarian shopping behavior they do online shopping with a purpose to make a purchase (singh & singh, 2014). they are task-oriented people rational and efficient in decision making. the reason behind this is the easiness attracts them to buy goods online (shergill & chen, 2005). richa (2012) studied how demographic factors influenced the online shopping behavior of the consumers in india. her study revealed that females are more likely to enjoy online shopping compared to males. it also showed that consumers prefer buying essential services (digital products) online over apparel (non-digital products) these findings are consistent with the findings of levin et al. (2003); dai et al. (2014). the research also showed that marital status and income do not influence online shopping behavior but the size of the family does. the bigger the family, the lower the inclination towards online shopping in the indian context probably because of more expenses and lesser savings. the study revealed that education does not influence online shopping behavior which is inconsistent with the findings of jain (2014). a study similar to the study of richa (2012) was conducted by50% of the total population of pakistan comprises of females. as per the survey of labor force conducted in 20102011, females make up 23.21% of the total professional population (katawetawaraks & wang, 2011). this shows an increase from the previous, an estimated 21%of female participation in the workforce from the years 2005-2008, pakistan employment trends (2013). moreover, pakistan has 34,342,400 internet users that make 17.81% of its total population. one of the internet users is professional women who are increasing and have access to a wide range of information about various brands available at one click. these changing statistics will have a positive impact on the overall internet shopping trends in pakistan. with increased accessibility to the internet and smartphones in general, and women increasingly spending more time at work, internet shopping trends are set to change with women more likely to opt for online shopping for their household needs and convenience products, over traditional in-store shopping which might take up unnecessary time and costs. given the option of online shopping, purchasing can be managed at any time of the day. this can especially benefit females who have long professional hours and also run the household. 3. research methodology and data collection 3.1. choosing domains the first domain chosen was online clothing, jewelry, and accessories shopping. as the professional women of pakistan are conscious about their attire and appearance at the workplace, they prefer wearing jewelry and accessories at the workplace. online clothing shopping cannot be claimed as a new concept as people had this option since the twentieth century to book their orders on the phone and home delivery services were also available to deliver the same. to understand the behavior of consumer we need to extract the perception and experience of a professional woman who is involved in online shopping (jain, 2014). the second domain chosen for the study was e-ticketing. people used to buy tickets through travel agents but as the internet is penetrating in the country, the options for online booking and travel plans are also becoming famous among the public. both these domains are diverse in nature and help us in identifying the factors of online consumer behavior for framework development. 3.2. sampling technique purposive and snowball sampling technique was used on the sample frame of 30 respondent (richa, 2012). the purpose of choosing this sampling technique is to get lived experiences and perceptions of professional women who share the same characteristics such as they are internet users and do online shopping. the same sampling technique is taken from the research paper that explores the “relationship between the three beliefs about online shopping” and the respondents also share the same characteristics. in the meantime, snowball sampling is used to target professional women who recommend multiple prospects of the same characteristics to fill the questionnaire, and so on, thus building up like a snowball rolling down a hill (ramayah & ignatius, 2005). 3.3. choosing the participants as per the grounded theory, a random number of 30 respondents (professional women) were chosen and a semi-structured questionnaire conducted on the sample till the point of saturation reached 24 respondents, the point where no new response generates (miles & huberman 1994). 3.4. the grounded theory process our research adopted grounded theory to analyze the online shopping behavior of professional women of pakistan and on the basis of this analysis develop an e-shopping framework for professional women to enhance asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 158-165 162 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group online shopping trends in pakistan. to meet this objective grounded theory applied, similar to that was used in the research paper “the flow experiences of web users engaged in information-seeking activities”. where the researcher explored a state of consciousness that is sometimes experienced by individuals who are deeply involved in an enjoyable activity that later helps in developing the theory (pace, 2004). grounded theory comprises of various components to analyze the data. the collected data is classified into open coding which entails basic concepts and phenomena. this goes through high-level classification i-e axial coding that leads to the categorization of data that identifies context, strategy, and consequences. as the point of saturation is achieved, the final categories are contextualized against the literature to produce a theory (damaskinidis, 2017). using the above principles of grounded theory, the process used to develop the e-shopping framework was as follows: • data gathering. • open coding. • axial coding. table-1. categories. categories responses technical expertise all use internet respondents use either cell phone, laptop, desktop to access the internet usage of internet all respondent search pages of different brands products search clothing, accessories, handbags, shoes, makeup, mobiles information search price, delivery option, brand history, variant, material deals discounted deals and bundle deals complete information respondents take time to evaluate information make a purchase decision immediately seller comparison price, credibility, quality of the product, delivery time and mode of payment are the basis of comparison reasons to like online shopping complete information available on one click, convenience, saves time prefer online shopping over traditional shopping faster, saves time and convenience product purchase clothing, accessories, and e-ticketing social network all respondents use social network use the social network for online shopping, chatting and posting pictures shop via social network yes shop via e-stores yes shop via other websites yes/no try new brands yes causes to try new brands feedback, quality, reviews, word of mouth mode of payment cod, online transfer product delivery at residence time for delivery three days, one week pre-sale customer service detail information about products, order confirmation call, delivery time, reviews post-sale customer return and exchange source: self-generated by authors via responses received from research participants. 4. results and discussion 4.1. e-shopping as discussed earlier in the literature review, the statistics about internet users, and also from the data analysis, can be observed that the professional women who are internet users growing at an exponential rate. the data collected and analyzed (summarized in table 1), divided professional women into three categories on the basis of their income level, professional progression ladder, supporting their family and they incline towards online shopping. it was observed that the first category of professional women falls in the income bracket of rs. 20,000 to rs. 40,000 have just started their career and are more concerned about their personal development and do not support their family financially. they and are more open to take a risk in order to try new products and are inclined towards online shopping. the second category is of professional women who earned between rs. 40,000 to 60,000, they are the contributors in their family’s total income, and therefore their expenditure pattern is different from that of lower-income bracket professional women, who primarily work to attain their personal expenditure theses middle-income group professional women are actually 60%-70% of pakistan. lastly, the third category is of the professional women who earn above rs. 60,000, and possesses higher-level job titles and do shop online for convenience, time-saving and take a risk. professional women prefer to shop online because of the factors including; convenience, time-saving, availability of complete information and credibility of retailers. these variables can be best utilized in the untapped segment of professional women. the rising trend of online shopping in professional women in all three categories see table 1 is because of educational proficiency and high computer literacy (jain, 2014). it is evident from the results that 75 % of research participants prefer using their android cell phones, tablets and laptops for browsing the internet, search information about work, entertainment, shopping, and literary work because they consider these devices as handy gadgets. the preference is also due to the availability of cellphones 24/7 having free access to the internet and the ability to download the user-friendly online apps (kiraz & ozdemir, 2006). living in urban areas with the worst infrastructure, traffic jams and long distances for reaching from one destination to another has enhanced the importance of online shopping as highlighted by participants. the responses show that professional women who are tech-savvy and fall in the third category see table 1 mostly shop online for convenience and better time management. convenience was also highlighted in a research study that asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 158-165 163 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group explains that employed women of india prefer online shopping because of the convenience and time saving (kumar & kashyap, 2018). further, 80% of research participants acknowledged that online shopping is a better option over traditional shopping because of “the availability of a variety of international brands online and competitive prices” and “sometimes stock is available online but not in stores” respectively. in contrary to this, 20% of research participants prefer traditional shopping medium. one of the reasons given by the participants was that they enjoy the shopping environment and can see the actual product before purchasing”. to address this traditional mindset of women to give preference to go to the physical store, where they are able to see and feel the products and ask questions about the products, the online retailers like daraz.com and lootlo.com have started giving free coupons that include offers such as 20% discount on careem taxi fare, 15% to 30% discount vouchers for various restaurants. this strategy of providing online shoppers with discount coupons for shopping online not only increases the online shopping carts’ worth but also gives the shoppers an opportunity to go to a physical store when they have time. a prominent category that arose from the research at hand was the information search by the customers (see table 1). the specific information a professional woman is looking for includes competitive market rates, mode of delivery, and availability of variants, reviews, brand history and quality of the product. information search to carry out online shopping is one of the five-step processes of online shopping (wagoner, 2014). the results also revealed that 50% of the participants make a purchase decision immediately on the spot after they have acquired complete information, whereas 45% take time to evaluate and assimilate the acquired information as they yearn to know more about the product and services. only 5% of participants mentioned that they seek advice from a trusted individual who could either be a family member, a friend or a peer. furthermore, the findings reveal that professional women generally compare online sellers on the basis of their credibility and price. credibility of the online provider is given a lot of importance by the online shopping professional women, since it is not possible to actually check the product by feel or other sensing abilities while purchasing online, therefore, credibility of the provider matters a lot to the online shoppers, to get assured that the product they will receive will be the same as seen on the online shopping platform. it is often difficult to trust new brands on the basis of quality, price, variants, and novelty. 45% of participants revealed that they trust new brands on the basis of reviews and feedback from the customers who had previously bought from that specified online platform through ocr – online customer review. our research explores that online shopping gives great business opportunities to new brands. the correlation is also developed between the new brands and the channel through which a seller is selling his products as it helps in increasing the trust level. all the respondents want to buy new brands to have more variety, quality, and cost-effective solutions. the research also discovered that the women falling in the first and third category do online shopping such as clothing, cosmetics, and accessories (jewelry, watches, handbags, and shoes) but professional women earning income above rs. 60,000 do e-ticketing see table 1. clothing with accessories is the emerging domain because of professional women’s desire to maintain her looks and attire in the workplace. however, professional women that are part of the third category travel inside and out of the country frequently for conferences, seminars, colloquiums and do online booking of tickets (see table 1). the buying channel or medium also plays a significant role in purchasing decisions. more than half of the participants used e-stores for online shopping because of the trust factor developed by the research participants on the brands they previously purchased through traditional shopping means and/or had previous positive experience with. furthermore, the participants also used social networks to shop online. while the remaining participants had an experience of online shopping using online website platforms such as daraz.pk, lootlo.pk, and kaymu.pk owing to the competitive prices offered on these websites to the online consumer base. furthermore, two other categories i-e mode of payment and time taken to deliver product are important factors in improving the online shopping experience (see table 1). 21 out of 24 respondents prefer cash on delivery as the mode of payment because of the safety issue and low level of trust on online store (kumar & kashyap, 2018), further, 16 out of 24 respondents feel that products ordered online must be delivered within 3 days and the payment must be made after examining the ordered product. the rise in fintech startups has also led to the use of online platforms for shopping from the ease of one’s home, office or on the go as well. the last category is pre and post-customer services (see table 1). to motivate more consumers to shop online, websites need to incorporate an easy to understand and user-friendly interface along with extensive product descriptions which will facilitate consumers in online shopping. respondents also reported that post-sales service should include a return/exchange policy in case the product turns out to be different from what was expected. a study found that the online retailer who differentiated themselves on strong post-purchase customer services should focus on educating prospective customers who visit them about this aspect of their service. additionally, they should ensure that their post-purchase service is indeed strong and will be perceived as such by customers who do buy from them. such tactics will target customers whose shopping style is to return to retailers that they purchased from in the past since these customers place the most importance on post-purchase service (papatla, 2011). 4.2. framework on online shopping professional women are provided with on the go devices and easily available wi-fi by their android or ios devices. the findings revealed that the respondents claimed that they use cellphones for shopping online thus online sellers must ensure they have a mobile application to facilitate their target audience and increase online sales. alternatively, a provision for a mobile site along with the desktop site is also a good way to ensure customers have no problem in browsing through the site regardless of the device being used. this is consistent with the findings of kiraz and ozdemir (2006) who reported that website design is a significant factor that influences satisfaction with online shopping. this is consistent with the findings of katawetawaraks and wang (2011) who explained that the availability of complete information increases the confidence level of buyers when making a purchase online. it also helps to reduce the financial risk associated with the purchase, hence reducing post-purchase consumer dissonance. it is asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 158-165 164 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group recommended that online sellers must develop an faqs manual or tutorials, to facilitate professional women in understanding the online shopping process. the online shopping platform requires to work on its credibility and credible information provision to its online customers. however, one of the solutions to ensure credibility is introducing an authentic online customer reviews (ocr). online customer reviews (ocr) is also a replacement of customer feedback that plays a vital role in creating the acceptability of a new product among the online shoppers, helps in online decision-making process of consumers on the basis of complete information and user feedback about the used product and solves the issue of knowing about the quality of the product being sold online. reviews from the past users will inform the potential user about the pros and cons of the product under consideration by the potential online shopper, hence, developing credibility of the online shopping platform in the eyes of the online shoppers. ocr will also reduce the threat of fraud and security risk. online customer reviews can act as a buffer for online shoppers by providing reviews about the experience of past online customers regarding online security for transactions with the online shopping platform. it is the obligation of the online shopping platforms to provide a secure, reliable and authentic environment to their online shoppers if they want to succeed in their business. moreover, developing authentic brand ambassadors from amongst the online shoppers can also help the online shopping platforms to gain the trust of their target audience. professional women gave preference to online shopping because it saves their time. nonetheless, the delivery time for the products purchased online is mostly a minimum of three days, which can become an issue when the need for the product is immediate. sellers must keep the delivery time between three days to one week as that is the time lag acceptable by the buyers as per our research. the increased delivery time is due to the long distances and weak distribution channel used by the online shopping platforms. the increased delivery lag time puts off several current and potential online shoppers. online shopping platforms can employee services like delivery chacha (a delivery service that delivers within a day. delivery chacha delivers items from food to grocery items to gifts, movie tickets to your personal documents within the city of karachi). this need has also provided an opportunity to bring forth delivery services like delivery chacha to make the most from the untapped market segments which the online shopping platforms are still not able to cater due to the weak distribution and delivery system. as online shopping will always have product risk, it is recommended for sellers to have at least an exchange policy if not a return policy. this will help to increase the confidence of the buyers as highlighted by our respondents. 5. conclusion online shopping is a global phenomenon that has gained much acceptance in the developed countries owing to the convenience that it brings however the developing countries like pakistan are still struggling with the idea. on the other end, the percentage of professional women in pakistan has increased significantly which has made worklife balance a challenge for these females but despite this, the inclination towards online shopping is not praised worthy. this clearly shows that the second category identified in the research is the untapped market which needs to be looked at by the online shopping platforms for future expansion. this research has identified the factors that professional women falling in the first and third category demand in order to shop online and have developed a model to cater to the untapped second category of professional women to make them inclined towards online shopping. the research revolved around two main questions that we are now able to answer. it has been found out that online shopping is preferred over traditional shopping due to the convenience that comes with it and because it saves time. it also provides access to a number of local and international brands at competitive prices which becomes a challenge during traditional shopping as not all brands are available in stores. unlike traditional shopping, one can shop online at any time of the day and anywhere using a variety of devices, most commonly cellphone. it also saves one from dealing with the crowd in shopping malls. it has also been found that despite the obvious advantages of online shopping; professional women in the second category are still not inclined towards it due to following negatives: the safest mode of payment appears to be cash on delivery as per the research, however, certain websites do not offer this facility. furthermore, a stretched delivery time also causes consumers to opt for traditional shopping as provides the product immediately. it was highlighted that consumers prefer having complete information about the products prior to making a purchase however sometimes critical bits of information such as size and material are difficult to find online, thus reducing the attractiveness of online shopping. respondents also reported that due to incomplete information, often times the product received fails to meet the expectations of the customers and online sellers mostly do not have a refund or exchange policy which means the financial risk associated with online shopping is quite high. even where an online seller has a refund/exchange policy, it is quite cumbersome to have a product returned/exchanged especially when it is required for a specific purpose. references bashir., r., mehboob, i., & 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(2007). online shopping acceptance model a critical survey of consumer factorin online shopping. journal of electronic commerce research, 8(1), 41-62. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 87 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 3, 87-90, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.87.90 development of a budget management model for managers in public hospitals in the limpopo province, south africa nkhumeleni mathobo1  mashupye herbert maserumule2 kabelo boikutso moeti3 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3tshwane university of technology, pretoria, south africa abstract budget management remains a challenge in public hospitals with regard to the delivery of cost effective health services. this article is based on a study undertaken to develop a budget management model for managers in public hospitals in the limpopo province of south africa. the question is: how can the management of the budget in public hospitals be improved? the study investigates budget management in the public hospitals. the research methodology used for this study is both quantitative and qualitative research design to generate data required to achieve its aim and objectives. the targeted population for the study was all public hospitals in the limpopo province, which comprises 40 public hospitals. the findings showed that, as there is improvement in budget management, much needs to be done to improve budget management in the public hospitals. in this study a budget management model is recommended for consideration by managers. keywords: budget planning, budget control. citation | nkhumeleni mathobo; mashupye herbert maserumule; kabelo boikutso moeti (2018). development of a budget management model for managers in public hospitals in the limpopo province, south africa. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(3): 87-90. history: received: 12 february 2018 revised: 18 may 2018 accepted: 21 may 2018 published: 23 may 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 88 2. problem statement .......................................................................................................................................................................... 88 3. budget management ....................................................................................................................................................................... 88 4. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................... 89 5. presentation and analysis of the findings ................................................................................................................................. 89 6. conclusion and recommendation ................................................................................................................................................ 89 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 90 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.87.90&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9922-2783 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2969-2314 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2969-2314 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9922-2783 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2969-2314 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2969-2314 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9922-2783 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2969-2314 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2969-2314 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9922-2783 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2969-2314 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2969-2314 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9922-2783 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2969-2314 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2969-2314 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 87-90 88 1. introduction limpopo province is approximately 80% rural based, the majority of people depend on public hospitals for health services. this is also due to the high level of unemployment and poverty. the focus of this study is on budget management in public hospitals in the limpopo province. according to moeti et al. (2007) managing a budget covers budget preparations, budget implementations, and budget control. there is a need for effective budget management in public hospitals to improve service delivery. in this study, the development of a budget management model for managers in public hospitals in the limpopo province to improve budget management is explored. the limpopo province has 40 hospitals divided into district hospitals, regional hospitals, specialized hospitals, as well as tertiary hospitals. budget management in these hospitals is a challenge. a budget is a financial statement which contains the estimates of revenue and budget over a certain period of time (gildenhuys, 1993). a budget is a policy statement declaring the goals and specific objectives an authority wishes to achieve by means of expenditure concerned and it is a public policy expressed in amounts of money (gildenhuys, 1993). lynch 1979 (in (schwella et al., 1996)) defines budget as “a plan for achieving programs related to goals and objectives within a definite time, incorporating estimates of resources required, together with estimates of resource available, usually compared with one or past periods and showing future requirements”. a budget is a plan which is seen as a crucial input in the delivery of health services by public hospital. 2. problem statement the management of budget is a challenge for managers in public hospitals. the extent of such a challenge ranges from limited knowledge of legislative requirements for budget management, budget preparation and budget implementation to budget control. there is no budget management model or tool that can be used as guide and manual for budget planning, budget implementation, and budget control in the public hospitals. the result of this is ineffective budget management. 3. budget management budget management remains a challenge in public hospitals. this hampers effective delivery of cost effective health services. there is a need for effective budget management in public hospitals to improve service delivery. budget management process consists of three phases, namely, budget planning, implementation and control. budget management phases are discussed below in full: 3.1. budget planning budget planning is the integral part of the strategic planning. budget planning process starts with strategic planning. strategic planning is defined as “a management process that combines four basic features: (1) the clear statement of the organisation‟s mission; (2) the identification of the department‟s external constituencies or stakeholders, which determine the assessment of the department‟s purpose and operations; (3) the delineation of the department‟s strategic goals and objectives, typically a 3 to 5 year plan; and (4) the development of strategies to achieve them (berry, 1994). strategic planning can be described as a map to achieve an organization‟s objectives. the vision, strategic objectives and target must be achieved through this map. the purpose of strategic planning is to operationalize the strategies developed through strategic thinking and support strategic thinking process (heracleous, 1998) strategic planning is an important element in the management of public hospitals which ought to happen every year. failure to plan may result in a department or public hospital unable to achieve its objectives. the strategic planning and budget planning should be combined for the budget to be effective. the budget planning process should be linked with the budget planning process. the vision, mission, strategic objectives, activities, performance indicators must be developed with clear targets. these activities must be costed. then the budget is prepared based on the costing service and inputs from strategic planning. 3.2. budget implementation budget implementation refers to the spending of budget. the republic of south africa (1996) (act 108 of 1996), chapter 10, section 195 requires managers to promote efficient, economic, and effective use of resources. the rsa (1999) section 38 (1) (b) states that “the accounting officer of the department, trading entity or constitutional institution is responsible for effective, efficient, economic and transparent use of resources”. the heads of sections within the public hospital are responsible for budget implementation or spending. the performance of budget management is measured in terms efficiency, effectiveness, and economy. according to kloot (1999) efficient is defined as “maximizing output for a given set of required inputs, or minimizing inputs for output, economy is defined as acquiring resources in appropriate quantity and at least cost, and effective is the extent to which a defined task has been accomplished”. according to mayne and zapico-goñi (1997) “the best known performance measure are the traditional „3es‟: economy (minimizing the consumption of inputs), efficiency (the relationship between inputs and outputs), and effectiveness (outcomes achieved as compared to expectations)”. the public hospitals should be able to use minimum resources in the delivery of quality health services. the budget must be managed in a way that the strategic objectives and targets set in the annual performance plan of the public hospital are achieved. the procurement of goods and services should be at the lowest price within the essential given quality and quantity to achieve value for money. 3.3. budget control according to khan and jain (2007) “budgeting control and periodic comparisons between budget and actual expenditure would reveal relative budgeting efficiency”. banerjee (2006) points out that the following steps are involved in budgeting control:  establishment of targets;  measurements of actual expenditure;  comparison of actual expenditure with budgeted targets to determine deviations or variances; and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 87-90 89  analysis of the causes of variations and reporting. according to public financial management act (act 1 of 1999 as amended by act 29 of 1999) chapter 5 section 39 states that “the accounting officer of a department is responsible for ensuring that, effective and appropriate steps are taken to prevent unauthorized expenditure”. the accounting officer, for the purpose of subsection (1) must “take effective appropriate steps to prevent any overspending of the vote of the department and the main division within the vote”. budget control is an important tool to monitor and control budget, without budget controls public hospital will overspend the budget. the over-expenditure of allocated budget is categorized as unauthorized expenditure. the unauthorized expenditure is not permitted in terms of pfma. therefore it is the responsibility of managers to ensure that public hospital remains within budget allocation. the budget is also used as a tool to prevent over/under expenditure of budget allocation. 4. research methodology the research approach for this study is both quantitative and qualitative research design. quantitative research is based on measuring variables for individual participants to obtain scores, usually numerical values, which are submitted to a statistical analysis for summary and interpretation (gravetter and forzano, 2009). quantitative research is basically answering research questions using numbers (statistics). the researcher collects numerical data and analyzed it statistically. qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. this process of research involves emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in the participant‟s setting, and the researcher interpretation of the meaning of data (creswell, 2014). the targeted population for the study was all public hospitals in the limpopo province, which comprises 40 public hospitals. the sample size of 20 public hospitals was drawn from the population of 40 public hospitals, which represented 50%. therefore, 120 managers participated in the study: [20 public hospitals x 6 managers per public hospital]. a questionnaire was used as the primary data-gathering instrument. the study was also piloted. data was quantitatively and quantitatively analyzed. the quantitative analysis used stata v13 statistical software. the results of the cronbach alpha test to confirm reliability of the data showed a high internal consistency. the qualitative analysis used analytical and interpretive techniques to generate descriptive data required to answer the research question. the results of both qualitative and quantitative analyses were triangulated and aggregated into a coherent whole to authenticate the validity of the findings /conclusions of the study. 5. presentation and analysis of the findings 5.1. budget planning a budget is a plan which is seen as a crucial input in the delivery of health services by public hospitals. a budget is a business plan expressed in terms of monetary value. the respondents were asked to assess budget planning in the public hospitals. the findings showed that, as there was little improvement in budget planning, much needs to be done. for budget planning remain a management challenge most managers of public hospitals. 5.2. budget implementation the managers are responsible for budget implementation in public hospitals. the delivery of effective service delivery depends largely on the effective implementation of budget. the respondents were asked to assess budget implementation in the public hospitals. the findings showed that, as there was little improvement in budget implementation, much needs to be done. for budget implementation remain a management challenge most managers of public hospitals. 5.3. budget control budget control is an important tool to monitor and control budget. without budget controls public hospitals will overspend the budget. the respondents were asked to assess budget controls in the public hospitals. the findings revealed that, as there was little improvement in budget control, much needs to be done. for budget control remain a management challenge most managers of public hospitals. it can be concluded that budget management remain a management challenge for most managers of public hospitals in the limpopo province. 6. conclusion and recommendation this article undertook to develop a budget management model for managers in public hospitals in the limpopo province. the study concluded that budget management remains a management challenge for most managers of public hospitals in the limpopo province. the study recommended the budget management model for managers in public hospitals. the figure 1.1 below is the budget management model. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 87-90 90 figure-1.1. a budget management model for mangers in public hospitals the model was designed to improve budget management. it covers budget planning, budget implementation, and budget control. the delivery of cost effective health services in the public hospitals depends on an effective budget management model for managers. references banerjee, b., 2006. cost accounting: theory and practice. 12th edn., new delhi: prentice hall. berry, f.s., 1994. innovation in public management: the adoption of strategic planning. public administration review, 54(4): 322-330. view at google scholar | view at publisher creswell, j.w., 2014. research design qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. 4th edn., los angeles: sage publications, inc. gildenhuys, j.s.h., 1993. public financial management. 1st edn., pretoria: van schaik publishers. gravetter, f.j. and l.b. forzano, 2009. research methods for the behavioural sciences. 3rd edn., belmont: wadsworth. heracleous, l., 1998. strategic thinking or strategic planning. long range planning, 31(3): 481487. view at google scholar | view at publisher khan, m.y. and p.k. jain, 2007. management accounting. 4th edn., new york: macgrawhill. kloot, l., 1999. performance measurement and accountability: victorian local government. international journal of public sector management, 12(7): 565-583. view at google scholar | view at publisher mayne, j. and e. zapico-goñi, 1997. monitoring performance in the public sector: future direction from international experience. new jersey: transaction publishers. moeti, k., t. khalo, j. mafunisa, s. nsingo and t. makondo, 2007. public finance fundamentals. cape town: juta. republic of south africa, 1996. constitution of the republic of south africa, 1996. pretoria: government printers. rsa, 1999. public finance management act (act 1 of 1999 as amended by act 29 of 1999). pretoria: government printers. schwella, e., j. burger, w. fox and j.j. muller, 1996. public resource management. 1st edn., cape town: juta. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=innovation%20in%20public%20management:%20the%20adoption%20of%20strategic%20planning https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=innovation%20in%20public%20management:%20the%20adoption%20of%20strategic%20planning http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/977379 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=strategic%20thinking%20or%20strategic%20planning http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0024-6301(98)80015-0 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=performance%20measurement%20and%20accountability:%20victorian%20local%20government http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09513559910308039 137 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 3, 137-146, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.137.146 followers' perception of leadership style, organizational commitment and regulatory focus, moderated by organizational types roni mash1  lihi cohen2 ( corresponding author) 1senior lecturer, the ma program of organizational psychology, ariel university, israel 2psychologist in nonprofit organizations, israel abstract research hypotheses assumed that a positive connection would be found between transformational leadership, on one hand, and affective commitment and focus on promotion, on the other. it was also assumed that this connection would be stronger in coercive organizations. furthermore, the research hypotheses assumed there would be positive connections between transactional leadership, on one hand, and continuance commitment and focus on prevention, on the other; stronger in utilitarian organizations. 82 employees of coercive organizations and 80 employees of utilitarian organizations participated in this study using the mlq questionnaire, an organizational commitment questionnaire, and a regulatory focus questionnaire. it was found that the more a leader is perceived by followers as having a transformational style, the more followers will feel affective commitment toward the organization and the more they will focus on promotion and successes. moreover, the more a leader is perceived as a transactional leader followers will feel more continuance commitment and be more focused on preventing failures. the moderation model by type of organization was confirmed. difference between the connections noted above in coercive organizations as compared to utilitarian organizations was found. keywords: leadership style, regulatory focus, organizational commitment, organizational types. citation | roni mash; lihi cohen (2018). followers' perception of leadership style, organizational commitment and regulatory focus, moderated by organizational types. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(3): 137-146. history: received: 7 june 2018 revised: 19 july 2018 accepted: 14 august 2018 published: 27 september 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. theoretical background ............................................................................................................................................................... 138 2. research model .............................................................................................................................................................................. 141 3. method ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 141 4. results .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 142 5. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 143 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 145 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.137.146&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1486 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6992-6846 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1486 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6992-6846 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1486 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6992-6846 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 137-146 138 1. theoretical background 1.1. transformational leadership and transactional leadership the professional literature on the subject of leadership from the 1990s defines leadership as a process of social influence whose effectiveness depends on the extent to which followers perceive the individual as a valid source of influence (lord and maher, 1993; meindl, 1995; banks et al., 2016; bernerth et al., 2017). burns (1978) identified two types of leadership styles: transformational leadership and transactional leadership. burns viewed the transactional leader as one who is perceived as initiating contact with his subordinates, in an effort to exchange something of value, such as: rewards for performance, mutual support or two-sided exposure. the transformational leader, according to burns (1978) is one who brings about increased motivation and morale of followers through affective efficacy, without followers expecting any material reward whatsoever. burns (1978) claimed that leaders can be classified according to their leadership style: a style that tends toward transactionality, as opposed to a style that strives to shape followers. avolio and bass (1991) presented an empirical study that mapped out common leadership styles among military officers and managers. they situated burns (1978) transformational leadership and transactional leadership on a continuum. this model is called the "full range of leadership" model. the structures that comprise the model represent three types of leadership styles: transformational leadership, transactional leadership, and the 'laissez-faire' style, which are represented by nine different factors. the 'laissez-faire' style is described in the above model as either a lack of leadership, avoidance of any intervention whatsoever, or both of these together. in this avoidance style of leadership, there is no expression of negotiations with followers, decisions are usually postponed, and rewards, interventions, and feedback are absent. furthermore, there is no engaged attempt to improve followers' motivation and satisfaction (avolio and bass, 1991). this leadership style tends to be characterized by avoidance of playing the role of leader, and offers very little direction and support (kirkbride, 2006). according to the abovementioned model, a transactional leader acts within the existing system and culture, prefers to avoid risks, devotes attention to restrictions of time and efficiency, and generally prefers process to content as a means to preserve control and supervision (bass, 1985). a leader of this type uses an active form of management by testing and observing workers' errors and correcting them immediately (northouse, 2007). the transactional leader establishes norms and means to measure followers' behavior, and then observes followers to avoid deviations and errors. the leader sets objectives and clarifies his/her expectations of followers, so the organization will achieve the desired results (avolio and bass, 2004). a connection has been found between transactional leadership and the building of a basic level of trust, due to clarification of expectations and rewards for workers (bass et al., 2003). furthermore, a connection has been found between transactional leadership and efficiency (martin, 2015). transformational leadership is characterized by seeking new work approaches; striving to find opportunities among risks; a preference for efficient solutions; and only a limited tendency to preserve the status quo. a transformational leader not only responds to environmental circumstances, but fashions and creates them himself (bass and avolio, 1990). this type of leadership relates to a leader who motivates followers beyond immediate selfinterests (erkutlu, 2008). transformational leadership has significant impact on both the personal and organizational levels. on the personal level, transformational leadership is connected positively with work satisfaction (dumdum et al., 2002) organizational civic behavior (piccolo and colquitt, 2006) commitment to the organization (judge and piccolo, 2004) and worker creativity (gumusluoglu and ilsev, 2009). on the organizational level, transformational leadership is positively connected with organizational innovativeness, worker performance (judge and piccolo, 2004) worker output, and organizational profitability (lowe et al., 1996). 1.2. organizational commitment and full-range leadership organizational commitment is the "psychological bond" with the organization that influences the worker and causes him/her to behave consistently with the organization's interests (riketta, 2002; bentein et al., 2005). according to griffin and hepburn (2005) understanding commitment to the organization and its advancement is essential for organizational efficiency and efficacy. allen and meyer (1996) pointed out three types of organizational commitment: continuance commitment, which relates to an instrumental connection expressed by awareness of the costs involved with leaving the organization; affective commitment, which relates to an emotional connection that is expressed through the worker's identification and involvement with the organization; and normative commitment, defined as a state in which the worker remains bound up with the organization, out of a sense of obligation and necessity to remain at the workplace, since that is the proper and right thing to do. mcgee and ford (1987) identified two dimensions in continuance commitment: a lack of possible alternatives and a perceived sacrifice of resources connected with leaving the organization. it has been found that continuance commitment increases as resources invested in the organization increase, and alternative possibilities decrease (rusbult and farrell, 1983). relatively recent studies have found that workers' and managers' ethical behavior and perceived support from the organization increase workers' affective commitment (fu et al., 2011). when development of a mutual relationship occurs between the worker and the organization, the worker develops affective commitment that increases his/her sense of obligation to reciprocate concern for the organization's support, simultaneously providing for the worker's needs, such as attachment and affective support (rhoades and eisenberger, 2002). it has been found that workers who experience affective commitment toward an organization have a sense of attachment and organizational identity that increases their involvement in the organization's activities, their readiness to attain organizational goals, and their desire to remain in the organization (mowday et al., 1982; meyer and allen's, 1991). the factor thought to influence organizational commitment most is the leadership style of a worker's direct manager (mowday et al., 1982). prominent research in this context indicates that transformational leadership is positively connected with organizational commitment, both in different types of organizations as well as in asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 137-146 139 different cultures (koh et al., 1995; lowe et al., 1996; dumdum et al., 2002; bono and judge, 2003; walumbwa and lawler, 2003). in a study by buciuniene and skudiene (2008) examining the connection between leadership and affective organizational commitment, a high correlation was found between these two variables – that is, a positive connection was found between transformational leadership and followers' affective commitment. this finding is not surprising, since transformational leadership is associated with affective aspects. some even term this leadership style as 'emotion evoking leadership' (popper, 1994; popper, 2012). a transformational leader influences the affective commitment of each of his/her followers, encouraging them to think creatively by using innovative methods. further, a transformational leader relates individually to each worker, involves workers in the decision making process, inspires them, and conveys loyalty to the organization as a paradigm for imitation (yammarino et al., 1993; bass and avolio, 1997; avolio, 1999) based on the above research, a hypothesis was proposed in the current study (hypothesis 1): that a positive connection will be found between transformational leadership, as perceived by followers, and followers' affective commitment to the organization, such that high levels of transformational leadership would predict high levels of affective commitment to the organization. a transactional leader devotes attention to time limitations and efficiency (bass, 1985) as well as using an active form of management by examining and observing workers' mistakes and correcting them immediately (northouse, 2007). the tendency of followers who are subordinate to a transactional leader will be to act in accordance with a system of 'give and take.' it is reasonable to assume that they will invest the necessary resources in order to receive compensation, that they will avoid errors, and nothing beyond that. when a better alternative option is found, offering greater compensation, followers will leave the organization. in addition, lo et al. (2009) found in their studies that the compensation dimension and the active management dimension are significantly related to continuance commitment. based on the above studies, we formulated a hypothesis in the present study (hypothesis 2): that a positive connection will be found between transactional leadership, as perceived by followers, and followers' continuance commitment, such that high levels of transactional leadership would predict high levels of continuance commitment to the organization. 1.3. regulatory focus the regulatory focus theory developed by higgins (1998) describes significant differences between people in a process wherein they advance toward pleasures and avoid pain. higgins (1998;2001) also distinguished between two types of regulatory focus: promotion focus, characterized by promotion of individuals' private goals, connected primarily with advancement, growth, achievement, aspirations toward attaining an ideal self, and building strategies involved with an enthusiastic pursuit of profits and successes. prevention focus, on the other hand, is characterized by individuals‟ private goals connected primarily with avoidance, defense, security and responsibility. the goals of prevention involve avoidance of mistakes and building strategies concerning avoidance of losses and failures. promotion focus and prevention focus are conceptual orientations connected with motivational processes for advancement or avoidance. therefore, a person with a high level of prevention focus will feel motivated toward avoidance, guiding his/her behavior toward a distancing from attaining undesirable things, whereas a person with a high level of promotion focus will experience motivation toward advancement which will guide his behavior toward attaining desirable things (mcgregor et al., 2007). regulatory focus contains a stable element (trait) and a situational element (state) (stam et al., 2010). the stable element (trait) describes the individual's personal inclination to be focused on promotion or focused on prevention. the source of this inclination is associated with interactions with significant others during childhood. the situational element (state) indicates that a person's environment can bring about a specific regulatory focus: for example, when a person works in an environment that induces an atmosphere of future profit, that person will have a stronger inclination toward focus on promotion at work (higgins and silberman, 1998). prevention focus is connected with a local (in contrast to a global) perception (förster and higgins, 2005) and with analytical thinking (seibt and förster, 2004). it has been found that people with a prevention focus will prefer to renew a task that was stopped, and not to begin a new task, as well as to preserve the objects in their possession (liberman et al., 1999). focus on promotion causes people to worry about their personal growth and their developmental needs. individuals with high promotion focus will be motivated to attain goals that represent their beliefs or their ideal self (brockner and higgins, 2001). it has been found that an individual's focus on promotion has an important role, mediating between a perspective of the future and motivations for growth at work. thus, a worker with high promotion focus will see himself advancing in the organization in the long term (kooij et al., 2014). furthermore, it has been found that promotion focus is likely to increase the worker's affective commitment to the organization. this commitment develops primarily in the wake of the organization's support for the person's growth and aspirations (neubert et al., 2008). 1.4. leadership and promotion focus a transformational leader is characterized by motivating his/her followers to do more than they expected of themselves or than what was expected from them (bass, 1985). therefore, the leadership style of a leader, as perceived by followers, is likely to contribute to their level of promotion focus. for example, when a leader supports, directs, empowers, encourages and shapes the follower toward attaining lofty goals, the follower will feel focused on promotion. evidence of this is found in the theoretical model of kark and dijk (2007) which indicates that transformational leadership arouses promotion focus since it is connected, among other things, to ambition and inspired motivation of followers. a transformational leader who motivates his/her followers beyond their expectations, will induce an atmosphere of striving for personal achievements, and thus in the present study we hypothesized that (hypothesis asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 137-146 140 3): a positive connection will be found between transformational leadership, as perceived by followers, and focus on promotion of followers, such that high levels of transactional leadership will predict high levels of promotion focus. transactional leadership encourages followers to perform their work in terms of strategic means, rules, responsibility, stability, avoidance of mistakes and short-term planning (bass, 1985). since prevention focus is characterized by avoidance, protection, security and responsibility, we may conclude that transactional leadership encourages followers to focus on prevention in their work. evidence of that is found in the theoretical model of kark and dijk (2007). transactional leadership arouses prevention focus, since, among other things, it is connected with duties and rights, preservation of the status quo and strict attention to detail. a transactional leader who inculcates in his/her followers values of stability and short-term focus, will encourage an organizational culture of preserving the status quo and avoiding mistakes, and therefore the current study assumes that (hypothesis 4): a positive connection will be found between transactional leadership, as perceived by followers, and followers' prevention focus, such that high levels of transactional leadership will predict high levels of prevention focus. 1.5. coercive organizations, utilitarian organizations and their leadership context the purpose of systematic classification of organizations is to improve our ability to understand and explain the factors that influence the formation of structures and the occurrence of organizational processes. classification is based on either the analytic method that infers from the general to the specific, or on the empirical method that infers from the specific to the general phenomenon. the analytic method attempts to identify theoretically, a basic characteristic shared by any group of individuals that makes these individuals distinct from others, and enables classifying them as a specific "type" (samuel, 2012). thus, for example, blau and scott (1962) developed a typology for classification of organizations based on the criterion: who is the primary beneficiary of the existence of a given organization? their basic assumptions revolve around the idea that every organization produces different benefits for a broad variety of individuals and groups or the whole society, and that each organization has defined goals it is intended to realize. katz and kahn (1966) developed a typology for classifying organizations, based on the concept of an organization as an open social system, according to which each organization is a subsystem of a broader social system, and the basis of classification is the primary contribution of each organization to broader human society, in a framework of products and services. etzioni (1961) also pointed out a typology for classifying organizations, based on two assumptions: the first assumption is that organizations are based on the application of power upon people. the second assumption states that organizational activity is feasible only if people at the lowest level of the organization, accept the authority of the organization's managers and obey their instructions. the latter typology is based on leaders' power and the forms of identification and involvement of the lowest echelon in the organization. according to etzioni, every organization maintains order and discipline through one of the following types of power that are available to those in charge: physical power – expressed through use of threats and application of corporal punishments; economic power – expressed through use of granting or withholding material rewards; moral power – expressed by use of legal, religious, and ethical means. people of the lowest echelon accept the authority of superiors, cooperate and carry out what is required from them, due to one of the following motives: alienation – fear of being punished leads to obedience out of necessity, not out of identification; utilitarian considerations – economic motives cause acceptance of authority on a basis of cost and benefit considerations; identification belief in the organization's values causes identification with its goals, the values of its activity, and faith in the organization's leaders. according to etzioni (1961) these characteristics create a typology that includes several types: coercive organizations – in which rules of behavior are enforced physically, achieve obedience but with a good deal of alienation (prisons, army, police station). utilitarian organizations – operate on a basis of mutual profitability of leaders and followers, who are interested in ensuring material benefits for themselves from the organization's activity (business organizations). identity organizations – operate on a basis of mutual identification with social values as represented by leaders and internalized by followers (for example, churches voluntary organizations). the present study focuses on coercive organizations and on utilitarian organizations, and its purpose is connected with investigating the manner in which authority is accepted by followers in each type of these organizations. how, then, are the organizations of the types noted above connected with transformational leadership and transactional leadership? gonen and zakkai (1999) defined transformational leadership as a type of leadership in which the leader strives to increase his/her people's awareness of correct, important things as he sees it, and to provide meaning to what they do. by providing meaning, people feel more capable and strengthened in attaining common objectives. formative leadership brings people to higher achievements than they recognize and expect of themselves. the sense of meaning brings about spiritual elevation and ultimate investment toward achieving shared goals. popper (1994) argued that in military organizations, where soldiers are required to invest extreme physical and emotional efforts, at times life-endangering, there is an emphasis on motivating subordinates through influence, without needing authority or power. in a simple, small scale organization, the usual coordination is perceived as direct supervision, mutual coordination, or a combination of both. in large organizations there is room for standardization of organizational processes (mintzberg, 1979). organizations included in the coercive type (army, police, prison) are large organizations typified by a large measure of standardization of organizational processes. findings show that organizations characterized by an intensive degree of process standardization are also characterized by a great deal of administrative concentration (mintzberg, 1979). popper (1994) demonstrated this with military organizations, claiming that the military leader is characterized by expertise in the task field, and that his expertise is at times anchored in his experience, so that he sometimes senses what the right thing to do is. with regard to the research literature, we may assume that the leader in a coercive organization will be an expert in the task field due to high standardization, will set a personal example for his followers, will provide a sense of meaning for their work, and will place emphasis on motivating subordinates through influence, similar to the transformational leadership style. therefore, a hypothesis has been derived in the present study (hypothesis 5): asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 137-146 141 that the 'organization type' will constitute a moderating variable, and will influence the strength and intensity of connections with leadership style, as follows: in coercive organizations, stronger connections will be found between transformational leadership and affective commitment than in a utilitarian organization. similarly, in coercive organizations, stronger connections will be found between transformational leadership and promotion focus than in utilitarian organizations. utilitarian organizations are characterized by promising material benefits from the organization's activity, for both followers and leaders (etzioni, 1961). the high-tech industry, for example, according to popper (1994) which is characterized by an abundance of information, attributes great importance to knowledge, so that more flexible and less standard forms of work are created. the manager in these organizations essentially operates systems of experts to perform tasks characterized to a great extent by complexity, to the point that the manager lacks the knowledge to manage the tasks. for that reason, he requires decentralization in his basic approach. the transactional leader establishes norms and means to measure followers' actions, and after that observes followers in order to ascertain lack of deviations and mistakes. he sets objectives and makes his expectations of followers clear, so that the organization will attain the desired results (avolio and bass, 2004). moreover, he must act efficiently to that end (martin, 2015). if so, it is reasonable to assume that a leader in utilitarian organizations will use reward methods, objectives and observation similar to those characteristic of transactional leadership, in order to attain his goals. his followers will comply in order to receive the material benefits when meeting the objectives. therefore, we proposed a hypothesis in the present study (hypothesis 6): that 'organization type' will constitute a moderating variable, and will influence the intensity and strength of connections with leadership style. this means that in a utilitarian organization, stronger connections will be found between transactional leadership and continuance commitment than in a coercive organization; and that in a utilitarian organization, stronger connections will be found between transactional leadership and prevention focus than in a coercive organization. 2. research model the 'organization type' variable will mediate the connection between the 'leadership type' variable and the 'organizational commitment' variable. in a coercive organization the positive connection between transactional leadership and affective commitment will be stronger than in a utilitarian organization. in a utilitarian organization the positive connection between transactional leadership and continuance commitment will be stronger than in a coercive type organization (see figure 1). furthermore, the „organization type‟ variable will moderate the connections between the „leadership type‟ variable and the „regulatory focus‟ variable. in a coercive organization, the positive connection between transformational leadership and promotion focus will be stronger than in a utilitarian organization. in a utilitarian organization, the positive connection between transactional leadership and prevention focus will be stronger than in a coercive organization. figure-1. research model: positive connection between leadership type (transformational, transactional) and organizational commitment (affective, continuance) and followers' regulatory focus (promotion, prevention) moderated by organization type (coercive, utilitarian). 3. method 3.1. sample participating in the study were 82 workers in coercive organizations and 80 workers in utilitarian organizations, totaling 162 participants, 59% men and 41% women. the average age of subjects was 30, with s.d. 7.6. average participants' seniority at position was 33 months, s.d. 39.4, and average seniority in the organization was 53 months, s.d. 63.5. subjects were chosen according to the following criteria: at least a half year in the position, at least half time. 3.2. research instruments in order to examine leadership style we used the multifactor leadership questionnaire – mlq (bass and avolio, 1997). the questionnaire examines leadership styles according to: transformational leadership (influence as an ideal personality, charisma, motivation through inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration), transactional leadership (contingent reward, management by exception – active, and management by exception passive) and laissez-faire style. the questionnaire contains 36 items: four items for each factor and twenty items for transformational leadership. answers are on a five-level scale, where 1 = "very little", and 5 = "to a great extent". the instrument's validity is measured by cronbach's α, yielding α=0.95 for transformational leadership, and α=0.7 for transactional leadership. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 137-146 142 to test the various dimensions of organizational commitment, we used the "three-component model of commitment" questionnaire (meyer et al., 1993). the questionnaire tests an employee's degree of commitment to the organization, according to three components: affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. the questionnaire contains 18 closed-ended questions, with six items per factor (items 3, 7, 10, and 13 are opposite items). the scale of answers is a five-level scale, where 1 = "don't agree at all" and 5 = "definitely agree". the instrument's validity was measured by cronbach's α, yielding α = 0.92 for affective commitment, and α=0.61 for continuance commitment (after omitting item no. 2, a total of 5 items). to test the „self-regulatory focus‟ variable we used the “general regulatory focus measure” (lockwood et al., 2002). the purpose of this instrument is to examine regulatory focus according to two sub-scales: promotion focus and prevention focus. the questionnaire contains 18 statements: nine statements for promotion focus and nine statements for prevention focus. answers are on a 5-level agreement scale, where 1 = "very little" and 5 = "very much". instrument validity was measured by cronbach's α, and yielded α=0.92 for promotion focus, and α 48.0 = for prevention focus. demographic data were also gathered, including: gender, year of birth, family status, country of birth, year of immigration to israel, place of residence, years of education, scope of position, seniority in organization, seniority at position and profession. 3.3. research procedure after receiving confirmation from the managers or the commanders of the organizations, the researcher went in person to the organizations and distributed the questionnaires to the workers. coercive organizations included: three police stations and two military bases. it was difficult to visit the prisons, and therefore the guards completed the questionnaires outside the prisons. utilitarian organizations included: two insurance firms, a high-tech firm, and two human resources and recruitment companies. study participants received a file of questionnaires that included the leadership style questionnaire (mlq), organizational commitment questionnaire, regulatory focus questionnaire, and demographic questionnaire. participants answered the questionnaires at the time they were distributed and in the presence of the researcher. participation in the study was on a voluntary basis. participants were guaranteed anonymity, in order to prevent distortion of their answers or discomfort. participants were able to cease their participation in the study at any time and provided written confirmation of their voluntary participation. 4. results the present study examined the relationship between leadership style as perceived by followers (transformational, transactional), followers‟ organizational commitment (affective, continuance), and their regulatory focus (promotion, prevention), as moderated by organizational type (coercive, utilitarian). in order to probe the quality of the proposed model, a structural equation modeling (sem) analysis was conducted. this analysis enables investigation of complex research hypotheses, by analyzing pathways based on the idea of reconstructing matrices of original correlations using the research model. the quality of the model was assessed by the gap between the matrix received by the research model and the original correlations' matrix. the moderation hypothesis was evaluated by a multi-group moderation analysis using the x2 test. table 1 shows that the mean of the „promotion focus‟ variable tends toward the upper limit of the scale (3.81), and this variable's sd is the lowest among the variables (0.88), so we may infer that most of the study participants reported themselves as having a relatively high promotion focus. the affective commitment variable's sd was found to be the highest of the variables examined (1.22). in other words, followers' affective commitment is expressed differently among study participants. table-1. sample size, minimum and maximum values, means and s.d. for dependent variable and independent variables n minimum maximum mean standard deviation transformational leadership 161 1.16 0.55 3.33 88. transactional leadership 161 1.10 0.55 3.11 88. affective commitment 161 1.55 0.55 3.13 1.11 continuance commitment 161 1.55 0.55 1.66 1.56 promotion focus 161 1.11 0.55 3.81 88. prevention focus 161 1.55 1.86 1.3 80. the „continuance commitment and „prevention focus‟ variables tended toward the lower limit of the scale, 2.66 and 2.7 respectively. the sd of these variables is similar and relatively high, 1.06 and 0.95 respectively. given this, we can understand that these variables are not perceived in similar fashion among the followers. there are followers who evaluated their commitment to the organization as more or less continuous and who evaluated themselves as having high or low prevention focus. table 2 shows a highly significant positive connection between transformational leadership and affective commitment (r=0.66, p<.05) and between transformational leadership and promotion focus (r-0.54, p<.05). similarly, a highly significant positive connection was found between transactional leadership and continuance commitment (r=0.31, p<0.05), and between transactional leadership and prevention focus (r=0.31, p<.05). these findings confirm the assumptions made regarding them. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 137-146 143 table-2. pearson correlations between study variables 1 1 3 1 0 1. transformational leadership 2. transactional leadership 58. 3. affective commitment **66. 53. 1. continuance focus **11. **31. **31. 5. promotion focus **01. 58. **03. 11. 6 . prevention focus **11. **31. **16. **10. *1. n=162, p*<.05, p**<.01 a structural equation modeling (sem) analysis was performed using latent variables. each latent variable was composed of appropriate questionnaire items. items with low loading were omitted. partial regressions were fitted between the latent variables according to the theoretical model and study hypotheses, as can be seen in figure 1. all regression lines in the model were found to be significant (p<.01). the model fit showed partial correlation. three out of six correlation measures were found to be above the necessary minimum, as may be seen in table 3. table-3. model fit fit measure result necessary minimum 1. rmsea .054 less than .08 2. cmin 1.47 less than 2 3. cfi .90 greater than .95 4. nfi .74 greater than .9 5. chi square p p<.05 p>.05 6. pclose .131 greater than .05 table 3 shows that high levels of transformational leadership predict high levels of affective commitment, β=.59, p<.001. high levels of transformational leadership also predict high levels of promotion focus, β=.71, p<.001, as hypothesized in hypothesis 3.2. furthermore, high levels of transactional leadership predict high levels of continuance commitment, β=.37, p<.01, and high levels of transactional leadership also predict high levels of prevention focus, β=.40, p<.01.these findings confirmed the hypotheses. in order to test the hypothesis regarding the moderating influence of organization type (coercive, utilitarian) on the connection between transformational leadership and both affective commitment and promotion focus, and the connection between transactional leadership and both continuance commitment and prevention focus, a multigroup moderation examination was run using the x2 test. a significant difference was found between groups (coercive and utilitarian) with reference to the model (p<.01). in order to test the moderating effect regarding each of the model's regression lines, x2 tests were run for each regression line separately. findings indicate that a marginally significant (p<.01) moderating effect was found between transformational leadership and promotion focus. however, by contrast with the hypothesis, we found that in coercive organizations this connection is weaker (β=.31, p<.1) than in utilitarian organizations (β=.43, p<.01). regarding the other regression lines of the model, there was no significant moderating effect for type of organization (p>.1), and therefore these hypotheses were refuted. nevertheless, we did find a certain tendency that fits the hypotheses, in the intensity of significant connections in the different types of organizations, as follows (presented respectively): in coercive organizations the connection between transformational leadership and affective commitment was stronger (β=.50, p<.01) than in utilitarian organizations (β=.40, p<.05). in addition, in coercive organizations no significant connection was found between transactional leadership and continuance commitment (β=.40, p>.05), and in utilitarian organizations this connection was significant (β=.35, p<.05). similarly, in coercive organizations no significant connection was found between transactional leadership and prevention focus (β=.39, p>.05), and in utilitarian organizations this connection was found to be significant (β=.33, p<.05). 5. discussion the present study examined the relationship between leadership styles (transformational, transactional), followers‟ organizational commitment (affective, continuance), and their regulatory focus (promotion, prevention), as moderated by organizational type (coercive, utilitarian). hypothesis no.1, which examined the connections between transactional leadership and affective commitment, was fully confirmed. in other words, the more a leader is perceived by followers as having a transformational leadership style, the more followers will feel affective commitment to the organization. this finding is consistent with the studies by buciuniene and skudiene (2008) who also examined the connection between transformational leadership and affective commitment, and found that there is a high correlation between these two variables. transformational leadership positively influences a follower's affective commitment. this finding is understandable, since transformational leadership connects with affective aspects, and some even refer to this leadership style as 'emotion evoking leadership' (popper, 1994). hypothesis no. 2, which examined the connection between transactional leadership and continuance commitment, was also fully confirmed. in other words, the more a leader is perceived by followers as having a transactional style, the more followers will feel continuance commitment with respect to the organization. this finding is consistent with the studies by lo et al. (2009) who examined the connection between transactional leadership and continuance commitment. they found that the compensation dimension and active management dimension of transactional leadership are significantly connected with continuance commitment. the explanation of this finding is linked to the fact that transactional leadership is characterized by the compensation method. the leader uses an active form of management, by testing and observing workers' mistakes and correcting them asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 137-146 144 immediately (northouse, 2007). therefore, it is expected that the followers' tendency will be to operate by the 'give and take' method, and when a better alternative is found, they will leave the organization for the latter. hypothesis no. 3, which examined the connection between transformational leadership and promotion focus, was fully confirmed. in other words, the more a leader is perceived by followers as having a transformational leadership style, the more followers will be characterized by promotion focus. support for this may also be found in the theoretical model of kark and dijk (2007) which indicates that transformational leadership spurs promotion focus among followers, since it involves, among other things, ambitiousness and inspirational motivation of followers. the leader inspires ambitiousness and motivates his/her followers through inspiration, cultivating an environment focused on personal advancement in the organization, which develops the focus on followers' situational promotion. hypothesis no. 4, which examined the connection between transactional leadership and prevention focus, was also fully confirmed. in other words, the more a leader is perceived by followers as having a transactional leadership style, the more followers will be characterized by prevention focus. evidence for this is found in the theoretical model of kark and dijk (2007) which indicates that transactional leadership arouses prevention focus, since it involves, among other things, duties and rights, preservation of the status quo and strict attention to details. the leader instills rules, responsibility, stability and avoidance of mistakes. this leadership style cultivates an environment focused on prevention of failures and mistakes which develop followers' situational prevention focus. a model incorporating all of these connections between leadership styles, as seen by followers, and both organizational commitment and regulatory focus among followers, was examined and partially confirmed. the partial confirmation of the model may be explained as resulting from the low number of participants and the problems of subordinate affect in leader evaluations (podsakoff and organ, 1986; martinko et al., 2018) in the present study. even though the model was only partially confirmed, it can be seen that all the connections between variables were confirmed significantly. hypothesis 0, which examined the moderating effect of the „organization type‟ variable (coercive, utilitarian) on the connections between transformational leadership and both affective commitment and promotion focus, and between transactional leadership and both continuance commitment and prevention focus, was partially confirmed. a significant difference was found between the groups with regard to the model, such that the connections between leadership styles and both organizational commitment and regulatory focus in coercive organizations differ from those in utilitarian organizations. this finding reinforces (etzioni, 1961) typology, which classifies organizations on the basis of leaders' power and forms of identification and involvement in the organization's lowest echelon. the connections between leadership styles and forms of identification and involvement that were examined with the help of styles of organizational commitment and followers' regulatory focus do in fact operate differently in coercive as opposed to utilitarian organizations. nevertheless, no significant moderating effect was found for type of organization (coercive, utilitarian) on the connection between transactional leadership and prevention focus, and only a marginally significant moderating effect was found for the connection between transformational leadership and promotion focus. this marginal significance indicated that, contrary to the hypothesis that in coercive organizations this connection would be stronger than in utilitarian organizations, we found that the connection between transformational leadership and promotion focus was weaker in coercive organizations than in utilitarian organizations. this finding may be explained in several ways: the first explanation is rooted in the fact that regulatory focus includes two elements, one stable (trait) and the other situational (state) (stam et al., 2010). it may be the case that, for study participants employed in utilitarian organizations, there is a strong stable component (trait) focused on promotion. a situational effect of rules, responsibility, stability, and avoidance of mistakes, which cultivate an environment focused on prevention of failures and mistakes, did not influence them very much. therefore, they reported higher levels of promotion focus and/or lower levels of prevention focus. this could exist also be the case in the opposite scenario: it may be the case that study participants employed in coercive organizations have a strong, stable component (trait) focused on prevention. a situational effect of ambitiousness and inspired motivation that cultivates an environment focused on personal advancement in the organization did not influence them very much. they therefore reported lower levels of promotion focus and/or higher levels of prevention focus. another explanation for this finding is that the considerable concentration of the transactional leader on compensation and the 'gave and take' method essentially cultivates a situational atmosphere of promotion focus but not on prevention, as hypothesized. followers are interested in receiving compensation, and are therefore focused on promotion and attaining these things. it may be that the desire for advancement and receiving compensation in a utilitarian organization creates a higher promotion focus than ambitiousness and inspired motivation, which also cultivates a situational atmosphere of promotion focus among coercive organizations. with exception of the marginal moderation between transformational leadership and promotion focus, no significant moderating effect was found for organization type (coercive, utilitarian) in the other connections of the model. the hypothesis regarding a connection between transformational leadership and affective commitment being stronger in coercive organizations than in utilitarian organizations was refuted. this finding may be explained through the study by popper (1994) who found a transformational leadership style among commanders of combat units in the israeli defense forces. popper (1994) termed transactional leadership 'emotion evoking leadership', which he describes as characterized by strong emotional impact that motivates followers. popper held that foundation of the emotional tie between the leader and his/her followers is based on the experience of lack of control and helplessness of the follower. the follower projects onto his leader desires and aspirations he/she would like to realize, so that the leader fulfills his/her fantasies and, in a sense, strengthens the ego of his subordinates. popper (1994) wrote: "when considering situations of excessive uncertainty, a sharp sense of helplessness and lack of control, and situations perceived as difficult and directionless, primal yearning arises for a "strong man", a leader, who recreates longing for the lost garden of eden, for that same wonderful, lost feeling that others are concerned about me, that i can stop worrying" (popper, 1994). participants in the current study from coercive organizations (army, police, and prison) were sampled randomly, without categorizing participants serving in asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 137-146 145 combat units, whose work constitutes mortal danger and who encounter situations of helplessness and lack of control, as opposed to those employed in coercive organizations in home front units, who fill positions similar to those in utilitarian organizations, such as engineers, secretaries, psychologists, and so forth. in these positions, there is practically no threat to their lives. they experience very few situations of helplessness and lack of control. the hypothesis contending that the connection between transactional leadership and continuance commitment would prove stronger in utilitarian organizations than in coercive organizations was refuted. this finding could be explained as due to the different, diverse utilitarian organizations in which the current study's participants are employed. it seems that etzioni (1961) typology of utilitarian organizations as profit-centered business organizations includes a very broad variety of organizations with diverse organizational cultures. an example of this can be seen in the organizational typology of the central bureau of statistics. this classification is based on un recommendations for uniform classification of economic activities (international standard industrial classification) which enables classification of organizations into organizational groups that deal with close or similar activities. for example: "industry and manufacture", "information and communication"," financial services and insurance services". the sample size, of course, influences statistical significance, and therefore constitutes a limitation in finding significance of connections between the study variables in the moderation model. it is reasonable to assume that a larger sample would 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https://doi.org/10.1080/0958519032000114219. yammarino, f.j., w.d. spangler and b.m. bass, 1993. transformational leadership and performance: a longitudinal investigation. the leadership quarterly, 4(1): 81-102.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(93)90005-e. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://dx.doi.org.mgsariel.macam.ac.il/10.1037/0021-9010.79.1.15 http://dx.doi.org.mgs-ariel.macam.ac.il/10.1002/job.141 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn: 2313-7401 vol. 3, no. 3, 182-190, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 182 intellectual capital and financial performance: case of travel agents ayşegül ciğer1  yunus topsakal2 1 assistant professor, akdeniz university, vocational school of social science, turkey 2 research assistant, akdeniz university, tourism faculty, turkey ( corresponding author) abstract the increasing of intangible assets and intellectual capitals of firms has shown that traditional accounting systems are not able to calculate intangible assets and intellectual capital sufficiently. the travel agents as a service provider are one of the firms that have more intellectual capital and intangible assets than other firms. the research about the relationship between financial performance and intellectual capital that conducted for travel agents, however, is a limited extent. thus, the aim of the study is to reveal the relationship between financial performance and intellectual capital in travel agents. for this aim, a questionnaire was conducted to travel agencies, and the relationship between financial performance and intellectual capital was revealed. it can be concluded that there are moderate and positive relationship between financial performance of travel agents and people capital, structural capital, relationship capital according to correlation analysis. keywords: intellectual capital, profitability, productivity, financial performance, travels agencies, antalya contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 183 2. literature review .............................................................................................................................................................. 183 3. research model.................................................................................................................................................................. 184 4. methodology....................................................................................................................................................................... 185 5. analysis and results .......................................................................................................................................................... 185 6. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 188 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 189 bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................................... 190 citation | ayşegül ciğer, yunus topsakal (2016). intellectual capital and financial performance: case of travel agents. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(3): 182-190. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.182.190 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/ acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 19 december 2015/ revised: 1 january 2016/ accepted: 16 february 2016/ published: 4 march 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.182.190 http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.182.190 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.182.190 http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.182.190 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):182-190 183 1. introduction the economics welfare is achieved by obtaining, developing and managing knowledge in today’s knowledge economy (ricceri and guthrie, 2009). the information sources that obtained, developed and managed by firms are conceptualized as intellectual capital in general (stewart, 1997). the intangible assets are not clearly visible in the financial statements of firms when financial-based (e.g., plants, buildings, land, property and financial properties) assets and physical resources compared with intangible assets such as expertise, skill, talent, customer relationships, corporate culture, reputation and organizational practices (sveiby, 1997). this intangible resources and their operation is the essence of intellectual capital (bontis, 1996). turkey accounting standard-38 is mentioned some elements of intellectual capital. according to turkey accounting standard intangible assets are a resource that is expected to provide benefit to firms in the future and they are identifiable non-monetary assets without physical nature. however, according to his research results ünal (2010) argued that turkey accounting standard-38 is not totally cover the intellectual capital. yang et al. (2009) argued that traditional financial reporting cannot be used to calculate the true value of a firm because traditional financial reporting just evaluates the short term financial and tangible assets. however in recent years, firms also want to measure intellectual capital to report their stakeholders; therefore, firms are in search of various methods in order to evaluate the intangible assets. according to edvinsson and malone (1997) intellectual capital can be defined as the difference between the carrying value and the market value of the firm. increase of the difference between market value and book value of the firms has led to an increase in the number of the studies aiming to find missing values in the financial statements. intellectual capital issue has been the subject of many studies due to the closure the difference between the book value and the market value of firm characteristic of intellectual capital (fathi et al., 2013). the travel agents that are operating in a hospitality sector are one of the companies that have many intangible capitals such as human, knowledge and culture. however, the number of the studies focusing on relationship between intellectual capital and financial performance in the travel agents seems very limited. therefore, the primary objective of this study is to reveal the relationship between intellectual capital and financial performance, and giving recommendations. in addition, it has been also aimed to measure the correlation between human capital within the scope of intellectual capital, structural capital and relational capital and financial performance in the travel agents. 2. literature review firms often have debts during development, improvement and maintains of intangible assets such as scientific and new processes, technical information, design and implementation of systems, licensing, market knowledge, intellectual property rights and brands (turkish accounting standard-38). according to turkish accounting standard (p.5) intangible assets covers such as computer software, copyrights, patents, movies, mortgage service offering rights, customer lists, import quotas, fishing licenses, franchises, market share and marketing rights, customer and supplier relationships and customer loyalty. intellectual capital including intangible assets is a young management discipline that has a bright history (sullivan, 2000; pike et al., 2006; polo, 2007). intellectual capital is considered as an important source of value creation and competitive advantage (drucker, 1993; grant, 1996). it has been concluded that there is not any widely accepted definition of intellectual capital in the literature. edvinsson and malone (1997) have described intellectual capital as “information, experience, organizational technology, customer relationships and professional skills that provide competitive advantage to the firm”. intellectual capital also refers to intangible assets such as information, data, skills and intellectual property that are used to create prosperity (kannan and aulbur, 2004). on the other hand, stewart (1999) has defined intellectual capital as tangible assets that are formalized, obtained and leveraged in order to create prosperity by producing higher-value assets. as in the definition of intellectual capital, the researchers have examined different elements within the scope of intellectual capital. osterland (2001) has considered information capital as intellectual, human, customer and supplier capital, while sullivan (2000) has also included experience, general technical knowledge and skills of the staff in human capital. the researchers (roos et al., 1997; stewart, 1997; sveiby, 1997; bontis, 1999; curado and bontis, 2007; sallebrant et al., 2007) mention three categories in the subject of dividing intellectual capital into categories. these categories include human capital, structural capital and relational capital. human capital represents the intangible assets created by individuals. people create capital by using their competence, behaviors and intellectual abilities roos et al. (1997). according to bontis (1998) the structural capital covers concrete structures. on the other hand, stewart (1999) argues that culture is an extensive and valuable element in the structural capital. the third category is the relational capital which is a capital of all firms that have stakeholders and shareholders (stewart, 1999). according to rudez and michalic (2007) the relational capital consists of customer satisfaction, image, brand and distribution channels. lim and dallimore (2002) have reviewed the categories and related concepts with intellectual capital with managerial approach, and significantly contributed to intellectual capital literature. lim and dallimore (2004) has argued that the competence of a firm is its' human capital, business capital, institutional capital, and functional capital. human capital refers to the skills and knowledge of the firm. institutional capital includes elements of the strategic management and planning process used to evaluate a firm's competitiveness in the sector. business capital includes rate of business loss, income earned from new businesses and assets such as use of online business. finally, the functional capital covers the ratio of administrative expenses to functional training costs and productivity of processing time. the institutional relationships are customer capital, supplier capital, strategic partnership equity and investor capital (lim and dallimore, 2004). rudez and michalic (2007) stated that customer capital tend to increase firm value. supplier capital helps to decrease costs and improve the quality of supply for firms. partnership capital is important to achieve local and global competitive position for firms (rudez and michalic, 2007). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):182-190 184 2.1. intellectual capital, business performance and financial performance according to marian (2011) the financial performance determines the criteria to see how a firm use its intellectual capital elements and how it obtains a profit. intellectual capital can be regarded as an indicator for a success of a firm in a given period; it can also be used to compare a firm with other sectors or to evaluate position of firm in the sector (marian, 2011). fathi et al. (2013) have argued that it is not possible to calculate the true value of a firm by using traditional financial accounting tools. intellectual capital offers a new model to measure the true value of a firm (fathi et al., 2013). in a study conducted by gan and saleh (2008) the relationship between intellectual capital and business performance has been measured and it has been concluded that intellectual capital has an important effect on profitability and productivity. in addition, appuhami (2007) has identified a significant relationship between intellectual capital and earnings per share of the investors. şamiloglu (2006) have revealed the relationship between the ratio of market value to book value and intellectual capital in the research they have conducted in the turkish banking sector. according to the findings of research they have concluded that there is a significant relationship between intellectual capitals with the ratio of market value to book value (şamiloglu, 2006). tan et al. (2007) have been examined the relationship between intellectual capital and financial performance of the firms operating in the singapore exchange. in order to reveal this relationship, they used earnings per share, equity and annual earnings per share as the determinants of financial performance, and they used intellectual capital management to measure intellectual capital. according to the results they have argued that there is a positive relationship between financial performance and intellectual capital. firer and williams (2003) have used adding value of intellectual capital to measure the relationship between intellectual capital and business performance in africa. according to the findings of research they have concluded that there is not a relationship between the three elements of intellectual capital (human capital, structural capital and relational capital) and profitability, productivity and market value (firer and williams, 2003). marian (2011) has carried out a study which was aiming to present the effect of intellectual capital on the financial performance of the firms in romania. marian has proven that there is a positive relationship between intellectual capital and financial performance of the firms (marian, 2011). salman et al. (2012) as a result of their research they have argued that there is a relationship between intellectual capital and business performance. on the other hand setayesh and kazemnejad (2010) have investigated the effect of intellectual capital on the performance of firms operating in the tehran stock exchange. according to the study of setayesh and kazemnejad (2010) between there is a positive correlation between intellectual capital and asset turnover rate in the period 2002 and 2007. şen (2014) has investigated the effect of adapting the international financial reporting standards on intellectual capital of the firms, which are producing agricultural or agricultural-based products and traded in istanbul stock exchange, and concluded that the adaptation of international financial reporting standards has no statistically significant effect on the intellectual value added coefficient. kurgun and akdağ (2013) have investigated the relationship between intellectual capital and organizational performance at the hotels by using the data collected from hotel managers. according to the results of the study, there is a positive relationship between organizational performance and customer capital and also there is a positive correlation between structural capital and organizational performance (kurgun and akdağ, 2013). acar and dalğar (2005) stated that intellectual capital can only measure with the information presented in accounting information system. according to the results of research aimed at revealing the relationship between the business and financial performance with intellectual capital it can be concluded that there is a positive relationship with the dimensions of intellectual and financial performance. it was concluded that there is not the relationship between profitability and intellectual capital only in research carried out in african businesses. 3. research model figure 1 illustrates the research model. it is assumed that there is a direct and positive association between financial performance and intellectual capital (stewart, 1997). as a result of the information obtained from reviewing the literature, intellectual capital is divided into three sub-categories: human capital, structural capital and relational capital. the following hypotheses are established in accordance with the goals desired to be reached within the study and the literature mentioned above; h1: there is positive relationship between intellectual capital (ic) and respectively human capital (hc), structural capital (sc), and relational capital (rc) in the travel agents. h2: there is positive relationship between hc and respectively innovation and creation, training and education, and experiment and expertise in the travel agents. h3: there is positive relationship between sc and respectively system and programs, and r&d in the travel agents. h4: there is negative relationship between sc and intellectual proprietary rights in the travel agents. h5: there is positive relationship between rc and respectively knowledge about partners, suppliers and customers, and relationship with partners, suppliers and customers in the travel agents. h6: there is positive relationship between rc and alliances, agreements and licensing in the travel agents. h7: there is positive relationship between hc, sc, and rc and financial performance in the travel agents. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):182-190 185 figure-1. research model source: prepared by authors 4. methodology the questionnaire was developed towards travel agents operating in the hospitality sector by benefiting from the questionnaire included in the study conducted by geri (2012) in order to present performance values of the travel agents and their position in the market and the questionnaire developed by sharabati et al. (2010) to measure the intellectual capital and its sub-dimensions. the survey consists of two parts. in the first part, six questions were asked to the participants to determine the characteristics of staff (distribution of inexperienced staff, ratio of staff with professional experience, ratio of staff who know at least two languages) working in the travel agents included in the study. in addition ratio of on the job training expenses in the operating expenses and ratio of r&d expenses in the operating expenses were asked the travel agents in the first part of questionnaire. in the second part of the questionnaire, a total of 92 statements related to the sub-dimensions of intellectual capital such as human capital (32 statements), structural capital (30 statements) and relational capital (30 statements) were given to the travel agents with 5-point likert scale (1: i strongly disagree; 5: strongly agree). a total of 14 statements related to financial performance were given to the travel agents included in the study with 5-point likert scale (1: i strongly disagree; 5: strongly agree). croanbach's alpha (ca) value was calculated in order to test the reliability of the questionnaire used in the study. the ca value of human capital was identified as 94 %, whereas the ca value of structural capital was identified as 95 %, the ca value of relational capital was identified as 95 % and the ca value of financial capital was identified as 91 %, respectively. the questionnaire can be considered as reliable since the croanbach's alpha (ca) value is greater than 70% (hair et al., 2009). the target population of this study is travel agents operating in antalya, where the study is conducted in. the data were obtained through a total of 71 questionnaires applied to the middle and senior managers of randomly selected travel agents. the frequency analysis is performed for the inexperienced staff rate, ratio of staff with professional experience, ratio of the staff who knows at least two languages, ratio of on the job training expenses in the operating expenses and ratio of r&d expenses in the operating expenses in order to reveal the staff characteristics of travel agents. then, intellectual capital, human capital, structural capital, relational capital and financial performance are dimensioned as in the work carried out by sharabati et al. (2010). intellectual capital is dimensioned as human capital, structural capital and relational capital. human capital is collected in three dimensions as innovation and creation (11 statements), learning and training (11 statements), experience and expertise (10 statements). structural capital is collected in dimensions as systems and programs (10 statements), r&d (10 statements) and capital property rights (10 statements), while the relational capital as relationships with partners (10 statements), customer relations (10 statements) and agreements (10 statements). then the financial performance scale is collected in onedimension. reliability analyses were performed for each of the dimensions obtained and cronbach's alpha values were determined between 84 % to 93 %. it could be argued that all dimensions are reliable due to cronbach's alpha value are over 70 % (hair et al., 2009). then, correlation and regression analysis were performed to test the hypothesis. 5. analysis and results the frequency analysis was performed in order to present the features related to the staff of the travel agents included in the study and the results are summarized in table 1. as seen in table 1 in terms of the distribution of inexperienced employees in travel agents, 1-10% comes first followed by 0%, respectively. since the ratio of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):182-190 186 inexperienced staff is low, it can be concluded that the participant travel agents prefer to recruit educated, trained and experienced staff to be working in the travel agents. similarly, since the ratio of staff with professional experience in travel agents is higher than 30%, these agents prefer to recruit professionals in travel agents. in addition, as it can be seen in table 1, the ratio of the staff who knows at least two languages is 11-20 %. table-1. features related to the staff of the travel agents distribution of inexperienced staff n % % 0 44 26.7 % 1-10 53 32.1 % 11-20 39 23.6 % 21-30 18 10.9 % 30+ 11 6.7 not answered 13 0 total 178 100 ratio of staff with professional experience n % % 0 1 .6 % 1-10 23 13.5 % 11-20 49 28.8 % 21-30 39 22.9 % 30+ 58 34.1 not answered 8 0 total 178 100 ratio of the staff who knows at least two languages n % % 0 3 1.8 % 1-10 43 25.4 % 11-20 56 33.1 % 21-30 33 19.5 % 30+ 34 20,1 not answered 9 0 total 178 100 source: prepared by authors some questions are asked to the staff regarding on the job trainings and r&d expenses and the ratio of these expenses in operating expenses in order to present the importance given to training and r&d activities by travel agents. for that aim, the distribution of the questions about job trainings, r&d expenses and the ratio of these expenses in operating expenses were analyzed and results shown in table 2. since the ratio of on the job training expenses in the operating expenses is between 1-10% as seen in table 2, it can be concluded that the travel agents do not pay enough attention to the job trainings of their staff. however, we can conclude that the r&d in travel agents is sufficient because as seen in table 2 the ratio of r&d expenses in operating expenses is % 1-10 and % 11-20. table-2. ratio of training and r&d expenses in operating expenses ratio of on the job training expenses in the operating expenses n % % 0 11 6.6 % 1-10 92 55.1 % 11-20 36 21.6 % 21-30 23 13.8 % 30+ 5 3.0 not answered 11 0 total 178 100 ratio of r&d expenses in the operating expenses n % % 0 19 11.5 % 1-10 46 27.9 % 11-20 45 27.3 % 21-30 40 24.2 % 30+ 15 9.1 not answered 13 0 total 178 100 source: prepared by authors according to a question asked to the travel agents to see the changes in their market shares, it has been observed that the number of the agents claiming that their shares in the market have been increased in the last five years is 118 (66.3 %) (table 3). the market shares of 21.9 % of the firms have not been changed, whereas 11.8 % of the firms said that their market share has been reduced for the last five years. according to results, we can conclude that market share of travel agents have been increased in last five years. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):182-190 187 table-3. please indicate yours last 5 years market changes n % increased 118 66.3 not changed 39 21.9 reduced 21 11.8 total 178 100 source: prepared by authors the correlation analysis was performed to test the hypotheses of the study. the results of the correlation analysis which was performed in order to see whether there is a positive correlation between intellectual capital of the travel agents and human capital, structural capital and relational capital, respectively, are given in table 4. according to table 4, there is a strong correlation between intellectual capital and human capital, structural capital and relational capital. since the human capital, structural capital and relational capital are considered as the basic elements of intellectual capital, this is a major cause of this strong relationship (curado and bontis, 2007; sharabati et al., 2010). hypothesis 1 is accepted based on these findings. table-4. relationship between ic with hc, sc and rc human capital structural capital relational capital intellectual capital correlation coefficient .893 .925 .862 significant .000* .000* .000* n 178 178 178 *correlation is at 0.01 level the correlation analysis carried out in order to test hypothesis 2 (there is positive relationship between hc and respectively innovation and creation, training and education, and experiment and expertise in the travel agents). result is summarized in table 5. according to table 5, there is a positive correlation between human capital with respectively innovation and creation, training and education, experiment and expertise. the results support hypothesis 2. according to the findings, the travel agents with human capital are more advantageous than other firms in terms of respectively innovation and creation, training and education, experiment and expertise. table-5. relationship between hc with innovation, training, and experiment innovation and creation training and education experiment and expertise human capital correlation coefficient .918 .904 .922 significant .000* .000* .000* n 178 178 178 *correlation is at 0.01 level the results of the correlation analysis in order to test the hypothesis 3 and 4 are presented in table 6. table-6. relationship between sc with systems, r&d, and intellectual proprietary rights systems and programs r&d intellectual proprietary rights structural capital correlation coefficient .894 .908 .879 significant .000* .000* .000* n 178 178 178 *correlation is at 0.01 level according to table 6, there is a strong correlation between structural capital and systems and programs, r&d and intellectual proprietary rights. the results support hypothesis 3, while they don’t support hypothesis 4. it can be result of the difficulties to obtain patents and copyrights in travel agents. although there is a positive relationship between structural capital and intellectual proprietary rights, according to a study conducted by sharabati et al. (2010) applied on pharmaceutical sector, there is a negative relationship between structural capital and intellectual proprietary rights. sharabati et al. (2010) have considered patents and copyrights as the causes of this negative relationship. the results of the correlation analysis in order to test the hypothesis 5 and 6 are presented in table 7. according to table 7, there is a strong and positive relationship between relational capital of the travel agents with their knowledge and relations about partners, suppliers and customers, respectively. in addition, a strong and positive relationship has been found between relational capital of the travel agents and their alliances, agreements and licensing. the results support hypothesis 5 and 6. table-7. relationship between rc with customers, suppliers, and partners knowledge about partners, suppliers, customers relations about partner, supplier, customer alliances, agreements and licensing relational capital correlation coefficient .849 .914 .921 significant .000* .000* .000* n 178 178 178 *correlation is at 0.01 level the results of the correlation analysis in order to test the last hypothesis of the study, which is “in travel agents, there is a positive relationship between financial performance and human capital, structural capital and relational asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):182-190 188 capital, respectively” are given in table 8. according to table 8, there is a moderate correlation between financial performance of travel agents and their human capital, structural capital and relational capital, respectively. as long as the human capital, structural capital and relational capital of travel agents increases, their financial performances also increase. according to the results, the hypothesis 7 is accepted. table-8. relationship between financial performance with hc, sc, and rc human capital structural capital relational capital financial performance correlation coefficient .468 .514 .508 significant .000* .000* .000* n 178 178 178 *correlation is at 0.01 level the regression model is performed to reveal the impact of intellectual capital on financial performance and result summarized in table 9. as seen in table 9 the generated model is significant at the 0.01 level. financial performance formulated as fp=0.692+(ic)0,720 by using table 9. table-9. the impact of intellectual capital on financial performance independent variables β t significant constant (c) .692 3.981 .000* intellectual capital (ic) .720 8.847 .000* r2: .31 f: 78.275 *p<.01 dependent variables: financial performance (fp) table 10 shows the regression models performed to find out the impact of sub-components of intellectual capital on the financial performance. table-10. the impact of sub-components of ic on the financial performance. independent variables β t significant constant (c) .687 3,921 .000* human capital (hc) .246 1,996 .168* structural capital (sc) .158 1,385 .047* relational capital (rc) .321 3,921 .004* r2: .31 f: 26.322 *p<.05 dependent variables: financial performance according to table 10 human capital has only not effects on financial performance. relationship capital and structural capital have impact on financial performance of travel agents. the relationship capital has more impact on financial performance than other capitals because travel agents have more and strong relationships with partners, customers and alliances. the results of analyses performed in order to test the hypothesis of the study are summarized in table 11. according to table 11, the h1, h2, h3, h5, h6 and h7 have been accepted, whereas h4 was rejected. table-11. summary of results h1 there is positive relationship between intellectual capital (ic) and respectively human capital (hc), structural capital (sc), and relational capital (rc) in travel agents. accepted h2 there is positive relationship between hc and respectively innovation and creation, training and education, and experiment and expertise in travel agents. accepted h3 there is positive relationship between sc and respectively system and programs, and r&d in travel agents. accepted h4 there is negative relationship between sc and intellectual proprietary rights in travel agents. rejected h5 there is positive relationship between rc and respectively knowledge about partners, suppliers and customers, and relationship with partners, suppliers and customers in travel agents. accepted h6 there is positive relationship between rc and alliances, agreements and licensing in travel agents. accepted h7 there is positive relationship between hc, sc, and rc and financial performance in travel agents. accepted source: prepared by authors 6. conclusion the primary objective of this study is to reveal the relationship between intellectual capital of travel agents and their financial performance. in this context, the literature related to intellectual capital and financial performance has been reviewed. the questionnaires, which are valid in the literature, developed by geri (2012) and sharabati et al. (2010) are adapted to travel agents. the data were obtained by applying the questionnaire to the middle and senior managers of the travel agents. in the study, we have found a strong and positive relationship between intellectual capital and human capital, structural capital and relational capital. the strong and positive relationship between human capital and creation and innovation, learning and education, experience and expertise in the travel agents shows that these companies increase their human capital. in addition, the systems, r&d and capital ownership rights owned by travel agents increase the structural capital. a strong and positive relationship has been found between relational capital of the travel agents and their agreements, partnerships and contracts. according to the correlation analysis performed for the primary asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3):182-190 189 objective of the study, there is a moderate correlation between financial performance of the travel agents and their human capital, structural capital and relational capital, respectively. according to the findings, there is a positive relationship between intellectual capital (human capital, structural capital and relational capital) of the travel agents and their financial performance and intellectual capital affects the financial performance of the travel agents. therefore, intellectual capital of the travel agents should be increased in order to increase their financial performance. travel agents should pay more attention to education, training, innovation, r&d activities, systems, and relationships with suppliers, relationships with partners, and relationships with customers, agreements, contracts and partnerships in order to maintain and improve their intellectual capital and they should make more spending for these. this study was conducted with the travel agents operating in tourism sector and it has been aimed to contribute to the literature in this 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manufacturing practices on firm performance measured by balanced scorecard: a case study of manufacturing firms in thailand arno t immelman1 thamonwan dankittikul2 muttanachai suttipun3 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3faculty of management sciences, prince of songkla university, thailand. abstract the study aimed to (1) investigate the extent and level of lean manufacturing practices as well as firm performance measured by balance scorecard of manufacturing firms in thailand, and to (2) examine the influence of lean manufacturing practices on firm performance measured by balanced scorecard of manufacturing firms in thailand. by using simple random sampling, 400 mediumsized manufacturing firms were used as samples in this study. descriptive analysis, correlation matrix, and multiple regressions were used to analyze the data. the study found jit implementation and waste elimination practices were in a high level of influence, whilst participation was in a medium level. regarding firm performance, all perspectives of balanced scorecard were in high level. in addition, the study found a positive influence of waste elimination on balanced scorecard, while there was no significant influence of participation and jit implementation on balanced scorecard. the main value of this study is its contribution to formulating national policy based on two disparate aspects of the academic discipline of management science. manufacturing firms can consider the benefit of lean manufacturing practices in both financial and non-financial performance. in terms of research limitations, the study focused only on a small number of medium-sized manufacturing firms in thailand. keywords: lean manufacturing practices, firm performance, balanced scorecard, manufacturing firms, jit implementation, waste elimination, participation, thailand. jel classification: m11; m41. citation | arno t immelman; thamonwan dankittikul; muttanachai suttipun (2020). an influence of lean manufacturing practices on firm performance measured by balanced scorecard: a case study of manufacturing firms in thailand. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(3): 198-207. history: received: 27 april 2020 revised: 29 may 2020 accepted: 26 june 2020 published: 6 july 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 199 2. theoretical perspective ................................................................................................................................................................ 200 3. literature review and hypothesis development .................................................................................................................... 200 4. methods ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 202 5. findings and discussions .............................................................................................................................................................. 202 6. summaries and suggestions for future study ......................................................................................................................... 204 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 205 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.198.207&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1836 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1439-2792 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9347-6926 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2388-6388 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1836 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1439-2792 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9347-6926 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2388-6388 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1836 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1439-2792 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9347-6926 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2388-6388 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1836 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1439-2792 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9347-6926 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2388-6388 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1836 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1439-2792 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9347-6926 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2388-6388 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 198-207 199 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the study aimed to (1) investigate the extent and level of lean manufacturing practices as well as firm performance measured by balance scorecard of manufacturing firms in thailand, and to (2) examine the influence of lean manufacturing practices on firm performance measured by balanced scorecard of manufacturing firms in thailand. 1. introduction in today’s world, manufacturing firms have faced with rapidly changes and highly competitions. therefore, to maximize profits, they need to work for improving quality, flexibility, and customer response time. one of common practices of manufacturing firms is the principles of lean (motwani, 2003). lean philosophy has derived mainly from toyota motor company in the 1980’s. from that time, it has been a symbol of efficiency and optimal performance (ohno, 1988). the advantages of lean are to help the manufacturing firms in reducing cost, cycle times through a systematic approach of identifying and criminating waste through continuous improvement. moreover, lean manufacturing is seen as a profound processes innovation that can be applied in multiple countries and industries, without being limit to its origin (womack, jones, & roos, 1990) and the impact of applying the business model is to improve a company’s competitiveness and performance in their respective industries (doolen & hacker, 2005). lean manufacturing practices have become a critical management tool of organizations because it offer efficient systems that enhances operations through participation, waste elimination, and just-in-time (jit) implementation which ultimately leads to both greater long-term performance and sustainable development (sureeratanan, napompech, & panjakhajornsak, 2014). one important reason why manufacturing firms need lean manufacturing practices as a managerial tool is for greater and higher performance (vokurka, lummus, & krumwiede, 2007). the relationship between lean manufacturing practices and firm performance can be explained by resource-based theory pointing lean manufacturing practices as firm resources to (1) provide a competitive advantage and to (2) generate an aboveaverage return and performance (khanchanapong et al., 2014). moreover, lean manufacturing practices as firm resources can add to a firm’s strengths. therefore, resources are defined by the virtue of their relationship to performance, and the relationship between lean manufacturing practices and firm performance is the key outcome of interest (amundson, 1998). however, there are different types and measurements of firm performance, but they are normally classified into three main performances: financial performance; non-financial performance; and mixed financial and non-financial performance. in order to sustain firm’s business and serve firm’s stakeholder demands, both financial and non-financial performance are the most common performance measurement tool. a popular performance measurement tool that provides both financial and non-financial performance measurement is balanced scorecard (bsc) created by kaplan and norton (1996). bsc divides performance into four perspectives: financial, customer, internal process, and learning. it is a strategic management system that prioritizes implementation (kaplan & norton, 2001). problems relating the research were that although several previous related studies tested the influence of lean manufacturing practices on manufacturing firm performance, they only focused either on financial performance (fullerton, mcwatters, & fawson, 2003; fullerton & wempe, 2009) or non-financial (operational) performance (khanchanapong et al., 2014; shah & ward, 2003; sureeratanan et al., 2014; vokurka et al., 2007; ward & zhou, 2006). only a small number of literatures examined the effect of lean manufacturing practices on both financial and non-financial performance (yang, hong, & modi, 2011). therefore, findings of lean manufacturing practice used in manufacturing firms are unclear. another reason is that many studies regarding lean manufacturing practices were investigated mostly in developed countries such as japan, the united states of america, australia, the united kingdom, and european countries, while there were only few prior related studies in emerging economic countries, especially in thailand (khanchanapong et al., 2014; sureeratanan et al., 2014). moreover, previous studies have focused on large-sized manufacturing firms rather than small-and-medium-sized manufacturing firms. from the research problems above, the study aimed to (1) investigate the extent and level of lean manufacturing practices as well as firm performance measured by bsc of manufacturing firms in thailand, and to (2) examine the influence of lean manufacturing practices on firm performance measured by bsc of manufacturing firms in thailand. therefore, there are two main questions: what are the extent and level of lean manufacturing practices and firm performance of manufacturing firms in thailand? and is there any possible influence of lean manufacturing practices on firm performance measured by bsc, if so how? this study aims to contribute to existing research. firstly, the study will shed light on the benefits of lean manufacturing practices for thai manufacturing firms as it has already been done in other countries. second, the study will contribute to the knowledge of lean manufacturing practices in emerging-economy nations and supplement that relating to developed countries. next, the study’s results will reveal the nature of the influence of lean manufacturing practices on firm performance measured by bsc in thailand. finally, the study will demonstrate how resource-based theory can be used to explain the influence of lean manufacturing practices on firm performance in thailand. the study adopted resource-based theory as its theoretical framework. literature review and hypotheses were developed based on a review of previous related studies. methods adopted includes identifying the population, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 198-207 200 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group selecting a sample, data collection, variable measurement, and data analysis. the findings are presented and discussed, followed by conclusions and suggestions for future studies. 2. theoretical perspective resource-based theory was used in this study to explain an influence of lean manufacturing practices on firm performance measured by bsc of manufacturing firms in thailand. resource-based theory traditionally evolved from strategy management and involves seeing an organization as a combination of resources that allow for the growth of competitive advantage among respective industries (barney, 2001; grant, 1991; peteraf, 1993). wernerfelt (1984); amit and schoemaker (1993) and fernandes, mills, and fleury (2005) noted that resources are that which a firm owns or are able to access and can be seen as ether a strength or a weakness whilst gruber, heinemann, brettel, and hungeling (2010) found that resources are ether tangible or intangible. tangible resources are those that can physically be seen where intangible ones are difficult to identify as they are deeply rooted in a firm’s history and develops over time (silva, gohr, & santos, 2019). when considering these authors views on resource-based theory, it is clear that this theory applies to lean manufacturing, as without owning the necessary strategic resources, it is impossible to apply any lean manufacturing strategies. lewis (2000) reiterates this through his findings on the relationship between resourcebased theory and lean manufacturing, whilst it was also recognized by silva et al. (2019) especially in terms of lean manufacturing activities such as pull production and jit systems. it was further noted that among resources most valuable to successfully implement lean manufacturing are having a qualified operational workforce and managers, machinery, workplace culture as well as appropriate training. womack. and jones (2003) found lean manufacturing to be an acceptable management tool in many different industries, even though the manner in which the different lean manufacturing strategies are applied are different among industries as well as specific to each company. resource-based theory will be applied in this study to exam the extent to which lean manufacturing strategies influence organizational performance in manufacturing firms in thailand. with lean manufacturing practices being different among industries in different countries, the study will identify these differences, specifically regarding lean manufacturing principles such as waste reduction, participation through relevant supply chain partnerships as well as jit systems and their effect on organizational performance. 3. literature review and hypothesis development 3.1. lean manufacturing practice in order to understand lean manufacturing practices, it is important to comprehend the meaning of lean. lean strategies were developed in the 1950s by taiichi ohno company and toyota motor company (ohno, 1988). motwani (2003) described lean as a business model focused on the systematic identification and removal of waste from production as well as incorporating changing and enhancing processes and providing quality products to intermediaries and ultimately the end user. similarly, engelund, breum, and friis (2009) found lean to be a waste elimination tool used by companies in order to increase profits. browning (2000) on the other hand, noted that lean does not necessarily mean minimizing cost, cycle time or waste but rather increasing value and releasing the correct information at the correct time and place despite these production factors typically being associated with lean manufacturing practices. lean manufacturing practices is seen as a profound processes innovation that can be applied in multiple countries and industries, and is not limit to its origin (womack et al., 1990) and the impact of applying the business model is to improve a company’s competitiveness in their respective industries (doolen & hacker, 2005; oliver, delbridge, & lowe, 1996). furthermore, previous studies indicated that lean strategy allows for improved quality and productivity and greater customer responsiveness (krafcik, 1988; nicholas, 1998) which are necessary in order to improve a company’s competiveness. lean manufacturing strategies are divided into three perspectives which are participation, just-in-time (jit) implementation, and waste elimination. for example, the jit inventory strategy was established through toyota production systems (sanders, elangeswaran, & wulfsberg, 2016). the concept of jit involves reducing the amount of inventory stored by requiring that the necessary materials are delivered just as they are needed for production rather than having an excess of inventories stored (harrison & van hoek, 2008). jit implementation has been a key tool in the development of lean manufacturing in companies in a variety of industries (hines, 1996). in terms of participation, in the form of building integrative relationships among key partners and institutions, also forms an important part in lean manufacturing. in order to achieve these strong relationships, an understanding of what is expected by each key partner is required (hausman, 2001). in order to build key coordinated links between key partners, strong communication and information sharing channels need to exist to establish and maintain strong integrative relationships (berry, 1995; holden & o'toole, 2004). 3.2. firm performance measured by balanced scorecard performance measurement systems (pmss) are used by firms to assist effective and efficient operations by goal accomplishments (ahmad & zabri, 2016). pmss are commonly split into two components; financial and nonfinancial. manufacturing firms used to measure their performance based only on financial performance, but nowadays they need to measure their performance in terms of both financial and non-financial terms in order to sustain their business ,serve their stakeholders and address the issue of sustainable development. similarly, gomes, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 198-207 201 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group yasin, and lisboa (2004) found that the traditional approach to performance, through focusing only on the financial component, is no longer the only feasible measure for the ever changing environment(s) we live in today. non-financial performance measures were thus introduced because considering only financial performance indicators were no longer sufficient in terms of looking at the overall performance of a firm (drury, braund, osborne, & tayles, 1993; gomes et al., 2004; preda & watts, 2004). non-financial performance measures are gives a strategic look into the internal information over specific periods of time which allows for an organization to respond accordingly which allows for better decisions (ahmad & zabri, 2016). it is clear that with these different information available, that firms are able to respond to challenges that might not have been recognizable in the past. hoque and adams (2011) reiterated this by pointing out that these non-financial elements are essential in improving crucial activities. additionally, kartalis, velentzas, and broni (2013) recognized that performance management measures used by companies using both financial and non-financial components sets them ahead of those only making use of financial indicators. non-financial elements ultimately become a tool in measuring future financial performance as well as being a strong motivational tool (banker, potter, & srinivasan, 2000). the bsc is now a commonly used performance measurement tool by which both financial and non-financial performance can be measured (kaplan & norton, 1996). bsc divides performance into four perspectives: financial, customer, internal process, and learning. it is a strategic management system that prioritizes implementation (kaplan & norton, 2001). these four perspectives shows balanced consideration to both long-term and short terms financial and non-financial objectives (al-naser & mohamed, 2017). found that one specific perspective, customer satisfaction, has a positive influence on the profitability and overall competitiveness of manufacturing firms, which is in accordance with lean manufacturing’s influence on customer satisfaction, as previous studies suggest (krafcik, 1988; nicholas, 1998). said, hassabelnaby, and wier (2003) studied a wider range of non-financial measures, specifically regarding the bsc, and also found that there was a positive influence on a firms’ competitiveness in their respective markets. furthermore, bryant, jones, and widener (2004) reiterate that firms’ implementing performance measures are also focused on non-financial measures, specifically in terms of customer satisfaction and product development, show superior overall performance than that only focused on financial performance. based on these studies, therefore, it is clear that manufacturing firms can no longer focus on only financial performance seeing as these type of measures are considered insufficient and outdated. 3.3. hypothesis development even though there are more bundle lists of lean manufacturing practices including total quality management, total preventative maintenance, human resource management, controlled processes, productive maintenance, and involved employees, this study will pick up three main lists of lean manufacturing practices (participation, jit implication, and waste elimination) that are available and appropriate in thai context. therefore, to test the influence of lean manufacturing practices consisting of participation, jit implication, and waste elimination on firm performance measured by bsc of thai manufacturing firms (khanchanapong et al., 2014; sureeratanan et al., 2014) there were three main hypotheses in this study. in terms of participation, previous studies, particularly in the area of supply chain management, have found that participation among companies helps increase operational performance. a study of huo (2012) suggested that external integration in form of customer integration (e.g. sharing customers’ information and feedback records) and supplier integration had both direct and indirect positive influence on company performance. similarly, karatzas, johnson, and bastl (2017) studied the relationships between manufacturer and supplier in service trades, and found that exchanging information, certain adaptations as well as the level of formalization of the relationship directly contribute to the improvement of the trade’s service performance. another study by zhang, van donk, and van der vaart (2016) also yielded similar findings which reported that inter-organizational information and communication technology (ict) enhanced supply chain performance by having supply chain integration as the mediator. thus, it is hypothesized that: h1: there is a positive influence of participation on firm performance. in terms of jit implementation, a number of previous studies suggest that jit implementation leads to better operational performance. fullerton and mcwatters (2001) reported that jit implementation of firms in the us not only helped reducing inventory levels and quality costs but also enhancing customer responsiveness. in india, effective practice of jit initiatives has positive influence on performance of manufacturing industries since the beginning of the implementation (singh & singh ahuja, 2014) . likewise, the adoption of jit in china was found to be successful in several ownership groups including foreign, state-owned and joint venture firms (chen & tan, 2013). in fact, the findings in china are similar to a previous study conducted by rahman, laosirihongthong, and sohal (2010) who revealed that jit implementation promotes operational performance of firms that belong to thais, foreigners and joint ventures. moreover, it was also concluded that jit is applicable to both les and smes in thailand. based on the above evidence, it is hypothesized that: h2: there is a positive influence of just-in-time implementation on firm performance. in terms of waste elimination, one of the main purposes of implementing jit is to eliminate non-value-adding activities or waste in the manufacturing process which in turn could result in cost reduction and quality improvement (brox & fader, 2002; zelbst, green, abshire, & sower, 2010). a study by phogat and gupta (2019) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 198-207 202 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group revealed that the adoption of jit philosophy helped reducing excessive activities and spare part inventory of maintenance departments in india. the reduction was found in four different types of wastes, namely “waste of processing, waste of rejects/rework/scrap in case of poor maintenance; waste of the transport of spares, and waste of motion”. wong, wong, and ali (2009) who conducted research regarding lean manufacturing practices in malaysia also reported that firms involved in their study were able to reduce costs and minimize inventory level which, to a certain extent, considered as part of operational performance improvement. therefore, the last hypothesis is proposed as follows: h3: there is a positive influence of waste elimination on firm performance 4. methods the methods used in this study were separated into three sections which are population and sample, data collection and measurement of variables, and data analysis. the population adopted in this study was all mediumsized manufacturing firms in thailand (ministry of energy, 2019) and the sample adopted consisted of 400 manufacturing firms selected by using simple random sampling. table-1. variables’ measurement tool. variables coded as measurement 1. firm performance bsc five-point likert scale 2. participation staff five-point likert scale 3. jit implementation jit five-point likert scale 4. waste elimination waste five-point likert scale 5. top management manage dummy variables 1 = top management, and 0 = otherwise 6. firm age age firm age (year) source: adapted from suttipun, srirat, samang, manae, and maithong (2018); khanchanapong et al. (2014); calandro and lane (2006). m aailed questionnaire was used to collect data from each firm sample. the questionnaire was adapted from those used in previous studies (khanchanapong et al., 2014; sureeratanan et al., 2014; suttipun et al., 2018). the questionnaire was divided into three sections as follows: (1) general information related to the manufacturing firms, (2) the extent and level of lean manufacturing practices, and (3) firm performance measured by the bsc. in the first section, the general information collected related to the top management, and the firm age. the dependent variable in this study was firm performance measured by bsc (calandro & lane, 2006; suttipun et al., 2018) and the independent variables were the level of lean manufacturing practices consisted of participation, jit implementation, and waste elimination (khanchanapong et al., 2014; sureeratanan et al., 2014). firm performance and lean manufacturing practices were measured based on items in the questionnaire, to which the firms responded based on a five-point likert scale, in which 5 represents the highest level, 4, a high level, 3, a moderate level, 2, a low level, and 1 as the lowest level. the rating scale in this study was adapted from previous studies of ghazali and manab (2013) and srisa-ard (2010). the answers to each item were averaged, and the mean values for each item were expressed based on five levels: 4.51-5.00 as the highest level, 3.51-4.50 as a high level, 2.51-3.50 as a moderate level, 1.51-2.50 as a low level, and 1.00-1.50 as the lowest level. the draft questionnaire was sent to three experts, who considered its content validity and credibility. in addition, the questionnaire’s reliability was also measured based on cronbach (1951) fcshc faa wi eb ci dn aacsawahcihw (0.874). table 1 indicates the basis on which the variables used in this study were measured. following by two main objectives used in this study, descriptive analysis was used to investigate the extent and level of lean manufacturing practices as well as firm performance measured by bsc of manufacturing firms in thailand, while multiple regression was used to examine the influence of lean manufacturing practices on firm performance measured by bsc of manufacturing firms in thailand. moreover, correlation matrix was used for multicollinearity among the six variables used in this study. the equation is indicated below. the study also conducted a sensitivity analysis for each performance perspective of bsc comprising financial, customer, internal process, and learning. bsc = a + b1staff + b2jit + b3waste + b4 manage + b5 age + error there are bsc = firm performance measured by balanced scorecard. staff = participation. jit = jit implementation. waste = waste elimination. manage = top management. age = firm age. 5. findings and discussions from the samples of medium-sized manufacturing firms, all 400 respondents returned the questionnaires. consequently, the findings reveal that the most common lean manufacturing practices were jit implementation asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 198-207 203 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group (mean = 3.788, sd = .834) following by waste elimination (mean = 3.579, sd = .824) and participation (mean = 3.090, sd = .891). moreover, both jit implementation and waste elimination were in high level, while participation was in medium level. in terms of firm performance measured by bsc, all perspectives of bsc consisting of financial, customer, internal process, and learning perspectives were in high level. table-2. descriptive analysis of lean manufacturing practices and firm performance. lean manufacturing practices mean s.d. max. min. level participation 3.090 .891 5 1 medium jit implementation 3.788 .834 5 1 high waste elimination 3.579 .824 5 1 high balanced scorecard mean s.d. max. min. level financial perspective 3.635 .718 5 1 high customer perspective 3.762 .768 5 1 high internal perspective 3.618 .646 5 1 high learning perspective 3.721 .684 5 2 high average bsc 3.699 .582 5 1 high a correlation matrix was used to test for multicollinearity among the six variables used in this study, consisting of one dependent variable, three independent variables, and two control variables as shown in table 3. based on a fixed effects model for panel testing, the maximum variance inflation factor (vif) of the correlation matrix between the variables was 2.475, which indicates that there was no multicollinearity presented by a vif exceeding 10. the low coefficients in the correlation matrix between the variables used in the study therefore indicated that multicollinearity was unlikely to be a problem in the multiple regression. based on the correlation coefficients between the six variables used in this study, a positively significant correlation between bsc, staff, jit, and waste was also found at 0.01 level. table 4 indicates the outcome of multiple regression analysis testing the influence of lean manufacturing practices consisting of participation, jit implementation, and waste elimination on firm performance measured by bsc. the results show that only waste was positively influencing on bsc at the 0.01 level, whilst there was no significant influence of staff and jit on bsc at 0.05 level. moreover, the study did not find any significant relationship between manage, age, and bsc at the 0.05 level. therefore, to summarize by hypothesis development, h3 was accepted, while h1 and h2 were rejected. the results of positive influence related to waste elimination on firm performance were similar to brox and fader (2002); zelbst et al. (2010) and phogat and gupta (2019) findings that jit is for eliminating non-valueadding activities or waste in the manufacturing process which in turn could result in cost reduction and quality improvement. it leads to greater and higher performance of manufacturing firms. this is because waste elimination can reduce costs and minimize inventory level which, to a certain extent, considered as part of operational performance improvement. moreover, this is because the main goal of lean manufacturing practices are to be highly responsive to stakeholder demands by reducing waste. therefore, when the firms can satisfy their stakeholder demands, the stakeholders will reward them by giving greater financial and non-financial performance, better image and reputation, and higher competitive advantage (corbett & klassen, 2006). table-3. correlation matrix of variables. variable bsc staff jit waste manage age bsc 1 .422** .395** .653** .002 .098 staff 1 .412** .475** .124 .207* jit 1 .466** .076 .012 waste 1 .057 .047 manage 1 .179 age 1 mean 3.699 3.090 3.788 3.579 .422 11.23 s.d. .982 .891 .834 .824 .406 8.423 vif 2.264 2.108 2.475 1.112 1.403 note: ** is significant at 0.01, and * is significant at 0.05. however, this study did not find any influence of participation and jit implementation on firm performance. this may be because there is potential conflicts between non-financial performance (customer, internal process, and learning performances) and jit implementation, and between participation and financial performance (rothenberg, pil, & maxwell, 2001; yang et al., 2011). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 198-207 204 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-4. multiple regression. variables beta t sig. constant 7.892 .000** staff .126 1.280 .204 jit .034 .325 .746 waste .575 5.886 .000** manage -.060 -.748 .456 age .056 .684 .495 r square .448 adj. r square .418 f-value (sig.) 14.776 (.000**) note: ** is significant at 0.01, and * is significant at 0.05. for example, participation requires manufacturing firms having new products or market development, order fulfillment, and customer after-sales service to increase customer responsiveness through lean manufacturing practices. the results can be mixed because this kind of lean manufacturing practice can earn customer satisfaction and enhance customer performance. on the other hand, manufacturing firms need to spend large amounts of financial resources on activities that can reduce their financial performance. therefore, it is important for this study to test the influence of lean practices on financial and non-financial performance separately see table 5. table 5 shows the results of sensitivity analysis on the influence of lean manufacturing practices on firm performance measured by bsc for each performance comprising financial, customer, internal process, and learning. regarding the results of financial model, the study found a positively significant influence of jit and waste on financial performance at 0.01 and 0.05 levels. in customer model, on the other hand, this study found a positive influence of staff and waste on customer performance at 0.05 and 0.01 levels. for internal and learning models, the results indicated a positively significant influence of only waste on internal process performance and learning performance at 0.01 level. however, the control variables used in this study are unable to find any relationship on firm performance in any models at 0.05 level. table-5. sensitivity analysis model. variable financial customer internal process learning beta t (sig.) beta t (sig.) beta t (sig.) beta t (sig.) constant 4.732** 4.453** 7.828** 6.993** staff .019 .172 .193 2.054* .134 1.178 .066 .585 jit .364 3.171** -.028 -.288 -.143 -1.196 -.101 -.846 waste .253 2.333* .601 6.457** .510 4.517** .534 4.762** manage -.068 -.774 -.112 -1.479 -.079 -.856 .069 .759 age .108 1.187 .077 .982 .005 .057 -.014 -.144 r2 .321 .498 .262 .272 adj. r2 .284 .471 .221 .232 f (sig.) 8.622** 18.066** 6.456** 6.807** note: ** is significant at 0.01, and * is significant at 0.05. in financial model, the results of a positive influence of jit on firm financial performance were consistent with phogat and gupta (2019); yang et al. (2011); fullerton and wempe (2009) and fullerton et al. (2003). the results indicate that the adoption of jit leads to better financial performance. the improvement could be explained by the nature of jit as it has potential to enhance the flow of financial management, which is an effect of cost reduction, and improve product quality, which could result in customer satisfactory and profit increase (yang et al., 2011). in customer model, the results of positive influence of participation on firm customer performance were consistent with huo (2012); (ward & zhou, 2006) and shah and ward (2003). this is because participation can achieve customer satisfaction in terms of new product or market development, order fulfillment, and customer service by increasing customer responsiveness and reducing customer lead time. participation is also expected to improve firms’ abilities in developing customer value in the form of lower product prices and quality that will enhance firms’ customer performance. 6. summaries and suggestions for future study to answer two main questions, namely what are the extent and level of lean manufacturing practices and firm performance of manufacturing firms in thailand, and is there any possible influence of lean manufacturing practices on firm performance measured by bsc, this study found that jit implementation and waste elimination were in asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 198-207 205 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group high level, while participation was in medium level. in terms of firm performance, all perspectives of bsc were in high level. in addition, the study found a positive influence of waste elimination on bsc, while there was no significant influence of participation and jit implementation on bsc. results of the current study provide some contributions and implications. in terms of theoretical contributions, the findings clearly demonstrate how resource-based theory can explain the influence of lean manufacturing practices especially in the area of waste elimination on firm performance in thailand. the findings also expand previous studies on a positive influence of lean manufacturing practices on both financial and non-financial (operational) performance in an emerging economic country as well as developed countries. for practical contributions, on the other hand, the study’s findings can demonstrate the effectiveness of lean manufacturing practices as a valuable resource for improving both financial and non-financial performance. thus, top-managements and owners should treat lean manufacturing practices as the firm management tools. investors can also gain important information from just-in-time implementation for future decision making because this bundle list of lean manufacturing practices already indicate how it can predict the higher financial performance. finally, regulators and policy makers will implicate the advantage of lean manufacturing practices in thailand as well as developed countries. however, there are some limitations that should be mentioned in this study. for example, this study focused only on medium-sized manufacturing firms in thailand where there are limited and specific industries when compared to the other regions of thailand such as seafood manufacturing firms, plum oil and product manufacturing firms, and rubber product manufacturing firms. next, lean manufacturing practices used in this study was more short-term in nature, and indirect positive implications were realized over a longer period. finally, while this study used only participation, just-in-time implementation, and waste elimination, there are more to the bundle list of lean manufacturing practices including total quality management, total preventative maintenance, human resource management, controlled processes, productive maintenance, and involved employees. therefore, to close the limitation gaps of the study, the suggestion for future studies is to investigate the other bundle lists of lean manufacturing practices by using secondary data of manufacturing firms in thailand or asean countries consisting of a longer periods. references ahmad, k., & zabri, s. m. 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(2009). a study on lean manufacturing implementation in the malaysian electrical and electronics industry. european journal of scientific research, 38(4), 521-535. http://www.dede.go.th/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 198-207 207 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group yang, m. g. m., hong, p., & modi, s. b. (2011). impact of lean manufacturing and environmental management on business performance: an empirical study of manufacturing firms. international journal of production economics, 129(2), 251-261.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2010.10.017. zelbst, p. j., green, j. k. w., abshire, r. d., & sower, v. e. (2010). relationships among market orientation, jit, tqm, and agility. industrial management & data systems, 110(5), 637-658.available at: https://doi.org/10.1108/02635571011044704. zhang, x., van donk, d. p., & van der vaart, t. (2016). the different impact of inter-organizational and intra-organizational ict on supply chain performance. international journal of operations & production management, 36(7), 803-824.available at: https://doi.org/10.1108/ijopm-11-2014-0516. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 91 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 3, 91-101, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.91.101 effective motivational tools in hotel industry neeraj kumari1 1associate professor (management) faculty of engineering & technology, manav rachna international institute of research and studies (deemed to be university), naac accredited `a' grade university faridabad, india. abstract motivation is especially important in the hospitality and tourism industry, where competence and employee satisfaction are key determinants of service quality. the study aims to find out the important factors which motivate the working personnel in the hospitality industry. the primary data has been collected through a structured questionnaire. the questionnaires were filled by 5 managers and 40 employees of the oberoi hotel, new delhi. simple random sampling has been used. for the hotel industry in particular, training is a useful tool for an effective development of the human resource. the job in a hotel involves lot of work pressures and the employees need to be able to cope with this. though the purpose of training in hotel is to prepare the employees for future assignments but still training empowers him with knowledge and skill, which in turn affects his motivation level. thus training although traditional, still retains its position as an important motivational tool. keywords: training, performance, rewards. jel classification: m53; m19; m50. citation | neeraj kumari (2018). “effective motivational tools in hotel industry”. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(3): 91-101. history: received: 5 december 2017 revised: 25 may 2018 accepted: 28 may 2018 published: 31 may 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 92 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 93 3. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................... 94 4. data analysis and interpretations ................................................................................................................................................ 94 5. findings ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 99 6. conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 100 7. recommendations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 100 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 100 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.91.101&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8685-3773 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 91-101 92 1. introduction 1.1. motivation since increase in productivity is the ultimate goal of every industrial organization, motivation of employees at all levels is the most critical function of management. an organization has goals, which can only be achieved by the efforts of the people who work in the organization. individuals have their own goal in life, and these are likely to be different from those of the organization. a major consideration for supervisors and management is the problem of getting the employees to work in such a way that the organization achieves its goals. motivation is concerned with why people choose a particular course of action in preference to others, and why they continue with a chosen action, often over a long period, and in the face of difficulties and problems. if a manager wants to improve the work of the organization, attention must be given to the level of motivation of its members. the manager must also encourage staff to direct their efforts (their driving force) towards the successful attainment of the goals and objectives of the organization. motivation is a complex subject, it is a very personal thing, and it is influenced by many variables. individuals have a variety of changing, and often conflicting, needs and expectations which they attempt to satisfy in a number of different ways. 1.2. motivational tools a manager needs to get to know his or her employees. by being really worried about every representative, the administrator will realize what inspires every person. a few specialists react to private compliments on their work, while others blossom with formal acknowledgment. still others especially sales representatives work hardest when a liberal commission program is advertised. furthermore, some need to take a shot at unique activities. 1.3. six big motivators  exciting work and test  career development  learning and improvement  working with extraordinary individuals  fair pay  supportive administration/great manager. administrators who comprehend what inspires every representative can tailor motivators likewise. some tools to motivate employees are given below: 1.4. reward management rewards are critical to training because they reinforce the effort employees are putting forth. reward early and often, immediacy is important. frequency also matters; reinforcing behavioral changes is most effectively done via rewarding participants at frequent intervals. personalization is very important. the mix that you select can motivate anyone and everyone. this is especially true when it comes to enterprise-wide programs intended to teach and motivate employees across demographic lines. even a rewards program for lower-level, part-time or hourly employees should include aspirational items, since the act of setting goals is motivational. 1.5. financial rewards criteria the criteria for assessing the effectiveness of financial reward practices as means of motivation are that: • they are, beyond what many would consider possible, inside impartial and also remotely aggressive (in spite of the fact that there will dependably be a pressure between these two criteria paying business sector rates may disturb inner relativities); • pay-for-performance systems are made in the light of an understanding that immediate inspiration just happens if the prizes are beneficial, if they are specifically related to fair, objective and appropriate performance measures, if employees understand what they have to achieve, and if their expectations on the likelihood of receiving the reward are high; • employees understand how the financial reward system operates, how they benefit from it, and how the organization will help them to develop the skills and competences they need to receive the maximum benefit. 1.6. non-financial rewards non-financial rewards can be centered around the necessities a great many people have, despite the fact that to various degrees, for accomplishment, acknowledgment, obligation, impact and self-improvement.  achievement: the requirement for accomplishment is characterized as the requirement for aggressive achievement estimated against an individual standard of greatness. achievement motivation can be increased by organizations through processes such as job design, performance management, and skill or competencyrelated pay schemes.  recognition: recognition is one of the most impactful motivators. individuals need to know not just how well they have accomplished their destinations or did their work yet in addition that their accomplishments are valued. acclaim, nonetheless, ought to be given sensibly it must be identified with genuine accomplishments. furthermore, it isn't the main type of acknowledgment. financial rewards, particularly accomplishment rewards granted instantly after the occasion, are unmistakably images of acknowledgment to which are connected substantial advantages, and this is an essential manner by which commonly strengthening procedures of financial and non-financial rewards can work. there are different types of acknowledgment, for example, long administration grants, materialistic trifles of some kind, vacations and business related treks asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 91-101 93 abroad, which can all be a piece of the aggregate reward process.  responsibility: employees can be motivated by being given more responsibility for their own work. this is basically what strengthening is about and is in accordance with the idea of characteristic inspiration in view of the substance of the activity. it is also related to the fundamental concept that individuals are motivated when they are provided with the means to achieve their goals.  influence: individuals can be inspired by the drive to apply impact or to practice control. the organization, through its policies for involvement, can provide motivation by putting people into situations where their views can be expressed, listened to and acted upon. this is another aspect of empowerment.  personal growth: yearning and decided individuals will look for and discover these open doors for themselves, in spite of the fact that the association needs to clear up the extension for development and advancement it can give (if it does not, they will go away and grow elsewhere). increasingly, however, individuals at all levels of organizations, whether or not they are eaten up by ambition, recognize the importance of continually upgrading their skills and of progressively developing their careers. this is the rationality of ceaseless improvement. numerous individuals now see access to preparing as a key component in the general reward bundle. the accessibility of learning openings, the choice of people for high-notoriety instructional classes and programs and the accentuation set by the association on the securing of new aptitudes and also the improvement of existing ones, would all be able to go about as effective inspirations. 2. literature review rao and rao (2017) it concludes that employee engagement is a two-way street. the instruments and methods received by pioneers can be connected in any industry and in any size of an association. the social ramifications of the exploration recommend that pioneers can guarantee representative commitment by following these inventive devices and methods. it beseeches the two bosses and representatives to take responsibility for parts and duties to accomplish hierarchical brilliance and viability. hussein (2017) there was a positive connection between's the season of administration and extraneous rewards just like a dependable purpose behind better accomplishment of authoritative execution as given by a 21.7% relationship which was huge. the discoveries proposed that there was an essentialness connection between motivational devices, for example, compensation; compensation, suggestion, acknowledgment and so forth get by specialists and their execution. more research ought to be led on the relationship and impact of prizes on specialist's execution utilizing numerous private and open associations. nandhini (2017) the inherent components contribute more in the activity fulfillment of the representatives than the outward factors. this leads to employee’s motivation on organizational effectiveness which results in the employee’s job satisfaction. downes et al. (2017) findings indicated that autonomous motives were positively related to goal-specific efficacy and perceived person–organization (po) fit (time 1), and showed indirect effects on goal accomplishment and other-rated job satisfaction (time 2). controlled thought processes were adversely identified with similar middle people and results. objective thought processes embroil objective particular results, and people's general composition of objective intentions—over their objectives—shape their objective adequacy and po fit observations. these systems identify with distal results of objective achievement and occupation fulfillment. the exploration offers hypothetical ramifications for the proximal results of objective intentions, yet additionally handy ramifications for manners by which associations can enhance occupant po fit recognitions. serrat (2017) learning is the key to success. some would even say survival in today’s organizations. information ought to be persistently advanced through both inward and outer learning. for this to happen, it is important to help and empower association, individuals, information, and innovation for learning. kumari (2016) out of the two chose associations, variety among the workers of taj mahal inn is less when contrasted with other association of the investigation. indisputably it might be expressed that worker fulfillment is a multidimensional wonder with various components working at the same time. there are certain factors which have strong influence on the overall index but the presence of other factors cannot be ignored. pramanik and chatterjee (2015) the findings revealed that significant and positive relation existed between intrinsic motivation, emotional intelligence, and organizational citizenship behavior. characteristic inspiration and enthusiastic insight together anticipated 27% of the aggregate fluctuation of authoritative citizenship conduct. characteristic inspiration and authoritative citizenship conduct were observed to be better if there should be an occurrence of private-area workers than in the event of open division representatives. as it was discovered that inborn inspiration and enthusiastic insight are decidedly identified with authoritative citizenship conduct, so businesses may propel their representatives inherently to hold them and keeping in mind that contracting, bosses may consider applicants with high passionate knowledge that can profit the association. chauhan (2015) when associations focus on non-financial devices, for example, chance of expanding occasion and family benefits, the representative may see the association as a supporting and minding association. prizes are imperative factors that clarify certain activity perspectives that contribute altogether to the association, for example, work fulfillment. the significant target of the examination is looking at the significance of non-fiscal impetuses in an association. the examination inferred that keeping in mind the end goal to bring "great work inspiration" and not just "cash inspiration" distinctive kinds of non-financial motivations must be presented in an association. non-money related acknowledgment can be extremely propelling, building sentiments of certainty and fulfillment. kumari (2015) the addition in the level of passionate insight of workers brings about a greater amount of common help, regard and gaining from each other. among eight clashes determination styles, bargain (approach) and dispersion (evasion) styles are altogether anticipated by passionate knowledge. dispersion is observed to be best anticipated by passionate insight. the representatives in the examination had better than expected level of enthusiastic knowledge and are decidedly and essentially identified with their execution in the association. more elevated amount of passionate insight drives representatives towards arrangement with association's objectives and goals. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 91-101 94 alam (2015) it is discovered that the vast majority of the medical promotion officers (mpos) are not happy with their employments and for this they are not roused and for this their turnover propensity is high. the mpos are disappointed with their employer stability, societal position, working burden, visit to retailers' shop, deals focus on, no space for family, not getting the retirement advantage and not getting the family protection bolster. it is recommended by the power field examination demonstrate for expelling the limiting/negative powers factors for decreasing the turnover rate. kumari (2015) preparing is a urgent procedure in an association and accordingly should be all around outlined. in particular, the preparation projects ought to give satisfactory learning to all representatives, guarantee adjust strategies are utilized for the choice of students, and keep away from any view of biasness. the study concluded that the employees were not fully satisfied by the separation of the training program into two parts, on the job and off the job training, but if sufficient data would have been provided to the employees in advance, this could have helped them during the training process. kumari (2014) the study concluded that there exists a relationship between perceived fairness of performance appraisal and employee performance. the aftereffect of the measurable investigation was that there exists a huge effect of apparent reasonableness of execution evaluation on worker execution. the examination presumes that apparent reasonableness of execution evaluation conduct assumes an extremely essential part in adding to authoritative working and execution accordingly giving a superior lucidity to the connection between representative execution and saw decency of execution evaluation. aarabi et al. (2013) the outcomes demonstrated that among the motivational components, two factors were observed to be huge indicators of employment execution. preparing contributed 40.4% to work execution while advancement contributed an extra 3%. inherent motivational variables are viewed as more essential contrasted with outward motivational factors, for example, installment, professional stability, and neighborly condition. opportunity a natural variable however was not observed to be essentially identified with work execution. kilam and kumari (2012) career growth and development needs a consciously planned effort on the part of the individual careerist and the same cannot be left to chance. nearly 81% respondents perceived that well-established private sector in india and the foreign banks had better career planning & hrd system as compared to that in indian public sector banks. over the years and in tune with the changing times, indian public sector banks have reviewed their hr & promotion policy and now for bright, hardworking and knowledgeable employees it takes comparatively lesser time to move to higher levels in banking hierarchy. this attitudinal change has to be ongoing & purposive. kumari (2011) the investigation estimated the level of worker fulfillment at goodbye steel. preparing was the factor which added to worker fulfillment more than different variables. alternate measurements crosswise over which the representative fulfillment was estimated were prevalent subordinate relationship, part, culture, profession advancement, objectives and inspiration. 3. research methodology the lodging business is anticipated to develop significantly in the years ahead. there is an incredible requirement for professionally prepared work force at both operational and administrative levels. an essential administrative capacity in any association is to rouse workers. this is on account of inspiration is inseparably connected to worker fulfillment and guarantees representatives reliably exceed expectations at their occupations. inspiration is particularly imperative in the cordiality and tourism industry, where representative fulfillment and capability are key determinants of administration quality. the research aims to the following objectives:  to find out the factors which motivate hospitality industry employees  to find out whether hospitality industry employees get motivated through training or not 3.1. data collection methods a) secondary data: the main sources of secondary data were the internet, books and journals on motivation and training and reward management and fhrai magazine. b) primary data: the primary data has been collected through a structured questionnaire. the questionnaire had both open ended and closed-ended questions. i have contacted some of the managers and their employees of the oberoi hotel to get their views on the research topic. sample size: the questionnaires were filled by 5 managers and 40 employees of the oberoi hotel, new delhi. sampling technique: simple random sampling has been used in the study. 4. data analysis and interpretations 4.1. analysis for managers 1. do you agree to the statement “motivation comes from within an individual? no amount of hr practices can influence motivation levels of employees”. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 91-101 95 figure-1. showing responses of managers for question 1 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire interpretation: above graph shows that most of the respondents do not agree to the fact that motivation comes from within an individual. hr practices can influence motivation levels of the employees. 2. do you think that motivation and productivity of hospitality employees are interrelated? figure-2. showing responses of managers for question 2 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire interpretation: according to the survey all the managers agree to the fact that motivation and productivity of hospitality employees are interrelated. 3. what are the factors that motivate employees in your organization? please rank the motivation factors as to how they motivate you to perform well (on a scale of 1 to 6) for the following (6highly motivating, 1least motivating): figure-3. showing responses of managers for question 3 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire interpretation: salary and wages have been ranked as motivating factor by four managers while only one manager has ranked it as least motivating. training has been ranked 3 by three managers and 2 by two managers that indicates that training is not an important motivating factor. one manager has ranked empowerment as asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 91-101 96 highly motivating while only four managers have ranked it as least motivating. all the managers have ranked environment and work culture as a motivating factor. job security has been ranked 3 by two managers, 2 by two managers and 4 by 1 managers. it indicates that job security is not an important motivating factor. 4. do you think that training is an important tool to enhance the performance of employees? figure-4. showing responses of managers for question 4 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire interpretation: all the managers agree to the fact that training is an important tool to enhance the performance of the employees. 5. what according to you is the purpose of training in the hospitality industry? figure-5. showing responses of managers for question 5 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire interpretation: the most important purpose of training as per the managers is preparing for future assignments in the same position. the next important purpose is preparing for promotions. all the managers have ranked training as a second motivational element. while development of specific abilities and competence have been ranked as 1. 6. what kind of training programs do you have in your organization? figure-6. showing responses of managers for question 6 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 91-101 97 interpretation: above graph shows that the hotel imparted case study training to the employees followed by complaint handling training. 7. do you evaluate your training programs for effectiveness of training? figure-7. showing responses of managers for question 7 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire interpretation: the hotel evaluates their training programmes for the effectiveness of the training. 8. please rate the training programmes conducted in your organization on a scale of 1-4? (1least, 4most) figure-8. showing responses of managers for question 7 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire interpretation: above bar graph shows that all the managers are satisfied with the training conducted in their organisation. 4.2. analysis for employees 1. do you agree with the statement that motivation leads to improved productivity? figure-9. showing responses of managers for question 8 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 91-101 98 interpretation: from the survey of the employees, 85% of the employees agree with the statement that motivation leads to improved productivity and 15% of them do not agree to this statement. 2. what are the various tools used by your organization to motivate the employees? figure-10. showing responses of employees for question 1 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire interpretation: financial rewards are used by organizations to motivate employees. training and promotions are also used as a motivation tools. job appreciation, rotation and redesign are used as a motivation tools for a few employees. 3. do you think training is an important tool to motivate employees? figure-11. showing responses of employees for question 2 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire interpretation: above graph shows that 77% of the respondents agreed and 23% of the respondents did not agree with the statement that training is an important tool to motivate the employees in the organization. 4. how many days of training are imparted to a person in a calendar year? figure-12. showing responses of employees for question 3 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 91-101 99 interpretation: above graph shows that at least 70% of the respondents conform to the fact that in one financial year they are imparted training for less than a week. 5. what all training programmes have you undergone in the last calendar year? (list any two) the following training has been imparted to hotel employees in the last calendar year: front office, induction of various departments, front office cashing, bomb threat training, fire fighting & safety, personal hygiene, stress management, guest satisfaction programme, and grooming. 6. are the training programmes in your organization evaluated for improvement in skills and overall performance? figure-13. showing responses of employees for question 4 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire interpretation: about 70% of the respondents agree and 30% of the respondents do not agree to the statement that training program in their organization is evaluated for improvement in skills and overall performance. 7. how do you rate the training you have undergone on a scale of 1-4? (1least, 4most) figure-14 showing responses of employees for question 6 source: self made from the responses of the questionnaire interpretation: the above graph shows that 23% of the respondents have rated the training undertaken by them on a scale of 2 while 77% of the respondents have rated it on a scale of 3. 5. findings the objectives were to find the factors which motivate the employees, evaluate the training methods and to find whether training is still an effective tool to motivate employees in the hospitality industry or not. following are the findings of the study:  hotels from time to time impart training to managers and employees and these trainings improve the quality and quantity of work done by them. the training also creates more favorable attitudes, loyalty and cooperation from the employees towards the organization. these trainings enable the workers in their self-improvement and headway and furthermore to help associations to react to dynamic economic situations and changing shopper requests.  the training programmes are different for different levels of employees like stress management training are specifically designed for managers, which are in line with their job profile. some training programmes are specifically designed for the employee’s day-to-day needs and as per their departments. there is some training like hygiene, fire and safety, which are common to all the employees of the hotel.  the various training programs for hotel staff are problem solving, role-playing, simulation and complaint handling.  all the managers disagree to the statement that motivation comes from within an individual. no amount of practices can influence motivation levels of employees. they agree to the fact that motivation and productivity of employees are interrelated. the most important factor that motivates employees as per the managers is salary and wages. the managers think that training is an important tool to enhance the performance of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 91-101 100 employees. though the purpose of training program to prepare the employees for future assignments in the same position but still has a motivational element.  all the training programs conducted by hotel are evaluated for effectiveness. the hotel’s managers have ranked their training programme as 4, which mean they are of the view that hotel training programmes are in line with the interest of organization and individual.  about 85% of the employees agree that motivation leads to improved productivity.  the work environment in the hospitality sector is a challenging one. it provides opportunity for growth and advancement with a working environment that can be considered the best in the industry. but with the rewards and benefits come long working hours, demanding seniors and stress.  managers do not actually motivate their employees because motivation is internal to each individual. motivation cannot be viewed directly; as with the wind, only the results are observable. management’s job is to provide an organizational culture that encourages positive employee behaviors. hence management in today’s environment however, cannot rely on the financial rewards, improved working conditions or empowerment to stimulate workers to perform effectively. motivation is a much more complicated process. employers/managers need to understand those forces, which influence workers’ behaviors. a manager’s major motivational task is to develop and maintain environment, in which workers will want to be productive, contributing members of the organization.  today’s human resource management professionals must recognize that in order to achieve a corporate culture that fosters improved productivity, employee’s whether on a managerial position or on operational level personal needs must be reasonably well satisfied.  so to achieve organizational goals the management must try to get the maximum quality output from their employees. to give the quality and quantity output the employees must be ready to give in their best to whatever they do and this is possible when their basic needs are satisfied. a satisfied worker is the one who can give his best performance because than he is able to concentrate on his job and is not bothered about his basic needs. once these need level is achieved an individual starts looking for the next level of needs. these necessities if cultivated by the businesses will teach a feeling of faithfulness and incite him to give his best to every one of his assignments. thus leading to a high order of performance and thus the highest order of productivity.  training is also an important part of hr activities when employees are transferred to other departments or promoted to higher positions in the organizations. training is also an important part of the appraisal procedures and at times used by the hotel management to motivate employees. 6. conclusions it is difficult enough to try and define what makes oneself ‘tick’, without trying to understand other people’s motivations. the fact that there are so many theories of motivations is an indication of the complexities of the issue. perhaps the most important point for the potential manager is to consider is that there is a very wide range of ways in which someone may be motivated. on the off chance that hr must be produced, the association ought to make conditions in which individuals obtain new learning and abilities and create sound examples of conduct and styles. one of the fundamental instruments of accomplishing this condition is preparing. preparing is basic since innovation is growing consistently and at a quick rate. frameworks and practices get obsolete soon because of new revelations in innovation, including specialized, administrative and behavioral angles. associations, which don't create systems to make up for lost time with and utilize the developing innovation, soon end up obsolete. preparing and improvement are essential exercises in all associations, expansive and little. each association, paying little mind to estimate, needs all around prepared representatives in its workforce who are set up to play out their employments. for the hotel industry in particular training is a useful tool for an effective development of the available human resource. the job in a hotel involves lot of work pressures and the employees need to be able to cope with this. though the purpose of training in hotel is to prepare the employees for future assignments but still training empowers him with knowledge and skill, which in turn affects his motivation level. the study has proved through the survey of managers and employees of oberoi hotel in new delhi that training still leads to motivation of employees. thus training although traditional, still retains its position as an important motivational tool. 7. recommendations training and motivation in hospitality industry is a vast topic of discussion. the organizations use different tools to motivate employees. training is one of the effective tools used by hotels to empower and motivate employees. to discuss the relevance of training and motivation in itself is very vast topic and cannot be done in a single study. it will require a lot of further research in different hotel segments and employee segments to get an overall view of training and motivation of hotel employees. it is recommended that further research be done with more sample size and more hotels in india to gauge the importance of training as a motivation tool. references aarabi, m.s., i.d. subramaniam and a.b.a.a.b. akeel, 2013. relationship between motivational factors and job performance of employees in malaysian service industry. asian social science, 9(9): 301-310. view at google scholar | view at publisher alam, s.m.t., 2015. factors affecting job satisfaction, motivation and turnover rate of medical promotion officer (mpo) in pharmaceutical industry: a study 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çeti̇nkaya2 fatih mehmet uğurlu3  ( corresponding author) 1,3firat university sports sciences faculty, turkey 2ahi evran university school of physical education and sports, turkey abstract the aim of this study was to determine the factors that are effective in the non-preference of park and recreation areas in the city center of gaziantep metropolitan municipality according to different variables. there were no significant differences between the income and the variables affecting participation in activities in parks and recreation areas (p> 0.05), and the absence of participation in activities in parks and recreation areas when women prefer park and recreation areas (p <0.05). there was no significant difference between health status of participants and reasons of not choosing park and recreation areas (p> 0.05). women in parks and recreation areas are more likely to be exposed to physical assault than men, and those who do not have the necessary spare time to participate in these areas are not very interested in recreation areas because of their family responsibilities they have not been able to use such areas. keywords: park, recreation, local government, leisure time. citation | abdurrahman kirtepe; turan çetġnkaya; fatih mehmet uğurlu (2018). examınatıon of the factors effectıng the use of parks and recreatıon areas in terms of dıfferent varıables. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(2): 6064. history: received: 23 february 2018 revised: 30 march 2018 accepted: 2 april 2018 published: 4 april 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 61 2. material and method....................................................................................................................................................................... 61 3. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 62 4. discussion and conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................. 63 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 64 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.52.60.64&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3268-2192 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6363-5300 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6830-4383 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3268-2192 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6363-5300 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6830-4383 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3268-2192 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6363-5300 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6830-4383 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3268-2192 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6363-5300 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6830-4383 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 60-64 61 1. introduction in line with the increasing technological developments, there has been an increase in free time and this has caused individuals to seek activities to evaluate this free time and the concept of recreation has emerged. recreation english, create, create, which means “create” in front of the verb; again, again, which means the “re” prefix with the arrival of “recreation” (recreation), worn by labor and other factors, means that the revival of tired individuals (axelsen, 2009).‟ „the concept of recreation is, in a sense, an explanation of how free time can be assessed‟‟ (devere, 2010). recreational activities contribute to the improvement of social behavior in meeting the person's psychological needs, making them feel good (tinsley and eldredge, 1995). sports activities are also mentioned as a priority in recreation activities (kul et al., 2015). there are many factors that affect the individual's participation in leisure activities and preferences. there are many factors that affect the individual's participation in leisure activities and preferences. these can be grouped as individual and non-individual factors. individual factors include needs, motives, perceptions, attitudes, experiences, concept of self, value judgments. non-individual factors can be defined as culture, profession, family, reference groups (tenekecioğlu, 2003). in addition, it is important to note that the factors that affect the participation of the individual in leisure activities are cultural factors (culture, subculture, social class), personal factors (age and life period, occupation, economic characteristics, lifestyle), personality, social factors (reference groups, family, roles and status) and psychological factors (motivation, perception, learning, attitudes and beliefs) (cömert and durmaz, 2006). how the individual evaluates their free time; the characteristics of the social environment in which it is located, the facilities in place, the kinds of activities that are intensively performed around them, the living habits of the family, the income of the individual, the age, the subculture characteristics, the personality, physical structure, gender, education, possibilities and capabilities, it depends largely on the geographical characteristics of the area in question (demir and demir, 2006). how the individual evaluates their free time; the characteristics of the social environment in which it is located, the facilities in place, the kinds of activities that are intensively performed around them, the living habits of the family, the income of the individual, the age, the subculture characteristics, the personality, physical structure, gender, education, possibilities and capabilities, it depends largely on the geographical characteristics of the area in question (demir and demir, 2006). recreational activities in which people participate in their free time seem to be very beneficial for the mental and physical health of the individual. research shows that people do not participate in such activities that are so important for them because of different reasons, or they are prevented from different reasons (çoruh, 2013). the behavior of individuals to assess their free time may be affected by a variety of changes from the traditions of the community in which they live to their needs. while participation in leisure time activities differs according to people's lifestyle, characteristics and use of time, the type of activities, the way in which they participate, and the amount of time individuals spend on these activities; race, social and personal characteristics, age and gender (tolukan, 2010). one of the areas where recreation activities are most beneficial is the parks. within the scope of the regulation on the duties and works of the directorate of parks and horticulture which is prepared on the basis of the municipal law no. 5393 under the directorate of parks and horticulture, especially the metropolitan and district municipalities, the aim is to serve the recreational activities of adults, young people and children on the borders of the province / district and to establish walkways, bicycle paths, sports areas, green areas within the parks and to carry out maintenance, repair and improvement works. when it looks at turkey in general; it is seen that individuals from the walking and bicycle paths in the parks built by the municipalities and the fitness devices located in the sports fields have benefited individuals intensively. but compared to developed countries in turkey could be said that not sufficient number of individuals benefiting from this style park. turkey is also to increase the number of people who participate in sports are known to be many applications, these services are provided by municipalities, one of these applications. in order to determine the interests and tendencies of individuals, factors such as gender, age, income, heredity and education should be taken into consideration in the recreation program (karaküçük, 1995). the aim of this study is to determine the factors affecting these preferences of individuals who do not use the park and recreation areas belonging to the metropolitan municipality of gaziantep according to different variables. 2. material and method 2.1. universe and sampling the aim of the research is to determine the obstacles to the use of recreational areas of the local government in the provincial center of gaziantep according to different variables. the sample group of the study consisted of 247 people, 131 male and 116 female, who were randomly selected and did not use recreational areas belonging to the local government in the city center of gaziantep. the results of the study were collected with 17 questions and 5 subscales developed by gümüģ and alay (2017) and validity and reliability studies were conducted with participation inhibition scales related to the use of the recreation area. 2.2. analysis of data the data obtained from the study were analyzed using the spss 22 packet program. in order to make the analyses accurate, the normality test was performed. according to this, kruskal-wallis was used in multiple groups in the analysis of the data with no normal distribution and mann whitney-u test was applied in comparison of the binary groups in which the difference occurred. significance level was accepted as p <0.05. looking at table 1, 53% of the respondents were men and 47% women. according to the distribution of participants among age groups, 43.7% of the participants were aged 19-29, 36.8% were aged 30-40, 13% were aged 41-51, and 6.5% were aged 52 or over. according to the income status, it is determined that 12,6% of them are between 0-1500 tl, 81,8% of them are between 1501-3000 tl, and those with income of 3001 tl and above are 5.7%. when it is considered that the participants have a special intermediate, it is determined that 6.9% are primary schools and 40.3% of them have a median of 59.7%. my health condition is bad of those who say 2.4%, of those who say it's not bad 10.5% sure of the health status of non-5.3% of those who say my health condition was very good by asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 60-64 62 55.9 per cent of those who said is good % 25,1 about 0.8 percent of those who say my health condition is excellent. a total of 247 participants participated in the study. 3. results table-1. personal information belonging to participants n % gender male women 131 53,0 116 47,0 age 19-29 30-40 41-51 52 and over 108 43,7 91 36,8 32 13,0 16 6,5 monthly income (tl) 0 -1500 1501-3000 3001 and over 31 12,6 202 81,8 14 5,7 special vehicle yes no 100 40,3 147 59,7 health situation bad not bad i am not sure good very good excellent 6 2,4 26 10,5 13 5,3 138 55,9 62 25,1 2 0,8 total 247 100 table-2. results of the mann whitney-u test to test the significance of the difference between participant barriers to recreational area use according to gender variable of participants. security barriers gender order average u z p male women 104,60 145,91 5057,000 -4,553 0,00* time barriers male women 122,48 125,72 7398,500 -,363 0,717 friend barriers male women 119,03 129,61 6947,000 -1,176 0,239 sports area barriers male women 120,63 127,80 7157,000 -,795 0,426 individual barriers male women 134,65 111,97 6202,500 -2,506 0,012* p<0,05 in table 2, non-parametric mann whitney-u test was conducted to determine whether there was a significant difference between the scale of safety, time, friend, sport area and individual barrier subscale and gender variation. in the subscale of safety and individual disability between men and women, 0.05 level, respectively. table-3. results of the kruskal wallis test to test the significance of the difference between participation inhibitor scale for recreational area use according to participants' income status variable security barriers income status order average p 0-1500 1501-3000 3001 and over 141,97 121,57 119,25 0,321 time barriers 0-1500 1501-3000 3001 and over 145,11 121,07 119,57 0,200 friend 0-1500 116,24 barriers 1501-3000 124,10 0,586 3001 and 139,71 over sports area 0-1500 133,00 0,699 barriers 1501-3000 123,18 3001 and over 115,86 individual 0-1500 96,03 barriers 1501-3000 128,26 0,063 3001 and 124,50 over p<0,05 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 60-64 63 there was no significant difference between the income levels of the individuals included in the study and the subscales of the scale (p> 0.05). table-4. results of the mann whitney-u test to test the significance of the difference between the participation inhibition scales for recreational area use according to participants' mediating variable. security barriers private vehicle order average u z p yes no 108,87 132,42 5818,500 -2,559 0,011* time barriers yes no 105,78 134,48 5515,000 -3,164 0,002* freind yes 111,24 6051,000-2,147 0,032* barriers no 130,84 sports area yes 111,64 6089,500-2,071 0,038* barriers no 130,57 individual yes 134,66 6060,500-2,115 0,034* barriers no 115,23 p<0,05 there is a difference in the security, time, friend and sports disability subscales between those who do not have a car and those who do not. there was a significant difference between individuals with and without special intervention in the individual barrier subscale (p <0.05). table-5. results of the kruskal wallis test to test the significance of the difference between participant barriers score and recreational area use according to health status variables. security barriers general health status order average p bad not bad i am not sure good very good excellent 90,92 121,65 115,77 129,55 114,72 212,00 0,264 time barriers bad not bad i am not sure good very good excellent 36,50 126,75 126,23 127,64 121,46 164,00 0,062 friend bad 81,42 barriers no bad 147,56 i am not sure 101,69 0,063 good 128,55 very good 110,66 excellent 189,75 sports area bad 68,58 barriers no bad 120,87 i am not sure 114,88 0,065 good 132,67 very good 110,69 excellent 204,50 individual bad 141,25 barriers no bad 125,35 i am not sure 132,62 0,440 good 116,53 very good 137,65 excellent 91,00 p<0,05 there was no significant difference between the general health status of the participants and the subscales of the scale (p> 0,05). 4. discussion and conclusion parks and recreation areas belonging to local governments are areas of activity that they use for purposes such as moving away from the materialistic expectation that people voluntarily participate in their leisure time within the borders of the city they live in, and for strangeness, leisure, recreation, wellness and socialization. it is known that these areas are not used adequately at present and the expected participation is not achieved. in this section, the factors which are effective in the preference of the parks and recreation areas belonging to the local administrations of the individuals are examined and discussed according to the different variables. it was seen that the women in the scope of the research carried safety concerns about park and recreation areas (table 2). women in parks and recreation areas were more likely to be exposed to physical assault than men and that succulent slopes preferred these areas and had a fear of being sexually assaulted. demir and demir (2006) found that there are many factors that affect people's participation in leisure activities, and the study showed that the degree of influence of each factor varies according to gender. today, it can be said that the women who are subjected to violence have little interest in such activities. there was no significant difference between the income status of the participants and the variable affecting their participation in activities in the park and recreation area (table 3). according to a survey conducted by çankırı on habits of people's leisure time evaluation, it is seen that the participants with asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 60-64 64 income status between 2001-3000 tl have a more positive perception of the adequacy of the recreation areas in çankırı according to the participants in other income levels (öztürk and tecimen, 2017). it is thought that the results of the research in different directions are due to differences between provinces. a significant difference was observed between the individuals who participated in the study and those who did not participate in the activities in the park and recreation areas (table 4). the participants stated that those who do not have a particular vehicle were hesitant about safety in these areas, but also that they did not have any spare time to participate in these areas, or that they did not have any friends who would spend time in these areas, but also that the activities in these areas were inadequate and the sports equipment. it has been observed that the participants with special tools are not very interested in recreational areas and they cannot use such areas because of their family responsibilities. in a survey, the majority of the participants stated that they were walking (75.1%) to the areas within the city, but it was observed that the picnic areas were used in transportation, private car or public transport vehicles, and those who were close to these areas were able to reach them on foot. the most commonly used vehicle for transportation to the areas around the city is the private highway (65.1%). the rate of people using public transport is 33.8% (talay et al., 2010). park and recreation areas are generally located in city centers, so people cannot be disturbed due to transportation, and people who do not prefer these areas can be told not to participate in activities because of different reasons, not because of transportation. the participants stated that their health status is good in general. it has been determined in some studies that active leisure, which has spent its leisure time at the same time as physical activity, has an effect on physical health, with unobserved elements such as enjoyment, time preference, time cost (komlos et al., 2004). it has been shown through studies that recreational activities have positive effects on health. as a result; the fact that women do not prefer parks and recreation areas of gaziantep metropolitan municipality due to their security concerns and that income is not an important factor in choosing activities in these areas and that they do not have an important factor in not choosing these areas is usually due to inadequate leisure time, , it is seen that the sports equipment in the field are obstacles to participation in parks and recreation areas due to their inadequate and neglected status and that those who have a car in particular have excessive family responsibilities and lack of knowledge 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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=the%20power%20of%20leisure:%20i%20was%20an%20anoexic;%20i’m%20now%20a%20healthy%20triathlet http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01490400902988283 http://dx.doi.org/10.14687%20/%20jhs.v14i1.4448 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=obesity%20and%20there%20rate%20of%20time%20preference’s%20there%20a%20connection? http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021932003006205 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=the%20role%20of%20sports%20in%20recreational%20activities https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=psychological%20benefits%20of%20leisure%20participation:%20taxonomy%20of%20leisure%20activities%20based%20on%20their%20need-gratifying%20properties http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.42.2.123 82 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 3, 82-86, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.82.86 gender and conflict joshua okyere1 1international studies dept, ohio university, usa abstract violent conflicts come with a high level of wreckage on lives, property, and survival networks. armed conflict terrorizes and kills large numbers of people, creates economic dislocation, human and capital flight, massive impoverishment and social breakdown. thus, making the challenges faced by post-conflict countries more severe than those faced by poor but peaceful developing countries. during a war, women are considered vulnerable to exploitation, abuse, sexual slavery, disease, and forced recruitment into armed groups. as survivors of violent conflict, they bear the burden of reconstruction. this kind of stereotypical connotation associated with women has led to gender inequality regarding who is considered as weak and victim during a war. it is contended that men are the ones who engage in war and when they are killed, disappear, or dislocated, women are left behind with the burden of ensuring family livelihood. women and their roles in society have become more and more prominent not only in the scientific discussions of conflict but also post-conflict reconstruction and sustenance of peace. this work, therefore, sought to discuss how the discourse about war is gendered and throwed light on gendered violence in contemporary warfare and the gendered role played during war/conflict. besides, it discusses the impact of conflict on women as well as the role women played in post-conflict reconstruction to enhance development. i do not try to base my arguments on a bias male perspective but the available literature and contend that though women suffer violence in war-torn societies, they are not only victims of war but also engage in war. keywords: conflict, gender. citation | joshua okyere (2018). gender and conflict. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(3): 82-86. history: received: 2 april 2018 revised: 18 april 2018 accepted: 20 april 2018 published: 23 april 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 83 2. the gendered dimension of conflict ......................................................................................................................................... 83 3. role of gender and women’s right in post-conflict reconstruction ................................................................................. 84 4. the impact of war/conflict on women .................................................................................................................................... 84 5. conclusion and recommendation ................................................................................................................................................ 85 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 85 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.53.82.86&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5753-309x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5753-309x asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 82-86 83 1. introduction violent conflicts have been a permeating factor in today‟s world principally in less developed countries which has a lot of negative ramifications on development (buvinic et al., 2012). women are believed to be prone to exploitation and abuse ranging from sexual slavery, compulsory recruitment into armed groups during wartimes. as survivors of violent conflict, they bear the burden of reconstruction. this kind of stereotypical connotation associated with women has led to gender inequality regarding who is considered as weak and victim during a war. it is contended that men are the ones who engage in war and when they are killed, disappear, or dislocated, women are left behind with the burden of ensuring family livelihood. conflict from the social point of view refers to the struggles between two parties over scarce resources and goals that are not compatible. in the same vein, from the political perspective, conflict may be seen as intensified struggle at any level among groups who have the aim of gaining influence in areas of “power, resources, interest, needs” and to a certain degree, one of the group presupposes that there is incompatibility in that dimension of relationship (igbuzor, 2011). conflict does not always mean violence. however, the use of conflict in this work denotes violent conflicts and wars. gender may simply be referred to the duties of men and women that are constructed by society and culture. the idea of gender also incorporates the desires held about the attributes, capabilities and possible practices of men and women herein referred to as masculinity and femininity (unesco, 2003 as cited in unterhalter and north (2010)). women have different perceptions with regards to the emanation of certain conflicts, the ways to handle it and the prospects available to prevent its intensification specifically due to the patriarchal nature of the society that has virtually excluded women from the “ownership and control of contested resources” (sikoska and solomon, 2002). women are often excluded from the policy-making process in post-conflict situations. in spite of their salient role as peace builders, the unequal gender relations and male hegemony catalyze marginalization. women and their roles in society have become more and more prominent not only in the scientific discussions of conflict but also post-conflict reconstruction and sustenance of peace (birgitten, 1998; mcgrew et al., 2004). to do an analysis of the roots of conflict and how it can be prevented from a gendered standpoint, it will be prudent to examine the following questions. how is the discourse of war gendered and what are the roles women play in war? what is the role of gender in post-conflict reconstruction? what are some of the gender roles and rights of women in a post-conflict environment? what impact does war/conflict have on women? 2. the gendered dimension of conflict wars and revolutions have been viewed as an exclusive preserve of men battling to either defend some class of people or champion the protection of state or a group‟s ideology. in these specific situations, women are characterized in their capacity as wives, mothers and considered vulnerable. “it is too simplistic to assume that it is in the nature of men and women to be situated in the public and private arenas, respectively, and that it is essence of their beings that men become associated with wars, revolutions, and rebellions, while women become associated with peace” (afshar, 2003). this claim of society considering men to be assertive and hence the proponents of violent conflict call for the statement above. it would be blatant to conclude that all the time women are those who suffer during war. the gendered conception of the role women plays in “armed conflicts and wars” creates discrimination which reinforces the inequalities “between men and women” (mjaaland, 2006). most scholars consider women as victims, looking at the way women who are engaged in insurgent groups are sometimes coerced and forced to enroll, and also due to the widespread of sexual abuse during wartime (coulter, 2008). empirical history of middle east in an islamic context debunks the notion of women regarded as peacemakers and emphasize on women as both revolutionaries and combatants (afshar, 2003). for instance, muslim women have kept on taking part in wars and battles over the century. citing iran as a case, afshar (2003) notes that historically speaking, women have taken part in protest, rebellions, and revolutions in the form of leading riots to demand cheaper bread in the nineteenth century, played a more significant role in the tobacco revolution of 1981 which resulted in a ban on tobacco. in a similar vein, women in iran during the second world war were active in the revolutions that took place in 1953 and 1979 (p.179). women taking part in war is not a new phenomenon though the likelihood of it been accepted as a fact is minimal (coulter, 2008). coulter (2008) argues that women are also active participants in war who serve in various capacities ranging from spies, soldiers, and rebels. however, she notes that there is a restriction concerning choices women make during conflict due to the hierarchical structures and context. she believed that war is still triggered by men and not women, but one cannot focus on women only as victims. through a data demonstration gathered from interviews granted with some informants who had been both perpetrators and victims of the sierra leone war, he posits that majority of the women have had multiple experiences of either being a fighter, rape victims, looters, mothers or lovers. (p.69) she provides an option for the dualism that sees men as violent perpetrators of war and women as active peacemakers. coulter blames this kind of duality on the presence of humanitarian discourse by referring to martha thompson; 2006 who noted that “in most aid discourse and conflict analysis on women and war, women are 'located' primarily as refugees, displaced persons, or victims” (thompson, 2006). he further noted that this notion of victimhood has crippled women and as a result has led to what he called „lack of agency (coulter, 2008). generally, women participate in wars that engulf their nations by either providing pragmatic support to the warriors or getting involved in the battlefield and fighting alongside with men. women, for instance, were given the same military training as men in the anc forces in south africa to fight during the apartheid era and in vietnam and southern sudan women were mighty warriors (afshar, 2003). adel halim, 1998 cited in afshar (2003) notes that during wartime, there is a dilution of a gender barrier. this is to say because women act as active participants of war it helps do away with gender differences. it is, however, acknowledged that these bridging of gender differences might sometimes not live to see the test of time as men feel women participation are just marginal which further pushes for a relegation of women to the background. women asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 82-86 84 who do not have confrontations in the battlefield provide support to the men. in the wake of the palestinian conflict, women played invisible roles publicly by sneaking food, keeping watch and sometimes created routes of escape for the men (taylor, 1999 cited in afshar (2003)). some scholars argue that violence perpetrated against civilians cannot be avoided neither is it a lousy ramification of war, but a significant strategy employed in contemporary wars (mazurana, 2005 as cited in thompson (2006)). this argument calls for a gendered examination of how warriors and those engaged in war see sexual violence as part of their approach and tactics. this point raises the question of always seeing masculine to be involved in military affairs while women remain victims. 3. role of gender and women’s right in post-conflict reconstruction post conflict reconstruction is seen as dealing with the aftermath traumas of both civil wars and internal conflict in such countries to enhance the economic, political and social changes to provide a means to ensure peace and the promotion of democracy (del castillo, 2001). post-struggle rehabilitation offers chances to set up new standards and guidelines, connect with new pioneers, and manufacture new organizations. each of these procedures provides an opportunity to concentrate on women's rights, incorporating them in decision making and recognize and esteem them in the society (zuckerman and greenberg, 2004). there is a redefinition of national security ideas with regards to enhancing the “political and social status quo” which is entrenched in a factual and typical manner to bringing together “gender identities, roles and bodies in the service of the new polity” (afshar, 2003). many at times, women have not been allowed to take an active part in the post-conflict reconstruction process. there is the situation that those who serve to mediate peace among the parties involved in war happen to be those who set the power relations for post-war activities (al-ali, 2005). during post-conflict reconstruction, the power to participate in politics is endowed to men while relegating women to the family and household duties (cockburn and zarkov, 2002). some women in war-torn societies, however, find ways and means to champion the cause of peace and reconciliation by engaging in grassroots advocacy (al-ali, 2005). for instance, during the post-conflict reconstruction in northern in sri lanka, women played a pivotal role in the peace process and hence debunked the notion that they are not present or not adequately represented in the post-conflict process. during policy, women views are heard and incorporated into all aspect of peace and reconciliation process (harris, 2004). the continuous marginalization of women in post-conflict environment necessitated a call for a un resolution geared towards gender mainstreaming in 2000. a un resolution adopted in 2000 by the security council calls on all member countries in their quest to maintain peace and security to include women as well as increase their role in making decisions in areas of “conflict prevention and resolution” (mjaaland, 2006). also, women‟s role as caretakers of home traditionally necessitates in a post-conflict environment their role of emotional adjustment. since ideologies are only halted during wars, after wars, the revival of the nation has ideologically become dependent on women. they return to their homes to partake in their usual household chores of caring for the home. however, in most cases due to the ravaging effects of conflict such as racial identity may serve as a barrier to women in maintaining their place in society to perform their functions as socializers in their families (afshar, 2003). as stated earlier, there is the need for women‟s right to be considered during post-conflict reconstruction to enhance gender equality. zuckerman and greenberg (2004) noted that there are four main set of rights which needs to be tackled from the lens of women-in-development approach to help eliminate gender inequality. notable among them are rights to political participation of women in the form of drafting constitutions and filling positions that were hitherto occupied by men. they argue that there is the need to reinforce women skill for leadership by spending resources to develop women‟s ability to contest for a position, win seats and serve effectively and efficiently. by this, women would be able to bring social transformation and promote gender equality in their governance. also, right to own property. during post-conflict reconstruction, there is dispute resolution and the drafting of property laws to safeguard the rights of individuals to property ownership. these laws drafted must be geared towards giving women the authority to own property. again, women have the right to be employed. post-conflict reconstruction usually comes with new laws eliminating gender inequality, however, if there is no vigorous enforcement of the laws, employers often ignore the law and discriminate. there is, therefore, a need for strict enforcement of laws to eradicate discrimination in employment to enhance gender equality. additionally, women in a post-conflict environment are entitled to the enjoyment of the right to freedom from violence. it is believed that the demobilized soldiers having been exposed to military life are likely to use force to inflict pains and abuse on women, and hence women need to be protected to enhance equitable gender relations. 4. the impact of war/conflict on women women are adversely affected than men in wartime. women suffer from the consequences of war that are indirect (plümper and neumayer, 2006). there is the general contention that women become displaced economically in times of conflict with regards to their roles both in the home and in the community. according to justino et al. (2012) there is not enough evidence or proof to support that contention. however they note that there are some recent comparative case studies that have been conducted in countries like tajikistan and timor-leste, kosovo, bosnia and herzegovina etc that goes on to attest to the fact that conflict can serve as a means of increasing the economic activity of women primarily through partaking in the labor market which he believes will most often lead to an enhancement in the welfare of both the home and society (justino et al., 2012). though conflict may serve as a means of increasing women economic activity, it has become a rule that in many cases female work is associated with reduced remuneration, low-skilled jobs. etc. in the same vein, el-bushra and sahl (2005) basing their arguments on case studies from uganda, sudan, mali, angola and somalia which are the conflict-prone zones in africa posit that women gain greater economic participation which enhances their empowerment in the home. according to them in many cases, women are empowered to be decision makers within the family once they become the main providers of needed items for survival. they, however, discovered that, though there may be changes in social, institutional practices in conflict situations but is generally to a limited asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(3): 82-86 85 degree. we can see from this that even if women assume the role of a breadwinner, it would just be for a while and they would return to their state of nature. ruddick et al. (1998) argued that women went through many atrocities ranging from death, sexual abuse and anguish, losing their precious ones, homes, and communities. there is the assumption that women are not likely to die during wartimes since generally speaking, there are few women who serve in the armed forces. but there is a high propensity of civilian women being killed in war than soldiers (ruddick et al., 1998). in addition, they contended that women are direct casualties of war. this is because the bombings that are released target civilians and according to the history of the past centuries, more civilians are killed. women who do not die are susceptible to be refugees as they become displaced. to them, about four out five women in addition to their plight suffer sexual abuse, forced prostitution, rape and the likes (ruddick et al., 1998). when gendered violence perpetrated in society is supported and sanctioned by „structural violence,‟ women security would no more exist (mjaaland, 2006). this demonstrates that the safety of women is at stake in times of conflict. during wartime, women are coerced into marriages. they become vulnerable and are most at times compelled to marry their comrades as they fight alongside. they are also subjected to sexual abuses (afshar, 2003). women experience the ill effects of the conflict which leads to adverse health, economic impoverishment, infrastructural devastation and as well suffers displacement and dislocation in times of the war and its aftermath. the social order is broken, and the adverse effect is serving as a catalyst for males to behave aggressively against women, who are in most cases subjected to sexual savagery both inside and outside their local family units (plümper and neumayer, 2006). women suffer a severe physical insecurity throughout wars which places them in a state of terror. when there is a cease of fire, the combatants and warriors who are not employed continue to pose a threat to the life of the innocent people which eventually makes women trapped in their homes preventing them from going on with their social and economic activities (kumar, 2000). in spite of the insecurity, the economic responsibilities of women in the face of poverty and hardship are heightened during and after conflict. in a case study conducted in bosnia, women continued to “perform their tasks such as cooking, washing clothes and caring for children despite their spending more hours on farm work or other jobs” (kumar, 2000). again, women are subjected to domestic violence by men in countries affected by war. it is believed that violence creates a “subculture of violence.” this is to say a culture that sees acts of violence/ violent behavior as normal (kumar, 2000). 5. conclusion and recommendation i have demonstrated that women are vulnerable to the ravaging effects of war. as a result of this women have been labeled as victims of war. however, the literature makes it clear that though women experience severe effects of war, they also go to war and perform specific great roles to enhance peace as well. it is interesting to note that in spite of the un resolution of 1325 geared towards women inclusion and gender mainstreaming, the realities of the aftermath of conflict is relatively different. in some post-conflict situations, there is the belief that this un resolution is an attempt of the western imperialist to destroy traditional values and culture of society. there is the need to take into consideration the role women play as peacemakers while digesting the myth surrounding women‟s non-involvement in violent conflicts. in spite of the fact that women around the world have alternate point of view with regards to war, it can be contended that a large number of them share a solid sense of duty regarding peace and sustenance and this, in turn, empowers them to survive war which does not have any definite bearing on their lives (afshar, 2003). i believe that to enhance a breakthrough of gender equality and the acknowledgments of the rights of women in a post-conflict environment; there have to be incentives for men. placing only women at the center in the quest to implementing unscr 1325 will not lead to a full solution of the problem. it would be like killing a snake without cutting the head. the man who is already championing the course of gender equality should be motivated to carry on their excellent work. there is also the need for the provision of education for both mediators and negotiators of conflict. both male and females need to be educated to know how to include gender-sensitive issues in peace talks and post-conflict reconstruction. references afshar, h., 2003. women and wars: some trajectories towards a feminist peace. development in practice, 13(2/3): 178-188. view at google scholar | view at publisher al-ali, n., 2005. reconstructing gender: iraqi women between dictatorship, war, sanctions and occupation. third world quarterly, 26(4/5): 739-758. view at google scholar | view at publisher birgitten, s., 1998. women and post-conflict reconstructions: issues and sources. war-thorn society project. occasional paper no. 3. buvinic, m., m. das gupta, u. casabonne and p. verwimp, 2012. violent conflict and gender inequality: an overview. world bank research observer, 28(1): 110-138. view at google scholar | view at publisher cockburn, c. and d. zarkov, 2002. the postwar moment: militaries, masculinities and international peacekeeping. london: lawrence & wishart. coulter, c., 2008. female fighters in the sierra leone war: challenging the assumptions? feminist review, 88(1): 54-73. view at google scholar | view at publisher del castillo, g., 2001. post-conflict reconstruction and the challenge to international organizations: the case of el salvador. world development, 29(12): 1967-1985. view at google scholar | view at publisher el-bushra, j. and i. sahl, 2005. cycles of violence: gender relations and armed conflict. nairobi: accord. harris, s., 2004. gender, participation, and post-conflict planning in northern sri lanka. gender and development, 12(3): 60-69. view at google scholar | view at publisher igbuzor, o., 2011. peace and security education: a critical factor for sustainable peace and national development. international journal of peace and development studies, 2(1): 1-7. view at google scholar justino, p., i. cardona, r. mitchell and c. müller, 2012. quantifying the impact of women‟s participation in post-conflict economic recovery (hicn working paper no.131). brighton: ids. kumar, k., 2000. women and women's organizations in postconflict societies: the role of international assistance. center for development information and evaluation, us agency for international development. mcgrew, l., k. frieson, s. chan and s.n. anderlini, 2004. good governance from the ground up: women's roles in post-conflict cambodia. hunt alternatives fund. mjaaland, s., 2006. united nations security council resolution 1325 on women, peace and security: how does women‟s groups and activist in uganda engage in the implementation of un scr 1325 on women, peace and security? 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http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020818306060231 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=women,%20gender,%20and%20conflict:%20making%20the%20connections http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09614520600694976 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=the%20gender%20dimensions%20of%20post-conflict%20reconstruction:%20an%20analytical%20framework%20for%20policymakers http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13552070412331332330 92 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 8, no. 4, 92-101, 2021 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2021.84.92.101 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group emotional abuse as a predictor of mental health problems among married individuals and its impact on their quality of life aisha qasim1 rabia muzaffar2 ( corresponding author) 1institute of professional psychology, bahria university, karachi, pakistan. email: aishaqasim2013@gmail.com 2lecturer, institute of professional psychology, bahria university, karachi, pakistan. email: rabia_muzaffar91@hotmail.com abstract the current study was intended to determine the predicting role of emotional abuse to develop mental health problems among married individuals and its impact on their quality of life. present research was quantitative correlational survey design, hypothesizing that there is a significant relationship between emotional abuse to develop mental health problems among married individuals and its impact on their quality of life. there is a significant role of emotional abuse to develop mental health problems among married individuals and its impact on their quality of life. purposive convenient sampling technique was used to approach n= 230 married individuals ranged between 18-40 years old, from different areas of karachi, pakistan. the present study was assessed through gottman emotional abuse questionnaire (eaq), mental health inventory (mhi-18) and quality of life scale (qols). statistical package for social sciences (spss version22) was applied for the analysis of data. internal consistency of the study was checked through cronbach alpha. for the analysis of correlation between variables pearson correlation was used. significance of demographic factors were analyzed through the technique of independent sampling (t-test). results exposed that there is significant strong negative correlation of emotional abuse with mental health (r= -0.82) and quality of life (r= -0.89). the findings of the research highlighted the significant differences of emotional abuse, mental health problems and quality of life. the results of the present study could be useful for enhancing the awareness on the effect of emotional abuse and the necessity of prevent the abuse for maintaining the relationship. keywords: emotional abuse, mental health problems, quality of life, married individuals. jel classification: i13, a13 citation | aisha qasim; rabia muzaffar (2021). emotional abuse as a predictor of mental health problems among married individuals and its impact on their quality of life. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 8(4): 92-101. history: received: 1 september 2021 revised: 6 october 2021 accepted: 3 december 2021 published: 29 december 2021 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 93 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 93 3. theoretical framework .................................................................................................................................................................. 95 4. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 95 5. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 96 6. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 98 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 99 mailto:aishaqasim2013@gmail.com mailto:rabia_muzaffar91@hotmail.com http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/journal.500.2021.84.92.101 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6278-3739 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5642-4687 https://www.doi.org/10.20448/journal.500.2021.84.92.101 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6278-3739 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5642-4687 https://www.doi.org/10.20448/journal.500.2021.84.92.101 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6278-3739 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5642-4687 https://www.doi.org/10.20448/journal.500.2021.84.92.101 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6278-3739 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5642-4687 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 92-101 93 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the study contributes to the existing literature by investigating the relationship between emotional abuse to develop mental health problems among married individuals and its impact on their quality of life. 1. introduction 1.1 background emotional abuse is a method of interpersonal exploitation which integrates altogether nonphysical violence and suffering caused by non-verbal and verbal actions (psychology & behavioral health, 2015). emotional abuse is intentional, manipulative and method of using power towards victim. it frequently takes place with the combination of other types of abuse, though abuse can also go on in isolation. as there are different kinds of abuse, emotional abuse frequently affects those who have less power and influence on others (psychology & behavioral health, 2015). abusers select and target those who can be abused easily. abusers targets not everyone but those who are close to them. whether noticeable or indirect, emotional abuse ultimately make victim feeling helpless, wounded, irritated, valueless, angry, and frightened. emotional offenders repeatedly struggle with the familiar feeling of their victim. recurrently, abusers were also a victim of and sufferer of the same emotional trauma which results a sense of helplessness, fear, rage and revengeful. therefore, abusers usually pursue those who are abandoned or the one who do not recognize and acknowledge their state of mind, feelings and comprehend their point of view due to which abusers allowed to feel superior and secure that they have a full control on their sufferers (o'hagan, 2006). strategies of emotional offender make them sure to sustain the full control over their victim. strategies includes separation from family and the close ones which deliver a victim, sense of security and dependence on their abuser; threats of maltreatment and their loved ones, or deliberate harming that keeps a victim dreadful to leave; coercion with the act of damaging and destroying the personal property, physical and facial expressions, exhibiting weapons to approve the power and confirm the victim to obey and fulfill the wishes of their abuser. beside this, disgracing name-calling, disconcerting, and public humiliation that abolish self-worth which leave the victim helpless, restricted, and compliant are also included (tjaden & thoennes, 2000). ultimately, all sense of self is loosed by a victim of emotional abuse and is often have long lasting effects than a physical abuse as it gradually destroys the victim’s confidence and self-worthiness (o'hagan, 2006). however, over the time physical injuries repair and mended, but emotional trauma leaves a mark for a lifetime. in such situations victim’s perception become unrealistic and unable to understand any situation. reports revealed that abusers controlled the company of their victims, where they go and made a family contact. they also terrify to take away their children from them. especially, women were made to feel inferior, ashamed, and humiliated by their abuser. subjective pointers are communal in certain types of pleasure experience of consciousness, which include the relationship satisfaction, happiness, subjective well-being, and personal freedom are classically go together with the success of our personal desires (campbell, 2008). in the time of 90s, specialist stand on an agreement on the principles or essential dimensions of qol such as physical functioning, psychological and social functioning, somatic sensation symptom, anxiety, and depression (deci & ryan, 2008). thus, qol demonstrates the significant fact that maximum basic functional capabilities involve both behavioral dimensions in the individual and related resources in the individuals outside environment. there are various factors which include both internal and external to the person, affect their mental well-being and automatically their qol. such as there are specific features which is motivation and personality might be the central point to the structure of qol (antonella & massimo, 2011). generally, qol focused on the deficiency in functioning, i.e., negative affect, pain (antonella & massimo, 2011). on the other hand, aspects of positive functioning focus on resources of positive functioning, that include optimism, psychological resources, and positive emotions (e.g., love, positive affect, mastery, autonomy) as significant components (wood & joseph, 2010). there are finding that emotional abuse was powerfully connected with lasting symptomatology of anxiety affective and digressive disorders (fava, rafanelli, cazzaro, conti, & grandi, 1998) signified that people who face emotional abuse might be at risk for emerging and recurrence of further disorders. however, new researchers have found levels of emotional abuse and trauma in the etiology od digressive disorders (wood & joseph, 2010). though some authors consider physical and mental health as a basic and fundamental aspect of qol which leads towards a psychologically healthy individual. 2. literature review 2.1. association between emotional abuse and mental health problems emotional abuse is related to a chain of negative psychosocial consequences. study validates the relation between depression in adults and emotional abuse (gross & keller, 1992), suicidality, anxiety (bifulco, moran, baines, bunn, & stanford, 2002), dissociation, usage of alcohol and drugs among the college students (jelley, 2003). though little studies have focused on long-standing effects of emotional abuse, psychologists have verified sequelae including major depression (yamamoto et al., 1999) and personality disorders (johnson, smailes, cohen, brown, & bernstein, 2000). reyome (2010) found emotional abuse to be linked to loneliness and social isolation to a larger degree than any other mistreatment subtype. verbal assault, control, dominance, ridicule, isolation, or the use of intimate knowledge for degradation can be included in emotional abuse (follingstad, coyne, & gambone, 2005). there is a deep correlation between emotional and physical abuse in batterer people (gondolf, heckert, & kimmel, 2002), and it is discovered that subsequential physical spousal abuse is predicted with the presence of verbal abuse earlier in the relation (schumacher & leonard, 2005). inner violence can be characterized as ―any act of violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, emotional, sexual, or mental harm or suffering to a person, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 92-101 94 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life‖ (united nation organization, 1993, as cited in breakey, corless, meedzan, and nicholas (2015)). centre for disease control has characterized four primary sorts of partner abuse: physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, and dangers of abuse. in pakistan, each day, more than three ladies and one man are murdered by their marital partners (ali & gavino, 2008). tazeen, asad, mogren, and krantz (2011) found that nearly all shapes of marital abuse have been predominant in urban regions of karachi, pakistan. they chose 759 ladies between 20 and 60 years of age. results appeared that predominance of emotional abuse among ladies was the foremost (81.8%). the event of physical and sexual mishandle among ladies was 56.3% and 53.4% respectively. the report of hausmann, tyson, bekhouche, and zahidi (2014) uncovered that pakistan is the second least performing nation within the world in terms of gender balance (munshey, 2015). another research was conducted by khan and sajid (2011) found that cultural traditions, lower social status, low education level, low wage, patriarchy, and in-laws’ unforgiving states of mind where major reasons of partner mishandle among rural ladies of pakistan. in other asian nations as well, individuals are encountering all shapes of partner mishandle due to different reasons i.e., partners’ lack of education, unemployment, liquor addiction, low salary, and psychological disorders. it was seen that ladies were enduring partner mishandle for the purpose of children because of components like fear of social shame, hectic working conditions, dowry, and nonappearance of child. in any case, afterward on it emerges in a mental sickness incorporate depression, anxiety, and another psychopathology (bhuiya, sharmin, & hanifi, 2003; chaudhary, girdhar, & soni, 2009; subramaniam & sivayogan, 2001). 2.2. association between emotional abuse and quality of life despite this, research on the results emotional abuse in near connections for qol are rare (alsaker, moen, & kristoffersen, 2008). past studies with moderately little population sizes in clinical settings (poutiainen & holma, 2013) or covers have appeared affiliations between emotional abuse and poorer qol, outstandingly in ranges of mental wellbeing and social functioning. as there are couple of studies have utilized a national survey to look at qol and violence within the common population. a danish study found negative impacts of later emotional abuse on qol (sørensen, kruse, gudex, helweg-larsen, & brønnum-hansen, 2012) whereas the affiliations between other sorts of abuse and qol within the common population have remained ineffectively recognized. despite the shortage of prove on abuse and qol, it appears to be developing in connection to the results of diverse sorts of mental wellbeing issues (trevillion, oram, feder, & howard, 2012). adult male victims in close relationships are regularly hesitant to report their viciousness involvement (johnson et al., 2000). concurring to a precise audit of the literature, victimization rates among ladies and men are comparable, several studies have appeared that ladies exposed to emotional abuse are more likely than men to endure from anxiety and depression (heiskanen & ruuskanen, 2011). in this context, a few research have too assessed the hypothesis that positive mental wellbeing may moreover impact natural working and eventually qol (antonella & massimo, 2011). to this respect, within the past decade various research have appeared that low social and family support really makes individuals more helpless to emotional and mental ill-being. yousafzai (2018), pakistan investigates prove affirms the harmful impact of emotional abuse, affecting social prosperity, physical wellbeing, and educational execution. in expansion to quick physical and emotional harm. as adults, they are more likely to create marital and sexual challenges, depression, suicidal behavior, or addictions and indeed they may have abbreviated life span (thornberry & henry, 2013). khan and sajid (2011) found that individuals who have been mishandled or ignored may have diverse behavioral changes or emotional signs. they may incorporate the individual being pulled back, calm or have an awful mood, outrage upheaval or disruptive behavior, excessive crying, particular fear of a place or individual. in larger part of cases of emotional mishandling, 6depression, anxiety and sleep issues and terrible quality of life (khan & sajid, 2011). hence, exceptionally small investigations have been conducted on this point in pakistan. for the end of an injurious marriage, a better marker than recurrence of physical savagery may instep be the seriousness of emotional mishandle, and over time, emotional mishandle can be as capable a control strategy as physical mishandle (jacobson et al., 1996). further, banwell (2010) examined the effect of distinctive shapes of mishandle on ladies accepting administrations from a household viciousness office and found that both emotional abuse and physical abuse contributed to depression and low self-esteem. in general, emotional abuse inside marital relationships is common and is likely the foremost unavoidable shape of relationship abuse (coker, smith, mckeown, & king, 2000). lower quality of life (qol) had been related with major mental clutters, such as depression (zeng, xu, & wang, 2013) behavioral control and anxiety. these mental clutters are of concern to clinicians working in mental wellbeing administrations (maeng et al., 2016). depression is predominant, a driving cause of inability around the world (kessler & bromet, 2013) and highlighted as a developing public wellbeing concern in both western and asian investigations. patients with depression announcing lower qol compared to other mental disorders, counting anxiety (koivumaa-honkanen et al., 2016). life partner, work, and interpersonal exercises were the foremost affected utilitarian spaces in depression (kamenov et al., 2016), moreover adverse results in low education, marital disturbance, unsteady employment, chance of secondary disorders, and early mortality due to suicide (kessler & bromet, 2013). a later study inspected the qol of asian patients with constant mental disorders, specifically depression and affective disorders. other than illness components, a extend of psychosocial components was found to contribute to qol. numerous of these components were socially delicate (choo et al., 2018). research related to mental disorders and qol in asia and singapore centered primarily on patients with one mental disorder, specifically behavioral control, anxiety, and depression (cai et al., 2017). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 92-101 95 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the relative shortage of investigations on emotional abuse in comparison with investigation on physical or sexual violence. in part because of troubles in estimation, calculating exact predominance gauges for emotional abuse has been challenging. besides, as can be seen from past investigations centering on marital relationship abuse is exceedingly interlaced (black et al., 2011). however, there's constrained investigations that can unfold the complex interaction between marital relationship to emotional abuse and quality of life. 3. theoretical framework the bridge between the variables comes from erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. erikson’s theory of psychosocial development proposes that individuals pass through an arrangement of stages centered on social and emotional advancement. erikson accepted it was imperative that individuals develop close, committed connections with other individuals. as individuals enter adulthood these emotionally intimate connections play the basic part within the intimacy versus isolation stage. this sixth stage of development starts in early adulthood, 1840 years of age and is centered on the arrangement of enduring connections. such connections are frequently sentimental and sexual in nature. erikson portrayed intimate connections as those characterized by closeness, genuineness, love and getting married (erikson, 1963). success leads to strong relationships, whereas disappointment comes about in depression and isolation. however, determined isolation and loneliness influences mental wellbeing and quality of life as well. adults who suffer with this stage, encounter poor romantic and marital connections. they might never share profound closeness with their partners or might indeed suffer to create any relationship at all. when the young adult fails to attain intimacy, this may result in distance, isolation, loneliness, and depression. inevitably, quality of life influences which can lead to low self-esteem, and harm emotional well-being which may make person indeed less likely to wander out to create relationship. individuals who explore this period of life effectively can produce satisfying relationship with other individuals while failing, individuals face isolation and loneliness which is harmful to mental and physical health both and might lead to a poor quality of life. lacking this connection can be damaging and might also struggle to form or develop close, romantic, or marital relationship. this plays a vital part in making association for both physical and mental wellbeing moreover improving the quality of living all through life (kealy, ben-david, & cox, 2020). thus, this study examined the relationship of emotional abuse to develop mental health problems and quality of life. the following theoretical framework defines that the married individuals who have emotional abuse in it may lead the individual towards mental wellbeing issues and may influence their quality of life. 3.1. hypothesis based on above-mentioned theoretical model following hypotheses are formed: h1: there will be a significant relationship between emotional abuse to develop mental health problems among married individuals and its impact on their quality of life. h2: there will be a significant role of emotional abuse to develop mental health problems among married individuals and its impact on their quality of life. 4. methodology 4.1. research design this study is a quantitative correlational survey design in which three self-report questionnaires have been used to evaluate the relationship between emotional abuse, mental health problems (depression, anxiety, behavioral/emotional control) and the quality of life among married individuals. the participants (male and female) have been approached by purposive sampling technique from the residents of karachi, pakistan and total participants were n=300. 4.2. measures 4.2.1. inform consent form participants were requested to sign an informed consent before administrating the items of the selected scale and demographic form. the members were momentarily informed about the aim of the current research and their right to withdraw from the research at any time in the consent form. they were also be assured that their personal information and identity would be kept confidential. 4.2.2 demographic form the demographic form was constructed to fulfill the inclusion criteria of the research. in this form basic information about the participants which is their gender, education, family structure, marital status, and time of their relationship questions were asked by providing the participants with demographic information form. 4.2.3. emotional abuse questionnaire (eaq) the eaq was created by jacobson and gottman (1998). they distinguished four categories of emotional abuse: destruction of pets and property, sexual coercion, isolation endeavors and degradation. the eaq was based off this original study. it has 66 items surveying emotional abuse, each appraised on a 4-point recurrence scale (never to very often). the eaq has four subscales: isolation, degradation, sexual abuse, and property damage. inner consistency for the subscales is .92, .94, .72, and .82, separately. the isolation subscale has 24 items, degradation subscale has 28 items, sexual abuse subscale has 7 items and property damage subscale has 7 items. the sub scales of eaq which is degradation and sexual coercion is chosen for the current research due to its wide extend of distinctive designs of emotional abuse and its strong psychometric values. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 92-101 96 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.2.4. mental health inventory (mhi-18) mhi-18 is a screening survey for mental wellbeing. this instrument is created by veit and product in 1983 for evaluation of mental wellbeing in common population. the mhi-18 is a shortened form of the 38-item mental health inventory. it contains items evaluating anxiety, depression, emotional/behavioral control, and positive affect. subjects are inquired to demonstrate how regularly they have experienced different feelings amid the earlier four-week period. choices are given along a 6-point scale, extending from 1 (all of the time) to 6 (none of the time). the subscale and add up to scores range from 0-100, with higher scores showing superior mental wellbeing. correlation between the mhi-18 and the longer version extended from 0.96 to 0.99 in different research. cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated to look at the internal consistency for the mhi-18. the alpha coefficient for the entire score was .93 and for the anxiety, depression, behavioral/emotional control, and positive affect were 0.80, 0.87, 0.78, and 0.83 separately. the discoveries recommend the mhi-18 is internally reliable. reliability testing of the mhi-18 appeared the scale had great split-half reliability. reliability coefficient of the mhi-18 by splithalf strategy was .93. 4.2.5. quality of life scale qols made initially by american psychologist john flanagan. the qols was initially a 15-item instrument. the instrument was extended to incorporate one more item: ―independence, doing for yourself ―after a qualitative study that reflected the significance to these individuals of remaining autonomous and able to care for themselves. burckhardt and anderson (2003) found prove of test-retest and internal consistency reliability (a = .82-.92). it is 7point scale which is "delighted" (7), "pleased" (6), "mostly satisfied" (5), "mixed" (4), "mostly dissatisfied" (3), "unhappy" (2), "terrible" (1). 5. results to test the hypotheses of the study the data was gathered and evaluated by using statistical package for social sciences (spps-version 22). a series of inferential and descriptive statistics were used to test the hypotheses. 5.1. demographic information of sample table-1. frequency and percentage of demographic variables (n=230) variable f % gender male 150 65.2 female 80 34.8 age 18-25 51 22.2 26-40 179 77.8 spouse age 18-25 45 19.6 26-40 185 80.4 education matric/ o-level 00 00 intermediate/ a-level 17 7.4 graduated 94 40.9 postgraduate 119 51.7 spouse education matric/ o-level 8 3.5 intermediate/ a-level 35 15.2 graduated 102 44.3 postgraduate 85 37.0 type of marriage love marriage 92 40.0 arrange marriage 137 59.6 family type joint family system 141 61.3 nuclear family system 89 38.7 relationship with spouse before marriage outsider 137 59.6 cousin 60 26.1 family friend/ relatives 33 14.3 taking any therapy or help no 230 100 yes 00 00 variables m sd years of marriage 6.12 4.50 number of children 2.01 1.54 table 1 depicts the main demographic variables of the present study. it shows the distribution of the demographic variables into sub-categories based on demographic information of the participants of the study (n=230). the answer of reason of staying in marriage was given by the participant that because of having children they cannot leave their marital relationship. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 92-101 97 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 5.2. descriptive analysis table-2. descriptive statistics and alpha reliability coefficient, univariate normality of study variable (n=230). scales no. of items α m sd skewness k range actual potential emotional abuse 0.99 35 79.09 36.88 0.25 -1.63 35-138 35-140 degradation 28 0.98 64.10 30.00 0.194 -1.67 28-112 28-112 sexual coercion 7 0.96 15.01 7.55 0.36 -1.49 7-28 7-28 mental health inventory 18 0.94 60.07 14.37 -0.18 -1.36 35-84 18-108 depression 4 0.80 13.87 3.65 -0.32 -0.88 5-20 4-24 anxiety 5 0.89 16.92 5.13 -0.11 -1.24 8-25 5-30 behavioral control 4 0.73 14.37 3.47 -0.03 -1.20 8-20 4-24 positive affect 4 0.86 14.90 3.73 0.26 -0.97 8-24 4-24 quality of life 16 0.97 68.06 23.31 -0.33 -1.27 29-112 16-112 note: α = coefficient of alpha, m= mean, sd= standard deviation, sk= skewness, k= kurtosis. table 2 represents mean, standard deviation, skewness value, kurtosis value, actual and potential ranges. the value of skewness and kurtosis shows that the data is normally distributed. table-3. pearson product moment correlation between emotional abuse, mental health and quality of life (n=230). ea dg sc mh anx dep bc pa qol ea 0.99** 0.93** -0.82** -0.77** -0.70** -0.72** -0.74** -0.89** dg 0.89** -0.82** -0.77** -0.69** -0.71** -0.75** -0.89** sc -0.75** -0.71** -0.67** -0.68** -0.64** -0.85** mh 0.94** 0.88** 0.90** 0.83** 0.84** anx 0.80** 0.82** 0.71** 0.78** dep 0.77** 0.60** 0.69** bc 0.67** 0.75** pa 0.78** qol note: ea= emotional abuse, dg= degradation, sc= sexual coercion, mh= mental health, anx= anxiety, dep=depression, bc=behavioral control, pa= positive affect, qol= quality of life. table 3 shows that there is significant strong negative correlation of emotional abuse with mental health and quality of life. however, the facets of ea also have a significant strong negative correlation with mental health and quality of life. table also shows that there is a significant strong positive correlation with mental health and quality of life. table-4. linear regression analysis showing the predicting role of emotional abuse on mental health (n=230). predictor β r2 γr2 95% ci ll ul mh -.82** 0.68 0.68 -0.35 -0.29 note: β= standardized beta, ll= lower limit, ul= upper limit, ci= confidence interval, r2= r square, δr2= r square change, mh= mental health. the table 4 shows simple linear regression. it was conducted to find out the predicting role of emotional abuse on mental health among married individuals. the results show that 68% of variance is being caused by emotional abuse on mental health which is negative predictor and show that there is 68% chance of weakened mental health in the presence of emotional abuse. table-5. linear regression analysis showing the predicting role of dg and cs on mental health (n=230). predictor β r2 γr2 95% ci ll ul dg -0.82** 0.67 0.67 -0.43 -0.36 note: dg= degradation, sc= sexual coercion, β= standardized beta, ll= lower limit, ul= upper limit, ci= confidence interval. the table 5 shows simple linear regression. it was conducted to find out the predicting role of dg and sc on mental health among married individuals. the results show that 67% of variance is being caused by dg on mental health while sc is non-significant which shows that mental health is more affecting by the dg. table-6. linear regression analysis showing the predicting role of emotional abuse on quality of life (n=230). predictor β r2 γr2 95% ci ll ul qol -0.89** 0.80 0.80 -0.60 -0.53 note: β= standardized beta, ll= lower limit, ul= upper limit, ci= confidence interval, r2= r square, δr2= r square change, qol= quality of life. the table 6 above shows simple linear regression. it was conducted to find out the predicting role of emotional abuse on quality of life among married individuals. the results show that 80% of variance is being asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 92-101 98 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group caused by emotional abuse on quality of life which is the negative predictor and show that there is 80% chance of weakened quality of life in the presence of emotional abuse. table-7. stepwise regression analysis showing the predicting role of dg and sc on quality of life (n=230). predictors β r2 γr2 95% ci ll ul dg -0.89** 0.79 0.793 0.73 -0.64 sc -0.26** 0.80 0.015 -1.22 -0.42 note: dg= degradation, sc= sexual coercion, β= standardized beta, ll= lower limit, ul= upper limit, ci= confidence interval. the table 7 shows stepwise regression. it was conducted to find out the predicting role of dg and cs on quality of life among married individuals. the results show the strongest predictor is dg which is causing 79% of variance which show negative predictor while sc have 1% of variance on quality of life and shows that dg is more affecting the qol than sc. table-8. linear regression analysis showing the predicting role of mental health on quality of life. (n=230). predictor β r2 γr2 95% ci ll ul qol 0.84** 0.701 0.70 1.24 1.47 note: β= standardized beta, ll= lower limit, ul= upper limit, ci= confidence interval, r2= r square, δr2= r square change, qol= quality of life. the table 8 above shows simple linear regression. it was conducted to find out the predicting role of mental health on quality of life among married individuals. the results show that 70% of variance is being caused by mental health in quality of life which is the positive predictor. it shows that quality of life improves with the good mental health. table-9. step wise regression analysis showing the predicting role of pa, anx, and bc on quality of life (n=230). predictors β r2 γr2 95% ci ll ul pa .789** 0.62 0.62 4.42 5.43 anx .445** 0.71 0.09 1.55 2.47 bc .220** 0.73 0.01 .641 2.29 note: pa=positive affect, anx= anxiety, bc= behavioral control, β= standardized beta, ll= lower limit, ul= upper limit, ci= confidence interval. the table 9 shows stepwise regression. it was conducted to find out the predicting role of pa, anx, and bc on quality of life among married individuals. the results show the strongest predictor is pa which is causing 62% of variance, followed by anx which is 09% and 1% of bc. hence it can be concluded that among all the variables pa is producing more change in quality of life. * to see the prediction of facets of mental health we applied the stepwise regression in which depression was not included as it was non-significant. 6. discussion the current research was conducted to find out the role of emotional abuse to develop mental health problems among married individuals and its impact on their quality of life. moreover, find out the relationship of emotional abuse to develop mental health problems among married individuals and its impact on their quality of life. for the analysis of results statistical package of social sciences (spss-22) was used which reveals a statistically significant relationship among the studied variables. the demographic of the study is presented in table 1, which shows that 65.2% males participated in the study while 34.8% were females. the study included participants of 18-40 years of age. however, 22.2% participants belonged to the group of 18-25 years of age and 77.8% of 26-40 years of age group. participants have different educational level which is 7.4% were done with intermediate, 40.9% were graduated and 51.7% were post graduated. moreover, 40% of participants have a love marriage and 59.6% have arranged marriage. 61.3% have joint family system and 38.7% participants have nuclear family system. however, 59.6% participants married with outsider, 26.1% with cousin and 14.3% with family friends. though for most of the participants, their children are the reason for staying in the marriage. the reliability of scales used in the present research as shown in table 2, indicates the cronbach alpha of emotional abuse scale (α= .99), mental health inventory (α=.94) and quality of life scale (α=.97) which reveals a strong reliability of these scales. it was shown in data that value of skewness and kurtosis is normally distributed. it was hypothesized that there is a significant relationship between emotional abuse to develop mental health problems among married individuals and its impact on their quality of life. pearson product correlation was applied in table 3, shows that there is a significant strong negative correlation of emotional abuse with mental health and quality of life. this indicates that if an individual emotionally abused by sexual coercion and degradation, his/her mental health and quality of life will be deteriorated or weakened. table also shows that there is a significant strong positive correlation with mental health and quality of life. it indicates that if individual’s mental health is better, the individual’s quality of life would also better. witnessing emotional abuse is additionally victims of savagery in close relationships. although both men and ladies are exposed to emotional maltreatment in close relationships (devries et al., 2013). exposure to emotional abuse is related with deteriorations in both briefand long-term health and well-being, as well as with expanded chance of suicide, physical wounds, and long-term mental issues not as it were among victims (bair-merritt et al., asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 92-101 99 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2008) but moreover among their children. the negative wellbeing results of emotional abuse among victims may hold on indeed after the abuse has finished (bonomi et al., 2009). another hypothesis was also made that there is a significant role of emotional abuse to develop mental health problems among married individuals and its impact on their quality of life. the table 4, shows simple linear regression. it was conducted to find out the predicting role of emotional abuse on mental health among married individuals. the results show that 68% of variance is being caused by emotional abuse on mental health which is negative predictor and show that there is a 68% chance of weakened mental health in the presence of emotional abuse. it is proposed that emotional abuse contains a more prominent potential to influence one’s mental wellbeing given by a person whom the victim trusts (herman, 2012). in a meta-analytic report given by golding (2008), it was recommended that mental health issues such as suicidal ideation, substance mishandle, ptsd, anxiety and depression happen three to five times more regularly in survivors of emotional abuse in marital relationship (golding, 2008). such discoveries have been upheld by numerous analysts who have similarly illustrated that emotional abuse has an unfavorable impact on mental health (coker et al., 2002). the table 5, shows simple linear regression. it was conducted to find out the predicting role facets of emotional abuse which is degradation (dg) and sexual coercion (sc) on mental health among married individuals. the results show that 67% of variance is being caused by dg on mental health while sc is non-significant which indicate that degradation which include verbal, non-verbal assaults, threatening, rejecting and humiliation playing a major role in distressing the mental health. whereas sexual coercion has no significant role in disturbing mental health of married individual. the table 6, shows simple linear regression. it was conducted to find out the predicting role of emotional abuse on quality of life among married individuals. the results show that 80% of variance is being caused by emotional abuse on quality of life which is the negative predictor and show that there is 80% chance of weakened quality of life in the presence of emotional abuse. a study found that emotional or sexual abuse was strongly related with worse health results and quality of life (follingstad, rutledge, berg, hause, & polek, 1990). one of the foremost critical discoveries was that combinations of abuse had a more grounded affiliation with lower qol and more prominent psychological distress than exposure to a single sort (domenech & sirvent, 2017). however, table 7 shows stepwise regression. it was conducted to find out the predicting role of degradation (dg) and sexual coercion (cs) on quality of life among married individuals. the results show the strongest predictor is dg which is causing 79% of variance that show a negative predictor while sc have 1% of variance on quality of life. it indicates that emotional abuse in which dg has again significant outcome on quality of life rather than sc. table 8 shows simple linear regression finding out the predicting role of mental health on quality of life among married individuals. the results show that 70% of variance is being caused by mental health on quality of life which is the positive predictor. it shows that quality of life enhances with the maintenance of good mental health. the concept of qol has continuously moved from an entirely sociological and objective viewpoint to a psychological viewpoint in which the individual’s sense of well-being gets to be an essential measurement of qol. in table 9, stepwise regression was conducted to find out the predicting role of the facets of mental health; pa, anx, and bc on quality of life among married individuals. the results show the strongest predictor is pa which is causing 62% of variance, followed by anx which is 09% and 1% of bc. hence it can be concluded that among all the variables pa is producing more change in quality of life. however, depression was non-significant. result suggests that married individuals can improve their quality of life by working on their positive affect. positive characters lead to ideal working not as it were by empowering positive emotions but moreover in them possess right by encouraging lives characterized by engagement, meaning, and fulfilling relationships with others (peterson, ruch, beermann, park, & seligman, 2007). in like manner, positive characteristics contribute to hedonic and eudemonic well-being. although distinguishable, these sorts of well-being are not incongruent and may indeed be synergistic in creating a full life (keyes, fredrickson, & park, 2012). 6.1. conclusion the research uncovers that there's a significant strong negative correlation of emotional abuse with mental health and quality of life. however, emotional abuse is a significant negative predictor on mental health and quality of life among married individuals. research too illustrates that mental health is a positive predictor on quality of life among hitched individuals. references ali, p. a., & gavino, m. i. b. 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(2013). quality of life in outpatients with depression in china. journal of affective disorders, 150(2), 513-521. available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.04.052. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 65 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 2, 65-71, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.52.65.71 tax revenue and disparity: how to improvement income inequality in islamic perspective tulus suryanto1  femei purnamasari2 mohamad kurniawan3 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3faculty of economics and islamic business raden intan lampung islamic university (uin raden intan lampung) – indonesia abstract tax revenue and income disparity becomes attention and important study that need to be analyzed, this is how tax revenues continue to increase it were an effect on income inequality in indonesia. the magnitude of per capita income in indonesia is the medium category with poor people have continued to rise in the last ten years. this research is to find out how the effect on the tax revenue with income disparity in indonesia. typically, the data that the data used is the panel that combines with a cross section of data and time series, starts from 2014 2016. analysis that will uses in this research is double semi-log linear regression through pooled least square with fixed effects model (fem) analysis, in conclusion the research finds that tax revenues has positive correlation with income disparity and will be reviewed restaurants by an islamic perspective. tax policy in the islamic perspective gives important input to implement tax policy in indonesia. in islam's view, the tax for muslims has been applied for reviews their own responsibilities and regulations, islamic also has been implement how the source and the collecting system, the system should have secured or make a guarantee that the rich people and the welfare people get bigger proportion (to pay tax) because welfare social order. the cost of the tax burden in society that will show equal and not too give strength if the cost that applied based on people's ability follows the tax system in islam. indeed, it can be a reason for decreasing inequality and poverty in each region. keywords: tax revenue, income disparity and islamic perspective of tax. citation | tulus suryanto; femei purnamasari; mohamad kurniawan (2018). tax revenue and disparity: how to improvement income inequality in islamic perspective. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(2): 65-71. history: received: 5 march 2018 revised: 9 april 2018 accepted: 11 april 2018 published: 12 april 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. background ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 66 2. problem .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 68 3. theory ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 68 4. research methods ............................................................................................................................................................................ 70 5. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 70 6. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 71 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 71 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.52.65.71&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4659-6228 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=femei purnamasari https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mohamad kurniawan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4659-6228 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=femei purnamasari https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mohamad kurniawan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4659-6228 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=femei purnamasari https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mohamad kurniawan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4659-6228 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=femei purnamasari https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mohamad kurniawan asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 65-71 66 1. background taxation in indonesia comes from three main objects namely income tax, value added tax and property taxes: income tax in article 4 of law no. 38 in 2008, stated that the income that each additional economic capability received or accrued by the taxpayer, whether originating from indonesia and outside indonesia, which can be used for consumption or to increase the wealth of the taxpayer, with the name and in whatever form, including: 1. or remuneration in respect of employment or services received or acquired, including salaries, allowances, fees, commission, bonus, gratuity, pension, or other forms of remuneration, unless otherwise provided in this act. 2. prize of the lottery, work or activities, and awards. 3. operating profit. 4. gains from the sale or transfer of property including. value added tax (vat), vat objects can be grouped into two kinds: taxable goods (bkp) and taxable services (jkp). value added tax (vat) taxes imposed in terms of their: 1. submission bkp / jkp in the customs area (dp) conducted by entrepreneurs. 2. import bkp. 3. utilization of intangible bkp inside and out dp dp, 4. utilization jkp inside and outside dp dp. 5. export bkp by pkp. land and building tax (pbb) is a tax levied on land and or building based on law no. 12 of 1985 on land and building tax as amended by act no. 20 of 2000 (abdillah and mursinto, 2016). the un is a tax that is immaterial in the sense of the magnitude tax payable is determined by the state of the object, namely earth, land and or building. the state of the subject (who pays) are the ones to determine the amount of tax. while the un object is "earth and or building": earth: the earth's surface (land and water) and body earth beneath. example: fields, fields, gardens, land, yard. mining, and others. building construction techniques are implanted or permanently attached to the land or waters in the territory of the republic of indonesia. examples: residential houses, business buildings, high rise buildings, shopping centers, highways, swimming pools, offshore oil, and others (shofiana, 2011). the excluded objects are objects that: 1. used solely to serve the public interest in the field of religious, social, education and national culture are not intended to benefit, such as mosques, churches, government hospitals, schools, orphanages, temples, and others. 2. used for graves, ancient heritage. 3. a protected forest, nature reserve, jungle, national parks, and others. 4. owned by diplomatic representatives based on the principle of reciprocity and international organizations determined by the ministry of finance. the subject of tax is an individual or entity that is real: 1. have a right to the earth, and or 2. benefit on earth, or 3. possess, control over the building, and or 4. obtain benefit from the building. object and subject of various sources of tax revenue in indonesia, we also need to look at the state budget (apbn) from 2012 until 2016, for the tax revenue in indonesia continues to increase until the tax revenue in 2016 reached 1539.2 trillion rupiah (table 1). table-1. budget developments 2012-2017 (in trillion rupiah) 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 draft budget shopping central government 1010.6 t 1137.6 t 1203.6 t 1183.3 t 1306.7 t 1310.4 t transfer to regional & rural fund 480.6 t 513.3 t 573.7 t 623.1 t 776.3 t 760.0 t tax revenues 980.5 t 1077.3 t 1146.9 t 1240.4 t 1539.2 t 1495.9 t non-tax revenue 351.8 t 354.7 t 398.6 t 255.6 t 245.0 t 240.3 t state funding 175.2 t 237.4 t 248.9 t 323.1 t 296.7 t 332.8 t source: draft budget 2017 state budget (apbn) of the tax revenue continued to increase and was the biggest revenue of the other receipts it needs to be seen also how the allocated budget for the state of the state budget 2016 and comparison of tax revenue and the number of poor people in indonesia (shofiana, 2011). the allocation of tax revenue distribution in indonesia, which is used to increase the economic growth of the state expenditure in 2016 amounted to 2095.7 billion state budget, the type of expenditure or allocation of government expenditure consists of: 1. shopping ministry or agency 784.1 trillion 2. shopping transfers to regions and villages of 770.2 trillion 3. shopping non ministry or agency of 541.4 trillion from the above data concluded that the largest source of revenue comes from the indonesian state taxes while the biggest expenditure allocation on shopping ministry or agency of 784.1 trillion, larger than transfers to the shopping area and the village of 770.2 trillion (kemenkeu.go.id/apbn 2016). so from this data needs to be studied and see how the level of poverty in indonesia from table 2 below: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 65-71 67 table-2. comparison of revenue and number of poor people in indonesia year tax revenue (billion rupiah) year number of poor people (million people) 2010 723 2010 31.02 2011 873 2011 30.02 2012 980 2012 29.33 2013 1077 2013 28.59 2014 1246 2014 27.73 2015 1489 2015 28.59 2016 1539 2016 28.01 source: 1. memorandum of finance and the state budget of 2013, 2. memorandum of the finance and draft budget 2016 3. statistics indonesia tax which would be a solution to poverty, have not been able to be a transfer of wealth from the rich and the poor (the regulator), the new tax is only capable of being a source of state income (budgetary) only, to fund various government requirements (sacchi and salotti, 2011). can be seen (table 2) above since 2010 through 2016 tax revenue in billions of rupiah continues to increase is high, but the rate of the number of poor from 2014 to 2015 experienced a high increase. in 2015, the number of poor people in indonesia reached 28.59 million increased by 0.86 million compared with conditions in 2014, which amounted to 27.73 million, and in 2016 reached 28.01 million decreased $ 500 million compared 2015. tax revenues are increasing not accompanied by decreasing the amount of poverty in indonesia. so it can be analyzed that the tax cannot be applied increase economic growth and lead to inequality region which is a burden to areas not yet ready with the economic situation and low growth (silver, 2017). based on data from the state budget (apbn) of tax revenue and the number of poor people in indonesia above need to be seen again how the growth of capital income in indonesia (figure 1), the growth capital income of indonesia in 2000 until 2014, the average income are capital in indonesia years 2000-2014 is based on three neighboring countries of malaysia, thailand and the philippines, are known to indonesia's capital income in 2014 amounted to an average of us $ 3,475 dollars capital income far below malaysia at 10 538 us $ dollars and thailand 5779 us $ dollars. and from the comparison of income above can be seen massive category indonesia's capital income (table 3), when viewed indonesia's capital income growth in 2014 were an average of 3.475 us $ meaning indonesia's capital income in the category of middle income. figure-1. capital income growth 2000-2014 source: world bank bareksa.com table-3. magnitude category capital income no. category large income per capita (us $) 1 low <870 2 middle down 870 to 3.500 3 middle to top 3.500 10,300 4 high > 10,700 source: world bank.org can also unknown how the details of economic growth in the 33 provinces in indonesia (table 4), the highest economic growth is still in java amounted to 1407.1 on quadran to four in 2016, and economic growth is the lowest in maluku and papua at 68.7 in quadran to four in 2016. it can be seen that economic growth in indonesia is still very uneven and unequal once seen from the comparison between java, maluku and papua. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 65-71 68 table-4. gross regional domestic product details 33 provinces in indonesia (top of constant prices) region unit 2016 q1 q2 q3 q4 sumatra (rp trillion) 496.49 507.05 521.4 520.3 aceh (rp trillion) 28.41 28.61 29.6 29.8 north sumatra (rp trillion) 113.33 114.50 117.9 118.0 west sumatra (rp trillion) 35.94 36.79 37.6 37.8 riau (rp trillion) 110.64 112.59 116.2 119.6 jambi (rp trillion) 31.78 32.35 32.8 33.6 south sumatra (rp trillion) 64.28 66.58 69.1 66.8 bengkulu (rp trillion) 9.79 9.91 10.1 10.3 lampung (rp trillion) 51.07 53.30 55.1 50.4 kep. bangka belitung (rp trillion) 11:58 11.90 12.1 12.3 riau islands (rp trillion) 39.67 40.52 41.1 41.6 java (rp trillion) 1338.58 1381.27 1417.9 1407.1 dki jakarta (rp trillion) 372.30 381.85 390.4 394.8 west java (rp trillion) 307.35 319.63 325.9 322.7 central java (rp trillion) 205.99 212.43 218.1 212.9 in yogyakarta (rp trillion) 21:37 21:39 22.5 22.4 east java (rp trillion) 337.85 349.75 362.5 355.1 banten (rp trillion) 93.72 96.22 98.5 99.2 bali nusra (rp trillion) 69.62 72.21 75.7 74.0 bali (rp trillion) 32.93 33.95 35.0 35.3 west nusa tenggara (rp trillion) 22.64 23:56 25.2 23.1 east nusa tenggara (rp trillion) 14:05 14.70 15.5 15.5 kalimantan (rp trillion) 197.65 199.63 203.6 207.0 west kalimantan (rp trillion) 29.22 28.40 30.1 30.4 central kalimantan (rp trillion) 20:40 20:59 21.2 21.7 south kalimantan (rp trillion) 26.93 29.05 30.1 29.6 east kalimantan (rp trillion) 108.59 108.95 109.3 112.2 north kalimantan (rp trillion) 12:52 12.64 12.9 13.1 sulawesi (rp trillion) 132.30 140.56 146.1 145.0 north sulawesi (rp trillion) 16.95 18:24 19.1 20.5 central sulawesi (rp trillion) 22:22 23:05 22.7 23.1 south sulawesi (rp trillion) 63.12 67.44 71.3 67.5 southeast sulawesi (rp trillion) 17.92 19:32 19.9 20.6 gorontalo (rp trillion) 5.72 5.72 6.1 5.9 west sulawesi (rp trillion) 6:37 6.78 7.0 7.4 maluku and papua (rp trillion) 54.69 56.87 64.8 68.7 moluccas (rp trillion) 6:30 6:50 6.6 6.9 north maluku (rp trillion) 5:18 5:34 5.5 5.6 west papua (rp trillion) 13:43 13:04 13.9 14.3 papuan (rp trillion) 29.79 31.99 38.8 41.9 source: bapenas, 2017 2. problem from the above background can be seen the tax revenue continues to increase, however, is not matched by an increase in income per capita of indonesian society, and when seen from a comparison category revenues level in the category of medium, based on the allocation of the distribution of tax revenue in indonesia, the allocation of expenditure ministry or agency, greater than the allocated budget for transfers to the regions and villages. and can also be seen from a comparison of economic growth or the 33 provinces where the disparity in economic growth imbalances between each island and province very far away. from the conclusions above problems it is necessary to analyze how the effect of economic growth by entering the well of tax revenue to the income disparity in indonesia, studied in perspective the islamic economy? because the applicable tax in indonesia sometimes levied on poor people and businesses who are just starting to grow or employers who have not benefited from his efforts, and there is no difference in taxation between people who are not able and capable, as well as on the united nations (tax and building) where the tax revenue will still be divided for central and local government, so that it becomes an influence on the amount of parts to be received by each of the areas which cause disparities. 3. theory analysis keynes in the general theory, argued that the government can use the power of taxation and expenditure to increase spending aggregate (or stimulate aggregate expenditure). that power can be based on the condition of the government or its purpose, namely in times of recession or depression and are contractionary and expansionary. peacock and wiseman stated that the economic growth (gdp) led to increased tax collection despite the tax rate unchanged. the tax increase came from extending the tax. in addition, the increase in tax revenue caused government spending also increased. therefore, under normal circumstances, the rise in gdp led to acceptance of greater government revenue, as well as government spending increases. 1. tax according to prof. dr. h. rochmat soemitro, sh. tax is a cash contribution to the people of the state based on law (enforceable) does not receive the services of lead (contra) directly demonstrated to those used to pay for general expenses, so that the people's taxes are dues to the treasury countries that can be imposed, meaning that if the tax debt is not paid then the taxpayer may incur penalties can even be treated imprisonment (khoirul and nugraheni, 2016). according to tax is a mandatory fee in the form of goods levied by the authorities based on legal norms, in order to cover the cost of production of goods and services collectively to achieve common prosperity. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 65-71 69 2. taxes in the view of islam taxes in the view of islam generally means a payment made to the government to finance expenditures that do in terms of organizing services for the public interest. and the islamic economic system of tax must satisfy four elements that must be the nash (quran and hadith) are ordered each source and the collection, tax collection system or charity should ensure that only the rich and the group prosperous that had the ability who bear the burden for their main demands of the common good (khoirul and nugraheni, 2016). etymologically taxes in arabic known as dharibah derived from the root word dharoba, yadhribu, dharban meaning; obliging, establish, determine, hitting, explain or charge and others. dharaba is a form of the verb, whereas in the form of a noun is dharibah which means the load. known as an obligation additional burden on property other than zakat so that the implementation will be perceived as a burden. how kharaj and jizya? the object of kharaj is ground, then if used term tax for kharaj the islamic economic system would be confused by the term taxes on income or revenue, in islamic taxes, referred to as kharaj a type of tax levied on land, especially conquered by force of arms, regardless of whether the owner was a person under age, an adult, a free, slaves, muslims or non-muslims. similarly, the jizya, the object is the soul, not the same as dharibah (akita and pagulayan, 2014). originally applied to tax under islam ibn taymiyyah said: "there is no contradiction in the hadith, because zakat and other liabilities other than zakat (tax) is caused by different reasons. reason enactment of zakat is due to own property above the maximum limit (ratio) while the enactment of tax reasons is not because it has excess property, but because of the emergence of an urgent need in the community". tax is only levied according to the amount of financing required, cannot exceed. and taxes can be removed when they are not needed (obaidullah, 2008). silver (2017) has argued that the tax is a treasure that is required allah to the muslims to finance various needs and expenditure items that are required of them, on condition of baitul mal no money / possessions, thus summed up five key elements is an important element which must be included in the tax provision by law, namely: 1. required by allah swt 2. the object is a treasure (al-maal) 3. muslims rich subject (ghaniyyun) only 4. the goal is simply to finance them (muslims) only 5. imposed only because of emergency conditions (specifically) that must be overcome by ulil amri. 3. economic growth disparity can be seen not only influenced by the growth of per capita income alone but can also be influenced by economic growth as measured by the growth of gnp, because by including economic growth as measured by gross domestic product, into the model simon kuznets shows the contradiction relationship between economic growth and disparity income, the contradiction is due to the disparity of income and economic growth are equally outcome variable is not a policy variable (silver, 2017). factors that impact directly on economic growth and income disparity but are mediators that factors of production labor, capital and technology in this study the factors that are used as the cause of economic growth and income disparities are focused on government expenditure, using capital factor expressed with the government's revenue from taxes (abdillah and mursinto, 2016). 4. disparity disparity or inequality region is one of the problems that inevitably arise in development. inequality region becomes significant when the region within a country occur on a variety of potential natural resources, geographical location, quality of human resources and ethnic ties or political. one way to reduce inequality in the region is to organize the construction. but development is not necessarily to reduce the inequality of the region. therefore, it is important to put forward the concept of equity in development in indonesia (dwamena, 2012). the purpose of economic development is to create growth and changes in the economic structure, social change, alleviating poverty, reduce disparities and unemployment (rozycki, 2017). economic development should be helped to overcome inequality of the tax to be one of the biggest reception were very influential to the state. from the standpoint of fiscal, tax is state revenue is used to improve the welfare of the people with the basic principles of collecting funds obtained from and to the community through mechanisms that refers to the legislation in force, the results of the tax revenue is later used for various purposes of local government especially for building area. given the importance of the contributions made by tax revenue for financing the construction of the collection of the un should be done effectively, because if the levies set of taxation not in accordance with the abilities of each region will be one of the causes of inequality or disparity in the region who feel burdened by their tax. the negative impact of inequality extreme among other inefficiencies in the economy, weakening of social stability and solidarity, as well as high inequality are generally seen as unfair, while the positive impact of inequality is the impact to encourage other regions that are less developed to be able to compete and increase growth in order to improve their welfare (shaikh, 2012). many programs have been developed to reduce disparities, disparities between regions so far apparently not achieve sufficient results because of the development budget allocation area is as an instrument to reduce disparities, then what if the tax imposed on the community is to be an influence disparity for the local community or region to advanced, due to economic growth vary by region so that the tax is charged at each area it causes imbalance. disparity or inequality between regions due to the mobilization of resources owned by an area. such resources include the accumulation of capital, labor, and natural resources are owned. heterogeneity and diverse characteristics of an area leads to a tendency inequality between regions (mccartney, 2011). somon kuznets assume that higher income groups contribute capital and big savings, while capital from other groups is very small, whereas the same conditions, then the difference in saving ability will affect the concentration of increasing the proportion of income in the higher income groups. this process accumulative impact that further enhance the capabilities in high-income groups, then will increase income inequality within a country (sun and chai, 1998). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 65-71 70 5. measurement of regional disparities the size of inequality used to use this measure introduced by williamson (1965) the calculation of this value is based on the index variation modifies this calculation to weigh the proportion of the region's population. unlike the gini index that calculates the value of the entire household income distribution in a region or country, williamson index can see the magnitude of inequality of income distribution between regions within a region. the greater the williamson index number, the greater the degree of inequality. this index can be calculated using the formula: √( ̂) ̂ where : iw : income disparity index fi : the total population of each province i n : number of national population : the gdp of each province i ̂ : on average the gdp disparity index restriction between regions using this size, namely: 1. the index value > 1, the maximum inequality occurs 2. the index value from 0.7 to 1, there is high inequality 3. the index value from 0.4 to 0.6, an imbalance that is being 4. the index value < 0.3, there is a low inequality 4. research methods this study further develops kuznets models that have been developed by chang and rati ram. development is done by mensubtitusikan variable by variable tax revenue growth, with the model: ( ) ( ) where : dp: diparitas revenue y: grdp provinces in indonesia q: tax revenue in indonesia sacchi and salotti (2011) to analyze the data collected will be used the econometric model. the analytical method used is descriptive qualitative and quantitative analysis. qualitative descriptive analysis is used to describe the phenomena related to the problems studied. while quantitative used to analyze the quantitative information (data that can be measured, tested and transformed in the form of equations, tables and so on). quantitative analysis stage consists of the estimated regression model with panel data usage, multiple linear regression equation using pls (pooled least square), the classic assumption test and statistical tests. 5. discussion dependent variable: pe? method: pooled least squares sample: 20014 2016 included observations: 3 cross-sections included: 33 total pool (balanced) observations: 99 table-4. empirical results variable coefficient std. error t-statistic prob. dp -12.34665 11.18783 -1.103579 0.2755 y 0.136035 0.040675 3.344420 0.0016 t 0.915000 0.902074 1.014330 0.3157 effects specification cross-section fixed (dummy variables) r-squared 0.714340 mean dependent var 5.352333 adjusted r-squared 0.633611 sd dependent var 1.212145 se of regression 0.733713 akaike information criterion 2.419566 sum squared resid 24.76339 schwarz criterion 2.908246 log likelihood -58.58697 hannan-quinn criter. 2.610715 f-statistic 8.848525 durbin-watson stat 1.297111 prob (f-statistic) 0.000000 after performing regression testing obtained panel data regression model for the disparity in revenue 33 provinces in indonesia: dp = 12.34665 0.136036 (y) + 0.915000 (t) ............... based on the three above equation. the negative sign means that economic growth if growth increases by one percent, the income disparity index decreased by 0:13. a positive sign in tax revenues means that if tax revenues increased one percent, the index increased by 0.91 dipartites revenue. local tax revenue for local development is expected to reduce income disparities community or region. however, this study shows the positive effect on tax asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 65-71 71 revenue dipasaritas income, with a significance level of 0.91. when compared with the data of tax revenue in indonesia (table 2) above since 2010 through 2016 tax revenue in billions of rupiah continued to increase high but the number of poor people in indonesia continues to increase, means that the results of this study may explain why the number of people poor in indonesia continues to increase each year because of tax revenue obtained positive effect on the disparity, in other words, no tax revenue positive hedge against declining disparity or inequality in indonesia. 1. need integration in taxes there needs to be integration between the tax and zakat, charity is worship that provisions exist in the texts, zakat position and the position is very strategic in building the welfare, alleviate poverty and improve the local economy, if the collection and distribution is managed in a trustworthy, transparent and professional. taxes when viewed in terms of shariah relating to islamic economics then obtained three matters related to land and building tax are: 1. there are texts of the qur’an and hadith, when viewed from the side of the subject taxes earth and building is clearly contrary to the sharia, because muslims participate charged on land and or building they own, occupy and use, even though they are the owners of land and buildings contained the word of allah in quran. 2. imposed only to the rich. land and building tax is also required to separate the rich and the poor, because their tax obligations are attached to objects or buildings earth. land and building tax has no basis in sharia, as the principle of the above opinion. this can lead to the oppression and injustice to the muslims, especially the weak. muslims in indonesia should not be levied land and building tax (pbb) and including non-muslims. because the land they inhabit not including land kharijiyah. kharaj including official state reception on non-muslims over land khariyah, but because indonesia is not including the land kharajiyah the un should not be collected (shofiana, 2011). 2. taxes, poverty and disparities tax which would be a solution to poverty, have not been able to be a transfer of wealth from the rich and the poor (the regulator), the new tax is only capable of being a source of state income (budgetary) only, to fund various government requirements. can be seen (table 3) above since 2010 through 2016 tax revenue in billions of rupiah continues to increase is high, but the rate of the number of poor from 2014 to 2015 experienced a high increase. in 2015, the number of poor people in indonesia reached 28.59 million increased by 0.86 million compared with conditions in 2014, which amounted to 27.73 million soul and in 2016 reached 28.01 million decreased $ 500 million compared to the year 2015 (rozycki, 2017). tax revenue and income sources of the greatest nation that ever-increasing taxes is not accompanied by decreasing the amount of poverty in indonesia. so it can be analyzed that the tax cannot be applied increase economic growth and lead to inequality region which is a burden to areas not yet ready with the economic situation and low growth. 6. conclusion from the discussion above it can be concluded that the fiscal policy is a government policy that carried out by the financial sector includes revenues, expenditures and the country's sovereign debt. fiscal policy in the islamic economic system provides an important input in the implementation of fiscal or tax discretion in indonesia, because the tax islam for muslims have been defined obligations and rules. in islam also sets out how the source and the collection system. where the taxation and zakat system must ensure that only the rich and affluent class who has the advantage bore the main burden (paying taxes) due to the demands of the common good. tax costs imposed on society seems fair and not burdensome to the community if charges apply according to the ability of each community, following the pattern of tax or zakat in islam, so it will affect inequalities and poverty are decreasing in each region. references abdillah, k. and mursinto, 2016. introduction. theoretical frameworks, 4(2): 405–414. akita, t. and m.s. pagulayan, 2014. structural changes and interregional income inequality in the philippines, 1975-2009. review of urban & regional development studies, 26(2): 135–154. view at google scholar | view at publisher dwamena, m.a., 2012. stress and its effects on employees productivity-a case study of ghana ports and habours authority, takoradi. commonwealth executive master of business administration. pp: 1–82. khoirul, h.m. and n. nugraheni, 2016. the taxation in islamic law perspective. academic research international, 7(1): 214-221. mccartney, m., 2011. pakistan, growth, dependency, and 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sun, h. and j. chai, 1998. direct foreign investment and inter-regional economic disparity in china. international journal of social economics, 25(2/3/4): 424–447. view at google scholar | view at publisher williamson, j.g., 1965. regional inequality and the process of national development: a description of the patterns. economic development and cultural change, 13(4, part 2): 1-84. view at google scholar | view at publisher asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=structural%20changes%20and%20interregional%20income%20inequality%20in%20the%20philippines,%201975-2009 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/rurd.12024 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=pakistan,%20growth,%20dependency,%20and%20crisis https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=tax%20in%20indonesia%20in%20islamic%20perspective https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=direct%20foreign%20investment%20and%20inter-regional%20economic%20disparity%20in%20china http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03068299810193687 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=regional%20inequality%20and%20the%20process%20of%20national%20development:%20a%20description%20of%20the%20patterns http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1152097 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 4, 248-255, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 248 the analysis of investment, labor, exports, exchange rate’s effect toward the indonesian economic growth akmal umar1 1 sekolah tinggi ilmu manajemen indonesia (stimi) makassar, indonesia (high school of management sciences of indonesia makassar, indonesian) abstract this study aimed to analyze the effect partially and simultaneously of the investment variable, the labor variable, the export variable, and the rate / value of the rupiahs variable toward the indonesian economic growth. the whole data used in this research are secondary data from the systematic recording in the form of time series data (time series) in the period of 2007 to 2013 which were obtained from the central statistics agency (bps) of south sulawesi province. model analysis of the data in this study is using multiple linear regressions with ordinary least squares approach (ols). the results of this study indicate that in period of 2007 2013, the partially variables: investment has no effect to economic growth; labor positively and significantly affected to economic growth; export in this case net-exports a negatively and significantly affected to economic growth; and the rupiahs’ exchange rate has not affected economic growth. and simultaneously variables: investment, labor, exports, foreign exchange positively affected to indonesia's economic growth. keywords: investment, labor, exports, exchange rate, economic growth. contents 1. preface ................................................................................................................................................................................ 249 2. theoretical review ............................................................................................................................................................ 249 3. research methods .............................................................................................................................................................. 251 4. conceptual framework and hypotheses .......................................................................................................................... 251 5. research hypotheses ......................................................................................................................................................... 251 6. discussion and analysis ..................................................................................................................................................... 252 7. conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................... 254 8. recommendation ............................................................................................................................................................... 254 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 255 citation | akmal umar (2016). the analysis of investment, labor, exports, exchange rate’s effect toward the indonesian economic growth. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(4): 248-255. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.248.255 issn(e) : issn(p) : 2313-7401 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained ethical: history: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. received: 25 june 2016/ revised: 27 july 2016/ accepted: 1 august 2016/ published: 8 august 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.248.255 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=akmal umar http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.248.255 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.248.255 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=akmal umar http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.248.255 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.248.255 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=akmal umar http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.248.255 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 248-255 249 1. preface a country can be known has a good economic condition through the calculations of high economic growth, or simply measured by the increasing of goods and services produced. the indicator of goods production and services numbers on economic is known as domestic bruto products (dbp) terminology, that dbp is used to measure the economic growth level based on constant prices (real dpb) to eliminate the effects of price changing along the measurement’s period of time. in a country, the economic growth is a priority achievement. they would do many ways and economic strategies that could support the economic growth level achieved. it would become an overview welfare and wealth level for every citizen who lived in that country. the economic growth is the average of increasing output that produced by everyone in goods and services production which are the growth levels per capita in real terms for everyone. since this increment, it is hoped would increase the capital production of each labor or in other words it would increase foreign exchange reserves (shone, 1989). based todaro (2000) the economic growth is one of indicators of a country’s economic progress. it is the increase in the capacity in a long term of its country to provide various economic goods to their people/citizen. there are three main factors in economic growth; first, accumulation of capital which are through all kinds and types of new investments implantation, physical implementation, assets and human resources; second, the population growth which would multiply the numbers of labor force; and third, advanced technology. next is based on sukirno (2002) the economic growth is an important thing for a nation, the problems of economic growth are become the nation’s purposes to improve national development which could improve human quality and its community. the economic growth is not apart from labor, and technology, they are necessary to support neither economic growth, nor job opportunities. in actualizing economic growth, indonesia needs two important factors, there are assets and expertise. the availability of assets is not enough to improve the economic, it necessarily needs expertise, well-educated and skilled in production process, this labor needs education and training due to the ability improvements. besides, the entrepreneur development needs to be improved too, the entrepreneur’s faction is very important to decide where are the economic development would be achieved. they are the factions of borrower or raise the capital/ assets or own funds who would develop production process activities (sukirno, 2004). the government has an important role in economic because they’re in charged as a regulator (controller). besides, the government as a simulator, the government’s funds could be used as a stimulant to manage private investment or general public towards the direction that government wanted to, both in terms of the activity and the location (tarigan, 2005). the policy which has been run by the governments is the policy that should be able to overcome the economic problems overall. in the other side could increasing exports as a foreign exchange’s producer to financing the imports, also the interest payment and the foreign debt, and on the other hand could curb inflation. this curb inflation is directed to prevent the decrease in consumer purchasing power, especially of the majority who consume lots of basic needs, but in the other hand is also a powerful implement to maintain the competitive exchange rates to support exports, and can solve problems in the field of employment (mubyarto, 2000). from the previous explanation could be seen that investment, labor, exports, and exchange rates are indicated indonesia’s domestic bruto products (dbp) growth, which is assumed partially and simultaneously has been affected to indonesia’s economic growth. 2. theoretical review harrod-domar’s theory in dornbusch and fisher (2004) this economics theory analyzes the relationships between growth level and inflation level. the idea is that at a certain level of national income is sufficient to absorb all workers, with wage level in the next period would no longer sufficient to absorb all the existing all workers. this occurs because of the additional production capacity in the initial period and available in the following period. thus required the additional funds to achieve the absorption level of full employment in the next period, by calculating the relationship between capital (capital stock = k), with the production result (output = y), or with a capital output ratio (cor). from this theory, it could be concluded that there is a direct economic relationship between the amount of capital stock (k) and output (y), which is formulated on capital output ratio (cor). k is a value from all entire capital goods such as land, building, implements, and materials, while y can be measured by gross national income or gross national product. the higher the capital stock increased, the higher the output produced. in this concept said that as a cause of investment which has been done, in other time the capacity of capital goods in the economy would grow, and that all available capital goods fully in used, the aggregate demand must be increased by the increase in the capacity of capital goods were realized as a result of past investments. it seems that the need for capital investment in creating economic growth, or to enhance the economic growth required new investment is a net addition to the capital stock (mankiw, 2003). solow’s growth model (solow, 2007) basically this model is the development of harrod-domar formulations by adding the second factor, which is labor, and also introducing the independent variable, the third is technology into equality growth. different as harrod-domar’s model which assume constant return scale by default coefficients, neoclassic solow’s mozdel holds on concept of diminishing returns from labor input and capitals if both of them analyzed separately; if both of them analyzed together, solow also used that constant return to scale. technological advances designated as residual factor to explain the economic growth in the long term, and high and low growth itself by solow and the other theoretical assumed exogenous, or not influenced by other factors. sollow’s growth model also shows how savings, population growth, advanced technology affected economic output level and its growth all the time. this model was designed to show how growth in capital stock, growth in labor market, and advanced technology interacting in economy eventually affecting a country’s goods and service output overall (mankiw, 2006). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 248-255 250 there are three main factors in economic growth: first, capital accumulation, which conclude all forms or types of new investments implantation, physics implementation and assets or human resources; second, the population growth which next few more years would multiply the numbers of labor force; and third, advanced technology (todaro, 2000). from all the third factors of economic growth is concluded that source of economic progress may include all types of factors. generally could be said that the main resource of economic growth is investment which is able to fix up the capital’s quality and human & physical resources that would increase productivity resources and physical quality which could increase the productivity of all resources through new inventions, innovation, and technology advanced (salomo, 2007). the connection between investment and economic growth as is investment as the purchase of goods / capital and production equipment in increasing the ability of goods and services productivity which is needed in economy would increase the real indonesia domestic bruto products (dbp) and therefore would have positive effect towards economic growth (handayani, 2011). the raise of investment would increase production capacity that would lead to the new job opportunities, which on the next level would encourage the economic growth (sutawijaya, 2010). based on suparmoko (2004) there are some theories that could explain how big the investment level which can be worked to accelerate the economic growth in a country or an area: (1) gradualist theory, this theory point of view is that the least developed countries should not quickly industrialize because of the risk and mistakes would be too great to bear. capital injection that much is not good until the economy is able to absorb it. production selection techniques and investment are based on relative costs than production factors. it should be attempted to advance small industries, the development of villagers that use extra labor. the activity which needs a lot of capitals would attempt if the profits exceed labor intensive; (2) big push theory, this theory briefly said that if there’s a little effort to raise incomes, it only encourages the population growth alone that would obstruct the increase in per capita income. therefore, the efforts should be implemented on a large scale to cope with changes in the population. the implication is to be held massive investments to eliminate poverty, maximizing the output using the most productive technique that sometimes requires huge capital. this is concentration on investment which in turn produced tools and capital to sustain the income growth in output. consumption otherwise suppressed, so that investment can continue to exist. the emphasis on "economies of scale" in the form of large scale production and of course also requires a lot of capital; (3) theory of balanced growth, the theory was first proposed by rosenstein-rodan in 1953 which emphasize that the economy is likely to grow if there is a good balance between the various sectors in the economy. with the balanced growth is interpreted that economic development will not succeed if the investment was limited to the specified growing point or sectors that is growing just because other sectors are closely related. investments should be spread across all sectors thereby expanding the market from one sector to the other sectors. the closer the relationship of interdependence between the various sectors, the market will get stronger. to realize this theory certainly should be supported by a substantial investment; (4) the unbalanced growth theory, the theory proposed by hirschman in 1992 which initially criticized the theory of balanced development. he said that the community in still low income level cannot change the system of traditional economy into a modern system. besides, the great capital cannot be provided by the state that is still develops. it is precisely the lack of balance will encourage faster economic progress and expansion costs can be minimized. when one sector remains low output, it will remain in demand in other sectors and there would be super-normal profits in the sector's low output. according to todaro (2000) population growth and labor force growth is traditionally regarded as one of the positive factors that accelerate economic growth. the greater amount of labor means will increase the level of production, while the greater population growth means a larger size of its domestic market. lewis in todaro (2004) the homogeneous and unskilled labor force is considered to be able to move and shift from the traditional sector to the modern sector smoothly and in limited quantities. these circumstances, labor supply contains a high elasticity. increased demand for labor (from the traditional sector) root in the expansion of modern sector activities. thus one of the factors that influence the economic growth is labor. in macroeconomic theory, the relationship between exports with the level of economic growth or national income is an identity equation because exports are part of the national income level (oiconta, 2006). from the point of the expenditure, exports are one of the most important factors in the gross national product (gnp) so that with a change in the value of exports, the income of the community directly will also undergo changes. on the other hand, higher a country's exports would cause the economy will be very sensitive to the fluctuations in the international markets and the world economy (irham and yogi, 2003). associated with the relationship between exports and economic growth, jung and marshaall (1985) suggest that the relationship between exports and economic growth, there are at least four hypotheses or views that are equally plausible, and acceptable. first, the hypothesis that exports as the motor for economic growth (export-led growth hypothesis). secondly, the hypothesis that is exports are the cause lowers economic growth (export-reducing growth hypothesis). third, the hypothesis is the export rather than a motor for economic growth in the country, but on the contrary of domestic economic growth is an activator for export (internally generated export hypothesis). lastly, the fourth is the hypothesis that economic growth is a factor caused the exports decrease (growth-reducing export hypothesis). santoso (2010) in his research concluded that simultaneous variable import of capital goods, investment, labor, and foreign exchange significantly affect indonesia's economic growth. however, partial variable imports of capital goods, exports, and investment, labor, and foreign exchange rates did not affect the economic growth in indonesia. in a study of the international trade role as a source of economic growth in indonesia, salomo (2007) concluded that in the long term real exports, real imports, the real exchange rate, the number of workers, and the crisis a significant effect on economic growth. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 248-255 251 3. research methods this study uses descriptive and quantitative analysis. descriptive analysis is used to describe the phenomena related to the problem under the study, whereas quantitative analysis is used to analyze the quantitative information. the data used in this research is secondary data obtained from the systematic recording compaction in the form of time series from the year 2007 to 2013 were obtained from the central statistics agency (csa) of south sulawesi province. furthermore, the data were analyzed using multiple regression approach to ordinary least squares (ols). data analysis method: y = f(x1, x2, x3, x4 ……………………………………………………… (1) e y = β0 x1 β1 x2 β2 x3 β3 x4 β4 e µ ……………………………………………… (2) y = ln β0 + β1 ln x1 + β2 ln x2 + β3 ln x3 + β4 ln x4 + µ ………………........ (3) where: y = economic growth (%) β0 = constant numeral β1 β2 β3 β4 = regression coefficients x1 = investment x2 = labor x3 = exports x4 = exchange rates (rp/$) e = exponential number µ = term of error 4. conceptual framework and hypotheses economic growth is a process of increase in real gross national product, or an increase in real national income. economic changes can occur, both growth, static or decrease in real national income. growth is a positive change, whereas a decrease is negative changes. investment is defined as the expenses for the purchase of capital goods and equipment production with the purpose of replacing and specially to increase the capital goods economy, which would be used to produce goods and services in the future. if the value of the investment is positive, then the gross domestic product (gdp) is positive, will further increase the gdp growth as well as expanding the business field, increase national income and improve the prosperity of society. the use of labor in the production process related to the costs of production and wages. both in terms of production costs and the level of wages, employment related to increased labor productivity and returns that production factor received. with the increasing number of workers, it will increase labor productivity as a result of changes in the quantity and quality of labor itself in order to encourage economic growth. net exports is the value of a country's exports minus its imports, exports are one of foreign exchange source. to be able to export, the state should be able to produce goods and services in international markets. net exports which earned by a country would have a positive impact on economic growth if the value of exports is greater than the value of imports, thus improved its national income and stimulate economic growth. the exchange rate is one factor that affects the trade balance, if the domestic exchange rate depreciated it would increase the volume of exports so that the trade balance surplus, and vice versa. the conceptual framework of this research is showed at figure 1 below: figure-1. conceptual framework research source: author 5. research hypotheses h1: investment positively affects on economic growth h2: labor positively affects on economic growth h3: exports positively affects on economic growth h4: exchange rates positively affects on economic growth asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 248-255 252 h5: simultaneously investment, labor, export, exchange rate positively affects on the economic growth. 6. discussion and analysis 6.1. the influence of investment towards economic growth the investment is an activity to transform the potential resources into real economic strength. the development of the investment value of indonesia in the period of 2007 2013, both investment domestic investment (dci), as well as foreign direct investment (fdi) is fluctuating increase and decrease. table 1 below shows the decreasing and the increasing of investment value in indonesia in the period of 2007-2013. table-1. the development of indonesia’s investment year of 2007 – 2013 year dci (billion rp) trend (%) fdi (million us$) trend (%) 2007 34878.70 10341.40 2008 20363.40 (-) 41,62 14871.40 (+) 43,80 2009 37799.90 (+) 85,63 10815.20 (-) 27,28 2010 60626.30 (+) 60,39 16214.80 (+) 49,93 2011 76000.70 (+) 25,36 19474.50 (+) 20,10 2012 92182.00 (+) 21,29 24564.70 (+) 26,14 2013 128150.60 (+) 39,02 28617.50 (+) 16,50 source: central statistics agency (csa) of south sulawesi based on the investment value of indonesia in table 1 shows that the value of both domestic investment and fdi fluctuated. in 2007 the value of domestic investment and fdi is quite high, supported macroeconomic stability quite well after the economic crisis. this encourages economic growth. in 2008, the value of domestic investment decreased by 41.62%, which resulted from the impact of the global crisis, while the value of foreign investment increased by 43.80%, this is due to the improvement in investor perceptions and increased return on investmen. subsequently in 2009, the value of domestic investment increased sharply by 85%, while the value of foreign investment decreased by 27.28%. furthermore, between 2010 and 2013 there was an increase the value of the average domestic investment amounted to 36.52%, while the fdi increasing in investment value of average of 28.17%. based on multiply regression analysis by ols approached, regression coeficient investment is 0.010 isn’t significant with the significancy level α = 0.538%, it means that investment smally affected (not significant) towards indonesia’s economic growth. when the investment increase 1%, then the ecnomic growth would increased only 0.010%. the analysis and implication of investment effect towards indonesia’s economic growth that both dci and fdi investment in period of 2007 – 2013 have contributed towards domestic bruto products (dbp) were not too affected, so it has been impacted to the small dbp’s changes. this study is not appropriate with hypotheses which concluded in harrod-domar theory gives the key to investment in economic growth process, especially about investment multiply roles, which are: first, investment creates income, and second, the investment enhanced economy production capacity by increased the capital stock. implantation domestic capital proportion and implantation foreign capital in dbp and investment rapid growth didn’t mean that ecoomic growth run well and vice versa, because the important thing is not besarnya investment in money value or the number of projects, but how the efficiency and productivity from its investment. 6.2. the influence of labor towards economic growth labor usually called as ”manpower” is one of supported factors the used of other production factors that would be used in production process, even the most important factor than the other factors because human is a motor of all production factors exist. labor is one of production factors in economy, in other side, labor is also one part of citizen who produce goods and services. indonesia labor growth are generally increase in period of 2007 – 2013. table 2 below shows the number of labor in indonesia in period of 2007 – 2013. table-2. indonesia labor growth year 2007 – 2013 year labor (million people) trend (%) 2007 109.94 2008 111.95 (+) 1,83 2009 113.83 (+) 1,68 2010 116.53 (+) 2,37 2011 117.37 (+) 0,72 2012 118.05 (+) 0,58 2013 121.19 (+) 2,66 source: central statistics agency (csa) of south sulawesi table 2. shows that the number of indonesia labor growth generally incrased annualy in period of 2007 – 2013. in year 2007 the number of labor is 109.94 million people, next on 2008 the number of labor increased to 111.95 million people, increase as much as 1,83%. on the next years the number of labor keep increased, the biggest increasing was in year 2013, it was increase as much as 2,66%, with the number of labor into 121.19 million people. based on multiply reggression analysis with ols approach, reggression coefficient of labor is 2.783 significantly with the significant level α = 0.000%, this indicates that there’s positive relationship between labor asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 248-255 253 variable with indonesia economic growth. it means when the labor has increased 1%, therefore economic growth would increase 2.783%. the analysis and implication of labor effect towards indonesia economic growth show that in the period of 2007 – 2013 the number of labor significantly affected towards indonesia economic growth, or in other words the econmic growth as overviewed as dbp supported by tgw growth or the increasing the labor numbers. this study parallel with the result study of santoso (2010) that the labor variable is real affected simultantly towards indonesia economic growth. 6.3. the effect of exports towards economic growth exports are a total of goods and services that have been sold by a country to the others, includes the insurance, and any services in a particular year. nett exports are the exports total reduced by the imports total, nett exports are very affected toward income and stimulate economic growth, if the nett exports value are positive, it means the exports value is bigger than the imports value, and if the nett exports are negative, it means that the exports value is smaller ahn the imports value (case and fair, 2009). if the exports netto are positive, it would increase the nationl income, otherwise if the netto exports are negative, it would decrease national income. here is a picture of the indonesia nett exort growth in the period of 2007 2013, are presented in table 3. table-3. indonesia net exports growth period of 2007 – 2013 year exports value (us$) imports value (us$) nett exports value (us$) trend (%) 2007 114,100,890,751 74,473,430,118 39,627,460,633 2008 137,021,424,402 129,197,306,224 7,823,118,178 down 80,26 2009 116,510,026,081 96,829,244,981 19,680,781,100 up 151,57 2010 157,779,103,470 135,663,284,048 22,115,819,422 up 12,37 2011 203,496,620,060 177,435,555,736 26,061,064,324 up 17,84 2012 190,031,845,244 191,691,001,109 -1,659,195,865 nett-exp (-) 2013 182,551,794,701 186,628,669,880 -4,076,875,179 nett-exp (-) source: central statistics agency (csa) of south sulawesi table 3. shows that indonesia nett-exports value in the period of 2007 – 2013 experienced a fluctuating trend, even in last a couple years 2012 and 2013 indonesia nett-exports value were negative (exports value were smaller than imports value). in 2008 indonesia nett exports decreased by $ 7.823 million (80.26%) compared with the nett-exports in 2007, this was caused by the world global crisis. subsequently in 2009 with the improvement in the global economy bring a positive influence, nett-exports recur increased by 151.57% with a nett exports value amounted to $ 19.681 million. in 2010 the increase of nett exports only 12.37 with the exports value of $ 22.116 million. furthermore, in 2011 the value of nett-exports rose by $ 26.061 million or 17.84%. but in 2012 and 2013 nett-exports was negative, exports decreased drastically, while the value of imports increased. based on the multiple regression analysis with ols approach, the regression coefficient of nett-exports mounted to 0.001, significantly with the significance level α = 0.029%. it means that the nett-exports variable significantly is negatively related to the idonesia economic growth in the period of 2007 2013. when the nett-exports rose 1%, economic growth would decreased by 0.001%. this study is in line with the findings of aliman and purnomo (2001) stated that export is a causes of the decline economic growth (export-reducing growth hypothesis). however, it is incompatible and does not match with the theory of international trade by heckscher et al. (1991) which states that the nett-exports is one of the most important factors of gross national product (gnp), so that with the change in the value of the nett exports, it will influence the change of the national income. similarly with the of salomo (2007) that in long term net-exports is significantly affected the economic growth. and oiconta (2006) which states that in a certain analysis period obtained overall has relationship effect of nett exports towards gnp or economic growth. 6.4. the effect of exchange rates towards the economic growth the rupiah exchange rate is a comparison of the value or price of the rupiah to the price of the other currency. in trade between countries each country has its own instrument exchange rate that would require comparative figures for the value of a currency with another currency called foreign exchange rates or exchange rates (salvatore, 2008). this exchange rates is one of the indicators that affect the activity in the stock market and financial markets, as investors tend to be cautious to invest. the decline in the rupiah exchange rate against foreign currencies, especially the us dollar had a negative effect on the economy and capital markets (sitinjak and kurniasari, 2003). if the exchange rate depreciates, the value of domestic currency decreased and imply foreign currency exchange rates are getting higher, it will cause exports increased and imports decreased. and vice versa in case of currency appreciation in the value of domestic currency increases, it will cause exports decreased and imports are likely to increase. thus foreign exchange rates have a direct relationship with the exports volume. if the value of the dollar exchange rate increases, the volume of exports will also increase (sukirno, 2002). the development of the exchange rate during the period of 2007 – 2013 were fluctuated and tended to depreciate over the years. these fluctuations are caused by several factors, both fundamental factors such as supply and demand for foreign currencies, as well as non-fundamental factors, namely political and security developments in the country. since 1997 introduced a system of floating exchange rates, the position of rupiah exchange rate against foreign currencies, particularly the us $ was determined through market mechanisms, so that the rise and fall of the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 248-255 254 exchange rate was determined by market forces. the pressures on the rupiah resulted in the rupiah exchange rate becomes too low (undervalued). here is a picture of the development of the exchange rate in the period 2007-2013, is presented in table 4. table-4. indonesia exchange rates development period of 2007 – 2013 year exchange rates (rp/$) trend (%) 2007 9.419 2008 10.950 (+) 16,25 2009 9.400 (-) 14,16 2010 8.991 (-) 4,35 2011 9.057 (+) 0,73 2012 9.638 (+) 6,41 2013 10.452 (+) 8,45 source: central statistics agency (csa) of south sulawesi from the table 4. illustrated that the rupiah exchange rates changed in the period of 2007 2013. in 2007 the exchange rate was in a position of less than rp 10,000 per us $ in the amount of rp 9,419 per us $. and in 2008, the rupiah weakened to rp 10,950 per us $, so in the year 2009 to 2012 the exchange rates was fluctuated below rp 10,000 per us $. furthermore, in 2013 there was an increase in oil prices and the poor condition of the world economy makes the exchange rate weakened into the position of rp 10,452 per us $. based on the multiple regression analysis by ols approach, the regression coefficient of the exchange rates amounted to 0.044 is insignificantly α = 0.538%, showing a number greater than α = 5%. it may be mentioned that the variable rates has no effected (negative but not significant) to economic growth in indonesia. the results of this study indicate that the fluctuations in the exchange rates of rp / us $ during the period of 2007 2013 did not give a significant effect on the national economy of indonesia. this is due to the national economic growth driven more by spending for the governments and private consumption. the results of this study are consistent with the results of ditha (2011) which states that the exchange rate or the exchange rate against the us dollar did not significantly affect the variables of economic growth in indonesia. while the results of this study are not correspond with the opinion of sarwono and perry (1998) that if it is linked by exchange rate channel in the monetary policy mechanism, the movement in the exchange rate may affect the open economy by a flexible exchange rate system. but the reality of the results of this study showed the opposite. 6.5. the influence of independent variables towards research dependent variables based on tests conducted to analyze how much influence the independent variables namely investment (x1), labor (x2), exports (x3), and the exchange rate (x4) on the dependent variable is economic growth (y), using the equation analysis of linear, then obtained a constant value of 1.653. it means if without the influence of the independent variables, the rate of economic growth in indonesia was 1,653 percent. from processing spss shows the determination coefficient r2 = 0.993, means that the independent variables are able to explain the dependent variable variation of 99.3 percent, or in other words there is only a 0.7 percent were influenced by other factors which not included in the the explanatory variables. analysis of variance (test-f) shows that f count = 380.265 while f table 2.60534, thus the four independent variables jointly has significant effect on the dependent variable. it can be concluded that simultaneous independent variables (investment, employment, exports, and foreign exchange) significantly affected on economic growth in indonesia (the dependent variable). 7. conclusion from the discussion result of this study can be drawn the conclusion that the five hypotheses proposed in the research on indonesia's economic growth in the period of 2007 2013, as follows: (1) the investment has no effect towards economic growth, if there is an increase or decrease in the investment does not affected the economic growth, thus it means that h1 is rejected; (2) labor positive and significant effect on economic growth, if there is an increase in the number of labor, it will provide a real influence on economic growth, thus it means the h2 is accepted; (3) exports in this case the nettt-export a significantly has negative effect towards economic growth, if there’s an increase in nett exports, it has no effect towards economic growth, or growth will decreased, thus h3 is rejected; (4) the rupiah exchange rate has no effect on economic growth, if there’s an increasing or decreasing in the exchange rate, will have no impact towards economic growth, thereby h4 rejected; (5) simultaneously investment, labor, export, exchange rate positively affected towards economic growth, or four independent variables jointly significant effect on the dependent variable, thus h5 accepted. 8. recommendation based on the conclusions of this research, there are some suggestions to the indonesian government: (1) give special attention to the size of the investment contribution to gross domestic product (gdp), in this study it was found that the reviews largest contribution to gdp is dominated by private consumption and government spending. so the growth of investment was not able to give a significant impact towards the increasing gdp; (2) improving the quality of employment by developing system were coherence between education, skills training commensurate with the needs of the labor market, development and technology development; (3) holding of export diversification in order to the net-exports have contributed positively towards the economic growth, and so that not only fixed on primary products which have less added-value and competitive value in world market; 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typical and positive leadership prototypes for indonesian millennials rizqi nur’aini a’yuninnisa1 muhammad fashih hibatul haqqi2 nisfi balqish rusli3 nabila puteri4 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3,4center for indigenous and cultural psychology, faculty of psychology, universitas gadjah mada, indonesia. abstract leadership studies in indonesia tend to discuss the way leadership affects individual attitudes and behavior as well as team effectiveness. however, a more contextual and recent approach study in understanding leadership remains underdeveloped. as a preliminary, this study aims to explore the concept of indonesia’s leadership based on local perspectives by taking into account implicit leadership theory. data were gathered by involving 404 millennials (63,6% female, 36,4% male) using an open-ended question namely “describe three characteristics of a leader” and two scales asking participants’ perception about how typical and effective each leaders’ characteristic count for leadership. a total of 1159 responses were analyzed using thematic analysis and demonstrated four characteristics depicting prototypes of leaders namely moral (41,07%), generally-competent (29,42%), charismatic (20,79%), conscientious (8,71%). a one-way anova was also conducted to compare the effect of leader’s prototypes on perception of typicality and effectiveness of leadership. there was a significant effect of leadership prototypes on perception of typical leadership at the p<.05 level for the three conditions for each of perception about how typical and effective the prototypes reflect leadership. however, at the level of prototypes, no differences were found in perceiving which prototypes were considered as more typical and effective. the descriptive scores of each prototype indicates all of the prototypes were perceived as high in reflecting typicality and effectiveness in leadership. in conclusion, all leadership prototypes emerged from the responses were perceived as both typical and effective by the participants. keywords: leadership, indonesian millennials, leadership prototype, implicit leadership theory, effective leadership. jel classification: d23, e00. citation | rizqi nur’aini a’yuninnisa; muhammad fashih hibatul haqqi; nisfi balqish rusli; nabila puteri (2020). indonesian implicit leadership theory: typical and positive leadership prototypes for indonesian millennials. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(1): 1-7. history: received: 8 november 2019 revised: 11 december 2019 accepted: 15 january 2020 published: 27 february 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 2. method .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3 3. result ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4 4. discussion ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 5 5. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 6 6. limitation & future research .......................................................................................................................................................... 6 references ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.1.7&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1357 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0628-1037 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6667-9955 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3332-2167 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0302-1996 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1357 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0628-1037 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6667-9955 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3332-2167 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0302-1996 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1357 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0628-1037 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6667-9955 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3332-2167 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0302-1996 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1357 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0628-1037 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6667-9955 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3332-2167 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0302-1996 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1357 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0628-1037 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6667-9955 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3332-2167 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0302-1996 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1357 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0628-1037 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6667-9955 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3332-2167 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0302-1996 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 1-7 2 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to the existing literature by exploring indonesian implicit theory by taking into account typical norm and positive valence of leadership prototypes from the local perspective of indonesia. 1. introduction leadership effectiveness has been found to be influenced by affective, behavioral, and cognitive domains of individuals which is considered as a complex emergence (avolio, walumbwa, & weber, 2009; day, fleenor, atwater, sturm, & mckee, 2014). this complexity is sharpened by its dependency on the context where leadership occurs. a study of global leadership and organizational behavior project (globe) involving 22 countries showed that there were certain prototypes of effective leader which could be found in one country but not the others. such phenomenon occurred as the result of cognitive framework of individuals with diverse social cultural and economic backgrounds (brodbeck et al., 2000). in indonesia, leadership studies which take into account social and cultural context into consideration are still limited. most of studies in indonesia tend to focus on proving the way effective leadership influences individual’s attitudes and behaviors, such as job satisfaction, job commitment, and so on (harwiki, 2013; helmi & arisudana, 2009; suseno & sugiyanto, 2010; widianto & wilderom, 2017). more fundamental leadership studies to explore the concept of leadership and indonesian people understanding toward leadership, to our knowledge, have not been fully identified and developed. one of very few exploratory research about leadership in indonesian local culture was conducted by as’ad, anggoro, and virdanianty (2011) exploring leadership using a concept in javanese culture. the study was initiated by a concern about contextual difference between western and eastern cultures which could result in different psychological phenomena, including leadership. western concepts and theories of leadership might not be relevant and applicable in the east, so does the instruments measuring leadership. with this background, the study was conducted to explore a leadership concept derived from indonesian culture, which is javanese leadership model and principles known as astha bratha. unfortunately, this study was limited to trait approach by demonstrating traits that should be possessed by leaders according to ancient javanese scripts. in addition, the study did not adequately delve into the perception and expectation of people toward their leaders. based on the development of leadership theories, trait paradigm is not effective in describing leadership as it tends to simplify the construction of leadership solely on human’s innate characteristics. the paradigm is considered pessimistic because it does not consider the possibility that leader can be developed (ronald, 2014). nowadays, leadership theory that still develops as a research topic is implicit leadership theory (ilt). this theory can explain the mechanism of effective leadership within certain cultural context according to cognitive frameworks of its followers (offermann & coats, 2018). the development of ilt started from the concept of cognitive categorization (rosch, 1978) which was the basis of theory of leadership categorization (lord, foti, & phillips, 1982; robert, foti, & de vader, 1984). lord and his colleagues explained that implicit theory of leadership reflects the structures and contents of cognitive categorization done by an individual in order to distinguish leader and non-leader. a person can quickly label others as “leader” or “non-leader” according to certain characteristics which has been categorized in his/her cognitive function (phillips & lord, 1986). the fundamental category regularly used to define those characteristics is called prototype. thus in ilt, leadership prototypes provide information about certain characteristics to identify leadership (offermann., kennedy, & wirtz, 1994). junker and van dick (2014) explained that leadership prototypes owned by someone will influence his or her thinking process and behavior as followers, even unconsciously. this ilt can cause bias in perceiving leader’s objective behaviors which then could affect their objective appraisal toward effectiveness of the leader. moreover, a follower will be more satisfied while working under the leadership of individual who fits his or her leadership prototypes. in other words, ilt may influence the perception of effective leadership and well-being of the team emerged from interaction between leader and follower. further, junker and van dick (2014) elaborated that in general, leadership prototypes are categorized into two dimensions: norm and valence of prototypes. norm of prototype represents the typical or ideal of a leader. typical prototypes show the general prototypes or characters found in a leader, while ideal prototypes illustrate highly desirable characters which are only owned by small number of leaders. meanwhile, valence of prototype points toward the positive, negative, and neutral perceptions on leadership prototypes. positive prototypes describe preferable attributes that would support effective leadership while negative prototypes are non-desirable characters that would hinder effective leadership. neutral prototype refers to irrelevant attributes in leadership. related to the previous dimensions of prototype, schyns and schilling (2011) showed that in various ilt studies, prototypes often come up showing typical and normative characteristics that are not always considered to reflect effective attributes of leadership. thus, schyns and schlling recommended that during exploratory study in ilt, researcher needs to consider varieties of prototypes, not only the common ones, but also those that show effective leadership. based on the review of limitation of leadership studies that fit indonesian context, this study aimed to explore the concept of leadership in indonesia according to implicit leadership theory. the goal of this study was to suggest which characteristics perceived by indonesians to reflect leadership by taking into account typical norm of prototypes that reflect typical characteristics of leaders and positive valence of prototypes that indicate effectiveness. this study focused on indonesian millennials who were born in 1980 to 2000, considering the fact that they have dominated the working age population in the country (central statistics agency, 2013). in several years from now, they will be the leaders in the society. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 1-7 3 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2. method 2.1. study design and participants researchers conducted survey to obtain data by distributing several open-ended questions and scales to explore the leadership prototypes from millennial perspective. purposive convenience sampling was applied in recruiting indonesian millennial online. participants who came from various regions in indonesia were recruited by using an online survey distributed through several social media platforms: whatsapp, line, and instagram. to recruit more participants, researchers employed snowball method by encouraging social media users to participate in the study then circulated the online survey to their acquaintances. participants in the study were millennial who were born in 1980 to 2000 (barford & hester, 2011) aged from 19 to 39 years old (m = 23.25). researchers obtained 423 participants in total and those who fit millennial category were 404 participants (36.4% male and 63.6% female participants). most participants were undergraduate students who had experiences in organization. table 1 describes the demographic information of study’s participants. table-1. demographic information. category n 1. sex male 1471 (36.4)2 female 257 (63.6) 2. birth year 1980 1985 21 (5.0) 1986 1990 45 (11.0) 1991 1995 80 (20.0) 1996 2000 258 (64.0) 3. place of growing up urban area 237 (58.7) countryside 167 (42.3) 4. education level high school 4 (1) undergraduate 325 (80.4) graduate 72 (17.8) doctorate 3 (0.7) 5. organizational experience less than a year 76 (18.8) 1 5 years 251 (62.1) more than 5 years 77 (19.1) note: 1data frequency. 2percentage in group. 2.2. procedure and instrument development of the instruments was done through several stages. as a part of the study, researchers conducted a focus-group discussion collaborating with other experts who were considered eligible for the research theme. the focus group discussion results contributed to the construction of the instrument used in the study. other objectives of the focus-group discussion were to explore the extent of ilt studies in indonesia and formulate aspects to investigate particularly in the country’s context. the focus-group discussion results became the basis to formulate quantitative and qualitative question items. instruments were then rated by fellow researchers in social and industrial/organizational fields to obtain expert judgment. after obtaining expert judgment, the instruments were tested to 10 participants to gather feedbacks about the comprehensibility. at the beginning of questionnaire, researchers provided brief description of the study such as information about the research team, objective of the study, and informed consent. participants were automatically considered to agree with the terms if they proceeded to the next page. then, participants were inquired to answer an open ended question which was accompanied by quantitative scales to confirm the answers and disclose their perceptions toward leadership. to explore perceptions on leadership prototypes, participants were required to answer an openended question namely “describe three characteristics of a leader”. in order to obtain additional information about the typicality and effectiveness of characteristics or leadership prototypes described, participants were asked to fill twoitems scale to measure their perception about how typical and effective each character in a leader, ranging from 1 to 7. lastly, participants were requested to fill their demographic details. 2.3. analysis the qualitative data from the open-ended question were coded using thematic analysis technique, which is a method to identify, analyze, and formulate patterns within the data (braun & clarke, 2006). in total, there were 1159 responses obtained. the responses were categorized by at least three coders to avoid bias in data comprehension. researchers applied several steps to categorize each response: (1) getting accustomed with the data; (2) generating initial codes; (3) looking for themes; (4) reviewing themes; and (5) defining and naming themes to several prototypes. responses that could not fit existing categories were excluded and categorized as undefined. finally, the categorization resulted in four major leadership prototypes. quantitative data from the scale were analyzed using one-way anova. the analysis aimed to examine the difference in perception about the how typical and effective each characteristic in leadership. difference in the extent of characteristic typicality could show which prototypes were considered to be more common for leader, while the difference in characteristic effectiveness showed how the prototypes were perceived to influence effective leadership. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 1-7 4 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. result qualitative data showed the leadership prototypes according to participants while quantitative data showed the results of analysis of variance on the scale about how typical and effective those prototypes are. 3.1. leadership prototype based on the categorization of 1159 responses, there were four major themes of leadership prototypes: moral (41.07%), generally-competent (29.42%), charismatic (20.79%), and conscientious (8.71%). table 2 shows detailed description of themes that emerged from qualitative data. 3.1.1. moral moral is a leadership prototype with the highest number of responses compared to the other three prototypes. this leadership prototype is related to moral values and ethics. there are several sub-categories in this prototype: responsible (8.46%), honest (7.68%), considerate (6.38%), embracing (6.13%), righteous (4.40%), reliable (3.88%), virtuous (1.38%), patriotism (1.29%), humble (1.04%), and serving (0.43%). sample of responses that described this prototype are the following “responsible toward his work (it means having commitment to finish tasks and taking risks).” (responsible) “humble and coming down from his position to get closer and more equal with his subordinates. with certain boundaries.” (embracing) table-2. leadership prototypes. category n % 1. moral 476 41.07% responsible 98 8.46% honest 89 7.68% considerate 74 6.38% embracing 71 6.13% righteous 51 4.40% reliable 45 3.88% virtuous 16 1.38% patriotism 15 1.29% humble 12 1.04% serving 5 0.43% 2. generally-competent 341 29.42% technically-competent 202 17.43% intelligent 83 7.16% socially-competent 56 4.83% 3. charismatic 241 20.79% charismatic 74 6.38% wise 64 5.52% guiding 24 2.07% role-model 22 1.90% influencing 18 1.55% emotionally stable 15 1.29% motivating 10 0.86% courageous 9 0.78% inspiring 5 0.43% 4. conscientious 101 8.71% goal-oriented 46 3.97% disciplined 32 2.76% determined 9 0.78% committed 7 0.60% hardworking 7 0.60% 3.1.2. generally-competent generally-competent is a leadership prototype related to the ability in solving various problems. several subcategories of this prototype are technically-competent (17.43%), intelligent (7.16%), and socially-competent (4.83%). response samples that describe this prototype are: “having broad knowledge about the issues within his leadership domain.” (intelligent) “able to make decision aptly and quickly.” (technically competent) 3.1.3. charismatic charismatic is a leadership prototype related to the charm and appeal of a leader that makes people follow his or her lead. sub-categories within this prototype are charismatic (6.38%), wise (5.52%), guiding (2.07%), role-model (1.90%), influencing (1.55%), emotionally stable (1.29%), motivating (0.86%), courageous (0.78%), and inspiring (0.43%). some of the responses that describe this prototype are: “can be a model.” (wise) “mentally and emotionally stable.” (emotionally stable) 3.1.4. conscientious conscientious is a prototype related to discipline to work on specific objective. there are some sub-categories within the prototype: conscientious (8.71%), goal-oriented (3.97%), disciplined (2.76%), determined (0.78%), asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 1-7 5 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group committed (0.60%), and hardworking (0.60%). responses that illustrate this prototype are “commitment.”, “hard worker.” 3.2. typicality and effectiveness of leadership prototypes results of quantitative data analysis on the scale about how typical the characteristic described by participants depict leadership showed a significant difference between aforementioned leadership prototypes with p < .05 for three conditions [f(3, 1155) = 3.513, p = .015]. post hoc comparisons showed significant difference between conscientious (m = 6.406, sd = .777) and charismatic (m = 6.062, sd = 1.0045) prototypes in typical leadership. meanwhile, there was no significant difference between moral (m = 6.227, sd = .977) and generally-competent (m = 6.214, sd = .87) prototypes. according to overall result of one-way anova, there was significant difference between the themes. however, at the level of prototypes, significant difference was only found between charismatic and conscientious prototypes, while other prototypes did not show such difference. table-3. perception of how typical and effective each leadership prototype perceived. categorization n typical effective m (sd) min max m (sd) min max moral 476 6.23 (0.98) 1.0 7.0 6.42 (0.80) 2.0 7.0 generally-competent 341 6.21 (0.87) 3.0 7.0 6.41 (0.77) 4.0 7.0 charismatic 241 6.06 (1.00) 1.0 7.0 6.25 (0.86) 3.0 7.0 conscientious 101 6.41 (0.78) 5.0 7.0 6.29 (0.84) 4.0 7.0 total 1159 6.20 (0.94) 1.0 7.0 6.37 (0.81) 2.0 7.0 scores for effectiveness of leadership characteristics also showed significant difference between prototypes with p < .05 in three conditions [f(3, 1155) = 2.996, p = .03]. post hoc comparisons showed significant difference between moral (m = 6.418, sd = .802) and charismatic (m = 6.249, sd = .864) prototypes in effective leadership. meanwhile, there was no significant difference between generally-competent (m = 6.41, sd = .768) and conscientious (m = 6.287, sd = .841) prototypes. based on the overall result of one-way anova, there was significant difference between the themes. even so, at the level of prototypes, significant difference was only found between charismatic and moral prototypes, while other prototypes did not exhibit such difference. table 3 summarizes the findings. 4. discussion the goal of this study was to discover implicit leadership theory in indonesia by exploring leadership prototype based on perception of indonesian millennials. researchers employed few qualitative and quantitative questions to achieve the purpose. categorization of the qualitative data generated some themes describing leadership prototypes which were then clarified for its typicality to describe leaders and effectiveness in leadership roles by utilizing the quantitative questions. the four main themes emerged were moral, generally-competent, charismatic, and conscientious. firstly, morality is considered as an important aspect by participants to describe characteristic of leadership. based on the result of data analysis, the characteristics covered in this prototype were responsible to the duties, honest to oneself and members, attentive to followers, and protective of others. this finding has similarities with research conducted among chinese participants, that personal morality is the most expected character of a leader (ling, chia, & fang, 2000). although chinese implicit leadership theory (cilt) and indonesian implicit leadership theory suggested by our finding at a glance look similar, however moral prototype in indonesia’s social context constitutes different explanation. referring to leadership style, indonesia adheres to paternalistic leadership, that leadership is reflected in personal moral integrity that we normally in father figure. countries that adhere to paternalistic leadership, such as indonesia, prioritize superior leaders, i.e. individuals who can give example, virtuous, have great sense of responsibility, and discipline (irawanto, ramsey, & ryan, 2011). hence, religiosity could offer an alternative explanation about the reason why most of participants considered morality as leadership prototype. as a nation which holds tightly in the principles of religiosity, people in indonesia emphasize the importance of moral values in their daily life. religion alone raises awareness and develops moral behavior of individuals (abun & cajindos, 2014). religion and moral are related and supporting each other. moral is part of religious standards that are expected to be implemented and become integral part of individuals (rossano, 2008). moral prototype as mentioned by the participants to describe leadership indicated their belief about leadership which might be influenced by social and religious values hold by the society. following the moral, generally-competent emerged as a leadership prototype which was also described by the participants. they considered the typical characteristics of leadership were intelligent, demonstrate good technical ability to lead, and competent in building social relationships. this finding supports the previous studies of offermann. et al. (1994) and offermann and coats (2018) indicated that intelligence is part of implicit leadership theories as effective leadership. in addition, it is also accordance with the interpersonal competence factor in cilt with social ability and intelligent as certain characteristics to describe leader (ling et al., 2000). leadership prototype concerning social skills in chinese and indonesian society exists regarding the fact that both of countries are considered to hold collectivistic culture which emphasizes social relationship in their lives (triandis, 1995). in indonesia, this practice could be found in some aspect of life. for instance, in most of situation in the society, people will consider taking musyawarah as a customary practices of consensus decision making which by involving many people in the society. even until now, this traditional decision-making process is practiced in many levels in the society (kawamura, 2011). therefore, indonesian people perceived leaders to have good social skills that can facilitate the values they hold concerning maintaining harmony in life. in addition, leader should be technically competent, as example leader should be able to utilize the development of technology to improve productivity and effectiveness. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 1-7 6 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group third, charisma was a also described by participants to characterize leadership. it entailed some variety of positive leader’s characters which can give emotional impact on their followers in achieving their goals (antonakis, bastardoz, jacquart, & shamir, 2016). charisma in many studies have very broad descriptions which emanate from verbal and nonverbal communication, and the balance between physical and mental health (grabo, spisak, & van vugt, 2017). several subthemes describing charisma prototype in this study were wise in decision making, a guide for others, motivating and inspiring, also being a role model. the data showed that according to indonesian millennials, charisma was not merely derived from physical virtue, instead they perceived charismatic leaders who could give positive influence on their followers. this finding does not support (offermann. et al., 1994) who suggested that physical advantages are an appeal for leaders. however, this study confirms globe study which found that specific aspects of charismatic leadership were universally endorsed (den hartog et al., 1999) and aligns with parco-tropicales and de guzman (2014) finding that charismatic leadership could develop into wise leaders. according to elias and akintayo (2018) not everyone has the charisma of a leader. thus, charisma is a valuable and special individual characteristic to be good leaders. finally, conscientious emerged as a main theme which shows that indonesian millennials expect leaders to have clear goals, perseverance, and hard-working. as a trait, conscientious is shown by individuals who tend to be organized, responsible, and disciplined (mccrae & costa, 1987) and also is the strongest predictor of the effectiveness of task-oriented leaders (derue, nahrgang, wellman, & humphrey, 2011). considering task-oriented leadership implies the importance of organizing and increasing activities in which leaders must be able to provide structure, direction, reward/punishment, and group boundaries (derue et al., 2011). cilt also stated that leaders must be able to design strategic plans, unwavering and guarded, discipline, persevering, and hard-working. this is similar to research by taormina and selvarajah (2005) which stated that asean community expects leaders with strategic thinking. specifically, strategic thinking behavior relates to leaders with strategic vision, visionary, and far-sighted future in order to achieve competitive advantage (ling et al., 2000). conscientious characteristic also equivalent with articulating vision by tsui, wang, xin, zhang, and fu (2004). leaders must be able to clearly communicate their vision of the future of the organization. since many studies that had found the equivalent to this conscientious prototype, we conclude that this prototype may be a universal aspect of leadership. in addition to qualitative finding, quantitative data about how typical (common) each characteristic describes leadership were used to assess whether the four prototypes that emerged are perceived equally or differently in describing leadership. result of one-way anova showed difference for all conditions, however post-hoc comparisons only showed different typicality between conscientious and charismatic prototypes, and not the others. according to the mean scores of four main themes’ that emerged in the study, leadership prototypes can be ranked from the highest mean score to the lowest in such order: conscientious, moral, generally competent, and charismatic. regarding the analysis to examine the perception about how effective each prototype supports the leadership function, post-hoc comparisons showed significant difference between charismatic and conscientious. meanwhile, the order of effectiveness from the highest mean score is moral, generally competent, conscientious, and charismatic. these interesting findings did not appear to corroborate the results obtained from qualitative data analysis which showed that the order of leadership prototypes based on the percentage responses that emerged most; moral, general-competent, charismatic, and conscientious. in the absence of mutually reinforcing evidence between the qualitative and quantitative data, researchers cannot conclude which leadership prototypes are considered more typical or effective than others. however, the data showed that the four prototypes are considered as typical and effective with high score on the perception of how typical and effective each leadership prototypes is described. research conducted by schyns and schilling (2011) explained that in exploring ilt, leadership prototypes that emerged do not merely represent positive attributes on leadership. sometimes negative attributes also appear in describing leadership. junker and van dick (2014) explained this as a dimension of leadership prototypes that includes norms, where typicality is the general character to label leaders, and valence that shows positive (or effective), negative, or neutral prototypes. according to indonesian millennials, leadership prototypes that emerged from this study are not only typical prototype, but also positive prototype that supports leadership functions effectiveness. 5. conclusion based on the results of this study, there are four main prototypes of leadership expected by indonesian millennials, namely moral, generally-competent, charismatic, and conscientious. in addition, the perception on how typical and effective the four prototypes were seen as typical and effective by indonesian millennials. 6. limitation & future research limitation of this study is the number of participants was only 404 and had not represented all indonesian millennial in 34 provinces in indonesia. in addition, 99% of the participants have received tertiary education whilst in reality there are still many indonesian millennials who have not yet received tertiary education. according to researchers, educational background has influence on participants’ perception about leadership. for further research, a scale can be constructed based on the four leadership prototypes from this study to confirm the results of this study. references abun, f. d., & cajindos, r. 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(2017). transformational leadership, service climate, psychological capital and job performance/engagement. academy of management proceedings academy of management, 1-17. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 4, 280-286, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 280 financial analyst work papers to analysis insurance types affection in islamic bank (jordanian islamic bank case study) abdullah ibrahim nazal1 1 associate professor, department of finance and banking, faculty of economics and administrative sciences, zarqa university, jordan abstract this study is one of very few studies which have investigated the insurance types in the islamic banks with case study. it explains the need to make financial analysis work papers up to the insurance types to give fair report. the study finds that there are three insurance types in jordanian islamic bank which are: islamic insurance company, tabaduly insurance box, and facing sharing investment risk box. there is relationship between these types in jordanian islamic bank. every type has way of accounting and way of reduce risk also it has different place in financial tables up to deferent fiqh original type and resources of law. there is need to build suitable financial analysis work papers which show the different of accounting and different of added value than traditional banks and traditional insurance companies. searcher recommended suggestion up to forth steps to get fair report which is to find resource of investigation, to be sure accounting must meet law, to build paper works up to insurance types, and to use the doubt rule. keywords: insurance types, islamic bank, financial, analysis, work papers. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 281 2. insurance types in islamic banks ..................................................................................................................................... 281 3. insurance types in jordanian islamic bank .................................................................................................................... 284 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 286 citation | abdullah ibrahim nazal (2016). financial analyst work papers to analysis insurance types affection in islamic bank (jordanian islamic bank case study). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(2): 280-286. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.280.286 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.280.286 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=abdullah ibrahim nazal http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.280.286 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.280.286 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=abdullah ibrahim nazal http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.280.286 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.280.286 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=abdullah ibrahim nazal http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.280.286 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 280-286 281 1. introduction insurance has types up to managing its income which affect on income statement also it has types up to financial and assets managing risk structure which affect on balance sheet. affection of insurance as way to managing risk is deferent from bank to other because there is no one insurance unit model to all islamic banks therefore evaluate islamic bank insurance will give deferent value. insurance is important to reduce the bank risk in order to get competition ability to face loose or it will lose customers. customers will get there deposits from the bank which cause loosing finance of its assets and it may lose reputation which leads to loose in its shares speculation value. insurance will reduce government effort and costs to cover losing in the economic sectors. by time, insurance service become way to reduce unemployment by solve companies' problems and employee staff to work in insurance companies. insurance must save customers savings and investing to be acceptable. benjamine et al. (2011) said there will be reject of projects (as insurance) if the customers do not recognize its value. pedro and erwan (2010) said financial tools developing will cause economic developing. 1.1. the problem as result to external financial analyst misunderstand and to give fair value to islamic bank insurance there is need to understand its types and ways of managing risk by insurance. problem questions are: 1what are insurance types in islamic banks? 2-what is the affection of insurance on income statement? 3what is the affection of insurance on balance sheet? 4what is the affection of insurance on center bank rules acceptance? 1.2. the importance search show islamic banks ways to use insurance in order to face risks which give deferent financial analysis value and deferent added value. it helps financial analyst to use suitable work papers to get suitable investigation and can compare between deferent islamic banks to show added value. 1.3. the objectives search has aims which are: 1to find insurance types in islamic banks. 2 to find insurance types affection on income statement. 3to find insurance types affection on balance sheet. 4to find insurance affection on center bank rules acceptance. 1.4. literature review mehdi (2010) found that islamic insurance is second alternative choice for customers because of tradition insurance companies developed services and low level of knowledge about it. nico and peiter (2010) discovered that many individuals are not insured round the world because of poor income which needs to promote islamic insurance as way get takaful services against risks for every person from different countries and religions. justin et al. (2014) explained the important to evaluate companies in crises because there possibility of loss evens it has good reputation also the found that any company which faces crises can reestablish trust by announcing an independent investigation by third party. kabir and abdel-hameed (2002) showed the affect of limits tools choices and explained that financial environment affect on performance of islamic banks which cause need of suitable ratios and suitable tools. elsayed (2013)explained the differences of liquidity, credit, risks, profitability and solvency between islamic banks and traditional banks therefore banks has different affection in crises. 2. insurance types in islamic banks insurance has types depend on the type of risks and sharing in risk. risk of islamic bank operations is deferent from bank to other. it's deferent from type of risk and size of risk which will affect on accounting and financing. see next figure: it is obligatory and depends on center bank rules as deposits insurance or obligatory reserve which cannot be used to get return. it could be not useful to the bank but it has to buy as obligatory rule to be acceptance in banking sector. it is separated and depends on the customer's needs which it is separated from or bank income statement and balance sheet as customers insurance group up to their depend on the zakat box to cover default risks it depends on the bank financing and investing structure which affects on the following factors: depend on the bank balance sheet depend on the bank assets as own insurance company depend on the bank liabilities as get insurance service from other islamic bank or traditional bank depend on the bank equities as managing risk reserve depend on transfer operations risks as sharing insurance on modarabah risk depend on the bank income statement depend on the return in income statement as get commission of managing or get return of its investing or own installments insurance as profitability company depend on the expenses in income statement as added buying insurance expenses or bank sharing with group of banks as insurance electronic card service expenses figure-1. insurance types in islamic banks source: prepared by searcher asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 280-286 282 2.1. islamic insurance company insurance companies could be donate or profitability. the type will affect on financial analysis work papers. every type has way to be calculated. if the islamic bank own insurance company the bank will affected by its return, bank operation return and its credit classification type increasing. donate islamic insurance company show that customers buy installments as sharing in risk for limit time. if the risk happens it will be reduced from this sharing, see next table: table-1. donate islamic insurance company accounting suppose returns of the islamic insurance company as manger (work return) and it will take 20000 $ return of customers after the contract time ended suppose sharing of buying all loose of sharer in the insurance company and suppose the amount of installment from all customers (sharers) for the limit time of sharing = 100000$ and loose as follow: 20000 30000 it will divided on the customers number and they get it as return of savings 1loose from all sharer in the risk = 50000$ 20000 20000 – therefore it will not cover all loose but part of loose and looser must buy the other part because of limit sharing by installments and time 2-loose from all sharer in the risk = 100000$ 20000 80000 it will divided on the customers number and they get it as return of savings 3loose from all sharers in the risk = zero source: prepared by searcher the insurance company gets return as manager (work contract return). customers own the installments as savings and donate is done just when there is loose therefore donate equal loose. when islamic bank own profitability islamic insurance company which show in its assets as owning companies. the value of this company will affect on assets value. when the company makes suitable return it will increase the bank returns and assets value. practically, it gives the bank increase credit classification as result to reduce risks also courage customers to deal with bank operations without fear of default. calculating return is deferent from donate islamic insurance companies. see next table: table-2. profitability islamic insurance company accounting returns of the islamic insurance company as owner return of customers after the contract time ended suppose sharing of buying 60% of sharer loose in the insurance company and suppose the amount of installment from all customers (sharers) for the limit time of sharing = 100000$ and loose as follow: 50000 zero 1loose from all sharer in the risk = 50000$ which it less than 60% of all installment 40000 zero and loser must cover the risk of 40000 2-loose from all sharer in the risk = 100000$ 100000 zero 3loose from all sharers in the risk = zero source: prepared by searcher case of reselling the insurance installments is affected on profitability return. this type happened if the rules of the country accepted. in some cases as customer default to buy installments insurance companies transfer the risk by sell the contracts to other islamic insurance companies. it may sell some contracts with commission or sell contract with part of loose or sell all contract with commission or sell all contracts without returns, see next table: table-3. profitability islamic insurance company accounting in reselling contracts before risk returns of the islamic insurance company as buyer returns of the islamic insurance company as seller suppose the amount of installment from all customers (sharers) for the limit time of sharing = 100000$ and reselling contracts as follow: 100000 if loose not happen zero 1sell all contracts without return 95000 if loose not happen 5000 2sell all contracts with commission = 5000 105000 if loose not happen 5000 3sell all contracts with loose = 5000 50000 + 2000 if loose not happen 50000 – 2000= 48000 4sell part of contract as 50% with loose 2000 50000 2000 if loose not happen 50000 + 2000= 52000 5sell part of contract as 50% with commission = 2000 source: prepared by searcher some islamic banks use part of the installment in investing before the contract limit time end. it may increase its return or make other loose. financial analyst must understand insurance companies accounting and its factors to increase islamic bank returns in income statement or increase its expenses also he has to understand the value of insurance company as success investing on assets value which increase equities or understand the insurance company loose investing on assets value which reduce equities. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 280-286 283 2.2. tabaduly insurance box (corporate insurance) the question: is the bank own all customers installments in tabaduly insurance or not? it may own the tabaduly insurance which means it is services as assets and reselling from tabaduly insurance contracts will reduce the asset and reduce its returns up to installments size but when installments are donate from customers and tabaduly insurance become as guarantor up to conditions. in this case, it affects on bank risk classification type positively and give return up to managing but it is not become the bank assets therefore it becomes liabilities so that it cannot reselling the contracts to other insurance company. tabaduly insurance is other way to managing risks. it gives every dealer in delay selling or in lease and sell contract operation to buy donates related to buying installments number which must be bought by customer. the donate installments will be collected as sharing from customers to cover their self in default case. ex: if any customer sharer in the tabaduly insurance died the insurance will buy all the last installments. it helps bank to get his money and helps heirs to pay the credit of the deceased. it has rule: (just buy in case of death or get in chronic illness). practically, tabaduly insurance accounted as follow: {(percent from 5 % to 10% depend on the increasing of the installment numbers) x finance value} ex: suppose the bank finance selling car = 20000 for 120 monthly installments and tabaduly insurance = 5%. there will be cases as in the next table: table-4. cases of tabaduly insurance affection in case 3: customer complete buying all 120 installments in case 2: customer died after he bought 100 installment in case 1: customer has default to buy after 100 installment but customer not die or get in chronic illness the size of tabaduly insurance for every month (20000 * 5%) / 120 = 8,33333333 completed by customer completed bout after customer died from tabaduly insurance is not completed and cannot get from tabaduly insurance therefore it ask for guarantor to complete buying the installments the bank return zero zero (ended by tabaduly insurance) still and guarantor will complete buying the installments the customer credit increase 1000 decrease( 8,33333333 * 20 installments= 166,66667) increase 833,33333 the tabaduly insurance accounting source: prepared by searcher 2.3. facing sharing investment risk box this account is related to sharing investment account. it is show that the bank is sharing by modarabah. the bank did not use his capital to get in sharing. if there is loose, the bank will just loose effort but customers will loose from their capital. facing sharing investment risk accounting is way to managing risks. the law organizes dealing by this account. every year sharing investment account has profit or loose. the rules are as follow: 1if loose is happened in sharing investment account within the year it will be covered by sharing investment account profit not from facing sharing investment risk accounting. 2 – if loose is happened in sharing investment account within the year and it is more than sharing investment account profit within the year, loose will be covered by facing sharing investment risk accounting. 3if sharing investment account had investing for many years because investing is more than year and not shown the return until the end of these years, in this case loose will be bought by facing sharing investment risk accounting the idea is: facing sharing investment risk accounting is guarantor for the next year of investing loose. it must be gotten by law. it is equal 10% to 20% from the sharing investment account profit. in this idea, facing sharing investment risk accounting is liability. there are cases of dealing in this account, see next table: table-5. cases of facing sharing investment risk accounting loose equal 20000 but profit 100000 this mean the profit will be 80000 and facing sharing investment risk accounting must get 10% loose equal 20000 but profit = 10000 no loose happen in this year suppose facing sharing investment risk accounting equal 100000 and it must be 10% from profit of sharing investment account liability of facing sharing investment risk accounting equal 100000 + 8000 liability of facing sharing investment risk accounting equal 90000 as covering 10000 loose liability of facing sharing investment risk accounting equal 100000 the bank result equal 108000 equal 90000 equal 100000 the facing sharing investment risk accounting result source: prepared by searcher the law is related to sharing investment account therefore when the bank loose sharing by his capital it will not be covered by facing sharing investment risk accounting. facing sharing investment risk accounting helps to increase credit classification type just in sharing investment account. suppose: the bank own facing sharing investment risk accounting, what will happen? it will face problem of forbidden islamic rule: that the bank (modarib) will by loose from his assets which will be against islamic rule of modarabah but when the facing sharing investment risk accounting is related to sharing contracts by bank capital and customer capital, there will be accepted islamic rule to cover loose depend on the rule size of loose increased by capital sharing on other hand when the bank own the facing sharing investment risk accounting it will be increasing of assets and equities. this means that deferent of original type of any account will cause deferent affect on income asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 280-286 284 statement and balance sheet. financial analyst must understand original type of any account and its size, time, and affection on balance sheet or income statement. 3. insurance types in jordanian islamic bank jordanian islamic bank is oldest bank in jordan. it follows jordan center bank rules and jordan islamic bank rules which obligate the bank to deal with islamic bank services up to islamic rules. to understand insurance type accounts there are needs to get the bank rule, financial tables, explanations, related reports, reputation and doubt base. jordanian islamic bank has three types of insurance. 3.1. facing sharing investment risk accounting box the jordanian islamic bank annual report (2005) explained the insurance types accounting data. it showed facing sharing investment risk accounting which was applied as result to standard no (17). it was taken from net income before tax and fees as adjusted of operation cash flow that had been shown in cash flow table. income statement showed the note no (13). note no (13) explain factors of facing sharing investment risk accounting box. see next table: table-6. factors of facing sharing investment risk accounting box 31/12/2004 31/12/2005 the data 22, 092,931 23,996,224 facing sharing investment risk accounting box at the first of the year (1, 713,148) (1, 163,446) buying income tax on the facing sharing investment risk accounting box 59,115 net tax settlement for 2003 3,616,441 8,009,176 the transformer from yearly investment = 10% of sharing investment account net profit in 2004 and it increase in 2005 to be 15% 23,996,224 30,901,069 sharing investment account risks box at the end of the year source: jibar (2005). the note no (3): explain that the box buy tax and did not explain any loose by sharing investment account risks in 2004and 2005. the account rule of the jordanian islamic bank in 2000 no (28) including item no (55) of the box give expectations: if any loose happened in 2005 it would be decreased from the net profit of the sharing investment account but if the loose become more than profit in 2005 it will be reduced from the box account in 2004. and any loose because of the bank managing with assault and a shortening it will be cover by bank capital. balance sheet showed that the box is asset but it not show the way of its finance as own by liabilities or equities but the box rule show it is liabilities. jibar (2015) showed the distributed of the box as in the next table: table -7. distributed of the factors of facing sharing investment risk accounting box 31/12/2015 items 91,752,989 the mount in the last year 75,761,684 to cover reducing of delay sales debts 1,538,075 to cover reducing of lease and sale debts 173,196 to cover reducing of financing 3,676 to cover reducing of owning buildings 77,483,502 all the amount of reducing (5,602,526) tabaduly insurance box to cover reducing of delay sales debts contract (36,060) tabaduly insurance box to cover reducing of lease and selling debts contract 19,908,073 the amount of the box after reducing source: jibar (2015). as result to the explanation, financial analyst has to find possibility of buying from the boxes for one reason to avoid duplication of buying. 3.2. islamic insurance company jibar (2005) explained that 35% of the islamic insurance company shares owned by the bank. it is part of jordanian islamic bank assets. the company fair value increased from 2004 – 2005 and give the bank growth of assets value. it helps bank to reduce risks of selling cars, houses and others by installments as result to protect its value from accidents also gave distributed return. the annual report did not show the distributed return but the annual report of the islamic insurance company will give this explanation. jibar (2015) showed that the bank reduced his sharing in the islamic insurance company from 35% to be 33.4%. 3.3. tabaduly insurance it was found in 1994. it managing risks by conditions as increasing installment value with up to increasing installments number and increasing of credit amount also there is limit age to accept sharing. jibar (2005) explained the tabaduly insurance box. it included 13, 8 million jd it covered default of 78 cases by buying (239400) jd and has (71196) sharers. their credit was (174, 9) million jd. jibar (2015) showed adjusted of the customers' amount. it increased the amount of customer credit to share in the box in order to increase customers also it accepted to give compensation in case of customer get in continuous financial default. by the end of the year 2015 the box asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 280-286 285 was included (64, 2) million for (138000) customers to cover their credit which equal (982) million. it showed the explanation of the box as in the next table: table-8. tabaduly insurance accounting details in 2015/2014 31/12/2014 31/12/2015 items 44,652,078 53,590,986 amount of the box when the year start 1,249,397 1,675,081 added profits of box investing in 2013 and 2014 13,803,945 17,007,692 added the installments that gotten within the year (2,480,163) (3,287,685) reduce insurance installment that was bought to the islamic insurance company ( 560,366) (916,590) reduce part of tax which was bought for 2014/2015 ( 2,669,289) (3,090,203) reduce income tax of the box for the year (16,000) (16,000) reduce gifts for the box committee members (1,740) reduce auditor box accounting return (388,616) ( 725,271) redeemed losses 53,590,986 64,236,270 all amount of the box source: jibar (2015). the table shows relationship between tabaduly insurance and islamic insurance company. conclusion: this study is one of very few studies which have investigated the insurance types in the islamic banks with case study. it explains the need to make financial analysis work papers up to the insurance types to give fair report. the study finds that there are three insurance types in jordanian islamic bank which are: islamic insurance company, tabaduly insurance box, and facing sharing investment risk box. there is relationship between these types in jordanian islamic bank. every type has way of accounting and way of reduce risk also it has different place in financial tables up to deferent fiqh original type and resources of law. there is need to build suitable financial analysis work papers which show the different of accounting and different of added value than traditional banks and traditional insurance companies. recommendations: searcher suggests steps to build financial analyst work papers to analysis insurance types in islamic bank as follow: first: find resource of investigation because financial work paper analysis at the end of the year must meet the real accounting way of insurance installments return, expenses and insurance box value. the direct way is to ask the internal accountant but the indirect way it to see the annual report, notes, explanations, comparing data accounting with the other years to find change of accounting policy and its affects, law of the bank, law of the center bank, the law of the insurance company, and insurance company annual report. some financial analyst has funds to make investigation in courts and the market to find changing of reputation second: be sure accounting must meet law as center bank law, bank law, and insurance company law without conflict or there will be problem of added value and possibility of punishment fine which cause loose of equity and not shown in income or balance sheet. third: built paper works up to insurance types. ex: build expect paper work for the financial analyst to analysis insurance types of jordanian islamic bank. it is fixed up to the insurance types and its conditions, see next table: table-9. insurance types of accounting data in islamic bank possibility account managing risk islamic bank rights islamic bank duties customer rights customer duties type of customer insurance types resell the insurance contract or reduce compensation by rules own the installments which mean it is the bank asset own installments and managing insurance contracts to buy loose as in the insurance contract conditions and buy profit tax reduce possible lose up to the type of insurance risk as fire, illness and transport risks buy all insurance installments within the insurance agreement buying in selling contract or leasing by delay installments to face accidents islamic insurance company increasing installment price up to increasing installments numbers and increasing amount of contract also conditions of contract obligate limit age as customer age must be less than 65 year at the end of the contract islamic bank avoid customer default of delay buying by installment or leasing by installment which mean it is the bank liability also bank get return of managing and work managing insurance contracts to buy loose as in the insurance contract conditions reduce possible loose of customer default by death or chronic illness buy all insurance installments within the insurance agreement buying in selling contract or leasing by delay installments to face default by death or chronic illness tabaduly insurance increase buying part of sharing investment account from 10% to 15% transfer risk of bank managing loose in sharing investment account to the account of facing sharing investment risk which mean it is the bank liability also bank get return of managing and work managing insurance contracts to buy loose as in the insurance contract conditions and buy the account tax reduce possible loose of bank managing sharing investing account as (modarib) buy part of sharing investment account profit share in investing contract by capital to face bank managing loose but bank just has shared by effort facing sharing investment risk accounting source: prepared by searcher forth: use the doubt rule. financial account data by doubt rule will give discussions as follow: 1discuss this table account data if it is done actually as expect asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(4): 280-286 286 2-discuss this table account data if it is fixed to the income statement and balance sheet. 3discuss the affection of possibility account managing risk on changing of data and the aim of this change. 4compare between loose and possibility of trick. 5compare between changing of accounting managing risk and possibility of trick as covering manager defaults or his friends or wife or brothers with possibility that contracts did not include conditions or grantee as other customers. 6discuss the insurance type account and added value to employee, customer, shareholders, creditors and government. 7discuss the relationship between these three boxes as way to reduce the bank risk which supported by center bank rules. the questions are: 7-1 is the boxes reduce bank risk and customer risk? 7-2 is there are relationships between the three boxes as duplication of compensation payment for one risk from more than one box or is the box support other box and what is the relation affection on customers, bank, creditors, government and employees? references benjamine, l., p.l. andrew and w. randall, 2011. information and liquidity. journal of money, credit and banking, wiley black well, ohio state university,usa, 43(7): 356. elsayed, e., 2013. comparative analysis of qatar islamic banks performance versus conventional banks before, during and after the financial crisis. international journal of business and commerce, 3(3): 11-41. jibar, 2015. no: thirty seventh. amman, jordan: the sharq publisher. pp: 27, 119. justin, h., d. daniel and l.u. eric, 2014. unlikely allies: credibility transfer during corporate crises. journal of applied social psychology, 44(5): 392-397. kabir, h.m. and b.m. abdel-hameed, 2002. determinants of islamic banking profitability. erf paper: 2. retrieved from http://www.kantakji.com. mehdi, s., 2010. the evaluation of islamic insurance – takaful: a literature survey. insurance markets and companies analysis and actuarial computations, 1(2): 102, 105,106. nico, p. and c. peiter, 2010. takaful: an islamic insurance instrument. journal of development and agriculture economics, 2(10): 333-339. pedro, a.s. and q. erwan, 2010. limited enforcement, financial intermediation, and economic development: a quantitative assessment. international economic review, 51(3): 785-811. the jordanian islamic bank annual report, 2005. no: twenty seventh. amman, jordan: the sharq publisher. pp: 21,29,56,57,59,73,76. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.kantakji.com/ 30 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 6, no. 2, 30-38, 2019 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2019.62.30.38 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group utilizing american and korean college admissions exams to assess adult esl students’ college readiness adam weiss1 sang hwang2 ( corresponding author) 1assistant professor of education, west texas a&m university, usa. 2professor of education, west texas a&m university, usa. abstract while colleges in the united states often use standardized tests such as the act and sat to measure students’ college readiness, students’ performance on other international assessments could also provide educators with useful data. korean universities have utilized the english portion of the korean college scholastic ability test (csat) to measure korean students’ english language proficiency for decades (kim et al., 2012; lee and winke, 2013; bae and lee, 2018). as the majority of korean students are english language learners (ells) (lee, 2014) ell students participating in english as a second language programs in the united states might also benefit from taking the exam. the present study utilized the korean college scholastic ability test (csat), the act english test, and the act reading test to evaluate ell students’ college readiness in the areas of english reading comprehension and english writing conventions and style. researchers administered the exams to international students who had participated in a semester-long, english as a second language (esl) program at a regional university in the southwestern united states. the study investigated participants’ perceptions of their experiences taking each exam. results from student surveys indicated that students viewed the csat as a beneficial english assessment and would recommend the exam to other esl students. students’ performance on the csat proved relatively similar to their performance on the act reading and english exams. as such, the csat could prove a valuable assessment tool for esl educators in the united states and across the globe. keywords: college readiness, standardized tests, korean college scholastic ability test, esl programs, adult english language learners, assessment. citation | adam weiss; sang hwang (2019). utilizing american and korean college admissions exams to assess adult esl students’ college readiness. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 6(2): 30-38. history: received: 16 july 2019 revised: 19 september 2019 accepted: 22 october 2019 published: 9 december 2019 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 31 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 31 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 32 4. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 32 5. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 36 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 37 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2019.62.30.38&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1146 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7447-6912 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3942-5618 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1146 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7447-6912 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3942-5618 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1146 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7447-6912 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3942-5618 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1146 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7447-6912 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3942-5618 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 30-38 31 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the present study contributes to the existing literature by utilizing the korean college scholastic ability test (csat), the act english test, and the act reading test to evaluate ell students’ college readiness in the areas of english reading comprehension and english writing conventions and style. 1. introduction since the passage of the immigration and nationality act of 1965, which outlawed immigration quotas on specific countries of origin and allowed for family reunification, the united states has become increasingly diverse. approximately fifty years after the passage of the law, the percentage of people living in the u.s. who were born in another country has tripled (gjelten, 2015). as a result, the number of english language learners (ells), or english as a second language (esl) learners, in u.s. k-12 schools, colleges, and universities has grown significantly. in fact, since the year 2000, the number of ell students in k-12 schools has increased by 1 million, and the percentage of ell students in u.s. k-12 schools has grown from 8.1% to approximately 10% of the entire student population (bergey et al., 2018; national center for education statistics, 2019). the percentage of ell students in colleges and universities has also risen. international students form one significant group of higher education students who are english language learners (bergey et al., 2018). since 1965, the number of international students in u.s. institutions has more than quadrupled to 1.1 million students (bergey et al., 2018; zong and batalova, 2018). moreover, nearly 24% of community college students and 20% of college students in the united states have parents who were born outside of the u.s. (bergey et al., 2018). while not all international students and first-generation americans are ells, many of whom are. as a result, american schools and institutes of higher education have needed to expand their language supplemental instruction programs, including english as a second language programs (bergey et al., 2018). as enrollments of ells in american schools and colleges have increased, so has the need to evaluate whether ells pursuing higher education possess the college readiness and english language skills to be academically successful. moreover, educators in adult esl classrooms must find standardized assessments to administer in the classroom to evaluate students’ english listening and reading abilities along with students’ knowledge of english grammar conventions (chalhoub-deville and turner, 2000). while the number of international students in the united states had steadily increased from 1965-2016, since the 2017-2018 academic year, the number of international students has declined for two years in a row. this decrease in international student population coincides with increased anti-immigrant political rhetoric within conservative political factions in the united states and the passage of president trump’s “buy american and hire american” executive order in 2017 (redden, 2018; know, 2019). with the noticeable decrease in international students, u.s. institutes of higher education have experienced financial and social impacts on campus. for example, many university professors and staff describe the presence of foreign students as a positive asset to universities because the presence of international students increases american-born students’ multicultural awareness and cultural understanding (foote et al., 2015). therefore, a decline in international students could lead to a decline in students’ overall cultural competence. furthermore, some colleges and universities, many of whom have academic programs that depend on the revenue earned from the elevated tuition rates international students pay, now face financial challenges (leiber, 2019). this trend particularly affected the university that was the setting of the present study. the number of students enrolled in the semester-long, esl college-bridge program had declined from a high of approximately 100 students at the start of the decade to nine students in fall 2018. indeed, the fall 2018 semester was the terminal semester of the program; the program shut its doors a month after the study had concluded. the present study intended to investigate adult esl students’ college readiness and their perception about their english proficiency using three free, publicly available, standardized achievement tests. all three tests are paper-based tests that do not require trained graders to score and evaluate the test results. the three tests, the korean college scholastic ability test (csat) and the official practice tests of the act english and reading tests, were chosen to simulate quick, formative assessments that an adult esl educator could administer to assess students’ english language abilities and college readiness. in this particular study, the tests measured students’ knowledge of english reading comprehension and english writing conventions and style. researchers conducted the present study at a regional, public university in the southwest region of the united states, and the study population included international students participating in a semester-long, esl college-bridge program. students had attended the semester long, intensive english program so that upon successful completion of the program, students would be eligible to take undergraduate and graduate level, credit-bearing courses without having to meet a minimum score criteria on a standardized test of english proficiency such as the toefl, ielts, or pte. researchers administered the csat to measure students’ listening and reading comprehension abilities in english. researchers used the official practice act english and reading exams to assess students’ reading comprehension abilities as well as students’ knowledge of english writing conventions and grammar. after students finished the exams, students completed survey questions that asked students to reflect on their opinions of each test’s difficulty level, accuracy in measuring english ability, and usefulness as a practice test in adult esl classrooms. although students were in the final month of their semester long college-preparatory program, results from the standardized exams showed that few students met college readiness benchmarks on the act reading and english exams. 2. literature review depending on the program, adult english as a second language (esl) programs can have different goals including workforce development training, increased community involvement, and preparation for further study at an institute of higher education such as a technical college, community college, or university (guth, 1993). adult esl programs that focus on preparing students for higher education coursework use formative and summative assessments to evaluate participant’s progress. likewise, colleges and universities consider international students’ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 30-38 32 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group scores on standardized exams such as the toefl, ielts, and pte as an indicator of students’ english proficiency and overall college readiness. students, themselves, benefit from having an accurate understanding of their respective level of english proficiency, academic progress, and level of college readiness (chalhoub-deville and turner, 2000). college readiness proves to be a significant topic in both k-12 and higher education research. extant research documents the benefits of students understanding their college readiness to help in their higher education planning and pursuits (foote et al., 2015). in the united states, both public and private universities use the act college admissions exam as one of their primary measures for college readiness. as nick (2017) reports, “more than 2 million of this year's high school graduates took the act, accounting for an estimated 60 percent of the class. their average composite score was 21 out of a maximum 36 on the multiple-choice test of english, math, reading and science learning. that was up from 20.8 a year before” (para. 8). moreover, research shows that act scores and high school gpas are a valid predictor of college gpas (huh and huang, 2016). south koreans view english as necessary for achieving success. specifically, koreans with high levels of english language competence have increased access to prestigious universities and professional employment opportunities (morris et al., 2018). many educational experts consider south korea to be an international leader in education. indeed, south korean students achieve some of the highest scores on worldwide competitive exams (education leaders: finland and south korea, 2013). in south korea, students who aspire to attend institutes of higher education take the korean college scholastic ability test (csat), a national standardized college entrance exam created by more than 650 test-designers, content experts, and psychometricians working for the korea institute for curriculum and evaluation (kice). in 2011, over 600,000 test-takers sat for the csat exam in hopes of attaining admission into korean universities. one of the three principal sections of the test evaluates test taker’s english language abilities (lee and winke, 2013). currently, a dearth of research exists on the benefits of using the csat as an assessment tool for english language learners living outside korea. however, based on existing research of the english language needs of college students, the csat test could prove to be a very useful assessment for college-bound esl students in the united states. first, in terms of the listening section of the csat, students must listen to a given conversation and draw conclusions using related images, sentences, or paragraphs of text. this type of questioning evaluates students’ abilities to synthesize information heard orally and form connections with other sources. these aforementioned skills prove especially important in the college classroom as much of the instruction occurs in a lecture format. in fact, in a survey of college professors conducted by johnson and parrish (2010) that documented professors’ perceptions of the fundamental academic skills needed for college success, 55.2% of the professors participating in the study viewed the skill of synthesizing content discussed in lectures and information from textbased sources as “very or extremely important.” moreover, 78.9% of professors answered that they tested their college students on content provided during lectures and/or through audio-visual materials such as dvds (johnson and parrish, 2010). likewise, the csat’s reading portion of the test asks students to identify details from the text, use textual evidence to draw conclusions, and evaluate the importance of given paragraphs within a larger text. practice with these types of skills would further benefit ell students interested in pursuing college coursework as more than half (55.2%) of the college professors who participated in johnson and parrish (2010) study responded “that evaluating the value of information read is very or extremely important” (johnson and parrish, 2010). 3. methodology the current research project aspired to measure the english proficiency level of students in the adult esl program at a regional state university in the southwest. the participants of the study included adult esl students who were pursuing coursework as part of a collegepreparatory esl program affiliated with the university. the participants included international students from south america, the middle east, and southeast asia who were fulfilling their english proficiency prerequisites for admission into the university. eight out of the nine students in the program chose to participate in the study. all of the students participating in the study had been studying english in the united states for a year or less. however, the range of years that students had studied english in their home countries varied from 1 year to 12 years. as the study intended to evaluate students’ perceptions of the relevance of the korean college scholastic ability test (csat) as an assessment tool for adult esl classrooms, the researchers used the csat exam to evaluate participants’ english language abilities in the domains of listening, grammar, and reading comprehension. a native korean speaker translated instructions for taking the test from the original korean to english and all test content remained in its original english format. as a second measure of participants’ college readiness and as a tool for comparison, researchers administered an official practice act reading test to measure students’ reading comprehension and an act english exam to assess students’ grammar knowledge and understanding of writing conventions. the research team administered all exams, and students completed each test individually following each test’s published guidelines. students took one test per day on three separate days. when students finished each test, students completed a questionnaire concerning their opinions on the given test. in order to maintain confidentiality, participants received a unique identification number (uin) that only the designated research team would recognize. when completing the test, participants recorded their uin number on the back of the test booklet. students sat separately at different tables to ensure test confidentiality. 4. results the research team analyzed the tests upon completion and organized results into the following four categories: 1) student demographics, 2) analysis of test and survey results, 3) students’ self-assessment of their performance, and 4) college readiness analysis. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 30-38 33 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.1. student demographics the study noticed that the participants were diverse in country of origin, native language, gender, and age (as shown in the figures 1, 2, 3, and 4). figure-1. student country of origin. figure-2. student native language. figure-3. student gender. figure-4. student age. 4.2. analysis of test and survey results the research study considered the number of years participants had studied english in their home country and in the us. interestingly, an analysis of test results showed that test results and the number of total years in which students had studied english did not appear closely related. for instance, student 6 demonstrated the highest performance on the csat listening and reading test, but only had studied english for 2 years in her home country. on the other hand, student 3 who had studied english for 12 years in his home country, demonstrated strengths on the reading and grammar areas, but struggled with the csat listening section. figure-5. years of learning english. figure-6. csat and act test results. when students reflected on whether each test was an accurate measure of students’ english language ability, a greater percentage of the students considered the csat to be an accurate measure of students’ english language ability compared to both the act english and reading tests. all eight participants either agreed or strongly agreed that the csat accurately measured their english language skills. in contrast, six out of the eight participants agreed or strongly agreed that the act reading test was an accurate measure of students’ english abilities, and five out of the eight participants agreed or strongly agreed in the accuracy of the act english test. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 30-38 34 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure-7. participants’ perceptions of the accuracy of the tests. in terms of the statement “taking the test would benefit esl students in their english learning,” an overwhelming majority of students “agreed” or “strongly agreed” that taking each of the three tests would be beneficial. specifically, all students believed taking the act english test would be beneficial for esl students, while seven out of the eight students agreed that the csat test would be beneficial. six out of the eight students thought that taking the act reading test would benefit esl students. figure-8. participants’ opinions on the benefits of the tests for esl students. interestingly, when students responded to the question of whether they would recommend other esl students to take each test, students were more likely to recommend fellow esl students to take the csat and the act reading tests and less likely to recommend the act english test. for both the csat and the act reading tests, seven out of the eight students agreed or strongly agreed that they would recommend for other esl students to take the test. however, when it came to the act english test, only five of the eight students-a narrow majority would recommend that other esl students take the test. concerning level of difficulty, students found the csat to be less difficult than the act english and act reading test. while five out of the eight students found the act english test to be “very difficult,” and four out of the eight students found the act reading test to be “very difficult,” no students perceived the csat test as “very difficult.” in fact, half of the students found the csat to be “slightly difficult” while the remaining three students who answered the question (one student declined to respond) considered the test neither easy nor difficult. 4.3. students’ self-assessment of their performance furthermore, students conducted a self-assessment on how they performed on each test. the majority of students felt they performed substantially better on the csat exam than the act tests as shown in figure 9. however, table 1 indicates that a clear relationship did not exist between students’ self-assessment of their performance and their actual performance. for example, student 5 received the lowest score on the act english exam, but self-assessed that he performed very well on the test. figure-9. self-assessment on the performance. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 30-38 35 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-1. csat/act test results and esli student survey responses. assigned student number csat exam act english test actual test score how easy or difficult was the exam? how do you think you did on the exam? actual test score how easy or difficult was the exam? how do you think you did on the exam? 001 77% neither easy nor difficult bad 38.7% very difficult very badly 002 74% slightly difficult unsure 61.3% slightly difficult good 003 88% slightly difficult good 80% neither easy nor difficult good 004 80% slightly difficult unsure 41.3% very difficult bad 005 62% slightly difficult very well 21.3% very difficult very well 006 90% neither easy nor difficult good 56% very difficult unsure 007 71% neither easy nor difficult unsure 29.3% very difficult bad 008 75% slightly easy good 32% slightly difficult bad 4.4. college readiness analysis the study also examined the college readiness measures using the csat and act exams. table 2 shows the rank and cutoff scores for korean students who took the english test based on the 2018 college admissions standards in korea. approximately 10% of korean students met the top rank, while only one student in the study met this category. however, all participants met the first four ranks as shown in the last column in table 2. if these students applied for admission to korean universities, one student would likely receive admission to the topranked, first-tier colleges in korea and two students may have received admission to second-tier colleges. students earning in the 60-70 percentile on the csat would also have received admission to colleges in korea, but not at elite colleges or universities (skycode, 2018). table-2. score distribution chart. rank cutoff score number of korean students who met this category percentage (korean students) number of esli students at wtamu who met this category 1 90 52,983 10.03% 1 2 80 103,756 19.65% 2 3 70 134,275 25.43% 4 4 60 94,871 17.97% 1 5 50 55,391 10.49% 6 40 35,576 6.74% 7 30 25,050 4.74% 8 20 18,441 3.49% 9 below 20 7,721 1.46% source: skycode (2018). the act exam provides its own college readiness measure for each of its subject tests. for the act english exam, the benchmark score is 18, while the benchmark score for the act reading portion of the exam is 22. the college readiness benchmarks are based on the average score that test takers earned that corresponded with 50% of those same test takers earning a letter grade of “b” or higher on particular college courses. on the act english exam, half of the students who met the college readiness benchmark would be likely to score a “b” on english composition i. half of the students who met the college readiness benchmark on the act reading exam would be statistically likely to earn a “b” in the college liberal arts classes of psychology, sociology, political science, economics, and history (allen and radunzel, 2017). only one student met both the act english and reading exams’ college readiness benchmark standard, and two students met the act english exam’s college readiness standards but not the act reading’s college readiness standards. this result indicates that according to the act college readiness benchmark, the majority of participants in the study might face difficulty in their college level coursework (see table 3). however, it is important to note that only 60% of u.s. high school students who take the act english exam and 46% who take the act reading exam meet college readiness benchmarks (act, 2019). table-3. act english and reading test results. assigned student number act english test (correct answers out of 75 total questions) met college readiness benchmark on the act english test (a minimum of 37 correct answers out of 75) act reading test (answer correct out of 40 total questions) met college readiness benchmark on the act reading test (a minimum of 21 correct answers out of 40) 001 29 (38.7%) no 19 (47.5 %) no 002 46 (61.3%) yes 23 (57.5 %) yes 003 60 (80%) yes 18 (45 %) no 004 31 (41.3%) no 17 (42.5 %) no 005 16 (21.3%) no 12 (30 %) no 006 42 (56%) yes 14 (35 %) no 007 22 (29.3%) no 11 (27.5 %) no 008 24 (32%) no 13 (32.5 %) no when the researchers analyzed the most-frequently missed questions on the csat test, researchers noted that most students had difficulty with the grammar related items such as appropriate word choice, parts of speech, verb tense, sentence structure, conjunctions, punctuation, possessive form, singular vs. plural tense agreement, and the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 30-38 36 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group use of adverbs. in terms of reading comprehension, students missed reading comprehension questions related to determining the main idea of a text and vocabulary questions related to selecting the most appropriate word based on the context of the passage. after an analysis of the act test results, frequently missed questions likewise involved questions concerning grammar related items such as punctuation, adverbs, possessive form, verb tense agreement, and conjunctions. 5. discussion this research was a pilot study to investigate adult esl students’ college readiness and perceptions of their english proficiency using three different tests: the korean college scholastic ability test (csat), the act english test, and the act reading test. based on their responses, participants felt that the csat would be a beneficial assessment tool for future adult esl classrooms. since respondents considered the csat test to be a meaningful assessment, other adult esl students’ might also find the test useful for their college english preparation. research shows that students’ perceptions of the meaningfulness of exams affects their overall motivation and test performance. cole et al. (2008) documented undergraduate students’ perceptions of low stakes exams and students’ performance on the exams. the authors found that students’ perceptions of the “usefulness” and “importance” of low stakes exams affected their motivation to take the exams as well as their overall exam performance (cole et al., 2008). thus, the csat could prove to be a meaningful assessment for other english language learners pursuing college coursework, which would increase students’ motivation and overall test performance. moreover, years of english study among the respondents did not necessarily correspond to performance on each of the three assessments. thus, one could argue that “quality over quantity” could be a good maxim in english language instruction. the present findings correspond to educational research that have provided different calculations of the number of years of english instruction ell students must receive in order to have academic english language proficiency. academic english language proficiency proves necessary to comprehend the academic language used on standardized tests (baker, 2011). based on their research results from two california school districts, hakuta et al. (2000) reported that academic english proficiency could take ell students 4 to 7 years to learn. the authors further recommended that esl programs follow a balanced curriculum that pays attention not only to students’ english language acquisition, but also to the academic needs of each individual student. motamedi (2015) who examined the period of time that english language learners in washington took to become proficient in english, concluded that ell students, who entered u.s. schools in first grade, took 3.8 years to develop their english proficiency, while students who entered in grades 2–5 took 4.3 years. moreover, other research has found similar results to the present study in which the number of years of english instruction does not necessarily correlate with ell students’ english proficiency level. in her case study of immigrant students at a high school in texas, garza (2016) pointed out that educators must consider individual educational and noneducational factors when predicting the time that ell students take to develop academic english proficiency. garza (2016) concluded that educational factors such as the number of year’s students had studied english and students’ motivation for acquiring a new language had an effect on how quickly students becam proficient in english, but non-educational factors such as students’ home environment, personalities, gender, and cultural/linguistic backgrounds also played a significant role in the speed in which students gained academic english proficiency. according to the results of the present study, adult esl students might not be accurate judges of their own performance on college readiness exams, which corresponds to existing research that has documented how college students, in general, possess misplaced overconfidence in their college readiness. as verrell and mccabe (2015) documented, college students often incorrectly assess their level of college readiness. specifically, college students assume they are prepared for college, yet college professors largely perceive college students as lacking fundamental college skills. specifically, verrell and mccabe (2015) found that 70% of college students considered themselves well prepared for college from their high school coursework, yet half of the college students surveyed also conceded that their college work had been more challenging than they had initially predicted (verrell and mccabe, 2015). moreover, in an earlier 2006 study by the chronicle of higher education journal by sanoff (2006) that surveyed college professors, 37% of respondents classified their college students as lacking basic skills essential for college success. likewise, 40% of professors participating in the study considered students deficient in their organization and planning skills as well as in students’ ability to read and comprehend complex course materials (sanoff, 2006; verrell and mccabe, 2015). in addition, results from the present study indicate that the majority of participants may lack college readiness skills after participating in only one semester of an esl college-bridge program. however, it is important to note that esl students’ performance on basic skills assessments in reading and writing are not always statistically significant predictors of esl college students’ eventual academic success. specifically, patkowski (1991) reported that esl students’ reading and writing scores on the city university of new york’s basic skills test did not have a significant statistical relationship to the students’ eventual academic grade point averages (gpas) in their college coursework (patkowski, 1991). on another note, adult esl students who participated in the study missed similar types of listening, grammar, and reading questions. the students would benefit from research-proven best practices to build their abilities in each area, elaborated below. listening is an essential component in the process of learning a second language, but most teachers do not offer a variety of instructional activities to develop competent listening abilities (siegel and siegel, 2015). according to zeng and goh (2018) the most fundamental prerequisite to build up students’ self-confidence and to motivate students to learn a new language is to promote listening skills. the authors found that a self-regulated learning approach improved second language learners’ listening skills through task definition, goal setting, strategy enactment, and metacognitive adaptation. zeng and goh (2018) strongly recommended the use of selfdirected listening activities to assist learners to plan and prepare well for listening tasks, to monitor comprehension, and to evaluate the effectiveness of utilizing specific listening strategies. siegel and siegel (2015) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 30-38 37 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group investigated the use of differentiated listening instructional activities for improving l2 adult learners’ listening skills. the authors suggested employing explicit listening instruction that began at the most basic level (siegel and siegel, 2015). grammar has always been an issue for students who are learning english as a second language, but, historically, second language acquisition programs have neglected explicit grammatical instruction. pawlak (2018) introduced the grammar learning strategy inventory (glsi) as a basis of the classification of strategies for learning grammar in a second language context. he classified the grammar learning strategy (gls) into 4 different categories: 1) the explicit instruction of metacognitive strategies including planning, organizing, monitoring, and self-evaluation; 2) the instruction of cognitive strategies that assist the comprehension of grammar in communicative tasks; 3) teaching students affective strategies to help students face problems that might occur during the process of grammar practice; and 4) providing students with social strategies to support students’ collaboration with the teacher and students’ peers. through interaction with others, second language learners may feel better about their expressive abilities. teachers can guide these learners with appropriate cognitive and metacognitive strategies to increase affective self-confidence and to promote social interactions (pawlak, 2018). as gaines (2015) indicated, providing english language learners (ells) with open-ended interactions with native english speakers boosted english language learner’s self-confidence, which proves critical for students’ overall success. benati (2017) suggested teachers offer pedagogical interventions in second language grammar instruction by changing the way instructional input is perceived and processed and by making input more noticeable to second language learners. furthermore, teachers should encourage their students to work collaboratively to achieve a common goal by applying their knowledge of particular grammatical forms or structures (benati, 2017). besides grammar, students in the study also had trouble with reading comprehension questions that required students to identify the main idea of texts. students also experienced difficulty with questions that asked students to select the appropriate vocabulary word based on textual context. in order to develop these needed areas, research suggests utilizing structured literacy with an emphasis on direct, explicit, and systematic instruction (motamedi, 2015; spear-swerling, 2018; gentry and ouellette, 2019). gentry and ouellette (2019) pointed out the gap between the scientific study of reading and actual teaching practices. the authors recommended teachers to employ the science of teaching reading by focusing on two-way, teacher-student interactions in which students and teachers held conversations concerning their interpretations of a given text. spear-swerling (2018) also contended that the key features of structured literacy involve the explicit, systematic, and sequential teaching of literacy at multiple levels. the explicit instruction should focus on the topics of vocabulary, sentence structure, comprehension, increased student-teacher interaction, and teacher-led corrective feedback. in terms of effective vocabulary instruction, teachers must provide students with exposure to academic english using visual contextual support, demonstrations of examples of the word vs. non-examples, and daily vocabulary practice routines (echevarria et al., 2010). for explicit reading comprehension instruction, teachers should model to students how to determine the main idea and supporting details, model reading comprehension strategies, provide students with regular practice, and offer students frequent opportunities to discuss with their peers how they applied the particular reading strategy in a given practice activity (au, 2006). one limitation of the present study involved its small sample size of eight participants. moreover, an additional limitation to the study was that data came from only one source-esl students participating in the esl collegebridge program at a regional university in the southwest. the authors suggest that future research should expand on the current study through the collection of additional data from different esl programs across various u.s. colleges and universities. these additional research efforts will help to gauge students’ perceptions of their relative college readiness and the usefulness of using each of the tests to assess esl students’ college readiness. moreover, further research will help educators in their future work to effectively advise and mentor college-bound esl students. the authors of this study hope that future research further expand the present study through obtaining a larger sample size and more generalizable population. therefore, educators can more conclusively determine whether using the csat, act english, and act reading tests in the adult esl classroom as assessments yields beneficial data concerning adult esl students’ reading comprehension abilities, listening skills, english grammatical knowledge, and overall college readiness. furthermore, additional research can provide a valuable service to students as they may use this information for their own self-monitoring of their progress in the acquisition of english. in the same vein, adult esl professors and educational administrators can use the data to identify program successes and areas of growth. thus, students and educators may benefit not only from learning esl students’ relative level of college readiness, but also from learning ways to support students in their continued progress in acquiring proficiency in academic english. references act, 2019. the act test. allen, j. and j. radunzel, 2017. what are the act college readiness benchmarks?. act research and policy, issue brief. available from 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https://doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2015.1053046. zeng, y. and c.c. goh, 2018. a self-regulated learning approach to extensive listening and its impact on listening achievement and metacognitive awareness. studies in second language learning and teaching, 8(2): 193-218.available at: https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.2.2. zong, j. and j. batalova, 2018. international students in the united states. migration policy institute. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 46 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 2, 46-51, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.52.46.51 the role and position of veil (cover) in promoting family and woman’s spiritual health maryam solgi1 zohrehsadat nabavi2 maryam safara3  ( corresponding author) 1,3department of psychology, women research center, alzahra university, tehran, iran 2department of islamic teachings, payame noor university, tehran, iran abstract veil (hijab) is one of the most important elements in the spiritual health of women. this study aimed to investigate the relationship between the veil and spiritual health in women and its impact on the spiritual health of the family, and to explain this issue in the dimension of the health of women and family as well as community by referring to some psychological effects of the veil (hijab). the veil enhances the value of women and above all provides their mental security with protection of human emotions and adherence to moral principles. veil is responsible for strengthening the family foundation, and guarantees its spiritual health and is as a phenomenon effective in providing family health, which appears as a dynamic and pioneer attribute and saves the family from disintegration. this paper deals with components that consider the veil as a prominent factor in the health of woman and family. the research method used in this study was library method through content analysis. keywords: spiritual health, woman, family, veil. citation | maryam solgi; zohrehsadat nabavi; maryam safara (2018). the role and position of veil (cover) in promoting family and woman‟s spiritual health. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(2): 46-51. history: received: 10 january 2018 revised: 9 march 2018 accepted: 12 march 2018 published: 15 march 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 47 2. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 51 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 51 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.52.46.51&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maryam solgi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zohrehsadat nabavi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maryam safara https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maryam solgi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zohrehsadat nabavi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maryam safara https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maryam solgi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zohrehsadat nabavi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maryam safara https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maryam solgi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=zohrehsadat nabavi https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maryam safara asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 46-51 47 1. introduction women as a half of the population of human community play a decisive role in maintaining the society health, because they themselves constitute the half of the society and can affect the other half (the men). they can be the axis of the moral virtues by correct functioning and paying attention to religious and moral orders and recommendations, and lead the society to perfection. in addition, women as mothers play a decisive role in the health of their children. a variety of factors can affect the health of women that one of them that is examined as a special issue is the veil (hijab). veil can be known as one of the factors affecting the health of women and the community; and due to this issue, god has referred to hijab and chastity in the holy qur‟an completely, clearly and in details as one of the most important and pivotal factors affecting the health of community. therefore, of the strongest verses of the holy quran are verses about veil in which all details have been explained explicitly. the issue of hijab (covering) that has been acted on based on the nature of the man and woman can have a great impact on the peace of soul and mind of human being. also, it is the factor of creating security, easiness of life and increasing the respect to woman. in addition, hijab has some effects on family, including strong family ties, strengthening and protecting the family foundations and the enhancement of husband‟s interest in his wife. hijab can have an effective role in marriage and create the feeling of more peace in life. certainly, the individual‟s peace in family greatly affects the society, which constitutes individuals, because woman as the spouse and mother plays an important role in family so that the family‟s health and peace depend on the woman‟s health and peace. 1.1. definition of spiritual health today attention to spiritual dimension of health has been considered in many definitions presented for health and some suggestions have been provided for inclusion of spiritual health as one aspect of health in the definition of world health organization. dealing with the precise conception of spiritual health and defining what the spirituality implies in this case, that is, achieving a signified conception is perhaps the first step to achieve a community with people who are healthy in all dimensions, and this issue, i.e., providing a precise and comprehensive definition of spiritual health is the most important challenge of addressing with this issue. one of the drawbacks of spiritual health studies until now is their failure to analyze the various aspects of spirituality. complex and intertwined nature of spirituality and religion has also caused misunderstanding about the equality of these two and consequently the confusion (carsonn, 1989; emblen and halstead, 1993). authors have dealt with the spiritual health from different aspects and have presented different definitions so that it can be said that there is no consensus about the definitions of spiritual health. according to schooner, spirituality is the experience a meaningful relationship with self, others, the world and the dominant power which is expressed in the form of reactions, narratives and actions (dehshiri et al., 2008). meyer believes that spirituality is constantly searching for meaning and purpose of life, a deep understanding of the value of life, the vastness of the universe, the existing natural forces and personal belief systems. heinles knows spirituality as an attempt to foster sensitiveness towards the self, others, and non-human creatures, or god or what needed to achieve humanity and a search for achieving perfect humanity (rastgar, 2010). soeken states spirituality as "the existence and experience of interactive connection between human and environment" (soeken, 1989). elkins et al. (1998) define spirituality as “a way of being and experiencing that is described by awareness of a transcendental dimension based on certain values in the viewpoint of the self, others, nature and life (elkins et al., 1998). in this definition, elkins tries to expand the concept of spirituality to include both religious and non-religious beliefs. hungelman et al., in a qualitative study identified the features of spiritual health. in the study, they considered the spiritual health as “a sense of being connected, the coordination between self and others, and the transcendental existence or nature that is achieved through a dynamic and integrated process and leads to identification of the ultimate goal and the meaning of life” (hungelman et al., 1985). in this definition, the concept of spiritual health is understood through sensory perception and is used to convey the perceptions and information. chapman produces a list of requirements intended for any definition of spiritual health: 1. it should not be considered synonymous to theology and individual responses to personal and complex questions must be avoided; 2. it should be practical and realistic, vast, concentrated and easily transferable; 3. it must be easily recognizable and separable from other areas of health and be applicable to all people and human beings; 4. it must be associated with health and well-being; 5. it must have an appropriate and acceptable scientific basis and validate the study principles and techniques; 6. it must prevent presenting new ideas and concepts in the field of health (chapman, 1986: quoted in (fisher, 2010b)). bensley by reviewing the whole literature of spiritual health concluded that there was no a general accepted definition of spiritual health (bensley (1991) quoted in fisher (2010b)). at last, he tried to present a combinative definition of spiritual health and based on these definitions he classified this entity as six perspectives: 1. the sense of satisfaction in life; 2. the values and beliefs of the self and society; 3. the wholeness in life; 4. a factor in well-being; 5. a divine power or superior monitoring and control; 6. spiritual interaction (fisher, 2010b). over the time, other definitions of spiritual health were presented; according to hawks et al., spiritual health is being connected with others, having meaning and purpose in life and having belief and connection with a superior power (hawks et al., 1995). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 46-51 48 reily et al believe that spiritual health is considered as a pivotal philosophy of life and the result of satisfying the need for purpose, meaning, love and forgiveness and "existential health" refers to the efforts to understand the meaning and purpose in life and "religious health" is defined as the satisfaction resulted from the relationship with a superior power or divine power (reily et al., 1998). in conclusion of this topic, perhaps the definition of spiritual health by hungelman et al. (1985) can be considered as the dominant definition. at the same time, in a comprehensive and preventive definition and in drawing the concept of spiritual health, it can be said that the spiritual health is the enjoyment of acceptation sense, positive feeling, ethics, the sense of interactive connection with a divine and superior power, others and the self that is achieved during a cognitive, emotional, interactive, dynamic and coordinated process which is a personal outcome. all those who are trying to explain and promote the idea of spiritual health, especially with islamic attitude, agree that the definition of spiritual health is too difficult and cannot limit it to a certain field (marandi and azizi, 2010). perhaps it can be said that the main cause of being difficult the definition returns to two main factors. the first factor is the type of the dominant world view, attitude and paradigm that usually there is behind a look and judgment. it is very clear that those who look at human, god, nature, and other supernatural truths and values purely spiritually, materially or as a combination of the two have different views, perception and judgment and naturally when human view, perception or judgment becomes different, the behaviors, actions and attitudes also become different. the second factor that plays an important role and typically depends on the first factor is the lack of agreement about the concepts of words such as spirituality, religion, soul, mind and other related elements. these two factors have caused that the possibility of providing a logical definition of spiritual health is associated with serious difficulty. but in definition of spiritual health in the perspective of islam, it has been said: “the human being that has a dynamic and evolving relationship with the entire universe consciously is one who is mentally healthy. the most excellent pattern of healthy human beings is divine prophets” (ahmadi, 2009). some muslim thinkers know spirituality as a set of attributes and actions that create strong, and at the same time, correct and logical attraction and enthusiasm in human being to direct him/her forward in the path to god and the path that is surprisingly popular to the world (mousavi, 1994). motahari considers spirituality as an innate sense and intention of human beings towards immaterial things such as science and knowledge, moral goodness, beauty, holiness and worship that are the attributes differentiating humans from other creatures (motahari, 1993). according to the above-mentioned definitions, perhaps we can provide a precise and comprehensive definition of spiritual health as follows: “spiritual health is the existence of a state in the human soul that with the existence of it, a person does not feel any shortage mentally, socially and so on. 1.2. veil (hijab) and its impact on women's spiritual health it is clear that the veil and covering has a great impact on women's mental health. woman‟s veil and chastity is like a protective shelter that in the light of it the possibility of keeping human personality of woman from personal and social harms is provided. veil protects woman from being abused by the lascivious men and from declining her value so that she is only a means for suppression of the lusts. the importance of veil is due to the reason that it is not only the protector of woman‟s morals and manifestation of her chastity and modesty in the society but also leads to presentation of a correct definition of human position of woman. the reality is that many problems of the women in the past time were often due to the reason that the human aspect of women was forgotten, and her new problems is because of the reason that her womanly nature and her natural and innate condition, her mission, intrinsic demand and special talents has been intentionally or unintentionally forgotten (motahari, 1993). attention to the psychological aspects of veil is very important. no doubt that veil and latency plays an important role in the spiritual health of the woman. in this paper, the meaning of hijab (veil) is the islamic covering of muslim women and the meaning of the islamic covering of woman, as one of the obligatory provisions of the islam, is that a woman covers herself when associating with men, and does not show herself off and present her beauties to others. this issue has been clearly mentioned in the verse 59 of surah-i ahzab, where god addressing the holy prophet (sa) says: “o prophet! tell your wives, your daughters, and the women of the faithful to draw closely over themselves their chadors [when going out]. that makes it likely for them to be recognized and not be troubled” (ahzab/59). and in another verse, god says: “when you ask [the prophet‟s] womenfolk for something, do so from behind a curtain. that is chaster for your hearts and theirs” (ahzab/53). from the above verses clearly understood that hijab (veil) is a necessary issue because it protects the heart from sin and causes its clearness, as well as protects woman from bothering of lascivious men and finally the spiritual health of woman. spiritual health is one of the greatest blessings of god and in fact, without realizing this aspect of health, its other aspects, i.e., the mental health, physical health and social health will not be achieved. so here we refer to some effects of veil that influence women's spiritual health as well as their mental health. 1.2.1. security security is an essential requirement for the development of the human personality that in the absence of supplying it the growth of personality is disrupted. women, because of some innate and personality characteristics, are more prone to psychological vulnerability, so they need more security to avoid damages caused by insecurity. the statistics show that the nudity and sensual adornment of women in the west have caused the arousal and erotomania of some young males and men so that this condition in some cases has caused the reason for attack to and rape of women. thus, these women do not have security (rajabi, 2010). based on qur‟anic verses mentioned above, the women that show themselves off in the public places and cause the arousal of men must expect receiving annoyance from these individuals. in qumi‟s interpretation of qur‟an about the verse 59 of surah-i ahzab, we read: “muslim women went the mosque and did their congregation prayer with the prophet (pbuh). when they went out to say the prayers of down (morning), evening and after, the youth stood on their route and bothered them. at that time, this verse (verse 59 of ahzab) was revealed that emphasized on women's veil and covering as a protection against the others‟ harassment (qumi, 1990). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 46-51 49 1.2.2. being valuable the woman one of the other results of observing veil (hijab) for women is to become more precious to man and therefore, the creation of love that is the most pleasant part of human emotions. will durant knows the main need of woman in the marital life as being loved and being paid her the attention by man and in this regards writes: “woman is alive when she is beloved and attention to her is the basis for her being alive” (durant, 1990). if enough attention and love is not paid to women or they are despised, they will be more prone to mental problems and distress than men and will lose their mental health. for this reason, in islam, attention and love to a woman has been emphasized in three times: a) when she is a little girl: parents must love and pay special attention to her at this time; b) after marriage: at this phase, she should be greatly loved by her husband; c) when she becomes a mother. at this time, she should be loved and special attention must be paid to her by her children (al-hurr-i al-ameli, 1988; kuleini, 1988). an important question that arises here is that in what way can a woman maintain her real value? martyr (shahid) motahhari says: “keeping the retaining distance between a man and the self by a woman has been a secret tool that woman has used to maintain her position against the man. islam has encouraged women to use this tool. islam says that the more a woman moves calmer, and the more dignified and the less show herself off to the men, the more she will be respectful” (motahari, 1993). in addition, madam simone de beauvoir, the famous french scientist, says: “the young girls like that the men want themselves, not having sexual intercourse with them. therefore, the men‟s looks praise them but at the same time bother them. the man‟s desire is as much as admiration is an insult. if girls, of course, feel that the men look their bodies sexually, they will try to cover themselves. from here, the modesty and shame appears (de beauvoir, 1981). 1.2.3. psycho-social growth of the important results of the veil and latency that has a direct impact on women‟s mental health is psychological maturity and personality of a woman. monotheistic religions have recommended a way that is one of the most effective ways to increase woman‟s personality and freedom from dependence to attraction of attention and show-off is latency and covering. latency for girls is one of the basic needs for mental growth and maturity at the stage that must be met in adolescence. by covering themselves, except in the family realm, the girls (and women), in fact, teach the others how to keep their looks in order to use their attraction constructively in the realm of the family and strengthen this sacred institution. in fact, this practice (hijab) is an adjustment against the natural demand (of a woman), but is in contrast with the fourth stage of growth that requires attraction and absorption. the latency (veil) of girls is like going to school in a cold winter climate that is naturally associated with the acceptance of suffering and tolerance of pressure. but this is essential for not going to waste the enlightening and constructive forces of girls who are the future women. as the verses related to hijab have referred to it rouhani (1980). 1.2.4. protection of human emotions of women with hijab being different the emotions and feelings is one of the obvious differences between men and women. theses emotions play an important and crucial role in human life and this role is important for two reasons: first, it is an important source and the main factor for peace in marital life, and second, it is due to the responsibility and the role of motherhood. by making obligatory the hijab, islam has determined the best way to maintain and survive the valuable and humane emotions and feelings of a woman. 1.2.5. veil (hijab) and adherence to the principles of human morality one of the most essential human needs to achieve mental health is the ethics and adherence to its principles. human being can achieve spiritual peace and health when s/he lives in the light of faith and morals. the main condition for adherence to ethics is to avoid falling in the abyss of animal passions. the holy prophet, muhammad, (sa) knows the men and women trapped in sexual lust as the largest field of moral decline (nuri, 1987). in this regard imam ali (as) also says: "if there was not the women's immodesty and promiscuity, [the faith and morals became so well that no one would disobey god and] god was truly worshiped (al-hurr-i al-ameli, 1988). therefore, it can be concluded that maintaining ethics and faith in communities and keeping peace and tranquility are significantly related to keeping hijab by women and observing the retaining distance between man and woman. about the role of women in maintaining ethics, walter says: "the task of women is to edify the men‟s morals". he adds: "the woman was created in order the tie of prosperity and improvement of creatures to be cont5nued" (zeravandi, 1990). 1.2.6. veil and modification of the show-off instinct since the latency and veil has an important role in modifying the woman‟s ostentation and show-off, it is an important factor in preventing a large part of woman‟s anxiety and mental concerns, which unconsciously leads to providing her spiritual health. in the book of the naked face of arabian woman this issue has been stated as well: beauty does not depends on showing off the projected parts of body and the adornment that hides the inner anxiety and the lack of self-esteem, but more than anything is owned to the thinking power, physical heath and perfection of soul. there were many girls who were captured by mental disorders and various anxieties because of desires to achieve the acceptable signs of beauty and femininity. a girl may imagine that her life and future depends on the size of her nose and the curvature of her eyelash so that even the shortness of her eyelash as much as one millimeter can become a serious problem and a real crisis in her life (al-sa‟adawi, 1977). what makes this problem severer is that the immodest women lose their beauty sooner than others, because the medical science has proven that the nudity of the woman‟s body members in the cold or warm environment makes imbalanced the hypodermic fats, changes the tenderness, delicacy and smoothness of muscles to the rippling muscles and masculinity them (paknejad, 1986). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 46-51 50 in addition to what was mentioned above, there are several effects and benefits for hijab in providing the woman‟s spiritual health that due to limitations of this paper are ignored. 1.3. the role of the veil (hijab) in the family spiritual health family system is an essential and pivotal institution in society. basically, the society is created from families; and the importance of this small institution is so great that can be the source of individual and social changes as well as it can contribute to the development or stagnation of human values. for this reason, from the past up to now, the study of the factors affecting on improvement of the position and role of the family has been very important from different aspects. considering that the prosperity and adversity of an individual begins from her/his family as the first social unit for human being, all divine religions have paid a special attention to this institution as a canon for keeping human dignity and providing his/her physical and mental health and spiritual growth. islam introduces family as a group consisted of individuals with civil, legal and spiritual rights that its primary core is formed by legal marriage of a man and a woman (ghaemi, 1984). reaching the elevated position of humanity and achieving the human transcendental goals, whether individually or socially, depends from one hand on removing all prohibiting factors and on the other hand on opening the chains of captivity. it is here that the veil can be considered as a factor that can be responsible for keeping the mental balance of the human community, strengthening the family foundations and guaranteeing the health of human community, whether man or woman. the appropriate covering of the women of the community, which is referred to as veil (hijab), recovers its real conception as a defensive tool against uncleanness and appears as a dynamic and pioneer phenomenon effective in providing family health and saves the family from faltering. if hijab is observed in its real meaning in a society and the sexual relations are limited to the family environment, naturally, the youth become more inclined to marriage and the created families will have higher stability. finally, woman, meanwhile, will receive more benefits because they will enjoy the men‟s affection and emotional and financial support. about the destructive effects of liberty in relation of man and woman on family, dr makkiyeh mazra says: “one of the effects of sexual promiscuity is that men avoid constituting family, because sexual pleasures are always provided for them and they can easily achieve them, without being exposed to restrictions of constituting family and its problems” (mazra, 1980). it is while that islam wants to keep clean the society from the illegal pleasures and sexual promiscuity by observance of hijab and latency, and allows the people to meet their sexual pleasures in the framework of family and through legal marriage (wahed, 1984). undoubtedly, the family institution will completely grow and flourish through keeping islamic hijab. in this regard, shahid (martyr) motahari says: “the philosophy of being covered and prohibiting the sexual success through someone rather than the legitimate spouse in terms of familial community is that the legitimate spouse of a person is mentally considered as the factor of his/her fortunate, while in the free system of the sexual success, the legal spouse is mentally considered as a person who is a competitor, a distracting individual, and a jailer; consequently the family association is founded based on enmity and hatred” (motahari, 2000). the importance of hijab and latency in islam is due to the reason that it protects the family system from disintegration and makes secure the family members from dangers and harms of sexual promiscuity, while the woman‟s freedom to do ostentation and show off the feminine beauties has a destructive effect on family mental health and especially the woman herself; because the concept of immodesty is that the woman is allowed to make herself up for any man that the continuation of this behavior causes the woman goes out from the home and becomes vagrant in the streets. we can guess that the least consequence of debauchery in latency and procrastination in relations is the reduced status of the woman in family and the change in sexual taste, so that in the recent decades the change of sexual taste in some communities has led to the expanded moral and sexual deviations in such a way being limited one‟s sexual relation only to the spouse causes surprising or even despising (haghshenas, 2008). it is while that the growth of active power of a woman is in the home and family and all talents and the power of increasing impact that a woman can have in the growth and development of the society are flourished in the light of family and household. according to lambroza, the best period of a woman‟s life is one when all her mental and physical forces are spent on family and community" (lambroza, 1990). while becoming free from the conditions of home and family means the loss of mental peace and security. home is called the rest place, because it is a place for human relaxation and mental peace. if a woman loses this safe place where she rests and her talents and inner forces are flourished, she will lose her peace and mental health. the anxiety and stress that today has dominated on women in the west is due to the reason that sexual promiscuity and illegal relations have caused they hate from living at home and forget the motherhood duty and instead of it they choose the competitions related to today modern life and sacrifice all spirituals values for it. no doubt that a community enjoys complete health that the family as a small part of it enjoys complete and sufficient health and strength. therefore, if we are going to have health and reinforce the foundat5ons of the community, we must mobilize all our forces to stabilize and strengthen the family ties. the existence of the phenomenon of treachery to spouse is the main facto of family disintegration all around the world. it is interesting that in these cases only man is sentenced, while in any treason there has been a woman to deviate a married man by her coquettishness. since a great part of man‟s sexual desire is responded by his eyes, the obligation of hijab for a woman against a strange man and keeping the eye by man against a strange woman is one of the best factors that prevent such treasons. therefore, one of the most important advantages of hijab in the family dimension is to allocate the sexual pleasures to family environment and in the framework of legal marriage. this allocation creates a strong tie between husband and wife and consequently strengthens the family foundation, and in contrast, lack of hijab destroys the foundations of the family. therefore, of the harmful consequences of non-observance of chastity and hijab (veil) are divorce and disintegration of the family system; it is while that according to islam, divorce is the most detested legal issue that must be performed in the case of the existence of unsolvable problems. an author has stated the effect of nudity on the destruction and overthrow of the great family tree as follows: “in a society that the nudity is dominant, every man and woman is always comparing, the comparing of what they have with what they do not have; and what burns the root of family is that this comparison adds the fuel to the fire of desire asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 46-51 51 in the couple, and especially in the presence of the husband. a woman who has lived twenty or thirty years with her husband and has fought with the difficulties of life and has been a partner for his sadness and joy, obviously, her face gradually loses its beauty and its fall approaches. in such condition when the wife needs the love, affection and loyalty of her husband, suddenly a young woman comes and by her improper covering in the street, market, administration, and school or alley gives the husband the opportunity for comparison; and this comparison becomes an introduction to the destruction of the family foundation and the loss of hope for a woman who has sacrificed her youth (haddad, 1984). 2. conclusion undoubtedly, veil and covering has a very dramatic impact on the women‟s mental health. however, the purpose of veil (hijab) in its full meaning is to preserve chastity and modesty, and chastity is not merely the apparent latency and includes individual‟s behavior and action. chastity and latency for women is like a retaining distance and protection that in the light of it the woman is protected from any torment and humiliation. by making obligatory the veil, islam does intend to protect woman from lecherous men and her value is not declined so that she only becomes a means to satisfy the carnal desires. from one hand, hijab (veil) strengthens the relations of the family members and establishes intimacy and keeps the family health and consequently the health of society; and the mental peace against the excitations and stresses which can weaken the foundations of individual‟s personality and the family is one of the elevated goals of islam in putting forth the issue of hijab that in addition to creating spiritual health for women plays an important role in strengthening the family ties. references ahmadi, a.a., 2009. personality psychology from the perspective of islam. 7th edn., tehran: amir kabir publications. 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nursing practice. philadelphia (pa): saunders. pp: 354-78. wahed, s., 1984. qurrat al-„ain (an introduction to iranian history on the subject without veil [hijab]). iran, tehran: rooz behan publication. zeravandi, a., 1990. the immortal thoughts. tehran: me‟raji publication. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=defining%20spiritual%20health:%20a%20review%20of%20the%20literature http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10556699.1991.10614636 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10556699.1991.10614636 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=spiritual%20needs%20and%20interventions:%20comparing%20the%20views%20of%20patients,%20nurses%20and%20chaplains http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002800-199307000-00005 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=review%20of%20spiritual%20health:%20definition,%20role,%20and%20intervention%20strategies%20in%20health%20promotion http://dx.doi.org/10.4278/0890-1171-9.5.371 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=spiritual%20well-being%20in%20older%20adults:%20harmonious%20interconnectedness http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01532258 52 asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 5, no. 2, 52-59, 2018 issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p)2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2018.52.52.59 the design of performance measurement of tadulako university using balanced scorecard approach rahmahhayati paturusi1  ujang sumarwan2 sahara3 ( corresponding author) 1school of business, bogor agricultural university (ipb), pajajaran street, bogor 16151, indonesia 2,3school of business ipb, pajajaran street, bogor 16151, indonesia abstract the purpose of this research is to develop balanced scorecard (bsc) for untad. bsc is a performance measurement tool organization which is a strategic management system of the organization. bsc is used to articulate the mission, vision, goals and strategies into some comprehensive, coherent and measurable strategic objectives and strategic initiatives. bsc aims to improve organizational performance. this research uses descriptive technique through case study and focuses on observing the form of performance measurement used by untad. this research employs purposive sampling method. the amount of strategic objectives arranged using bsc was 17 with 75 key performance indicators (kpis). prioritization of strategic objectives is accomplished by using analytic network process (anp). the results of this study indicate that customer perspective is the first priority, followed by learning and growth perspective, internal business process perspective, and financial perspective. bsc development should be planned by the university planning department, implemented by all units, and evaluated by internal supervision unit. keywords: analytic network process (anp), balanced scorecard (bsc), higher education. citation | rahmahhayati paturusi; ujang sumarwan; sahara (2018). the design of performance measurement of tadulako university using balanced scorecard approach. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 5(2): 52-59. history: received: 9 february 2018 revised: 26 march 2018 accepted: 28 march 2018 published: 30 march 2018 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: authors would like to convey sincere gratitude to the leaders of tadulako university (untad) which were willing to be respondents of this research and help the authors in data collection process. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 53 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 53 3. methods ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 55 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 56 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 58 6. recommendations ............................................................................................................................................................................ 58 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 58 bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 59 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2018.52.52.59&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5726-2103 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ajayi%20boboye%20l. https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=ajayi%20boboye%20l. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 52-59 53 1. introduction the success of an organization can be seen from its performance. the performance will show the achievements obtained. every organization wants to know how its performance is. in addition to determining the upcoming year’s strategy, performance is also used as a form of accountability to stakeholders. the importance of knowing the achievements encourages the performance measurement (fitriyani, 2014). performance measurement is a process of performance evaluation conducted by standard setting, performance assessment in the form of comparing performance based on established standards and feedback whether by giving suggestion or inputs, and training for performance improvement, as well as reward as a form of appreciation for good performance (dessler, 2006). organization can improve performance by making the performance measurement results as a benchmark for strategy formulation. implementation of the strategy can be successfully implemented if the organization is able to translate strategy into performance measurement system (wibisono et al., 2011). performance measurement is one of the important factors in an organization because it can assess the success of organization. a good performance measurement will not only assess the success of organization, but also can be used as a reference in determining targetof the next period. for example, the use of the balanced scorecard (bsc) in performance measurement. bsc is a performance measurement tool that was introduced by kaplan and norton (1996) with the aim of improving performance of an organization that was originally only used by business organization. bsc utilization in various organizations allow a more extensive and comprehensive utilization. niven (2008) even developed a bsc which is suitable for use by government agencies and nonprofit organizations. bsc, in performance measurement, can provide a more structured and comprehensive picture, compared to traditional systems which are still widely used today (rumintjap, 2013). using the bsc in performance reporting allows universities to focus on strategic educational services and become its excellence, adjust with the annual activity plan, and provide information for the improvement required by higher education (tohidi et al., 2010). bsc can also help in translating vision and mission into objectives, benchmarks, targets, and strategic initiatives (hermawan, 2008). public tertiary educational institutions (ptn) are center for implementing tridharma and they own discretion to manage it. tertiary educational institution’s autonomy should be given selectively based on ptn performance evaluation (law number, 2012). as a consequence of this autonomy, tertiary educational institutions are required to carry out the implementation efficiently, improve the quality, and conduct a performance measurement (fontanella and andriani, 2009). performance measurement is conducted to identify the actual condition experienced by the organization. comprehensive information is needed by the organization to achieve results that truly reflect the real condition so that it can be used for the improvement of organization as well as the determination of next period’s strategic objectives. tertiary educational institution, as an organization, wants to produce quality outputs. graduates, researches, and community service activities are expected to contribute to indonesia. education is one of the nation's capital to grow and prosper. national development vision is that in 2025 indonesia could be independent, developed, fair and prosperous if it can advance the intellectual life of its people by advancing the science and technology to promote civilization and mankind welfare. the government, in this case is the ministry of research, technology, and higher education, organizes a quality assurance system of higher education in order to ensure that quality higher education is well conducted.quality assurance system of higher education consists of internal and external quality assurance system. internal quality assurance is carried out by the tertiary educational institution istelf with the terms and ways determined by the government.meanwhile, external quality assurance is undertaken by the national accreditation board for higher education (ban-pt) by issuing the accreditation score of the study program and the tertiary educational institution. a well conducted internal quality assurance will help the tertiary educational institution in obtaining a good external quality assurance as well. accreditation score issued by ban-pt becomes the main indicator used by the public to assess the tertiary educational institution. a good accreditation score achieved by a tertiary educational institution or study program becomes a major representation that the institution has a good management and will produce good quality graduates. therefore, it becomes important for every tertiary educational institution to have a good accreditation score from ban-pt, including for tadulako university (untad). untad is one of the public tertiary educational institutions in the eastern indonesia. based on the rating conducted by ministry of research, technology, and higher education on 3 320 tertiary educational institutions in 2015, untad is ranked 35 and the accredited b by ban-pt (2016). although it becomes a pride but of all the 56 study programs (prodi) untad has, there is only two prodiwhich are accredited a. increasing the number of prodi with a accreditation score is one of the main problems encountered by untad. it is important for untad to determine a performance measurement which is comprehensive and in accordance with untad’s current condition, so that it will improve untad’s performance and outputs quality. the purpose of this study is to develop a untad’s bsc which will serve as a tool for performance measurement and strategy management. 2. literature review research regarding bsc has been widely conducted, both in the development of bsc concept and its application in companies, government agencies, and tertiary educational institutions. bsc is increasingly used by organizations. research on the importance of using bsc argued that by using bsc in performance measurement, an organization can obtain a more structured and comprehensive picture, compared to using traditional systems (rumintjap, 2013) the organization will focus on strategic educational services, the annual action plan can be harmonized, and the personnel engagement in decision-making will increase (tohidi et al., 2010). great benefits expected from the use of bsc cause the large number of researches on the design of performance measurement based on bsc. performance measurement using bsc is one of researches conducted in tertiary educational institutions. this research is based on the theory that bsc as a performance management system can be used in improving the accountability of tertiary educational institutions because it can help them in translating vision, mission, and strategy into a series of performance indicators (sudirman, 2012). obstacles in strategy asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 52-59 54 implementation can be minimized by a balanced strategy mapping in bsc. the use of bsc in tertiary educational institution requires some adjustments so that they will reduce the failure risk in implementation process and can improve organizational performance (aljardali et al., 2012). 2.1. customer perspective performance indicators used by some researchers on customer perspective are improving service quality (wu et al., 2011; nur, 2013; quezada et al., 2014; fooladvand et al., 2015) value of customer satisfaction (hermawan, 2008; sukesti, 2010; tohidi et al., 2010; wu et al., 2011; aljardali et al., 2012; effendi, 2012; suhendi, 2012; atafar et al., 2013; rumintjap, 2013; santhi et al., 2013; angriani, 2014; antariksa et al., 2014; quezada et al., 2014; fooladvand et al., 2015; sudaryo, 2015) consistent with customer expectation (atafar et al., 2013) and timely delivery (fooladvand et al., 2015)improvement of relationship with alumni and users (wu et al., 2011; suhendi, 2012) customer retention (sukesti, 2010; wu et al., 2011; effendi, 2012; rumintjap, 2013; angriani, 2014; quezada et al., 2014) customer acquisition (hermawan, 2008; sukesti, 2010; wu et al., 2011; effendi, 2012; suhendi, 2012; rumintjap, 2013) market share (wu et al., 2011; effendi, 2012) amount of awards achieved (suhendi, 2012) rank of tertiary educational institution on webometric (suhendi, 2012) average gpa score of the new students (suhendi, 2012) average score of entry examination (suhendi, 2012) percentage of foreign students’ origin (suhendi, 2012). the value of customer satisfaction, in this research, is measured using six assessment components,namely reliability, responsiveness, empathy, learning facilities, objectivity guarantee, and supporting facilities. other indicators used in this research are involvement of alumni and users in untad’s activities, ratio of graduates responding to tracking study, percentage growth of the registrant, ratio of registrant compared to prospective graduated students, number of students who participate in a competition, and rank of new students during school. 2.2. internal business process perspective some researches measure the performance of internal business process perspective by using academic excellence (suhendi, 2012; atafar et al., 2013) quantity and quality of researches and publications (tohidi et al., 2010; suhendi, 2012) internship program (aljardali et al., 2012) existence of special curriculum (wu et al., 2011; aljardali et al., 2012) school characteristics (wu et al., 2011) main programs management (wu et al., 2011) development of number of faculty/department and study program (hermawan, 2008; suhendi, 2012) number of cooperation in research and training (suhendi, 2012) productivity improvement (quezada et al., 2014) service achievement through continuous improvement (aljardali et al., 2012; santhi et al., 2013) consistency in service provision process (atafar et al., 2013) service for students (sukesti, 2010) improvement in team work quality (nur, 2013) existence of sop in every service (wu et al., 2011; angriani, 2014; antariksa et al., 2014) and administration effectiveness in tertiary educational institutions (wu et al., 2011). this research also measures students quality from non-academic aspect as well as cooperation enhancement. indicators used to measure students quality from non-academic aspect are percentage of students attending extracurricular, students’ entrepreneurship, students’ english language skill as well as their soft skill abilities. indicators used to measure cooperation enhancement are number of cooperation with government agencies, number of cooperation with other tertiary educational institutions, number of foreign cooperation, number of cooperation in alumni recruitment, number of realized mou, and cooperation partner satisfaction survey. 2.3. financial perspective indicators used by some researchers to measure the performance of financial perspective are strategic investment (tohidi et al., 2010; wu et al., 2011; suhendi, 2012) return on investment (fooladvand et al., 2015) maintenance of buildings and equipments (suhendi, 2012) existence of new buildings and equipments which support educational process (suhendi, 2012) improving profits and investment (quezada et al., 2014) increasing number of prospective new students (sudaryo, 2015) revenue improvement (wu et al., 2011; effendi, 2012; suhendi, 2012; atafar et al., 2013; christina and sudana, 2013; rumintjap, 2013; angriani, 2014; fooladvand et al., 2015) availability of financial infrastructure (atafar et al., 2013) financial report (hermawan, 2008; suhendi, 2012) arrangement of budget and financial audit result (suhendi, 2012) level of efficiency and effectiveness of operational cost (wu et al., 2011; suhendi, 2012; christina and sudana, 2013; nur, 2013; rumintjap, 2013; angriani, 2014; antariksa et al., 2014; quezada et al., 2014; sudaryo, 2015) and reduction in employee cost (atafar et al., 2013). fooladvand et al. (2015) uses the capability of profitability but some researchers measure directly on profitability ratios. the ratios measured are return on investment (roi) (sukesti, 2010; wu et al., 2011; christina and sudana, 2013) return on assets (roa) (atafar et al., 2013; christina and sudana, 2013) return on equity (roe) (christina and sudana, 2013) and profit margin (sukesti, 2010; tohidi et al., 2010; wu et al., 2011). this research uses the percentage of timely financial report and financial audit report by external auditors as performance indicators. 2.4. learning and growth perspective learning and growth perspective is measured by some previous researchers using staffs capability (wu et al., 2011; fooladvand et al., 2015) improvement of manpower quality (wu et al., 2011; suhendi, 2012) employees age (hermawan, 2008) employees’ education level (hermawan, 2008) work experience (hermawan, 2008) number of education and training (suhendi, 2012; christina and sudana, 2013; nur, 2013; rumintjap, 2013; angriani, 2014) lecturers’ education level (hermawan, 2008) lecturers’ rank (hermawan, 2008) lecturers’ teaching experience (hermawan, 2008) lecturers age (hermawan, 2008) growth of professional teaching staff (aljardali et al., 2012) development of working culture (tohidi et al., 2010) employee turnover (sukesti, 2010; wu et al., 2011; suhendi, 2012; rumintjap, 2013) employee satisfaction (hermawan, 2008; sukesti, 2010; wu et al., 2011; suhendi, 2012; nur, 2013; angriani, 2014; antariksa et al., 2014) number of courses which utilize new technology(suhendi, 2012; aljardali et al., 2012), capabality of information system (wu et al., 2011; suhendi, 2012; angriani, 2014; fooladvand et al., 2015). suhendi (2012) also use the comfort of classrooms, utilization of personnel information system, utilization of financial information system, and attractive website appearance. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 52-59 55 satisfaction of supporting staff, in this study, is measured in six components, namely suitability of work profession, leadership capability,appreciation or welfare, information systems technology, work atmosphere, and supporting facilities. there are four assessment components to determine the lecturers’ satisfaction level, namely competence development, career development, appreciation or welfare, and supporting facilities. this study also adds level of integrated database, it based and open access library services, and it management enhancement. 2.5. balanced scorecard by using analytic network process the decision-making process undertaken by management in determining which strategic objectives will become the priority of organization can be done by using analytical tools in order to obtain good and appropriate results. a tool which can be used by researchers in performing weighting or determination of strategy is analytic network process (anp). anp is used in the research to determine the weight of each strategic objective in helping organization to improve its performance and achieve its objectives (wu et al., 2011). anp is also used due to the presence of feedback relationship between one element and another elements in a component and between elements contained in other components (suswono et al., 2009; suhendi, 2012). moreover, anp can simplify the complexity of organization, flexibile, and facilitate the determination of strategic priorities (percin, 2010). atafar et al. (2013) reveals that measuring university performance is important in planning a better education. bsc is often used to measure organizational performance. it is considered to better accommodate all needs of organization in performance measurement because it is divided into four perspectives. integrating bsc and anp in the study will answer the question regarding relationship of strategic objectives and performance indicators in each interrelated perspective of bsc (wu et al., 2011; suhendi, 2012; atafar et al., 2013; quezada et al., 2014; sudaryo, 2015). in line with this statement, quezada et al. (2014) suggests that the first step in arranging a good strategy map is to classify the strategic goals into four perspectives of bsc and then use anp to find a causal link between strategic objectives. anp is employed because it is a good tool for finding a causal relationship and it identifies and estimates whether the effect of relationship between strategic objectives is important or not. 3. methods 3.1. research design this research utilizes descriptive technique in the form of case study. it focuses in observing the form of performance measurement used by untad. respondents are selected using purposive sampling method or also known as judgment sampling (gay et al., 2012). respondents, in this study, are parties who are considered able to provide inputs in planning untad’s performance measurement. head of rector’s advisory council and five vicerectors are chosen as respondents because they are the ones in charge and makers of strategic policies while head of public administration bureau (bau) and head of bureau of academic administration, student affairs, and planning (bakp) are chosen because they are in charge of untad’s technical operations. the data collection was conducted on may until august 2016. 3.2. operational definition of variables the operational definition of each bsc perspective analyzed in this research are: 1. performance of customer perspective is analyzed to identify how the students, alumni, users, and community assess the outputs quality. 2. performance of internal business process perspective is identify to understand the outputs quality and the efforts made to improve it. 3. performance of financial perspectives is analyzed to find out whether there is an increase in revenue, strategic investment, and quality of financial administration. although untad is not a profit-oriented organization, but good financial management must be carried out in an effort to improve the outputs quality. 4. performance of learning and growth perspective is untad’s efforts in improving the quality of resources and develop themselves so that they can respond to customers’ needs. 3.3. data analysis data processing and analysis method used in this research are analysis of bsc and anp bsc does not only describe the financial perspective of organization. bsc could support the management to measure the strength of the organization in achieving customer satisfaction and how business processes as well as invest on resources enhancement to assist the organization in achieving its objectives (effendi, 2012). bsc principles become the basis in determining strategic objectives and key performance indicators (kpis) also specify targets and strategic initiatives in achieving strategic objectives. the four perspectives of bsc become the basis for determining priority of strategic objectives. anp is a decision-making tool which can find a causal relationship because it identifies whether the effect of the relationship between strategic objectives is important or not based on the weighting (saaty and vargas, 2013). anp is used with the help of super decisions software. super decisions is a tool useful in decision making by analyzing the level of interest based on dependence and feedback (linda, 2013). anp utilization makes it possible to identify which strategic objective that becomes the priority in performance improvement. anp is applied by developing decision model structure; forming a pairwise comparison matrix of interrelated variables; calculating consistency ratio (cr); calculatingsupermatrix; and weighting the importance of component and element. figure 1 shows the framework of anp based on bsc. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 52-59 56 figure-1.framework of anp source: data processing analytic network process (anp) 4. results and discussion performance measurement process can be performed using several methods, but the good one is done by determining the right tools in accordance with the purpose of performance measurement and size of the organization (barnabe and riccaboni, 2007). bsc which originally was intended for business organizations, has been adopted by many nonprofit organizations as an effort to improve the organizational performance, including adoption by untad. bsc is selected to improve performance because it can be adjusted with the characteristics of each tertiary educational institution (al-hosaini and sofian, 2015). bsc with its four perspectives is expected to be able to answer untad’s needs of performance management as well as performance measurement tool. customer perspective focuses on untad efforts in satisfying customers. students, alumni, and users are customersof tertiary educational institutions. untad needs to know organizational performance from customers’ eyes in order to continue to improve the service quality with that input. internal business process perspective focuses on a series of action taken in order to create customer satisfaction. in spite of the limited budget, it would still be able to produce a quality product. susetyo and sabakula (2014) reveals that the action taken on internal business process perspective becomes an important process that can attract and retain customers. financial perspective focuses on effective management and allocation of resources so as to increase customer satisfaction. finance is one of the important factors for organizations, both profit and non-profit organizations. good financial management is essential to ensure the organization viability. untad’s status as public service unit (blu) requires a better fund managemen.untad is not only required to impose transparency, but also to be able to increase revenue despite having limited resources and activity limits from regulation on assets management and revenue of tertiary educational institution. learning and growth perspective focuses on how to empower untad so as to develop skills in an effort to upgrade customer satisfaction. untad’s resources are currently quite limited, therefore it is necessary for untad to do priority mapping so as to know the steps to improve its institutional performance. bsc development process requires a strong commitment from the leaders so that its implementationcan work well. effective communication at the time of transformation and investment in information systems will support the success of its implementation (zin et al., 2013). leaders as the driver of the organization will determine the success of its implementation. the strategies arranged to improve performance can not work properly if the institution is not ready to implement such strategies (siswaji, 2013). leaders should be able to take appropriate measures for the employees' perception of the organization’s condition depends on their position within the organization, including the implementation of new policies (inoshita, 2012). tohirin (2012) suggests several things to do by the leaders so that the bsc implementation process can be carried out well, namely increasing the awareness of officials and staffs that bureaucratic reform happens, providing socialization of bsc concept, conducting aanalysis of the need of employee training, upgrading employee competence, preparing job competence standards, improving it management, arranging guidebook of performance measurement, and forming a bsc team. good strategic objectives for the organization arestrategic objectives arranged based on vision, mission, and goals of the organization. the process of planning and setting strategic objectives, kpis, targets, and strategic initiatives into measures to enable the achievement of institution’s goals. the number of strategic objectives on untad’s four bsc perspectives is 17 with 75 kpis. each kpi has a target and strategic initiative. kpis, targets, and strategic initiatives are organized based on untad’s strategic plan 2015-2020, elements of ban-pt’s institutional accreditation assessment and in-depth discussions with the working units’ party. kpi is a tool to measure the strategic objectives. targets are set as performance standardof certain periods while strategic initiatives are activities undertaken in an effort to achieve the targets. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 52-59 57 the strategic objectives are components which if it is executed well, it can improve organizational performance. each strategic objective has a different contribution for performance improvement. results of strategic objective weighting using anp generate priorityweight that describes how large the strategic objective will support the organization in achieving its expected performance. the greater the weight, the greater the contribution of strategic objective in performance improvement, so that the strategic objective should be a priority. contributions of strategic objectives for each perspective can be seen in figure 2. untad’s bsc is developed based on four perspectives of bsc. customer perspective contributes the most to untad’s performance improvement with the value of 0.300. perspective which ranks the second is learning and growth perspective with the value of 0.285. it is followed by internal business process perspective with the value of 0.212. the last one is financial perspective with the value of 0.203. the results of this calculation indicate that customer perspective is the first perspective that should be prioritized in order to achieve the performance improvement. contribution of each perspective is the accumulation of strategic objectives’ contribution which exists in each perspective. figure-2. contribution of strategic objectives on each bsc perspective source: data processing balanced scorecard placement of customer perspective as the first priority is in line with research conducted by suhendi (2012) but in that study, internal business process perspective ranks the second, growth and learning perspective ranks the third, and financial perspective is the last one. slightly different from the research conducted by sudaryo (2015) in that study, internal business process perspective is the first priority, followed by customer, learning and growth, and financial perspective. in line with the research of wau (2008) which reveals that tertiary educational institution positions its student as the center of activity, both direct and indirect lessons conducted for the students. lecturer competence improvement through research, community service, continued study, as well as workshops and seminars are also organized in an effort to improve services for students. in contrast with the reasearch of sudaryo (2015) and suhendi (2012) as well as this research, the research conducted by riza (2015) show that financial perspective is not in the last position but in the second position following internal business process perspective. priority weight for each perspective is portrayed in figure 3. figure-3. bsc priority weight source: data processing balanced scorecard based on the result of weighting priority on customer perspective, good image and reputation becomes the strategic objective at first priority. it is followed by improvement of student satisfaction, improvement of relationship with alumni and users, and quality of student recruitment. a good image and reputation is indispensable for tertiary educational institution to carry out its activities. enhancement in number of students and cooperation with other parties in various types of activity can organized if the institution owns a good name. based asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2018, 5(2): 52-59 58 on the result of priority weighting on internal business process perspective, the strategic objective of student quality holds the first priority. quantity and quality of research, community service, and publication, program innovation, mmanagement and quality assurance, and eenhanced cooperation follow the first priority sequentially. student quality improvement can be undertaken with the presence of continuous and consistent quality assurance (khoiri, 2009). based on the result of priority weighting on financial perspective, financial conduct is the strategic objective which should be prioritized first. strategic investments and revenue improvement come later sequentially. financial administration which is arranged properly and according to the rules is one of the keys in conducting financial conduct. based on the result of weighting priority on learning and growth perspective, ffacilities and information technology becomes the main strategic objective. following the main strategic objective are increased productivity of lecturers, adequate facility and infrastructure, iincreased productivity of supporting staffproductivity improvement, and conducive working atmosphere. a highly rapid information technology development encourages tertiary educational institution to engage in order to compete well. a good information technology development will greatly help the institution in performing its very complex activity. 5. conclusion the number of strategic objectives which are arranged based on untad’s bsc is 17 with 75 kpis. the determination of strategic objectives and initiatives is carried out according to untad’s strategic plan 20152020, ban-pt standard, and in-depth discussions with the working units’ party. prioritization of strategic objectives is done using anp method and processed using super decision software version 2.0.8. the results of this study indicate that customer perspective holds the first priority with the value of 0.300,followed by learning and growth perspective with the value of 0.285, internal business process perspective with the value of 0.212, and financial perspective with the value of 0.203. in this study, weighting was only analyze based on the strategic objectives, it is suggested for further research to analyze the weighting of kpi so the measurement will getting better and proportionate. other measurement tools such as baldrige excellence framework (bef) on performance measurementcan be used for other universities such as hasanuddin university, bogor agricultural university (ipb), university of gadjah mada (ugm), etc, which have more complex performances. 6. recommendations bsc utilization for performance improvement is good to be applied in untad because it does not only develop strategic objectives, but also provide feedback in the form of a scorecard. untad’s bsc development can be planned in bakp, implemented by all units, and evaluated by untad’s internal auditor (spi). the strategic goal which becomes first priority on customer perspective is good image and reputation. the supporting factors of this strategic objective are percentage growth of the registrant, ratio of registrant compared to prospective graduated students, and number of students who participate in a competition. student quality is a top priority of internal business process perspective. student quality can be achieved through percentage of graduates with gpa ≥ 3.25,percentage of on-time graduates, percentage of dropped out of college, average study period, number of latest text books per year, higher education-accredited journals and electronic journals subscribed, percentage of learning with student-centered learning (scl), reconstruction of competence-based curriculum, percentage of students participating in extracurricular and leadership, strengthening of student institutional function, students’ entrepreneurship, students’english skill, and students’ soft skill abilities. financial conduct is strategic objective which becomes a top priority on financial perspective. financial conduct can be achieved through timely arrangement of financial statement and financial audit report by external auditors. priority strategic objective in learning and growth perspective is facilities and information technology. efforts which support 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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=implementing%20balanced%20scorecard%20in%20higher%20education%20management https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=using%20balanced%20scorecard%20in%20educational%20organizations http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.904 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=performance%20evaluation%20of%20extension%20education%20centers%20in%20universities%20based%20on%20the%20balanced%20scorecard http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2010.06.001 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=performance%20measurement%20and%20balanced%20scorecard%20implementation:%20case%20evidence%20of%20a%20government-linked%20company http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s2212-5671(13)00235-9 http://ban-pt.kemdiknas.go.id/direktori.php asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 4, no. 1, 31-35, 2017 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 31 the need for involving parents in the rehabilitation of persons with special needs in nigeria juliana rotkangmwa bodang1  rachael asibi amwe2 ( corresponding author) 1,2 department of special education and rehabilitation sciences, university of jos, nigeria abstract the age long global trend of institutionalizing special needs persons/children for their rehabilitation is now being deemphasized in both the developed and the developing worlds. emphasis is now shifted on the need for family and community involvement in the care and rehabilitation of children with disabilities. thus, advocacy on the promotion of their well-being is now focused on community-based rehabilitation which many scholars consider as down to earth and more natural since the target population reside in their domain. further, it entails the utilization of locally available resources to train special needs children/persons amongst varied communities. it is in this dimension that this paper discusses crucial issues such as what constitutes special children, their nature, needs as well as what constitutes specially in such children. in the same vein, the plight of the children in question has been highlighted bearing in mind socio-cultural practices, beliefs and attitudinal dispositions of the general populace as they pertain to parents/guardians of children with disabilities. having clearly, highlighted the plight of special children in the nigerian context, strategies to enhance their well-being as related to education, social as well as their economic aspect of life were also dwelt upon. keywords: persons with special needs, parents, involvement, need. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 32 2. basic needs of persons with disabilities (pwd) ................................................................................................................. 32 3. the need for parental involvement .................................................................................................................................... 33 4. summary .............................................................................................................................................................................. 35 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 35 citation | juliana rotkangmwa bodang; rachael asibi amwe (2017). the need for involving parents in the rehabilitation of persons with special needs in nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(1): 31-35. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.31.35 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. history: received: 10 october 2016/ revised: 1 december 2016/ accepted: 8 december 2016/ published: 15 december 2016 ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.31.35 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=juliana rotkangmwa bodang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=rachael asibi amwe http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.31.35 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.31.35 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=juliana rotkangmwa bodang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=rachael asibi amwe http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.31.35 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.31.35 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=juliana rotkangmwa bodang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=rachael asibi amwe http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.31.35 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.31.35 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=juliana rotkangmwa bodang https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=rachael asibi amwe http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.31.35 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 31-35 32 1. introduction it is a well known fact that all children (whether normal or special) need to be taken care of, especially during the formative years which are the more crucial for any meaningful development in a child‟s life. as such, they need surveillance in order to develop their potentials to the maximum. children need love and affection to develop a healthy physical and psychological being. special needs children (snc) have been perceived as those whose performance in intellectual, physical, affective and psychomotor domain deviate significantly from the non-labeled /average (either above or below) to such extent that special education programming is needed, (heward and orlansky, 1984; kirk and gallagher, 1989; lynn and lewis, 1991). further, the same writers went on to classify special children as those who fall into one or more of the categories of those with mental retardation, learning disabilities, communication disorders, visual impairment, hearing impairment and those who are gifted and talented, i.e. children endowed with surplus cognitive ability in terms of extra-ordinary intelligence or those with potentials of being creative and original in their various endeavours. it is this which influences their thinking and learning as a result of which special modifications are employed to tap their potential which cannot be nurtured in the normal way. with the scope of special education receiving global attention, children in especially difficult circumstances like abandoned children, street children, children orphaned as a result of wars, land mines etc., have also been incorporated into the special needs children category. the mentioned children are seen as special or unique since they manifest special needs requiring modifications in various endeavours of life i.e. academic, social, physical aspects of life in order to enable them to function independently and to their maximum capacity in life. sometimes the special needs of such children manifest in a combination of inherent human characteristics as they relate their psychological, emotional and behavioural dispositions which in most instances aggravate the special needs of the children in question. as a result, living a normal life and benefit to the maximum becomes more difficult. hence, modification of all their needs is imperative, before such children can achieve success in later life. 2. basic needs of persons with disabilities (pwd) all humans generally have basic needs in their lives and existence. snc are no exception, equally, they have basic needs which are unique or special in the sense that their critical life skills are often affected. it has been asserted that the developmental needs of snc are usually compounded by their abilities and disabilities, lynn and lewis (1991). three basic needs have been identified: learning needs, socio-emotional needs and physical and health needs (lynn and lewis, 1991). physical and health needs manifest essentially in terms of tendencies for compounded psychological and physical conditions normally occasioned by the disability which children with special needs have to live with. such health conditions include internal diseases such as lung infections, kidney diseases, heart diseases etc. these may need constant health surveillance and monitoring of their health situation wherever they may be. learning needs to manifest mainly in the form of poor cognitions and lack of adequate challenges to their cognitive capabilities. invariably, formal learning in most instances could be problematic and the motivation for effective learning commensurate to their potential becomes a major need before any meaningful learning can be achieved. socioeconomical needs refer to behavioural dispositions which constitute hindrance to effective adjustments required for daily living (kolo, 1994). the satisfaction of those needs are directly responsible for the development of effective self-concepts, motivation and the zeal for effective adjustment. satisfying socio-emotional needs also aid the development of children with disabilities to appreciate their own selves and others, and to develop healthy interpersonal relationship. 2.1. parentage of special needs children in the nigerian environment parenting a child is known and agreed to be carried on along a common pattern. naturally, the arrival of a child into any family is met with merry-making and jubilation and is obviously known to be a tremendous responsibility. invariably, parenting a snc is known to be confronted with additional challenges as the arrival of such a child is greeted with shock, grief, sorrow, anxiety, etc. this is attributed to the fact that such parents are likely to be confused because of their limited ideas about how to accept and rear such a child. in a typical nigeria setting, the child belongs not only to his biological parents but to all, most particularly those who reside in the same environment. as such, the joy or sorrow experienced with his/her arrival is obviously shared amongst family members, be it nucleus or extended. obviously, the parent now begin to think of what to do and how to rear the child in question by resorting to all possible solutions. human nature being what it is, and due to individual differences, reactions vary from one individual parent to another (turnbull and turnbull, 1978). they now develop attitudes towards snc which will have significant effect on the life of such children, be it in the short or long run (ozoji, 1991). ozoji (1999) maintained further that most problem special needs populace encounter in their various context of life are basically attitudinal which is more of negative in nature. summer (1994) identified the most common types of attitudes exhibited by most parents with snc. these they maintained range from (i) acceptance of the child and his handicap in a desirable manner which easily enhances parental adjustment; (ii) denial; her, parents have the natural love in patients but cannot accept the disability in the children as real; (iii) over protectivenessthis attitude parents develop where snc is hardly allowed to do anything by him/herself. this has a very negative effect on the growing snc since it is known to retard development physically, socially and mentally. this is attributed to the fact that such a child‟s initiatives are never allowed to develop neither is he/she encouraged to develop socially or mentally. in most instances, they live in an entirely different world which their parents decide for them. invariably, this is known not to augur well for both the parents and the child in question, it harbours perpetual dependence. this attitude of over protectiveness is said to have bearing with common beliefs and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 31-35 33 socio-cultural practice in most nigerian settings, where special needs populace are believed to be incapable of holding some parents develop which outwardly portrays them as willing to accept and aid their snc but by their action it implies rejection of the child. the last of summer& cohen attitude is that of open rejection of the child. the last of this attitude show nothing to their snc other than hostility and outright rejection and neglect. affection and appreciation of the worth in such children is virtually non-existent. snc based on the aforementioned discussion, regarding parenting special needs child in terms of his/her arrival, parental reaction and attitude patterns develop in the nigerian context the child in question suffers in almost all context of life. this is to be extended beyond family/communal life. for he/he suffers necessarily and is said to have some religious bearing where a common belief exists that sins of parents are manifested in such children (ozoji, 1994). hence, such parents suffers deflated egos, because the child who is an extension of themselves is less than perfect. invariably, snc are seen as victims and are made to suffer unnecessarily for what he/she is not a party to and not even aware of the handicap even though he/she may soon realize (depending on the degree and nature of his/her handicap (through treatment accorded by parents and other family members. subsequently, the child feels unwanted, unloved and may eventually develop antisocial behaviours and delinquency. hence, this brings about an urgent need for effective reorientation of parents and significant others for the betterment of snc. 3. the need for parental involvement parents everywhere are their children‟s first teachers. this fact is obvious and fundamental but in many cases this is not the case even in the pioneer countries notably uk and us who have advanced in the field of special education. involvement of parents in the care and rehabilitation of snc is a relatively new phenomenon. this is in the developing world where special education is still at its teething stage. in traditional nigerian homes for instance, the care and rehabilitation of snc is hardly regarded the responsibility of parents even though they spend substantial part of their time with them and nobody holds as much vested interest in the child. the need for parental involvement in the care and rehabilitation of snc cannot be over-emphasized. a child is said to need special care and attention for two reasons; either his/her problem which make special care imperative is congenital or adventitious: if it is congenital and the degree of severity of the problem has reached a level which makes independent living virtually impossible since birth, then he/she is in need of a form of education called habitation, which mainly focus on help skills. as for the adventitiously handicapped child, it extends beyond habitation to rehabilitation as to “restore”. it is basically the process of enabling an individual to regain a number of skills that may have been lost through social, psychological or physical problem that the snc had gone through. the non-involvement of parents in the rehabilitation of snc in nigeria can be drawn from the facts which clearly indicated that history has evidently shown that rehabilitation efforts in nigeria, in most instances are inadequate, illplanned and ill-executed (kolo, 1997). hence, it is virtually impossible to achieve any remarkable or sustainable effort to ensure adequate rehabilitation programme, which in turn aid integration of the special needs populace into national life. furthermore, rehabilitation in the nigerian context have in most instances aided sufferings and untold misery on the special needs populace for, it is seen to promote more of segregation practice owing to „exclusive isolation‟ in the centres. this again can be attributed to the prevalent superstitious beliefs and different negative interpretations that surround the birth of such children and that has led to rejectionist tendencies and many cases of outright termination of the lives of special needs population, particularly cases of mental retardation. more so, this has been the trend in most african settings. subsequently, rehabilitees in both africa and nigeria settings when they return to their families often become more stigmatised and are segregated the more from full societal life. hence, this brings about the need for involvement of parents in the rehabilitation process of their special needs children. their involvement will in no small measure reduce the double negative impacts on the growing child that he/she is made to go through. the child is made to lose parental care in their natural setting (home) and is made to undergo a regimented /routine life-style in a restricted environment (rehabilitation centre) which in most instances contribute in killing the potential/initiative they may be endowed with. to further buttress the strong need for parental involvement, it can be drawn from the experiences of the ill-fated 1970's rehabilitation scheme in eight centres across the country (togonu-bikersteth, 1996). this scheme has immensely encouraged segregation of special needs persons/children. since its inception it become a breeding ground for dumping the target beneficiaries to "get treated in places meant for their like". as such, the centres turned to isolation sanctuaries for destitute where graduands are heavily stigmatised which in turn makes re-integration of rehabilitees into their respective families and societal life an awesome task. invariably, due to the non-involvement of parents in the care of persons with special needs, many efforts hardly succeed in nigeria. even the traditional special schools that towed along rehabilitation did not fare any better in terms of enhancing their education and integration into national life. eventually it aided outright rejection on the part of the target beneficiaries (kolo, 1998). parents' involvement in the care and rehabilitation of persons with special needs if fully recognized and implemented will in many ways bail out the target beneficiaries out of their uncountable complications which are so entrenched in almost all facets of their lives like the scourge of destitution, beggary and idleness in which many of them have been involved. the parent will in no small measure ensure that the child in question is made to be aware and trained for needed skills acquisition which will in turn alert the child on the need to be useful to his/her self, family, community and the society at large. hence, heavy dependence on beggary can be minimised or averted. indeed with parental involvement, persons with special needs gets the necessary needed encouragement to develop a better self concept, i.e. appreciate and preserve the worth in himself/herself rather than resign to the fate which unfortunately has been the trend. as such the persons with special needs in most instances do not regard him/her self as having any worth in his/her family, community and society with any definite or distinct role to play in later life. this, of course can be linked to ignorance on the part of some parents and the already emerging culture of beggary as a vocation exclusively meant for special needs persons. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 31-35 34 it is a well known and agreed fact that child-rearing from infancy through childhood to adolescence up to the time when a child becomes an actualised adult is very tedious and demanding on the part of parents. the same and even more for parents blessed with special needs child. since they are special and unique in many respect in terms of their services, needs, facilities etc. hence, in a bid to ease the tension and confusion mounted in such parents, the involvement of significant others will in some respect aid the onerous task of rearing a child who needs special attention. 3.1. the need for the involvement of significant others going by the saying of "everybody is his brother's keeper", the need to involve significant others in the care and rehabilitation of persons with special needs then is in order in the nigerian context. the significant others comprise immediate family members and community members. in a typical nigerian setting, the role of family members in the day-to-day running of any house is invaluable. since responsibilities are shared among family members, their involvement will aid the special needs person in the acquisition of some needed skills like getting to know house hold items, kitchen utensils, distinction of toilet area from the kitchen area, good toilet habits, getting to know other family members by name and gradually joining other family members in getting to know members outside the family circle i.e. peers and family members serve as role models. hence, socialisation scope is being widened and the special needs person through interactions of this nature will get to acquire and learn to maintain adaptive behaviours and gradually begin to apply appropriate reasoning and judgment as well as mastery of the environment. through involvement of peers, the child in question gets to acquire more social skills through participation in group activities as well as interpersonal relationships. through involvement of family members, peers and community members the child with special needs get to imbibe the societal norms and values, respect the dignity and worth of others (grossman, 1973). most importantly, community involvement represents a positive step forward, for it implies a total departure from the orthodox rehabilitation of special needs children/persons in residential institutions. with this development, responsibility of care and rehabilitation of the individual in need has been returned to his/her family and significant others (peers and community members). hence, the individual with special need is trained in his/her immediate environment. he/she does not suffer unnecessarily, allowed to grow and develop physically/mentally in his natural domain, skills acquisition is easily facilitated, above all, fear of segregation and stigmatization is curtailed. subsequently, the special needs child will grow. 3.2. sustainable strategies for enhancing the well-being of the persons with special needs in nigeria for any strategy which is centered on human development to prosper or succeed, it entails effective commitment to ensure sustainability. invariably, whatever strategy is designed towards the enhancement of the well-being of persons with special needs in the nigerian context, it has to be that all are involved, acceptable to all and all encompassing. it is based on this guiding principle that a sustainable strategy can be drawn to foster his/her education, social and economic well-being. in this context, first and foremost is the need for change of attitude. in a country like nigeria where researchers have shown that attitude towards special needs populace is negative and rejectionist in nature, even on the part of parents blessed with special needs children. there has to be effective sensitization where by the parents of such children in particular and general population in general on the need for change of attitude towards persons with special needs and children. they have to be positively attitudinized. parents and the general populace should learn to accept such a child no matter the nature of his/her disability, they should accept the child as somebody who is unique, capable of utilizing the potential in him/her to the maximum. such a child needs to be shown love and affection. parents should positively make the child to be aware of his/her disability and be encouraged to positively learn to utilize the strength he/she has to overcome weaknesses. this factor indeed is the most crucial, since parents are the principal caregivers of their offspring. when parents accept to positively treat their children with special needs then the other segments of the society will also change. moreover, this positive change will go along to affect all other aspects that will have impact on the growing child later in life. that is, education, social and economic development. having positively attitudinized parents extensively, another major task is of the need of mass enlightenment, awareness programmes and education of parents on their special needs children. such awareness programmes should be aimed at educating and making parents conscious of the fundamental human rights of the target beneficiaries (right to life, education and work) which if achieved, will form the basis of other human rights issues. a very viable strategy is the use of media using local language as a medium of communication. it is the easiest, cheapest and the quickest means of sending the message across to nooks and crannies of the country, particularly the rural areas where a good number of special needs children are found. when parents are fully enlightened and made to be aware of the issues at stake they as well as the target beneficiaries will not wait for their rights to be extended as it is in most cases, they will strive for their rights. transdisciplinary inclusive approach entails the involvement of all related professionals in the habilitation and rehabilitation of special needs children/persons (lynn and lewis, 1991). this indeed, extends beyond the mainstream practices in the nigerian context. these persons with special needs are included in basically all aspects of national life. closely linked with the factor is active participatory community involvement to ensure the full integration of persons with special needs into all aspects of national life where political commitment and involvement can be easily facilitated. these strategies when merged can ensure linkages which can make reach-out programmes accessible, most particularly at the grassroots level where this has continued to be a nagging problem. to achieve this, parents, community members, professionals, volunteers and representatives from the three tiers of government or even at local government level have to participate actively. in the educational context, target beneficiaries will acquire the needed skills for learning the basic pre-academic skills, numerical skills, identification asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 31-35 35 of light vocabularies, be able to tell the time, day, name and parents, family members etc. on the economic terrain o national life, the target beneficiaries comes to learn some vocational skills of using the locally available resources in his/her community. these learnt skills will pave way for economic independence in later life. this is achievable by patronage of the finished products amongst his/her local community. 4. summary the paper however gave the general picture of special needs children, its highlights included their identified basic needs which range from learning, socio-economic as well as physical and health. parental responsibility to special needs children in the nigerian context was dwelt upon. under this, the need for involvement of parents, significant others and community members in promoting the well-being of persons with special needs into all aspects of life in the terrain of national life was as well exhausted. to ensure this, sustainable strategies which if fully implemented will achieve much were drawn in the write up. this is to ensure that nigeria complies with the dictum that no society develops until everybody is educated to a level that contribution of members is enjoyed and children being leaders of tomorrow constitute an integral part of the development process. references grossman, h.j., 1973. manual on terminology and classification in mental retardation. washington, d.c: aamd. heward, n.l. and m.d. orlansky, 1984. exceptional children. columbus, ohio: merrill. kirk, s.a. and j.j. gallagher, 1989. educating exceptional children. boston: houghton mifflin. kolo, i.a., 1994. elements education of special and remedial. an introduction text for students of special education. jos: deka publications. kolo, i.a., 1997. an assessment of the undp assigned community based vocational rehabilitation schemes in nigeria. unpublished paper presented at the international conference on special education, federal college of education (sp), oyo nigeria. kolo, i.a., 1998. sustainable strategies for full integration of exceptional persons in nigerian national life and development. deka special education monograph series (4). jos: deka associates. lynn, e.w. and r.b. lewis, 1991. exceptional children and adult. glenview: scott, forssmann and co. ozoji, e.d., 1991. psychology of attitudes towards the disabled: the nigerian perspective. jos: deka publications. ozoji, e.d., 1994. contemporary issues in special needs education. jos: deka publications. ozoji, e.d., 1999. selected issues in special education. jos: deka publications. summer, v.a., 1994. the influence of parental attitudes and social environment on the personality development of the adolescence blind. new york: american foundation for the blind. togonu-bikersteth, f., 1996. impact of a community based vocational rehabilitation programme on self and others' perception of disabled persons. life psychologies: an international journal, 4(1): 1-25. turnbull, a.p. and h.r. turnbull, 1978. parents speak out: views from the other side of the two way mirror. columbus, ohio: merrill. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 258 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 4, 258-264, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.258.264 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group influences of cultural dimensions on obstetric health in northern bangladesh md. bokul hossain1 md. siddiqur rahman2 tanzima zohra habib3 ( corresponding author) 1lecturer, department of sociology, varendra university, bangladesh. 2professor, department of sociology, university of rajshahi, bangladesh. 3professor, department of social work, university of rajshahi, bangladesh. abstract the present study attempts to explore the cultural dimensions that influence obstetric health in suburban areas in northern bangladesh. mixed methods were used to conduct the present study. one hundred and twenty-five (125) respondents were selected through purposive sampling; all the female respondents had given birth within the last two years. additionally, twenty (20) case studies and five (5) key informants’ analysis were conducted in this regard. the research findings showed that some sociocultural factors such as patriarchy, conservative attitudes towards female gender, food taboos, high workload, shyness and taboo around gynecological and obstetric health issues, and perception of women being a family burden influenced obstetric health adversely. also, many other cultural practices regarding obstetric health were noticed to have influenced obstetric health in the area in various other ways. keywords: culture, patriarchy, food taboo, over workload, culture of shyness, culture of being burden, obstetric health. jel classification: i19 health: other. citation | md. bokul hossain; md. siddiqur rahman; tanzima zohra habib (2020). influences of cultural dimensions on obstetric health in northern bangladesh. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(4): 258-264. history: received: 5 june 2020 revised: 14 july 2020 accepted: 17 august 2020 published: 9 september 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 259 2. overview of the problem .............................................................................................................................................................. 259 3. operational definition of key concepts ................................................................................................................................... 259 4. theoretical framework ................................................................................................................................................................ 259 5. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 260 6. cultural factors affecting obstetric health ........................................................................................................................... 260 7. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 262 8. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 263 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 263 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.258.264&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2118 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4328-9356 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7192-2729 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1249-5787 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 258-264 259 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the paper attempts to portray the adverse effects of different cultural factors on obstetric health of the respondents. 1. introduction health is a holistic concept (park, 2009). according to the world health organization (1946) “health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely an absence of disease or infirmity.” within the discussion of health, obstetric health is very important. it is related to maternal mortality ratio (mmr) which is now widely considered as crucial indicators of the overall health status of a country. over the last two decades of the past century, women’s health issues have attained higher international visibility and renewed political commitments (global health council, 2000).the international communities have constantly stated its commitment to decrease the high levels of maternal mortality in developing countries. many initiatives have been taken through different conferences (the 1987 safe motherhood conference in nairobi, kenya; the 1990 world summit for children at united nations headquarters; the 1994 international conference on population and development in cairo, egypt; the 1995 fourth world conference on women in beijing, china; ‘nairobi 10 years on’ in sri lanka in 1997; the millennium development goals in 2000; and the sustainable development goals established by the united nations in 2105) throughout the world (world health organization, 2009). these initiatives have been trying to enable women to live a healthy life by developing different policies and programs. despite these attempts many cultural factors have influenced women's health, especially obstetric health in various ways. among the cultural factors patriarchy, conservative attitude towards female gender, food taboos, heavy workload, the culture of shyness, and cultural perception of being burden have been taken into consideration in this study. a number of studies on factors influencing obstetric health care have been reviewed and the various cultural factors that were found to impact such health included gender, religion-based cultural practices, literacy and language barriers, shared cultural similarities across different religious faiths, gender role expectations in a patriarchal society, traditional medicines and spiritual healers (pir),malnutrition and risky birth practices (adamu & salihu, 2002; dennis, fung, & grigoriadis, 2007; emily, 2013; khanum & taufikuzzaman, 2012; lowe, chen, & huang, 2016; shole, 2017; walton & schbley, 2013). some authors bryman (2016); tuckman (1999) have pointed out that generally three kinds of research gaps are observed through literature reviews: data or contextual gap (lack of up-to-date data or studies in particular social context), methodological gap (lack of proper methods or sample used in previous studies) and theoretical gap (lack of theoretical footings as to the explanation of the phenomenon). the present study was conducted in the backdrop of data or contextual gaps. therefore, the purpose was to assess the cultural dimensions of obstetric health in northern bangladesh. the findings are expected to be helpful in policy making to acquire the goal-3 of sustainable development goals (sdgs). 2. overview of the problem many women die and suffer from various preventable complications every year all over the world. though different reports regarding obstetric health have shown major achievements in obstetric health fields (bangladesh ministry of health and family welfare, 2015, 2017; world health organization, 2019)obstetric health complications is still a main cause of death among women in developing countries like bangladesh. according to the world health organization (2019) while motherhood is often a positive and fulfilling experience, for too many women it is associated with suffering, ill-health, and even death. the major direct causes of maternal morbidity and mortality include hemorrhage, infection, high blood pressure, unsafe abortion and obstructed labor. many factors like education, place of residence, occupation, maternal age, number of living children, gravid, marital status, religion, and ethnicity (asundep et al., 2013; dahal, 2013; emily, 2013; khanum & taufikuzzaman, 2012; lowe et al., 2016; mathe, 2017; ogundairo & jegede, 2016; shole, 2017; simkhada, teijlingen, porter, & simkhada, 2008; stella & adesegun, 2009; ye, yoshida, harun-or-rashid, sakamoto, & sakamoto, 2010; zakar, zakar, & itani, 2011) contribute to obstetric complications. among these, cultural factors are also very crucial. culture is a part and parcel of human life and cultural practices are more pervasive and deeply rooted than most other elements of society. it cannot be changed overnight. therefore, the researchers intended to explore the cultural factors that affect obstetric health to acquire goal-3 of the sustainable development goals. the researchers present the findings in this paper about how and to what extent cultural factors influence obstetric health in northern bangladesh. 3. operational definition of key concepts the following concepts are defined to clarify the connotation they reflect in this paper: obstetric health: it refers to the health of women during pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum or postnatal period. culture: it is understood as the ideas, customs and social behaviors of a particular group. from a holistic perspective, “culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by a man as a member of society (tylor, 1871).” in the present study as well as in this paper, culture refers to the practices related to obstetric health including patriarchal norms, common socialization process, food taboos, gender roles, rituals regarding childbirth, etc. 4. theoretical framework the present study is related to the field of medical sociology. a good number of theoretical propositions are available in the field of sociology. but almost all the well-known sociological theories are constructed in the social contexts of developed countries. those theories cannot be applied directly or completely to explain the facts and phenomena of a developing country. it may take more than one theory to explain a fact of developing country. in the context of bangladesh, certain theories seem to create more controversies and confusion, and fail to explain local sociocultural complexities. therefore, cultural bound theory and pathway model have been used as theoretical framework in this paper. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 258-264 260 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group yap (1951) and lambo (1955) pioneered the work on cultural dimensions of health and illness among the people of non-industrial societies (erinosho, 1998). according to these pioneers’ opinion, health and disease are to a large extent shaped by culture. as they have theorized, health, diseases and curative measures are to some extent shaped by prevailing culture of the people. since culture is super organic and individuals have no reality of their own outside their culture, culture to a reasonable extent determines the total ways of life. in relation to this study, patriarchal and conservative attitudes towards gender, food taboos, over workload, the culture of shyness about obstetric care and cultural perception of being a burden in the family – all are cultural issues which determine individuals’ patterns of interaction within the social system and in turn enhance their adaptability and mastering of the environment. individuals’ ability to reason out their own social reality pertinent to reproductive health and choice of foods are constrained within the norms and values of the society (onabanjo & nwokocha, 2012). the present researchers wanted to understand the cultural factors affecting obstetric health particularly in the context of the study area in light of this theory. suchman was the first to use the pathway model to describe the various steps in the process of healthcare seeking from the identification of symptoms to the use of particular healthcare providing facilities. this model aims to identify a logical sequence of steps (the university of british columbia, 2015). rosenstock (1966) ‘health belief model’ is also a pathway model. glanz, rimer, and lewis (2002) and the national cancer institute (nci) (2003) state that this model is by far the most commonly used theory in health education and health promotion. the health belief model (hbm) is a psychological model that attempts to explain and predict health behaviors. there are seven constructs of the health belief model. each of these perceptions, individually or in combination, can be used to explain health behavior. the first four constructs were developed as the original tenets of the health belief model. the last three were added as research about the health belief model evolved. these constructs are perceived severity, perceived susceptibility, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, modifying variables, cues to action, self-efficacy. in this study, the researchers aimed to understand the influence of different cultural factors on the different stages of the health belief model. 5. methodology the present research was exploratory in nature and used both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. a social survey, as well as a case study method has been used in the present study. a checklist, questionnaire, tape recorder, and mobile phone have been administered as tools of data collection. due to the nature of the present study, a combination of interview, in-depth interview and empirical observation have been used as the techniques of data collection. in other words, the objectives of the present study determined these techniques of data collection. data was collected mainly from the primary source. a secondary source was also been included to strengthen primary data. the researchers purposefully chose ward no.30 of rajshahi city corporation of bangladesh as a study area. this ward consists of seven colonies named budpara, mohonpur, mirzapur, choddopai, maskatadigi, behas and rajshahi university. for identifying the population of the given area, a baseline survey was conducted and it was found that the total number of households was approximately 2,700 and the number of women who had delivered within the last two years was 1,212. it was 613 in 2016 and 599 in 2017 (epi). it is censured by the local government and the community health center situated in the study locale. among those 1,212 women who had delivered within the last two years, 125 were selected through purposive sampling as sample by using the sample size calculator of the australian bureau of statistics (abs) which recommends 10% of the total population (confidence level = 95%, population size = 1212, proportion = 0.1, confidence interval = 0.05, confidence interval: upper = 0.15000 and lower = 0.05000, standard error = 0.02551, relative standard error (rse) = 25.51, sample size= 125). the individuals have been considered as the unit of analysis in this study. besides, twenty (20) case studies and five (5) key informant analyses have been performed. cultural factors that affect obstetric health have been explained based on the individual. the present research had been carried out for a period of three months and data was collected through a period of 29 days from 23 january 2018 to 20 february 2018. the researchers used various statistical methods such as tabulation, classification, frequency distribution, percentage, coding, measures of mean, different measurement scale for processing and analyzing the primary data. two computer software (microsoft office excel-2007 and statistical packages for the social sciences (spss)-20) was used for the interpretation and presentation of the obtained data. this paper presents findings of the research originally conducted for the academic purpose of completing an mss thesis. a certificate has been issued by the thesis supervisor approving the ethical conducts of undertaking the research in the context of bangladesh. 6. cultural factors affecting obstetric health according to bierstedt and bierstedt (1970) holistic understanding, “culture is that complex whole that consists of everything we think, do and have as members of society.”it is said that culture includes all the positive and negative aspects of human life. all aspects of human life are influenced by the culture of a given society. obstetric health is a vital as well as critical and sensitive period of women's life. it is also influenced by different aspects of culture. bloom, wypij, and gupta (2001) found that tradition also dictates women’s experience of obstetric care and that women rely on traditional medicines and spiritual healers. the researchers in this study observed that some elements of the local culture such as patriarchal notions, conservative attitudes regarding gender roles, food taboos, workload, the cultural practices that reflect shyness and attitudes towards women as burdens influenced the obstetric health of the women in many ways. the influences of the different cultural factors on obstetric health found in the study are explained below: 6.1. patriarchy patriarchy is the term which always indicates the rule of men, not just over women but also over the general structure of social relations. the term is therefore about the power of men, a power which extends to the individual jurisdiction of men (or a man) over a family and its members, as well as the more general power of “the male” over the organization of a social group or a society (turner, 2006). patriarchy affects obstetric health in different ways as presented and discussed below: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 258-264 261 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 6.1.1. lack of decision making power the family structure of the indian subcontinent is patriarchal in nature. for this reason, women’s opinion in the family decision is largely ignored. this situation has a great impact on obstetric health. table-1. lack of decision making power in family. decision making power in family frequency (f) percentage (%) yes 21 16.8 no 104 83.2 total 125 100.00 despite the multiple ways women contribute to their families, they often hold unfavorable and unequal positions in the household. for example, the above table 1 shows that the majority of the women in this study did not have the power or liberty to make a family decision. most of the respondents (83.2%) reported that their opinion was ignored in making a family decision like having a baby or the total number of children, the marriage of children and so on. only 16.8% respondents said that their opinion was valuable in the making of a family decision. as most of the respondents did not have control over family decisions, they worked without pleasure. it happens even during pregnancy and postpartum period. it also happens even for decisions about taking treatment for illnesses. the following table shows the respondents’ status in making such decisions: table-2.lack of decision making power in the family about receiving treatment. decision making power in receiving treatment frequency (f) percentage (%) yes 16 76.19 no 5 23.81 total 21 100.00 about 76% of the 21 respondents, who reported having a voice in making a family decision, also had the ability to make decisions by themselves about receiving a treatment whereas 23.81% reported not making a decision in this regard table 2. through the case study of a woman named lakshmi rani, it was evident that women have no freedom to stop their daily activities without the advice of a medical practitioner in the study area (viz. case study4). they have to perform their household chores according to the will of their husband or family head. a 25 years old woman in the study looked much older like a 45 years old woman. she referred to the wrinkles on her face and said that the continuous household works even during pregnancy impacted her look. another woman named sarmin begum said that they really work very hard (viz. case study-6). in the remote area of northern bangladesh, there is no free time even for pregnant women and for new mothers just after giving birth within a week. 6.1.2. process of socialization the socialization process of the respondents’ family tends to be dominated by patriarchal values wherein female family members are taught to tolerate all kinds of violence against them. many proverbs like “patience has its reward” are regularly taught to promote such kinds of patriarchal values. 6.1.3. attitudes towards gender in the study area, people maintain conservative ideas about different gender roles for men and women. it is also a result of patriarchal culture. it also affects obstetric health among women adversely. because of such conservative attitudes, women do not get opportunities to make decisions about their self-care and wellbeing, treatment, and workload. 6.1.4. authority in procuring consumer goods usually the male member of a family was found to be in charge of deciding what food items should be bought or prepared to be consumed because the consumer goods are brought by the male member of the family. it is a result of the patriarchal norm that hinders women to go to the market in most rural areas including the area of the current study. onabanjo and nwokocha (2012) reported that men’s choice of foods have significantly influenced their wives’ choice of foods and eating patterns, before and during pregnancy; this is similar to the findings of the present study. 6.2. heavy workload of women in family in a family, a woman works from morning till night. there is hardly any break for women even during pregnancy and postpartum period. there is no chance to relieve their domestic chores unless it is advised by health personnel. table-3. performance of household work during the period of pregnancy, childbirth and postnatal phase performing household work frequency (f) percent (%) yes 45 36.0 no 80 64.0 total 125 100.0 women are usually exempted from performing hard work, especially heavy weight lifting work during pregnancy and the postpartum period. it tends to create obstetric complications. but findings of this study table 3 showed that 36% of respondents had performed heavy and hard work during pregnancy and even postpartum period. though 64% women did not perform any hard work during pregnancy and postpartum period, a significant number of women, as high as 36%, bore the risks of growing obstetric complications. it was observed by the researchers that drinking water is collected and fetched exclusively by women in the study areas.in many ways, these household tasks prevent women from seeking health care in the earlier stages of their pregnancies. women asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 258-264 262 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group have to perform many risky and hard menial works during pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum period within the family without the help of others. this is detrimental to their health. this phenomenon is shown in the table below. table-4. getting assistance with household work during the period of pregnancy, childbirth and postnatal phase. getting assistance with work frequency (f) percent (%) yes 35 28.0 no 90 72.0 total 125 100.0 the period of pregnancy, childbirth and postnatal stage is very sensitive and crucial for a woman’s overall health and wellbeing. we should take good care of women through this sensitive period as much as possible, at least for the continuation of the human race. but most of our respondents did not get an optimum care. the table 4 shows that 72% of the respondents did not get any assistance from others in performing their daily household work. they said that family members helped them for a few days only during the childbirth period. beyond that, they performed all the tasks of maintaining the entire household on their own. on the other hand, 28% respondents received some assistance with their household work during the whole period. many of them got help from relatives and a few others kept a housemaid as a paid helper during the period. 6.3. observing food taboo the table 5 shows that most of the respondents (52.8%) had faced barriers or restrictions to eating certain foods during pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum period. table-5. food taboos in the study area. observing food taboo frequency (f) percent (%) yes 66 52.8 no 59 47.2 total 125 100.0 on the other hand, 47.2% respondents did not have such kinds of problem. the food taboo during this period is a great problem and it creates the platform for many of the complications related to obstetric health such as infection, hemorrhage, urological dysfunction and pelvic pain. besides, many of the respondents did not even receive iron tablets. such cultural practice leads to malnutrition which is the root of many obstetric complications. in this connection, we must consider bmi. the normal range of the body mass index (bmi) is 19– 25 and it is a widely used indicator of overall health. the national average bmi of bangladeshi women is < 18.5, which is considered considerably underweight and belongs to the category of malnourished. malnutrition potentially compounds the previously existing problems during the prenatal and postpartum periods (niport, 2001). a survey of 26,424 pregnant women in bangladesh found that 35-38% of pregnant women had a body mass index of less than 18.5, they weighed 48-49 kg, and over 50% of them were suffering from severe iron deficiency or anemia (faruque, ahmed, & ahmed, 2008). 6.4. culture of shyness shyness is one of the major cultural traits found in the study areas. shyness means anxious reactivity in challenging social situations. although shyness is believed to be biologically rooted, individual’s socialization experiences play a vital role in shaping its development (chen, 2019). the respondents acknowledged the adverse effect of the culture of shyness on obstetric health. those who belonged to extended families were especially suffering because of the headship of the father-in-law in the family. besides, the respondents who gave birth for the first time were affected more severely by this practice. 6.5. cultural perception of being a burden the respondents in general said that they didn’t share every problem with the male members for the fear of being considered a burden of the family. that is why they often had to hide their obstetric health-related problems from their family. such a culture affects obstetric health adversely. besides the factors mentioned above, there are many other cultural beliefs and practices regarding obstetric health which impart significant influences on obstetric health. as per the definition of obstetric health behavior, these cultural practices can also be considered as obstetric health behavior. some of these cultural practices for example, restrict pregnant women and new mothers from moving around during the time of noon and evening, eating certain foods, keeping hair open or loose and exposed. pregnant women often carry a chilly in her bag when they go outside the house; some also carry a pin or nail made of iron in their hair braids or buns when they go outside the house. a terracotta pot with coal fire is often kept in the room where a woman gives delivery; the window of the delivery room is surrounded by fishing net; a firebox is kept beside the head of a newborn child. these are some examples of the superstitious cultural practices around pregnancy and childbirth prevalent in the area of the current study. 7. discussion culture has a great influence on obstetric health. different cultural practices affect women’s health adversely during pregnancy, childbirth and postnatal period. patriarchy provides the fuel behind these cultural practices that keep women behind. this work is done through some social processes. abstaining women from the decision-making process of the family, holding conservative and negative attitudes towards female gender, faulty socialization and unequal treatment of female children are some of these common processes. most of the respondents in this study did not have the power to provide an opinion in the process of making a family decision. intentionally or unintentionally, they always abstained themselves from this process. even the decision about receiving care and treatment related to obstetric health is taken by the male members of the household. besides, during pregnancy, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 258-264 263 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group childbirth and postnatal period their daily routines and lifestyle are also decided by the husband. in addition to this, the people of the study area are very conservative in regards to particular gender roles. they also raise and socialize their children by strictly following these patriarchal values. the maintaining of the whole family by women is also a cultural practice of the study area. especially those who belong to a nuclear family suffer from more difficulties because the women have to perform all the family and daily household activities by themselves from dawn to dusk. women's health, especially obstetric health is influenced adversely by such kind of workload. in the study area, drinking water for a family is collected from tube-well by women only. even during the period of pregnancy women perform this task which is very dangerous and harmful for their health; but this work can be easily performed by a male member of a family. this shows their adherence to the traditional gender division of labor deeply rooted in the culture of patriarchy. as a result of the heavy workload, women go through a very critical process during pregnancy period. moreover, sometimes such kinds of workload prevent them from receiving anc (anti natal care) visit which is a very important and desirable obstetric health behavior. food taboo during pregnancy is a very common cultural practice in bangladesh. women refrain from taking nutritious food because of it. such kind of food taboo affects mother and child health adversely during pregnancy and postnatal period. the respondents said that they did not take iron tablets because of the food taboo. family members of the respondents told them that it is harmful to take any medicine without any disease, even if it is iron tablets. besides, they did not take adequate food for maintaining sound health because of certain food taboo. it causes malnutrition which is a big problem in a country like bangladesh. almost all people are suffering from malnutrition; however, women are suffering more than men. it creates many health-related problems. it may be concluded that food taboo creates malnutrition through refraining women from taking adequate food which is the root cause of many obstetric complications. shyness is a major trait of the culture of the study area. respondents could not share their obstetric problems with the family members because of such shyness. women, especially those who gave birth for the first time, suffered from this problem more compared to others. besides, female members in extended families encountered more of such kinds of cultural problems. thus, the culture of shyness along with the existing social perception of women being a family burden affects obstetric health adversely. there are many cultural practices regarding obstetric health and those practices exert significant negative influences on obstetric health. thesepractices around pregnancy and childbirth can also be considered as obstetric health behavior. most of these behaviors are superstitious and dominated by local cultural beliefs and practices. expecting and new mothers are made to abide by these potentially risky obstetric health behaviors. even the respondents in this paper obeyedthese cultural practices though most of them did not know the logic behind it. they said that they learned these practices from their respective families and society at large, and they did not try to know the logic behind it. some women also said that they inherited these knowledge and practices from their fore-bearers. question about the logic of these cultural practices does not rise in their mind. further study can be conducted to explore the logic of such kinds of cultural practices regarding obstetric health. some influences or connections of religion may exist behind these health practices and obstetric health behaviors. the study respondents were also practicing some religious mores regarding pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum phase. the muslim women visited shrines to pray for their unborn or newborn children. they performed different religious rituals more often during these times than at other times. for example, they also donated money, food and other valuable things to the madrassah or mosques as well as monks. on the other hand, hindu women mentioned worshiping particular gods or goddesses for their babies. they also pertained to their baby like muslim women did. both muslim and hindu families arrange an occasion named ‘shad’ as a religious vogue in the study area. 8. conclusion the current study found that some socio cultural factors such as patriarchy, heavy workload and food taboo during pregnancy and obstetric periods, the culture of shyness and the social perception of being a family burden affected obstetric health of the research participants adversely in the study area. moreover, different cultural practices rooted in patriarchy and prejudices create significant unfavorable effects on obstetric health. patriarchy as a social norm and cultural factor affects obstetric health negatively through abstaining women from partaking in the family decision-making process, maintaining conservative attitudes towards female gender and socializing children by following patriarchal values. women’s heavy workload in the household influenced obstetric health negatively through obligating them to perform hard work like fetching water during pregnancy and postpartum period and refraining them from receiving anc visits and tt vaccination. food taboo also affected obstetric health adversely by creating malnutrition. some other influential factors that affected women's obstetric health and health behaviors adversely included the culture of shyness to speak up against oppressive norms, and the traditional view of women as liability. moreover, there are many cultural practices and religious vogue in the study area and those also influenced obstetric health of the respondents in many ways. in these circumstances, the government of 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issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2021.81.7.14 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group young women’s narratives of lived experience in face of multiple constraints and barriers in tanzania ludovick jacob myumbo 1lecturer of social sciences at st. augustine university of tanzania. abstract young rural women in tanzania lack opportunities to speak about themselves and their lived experiences. this study employed participatory narrative inquiry (pni) to afford a space for young rural women who relocate to urban centres for a better life to tell stories of their lived experiences. in relocating to urban centres, young rural women hoped to find decent work to earn an income but the lack of qualifications required for employment in the formal sector in the urban centres expose them to unconventional and dehumanizing livelihood strategies, including sex work. the study gives an insight that patriarchy in rural areas of tanzania creates gender inequality to the extent that young women lack opportunities for self-actualization and for a better life. hence there is a need to comprehend and disrupt unfair structures that limit and prevent opportunities and independence for young rural women in tanzania. keywords: young rural women, narratives, livelihoods, lived experiences, constraints, servitudes. jel classification: i39 welfare, well-being, and poverty: other citation | ludovick jacob myumbo (2021). young women’s narratives of lived experience in face of multiple constraints and barriers in tanzania. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 8(1): 7-14. history: received: 4 january 2021 revised: 29 january 2021 accepted: 15 february 2021 published: 1 march 2021 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 8 2. methodology ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 9 3. findings ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 10 4. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 11 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 12 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2021.81.7.14&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2693 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1420-2845 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 7-14 8 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature women’s welfare and well-being. it argues for the need to work effectively in ways that can disrupt gender inequality in tanzania. second, the approach of this study is relatively new in the world of qualitative research – a new way of thinking about and studying lived experience. in that respect, the study contributes to methodological approaches in qualitative research, particularly for the effective study of sensitive topics. 1. introduction during my years of working with local communities in mwanza town, as part of the outreach programmes of st. augustine university of tanzania, i met a young rural woman who had been lured into sex work by men who always look for young women migrants to exploit and abuse, as soon they arrive in the city. i was moved in tears when i heard her many stories of abuse and exploitation. i passionately wanted to do something about this state of affairs. as a person who had been socialized into patriarchy, i felt that i bore more responsibility for disrupting men’s oppression of women, which is perpetuated through male privilege, male roles and exaggerated masculinity (hearn, 2012). what happens in tanzania is that young women, from rural areas, often relocate to urban centres for better opportunities for their livelihoods. this is due to the situation in rural areas which is characterized by destruction, disease and decline – social environments in which the possibilities of living decent lives and fulfilling one’s goals are bleak (christiansen, utas, & vigh, 2006; stark, 2017). this is especially critical for young rural women who lack opportunities for selfactualization and well-being (hagues & parker, 2014). in relocating to urban centres, young rural women hope for salaried jobs, stable incomes, viable lives and predictable futures (msigwa & mbongo, 2013). what is most tricking in the process of young rural women relocating to urban centres for better livelihoods, however, is the general lack of reliable information and public awareness as the circulation of information regarding lifestyles and the availability of ‘employments’ in the cities occurs informally through personal networks within the home territories (kibuga, 2000; swantz, 2007). the operations of local recruitment agents, for example, go uninspected or unmonitored by state authorities (msigwa & mbongo, 2013). this is critical, given that a young woman from a far-flung rural place might be as much a stranger in an urban centre as a migrant worker from abroad. she might come from an ethnic group that is different from those of her employers; speak a different dialect or language; practise a different religion; be illiterate (in the sense of being unable to read, write or count); or simply be overwhelmed by the customs and beliefs of urban households and/or workplaces – feeling isolated in a strange and volatile environment while trying to strategize for her livelihood (ilo, 2013). furthermore, a young woman from a rural area with little or no formal education may experience restricted access, or be denied access altogether, to information and services relevant to her personal and/or work life. her situation may become even worse if the terms and conditions of her ‘employment’ are fluid, undefined and unwritten, all of which happens in informal sectors in tanzania and across subsaharan africa (ilo, 2013). in such complex, fluid and undefined circumstances, a young rural woman may lack the means to speak out about instances of mistreatment and exploitation, and may have no way to seek redress for abuse and maltreatment. because of such constraints and barriers, including a lack of qualifications, young rural women may find themselves in informal ‘employments’ which offer low wages and expose them to exploitative and inhuman environments. in other words, they may feel compelled to engage in unconventional livelihood strategies, such as sex work for their survival. this is especially critical in contexts of human misery and high rates of economic and social deprivation in tanzania, where young rural women may simply be led or deceived into accepting the promises offered by human traffickers or town-based brokers without being aware of the precarious types of ‘employments’ or conditions that await them in urban centres (kiaga, 2007; msigwa & mbongo, 2013). 1.1. problem there are no substantive qualitative studies in tanzania which explore and understand the lived experiences1 of young rural women who relocate to urban centres for better livelihoods. it is therefore perhaps fair to say that the information about the phenomenon of young rural women who relocate to urban centres for better livelihoods often comes from the perspectives and voices of ‘outsiders’, whether those be elite urban residents, policymakers or other privileged commentators. as a result, the voices of these young rural women recounting their situations from their own perspectives are rarely heard. this does not mean that the existing information and perspectives are unfair or untrue. they might be entirely true. however, to insist only on other people’s perspectives and narratives about these young women risks voicing only part of the story, with the result that our understanding of their lived experiences might be curtailed. adichie (2000) contends us that partial or isolated stories often lead to stereotypes, and the problem with stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but that they are blind and incomplete. stereotypes make one story become the only story, and therefore limit any deep exploration of the “multiple interpretive possibilities” and “discourses existing beneath or alongside the primary narrative” (king, 1998). this shortcoming leads to stereotypes which perpetuate skewed perceptions and connotations, categorizing such young women as deviant and vicious (matthews, 2008) thus reducing them to numbers for the purposes of creating an ‘other’ to be controlled (quinn & rosenthal, 2012). 1lived experience designates first-hand accounts and/or impressions of living as a member of a group or society (boylorn, 2008; van manen, 1990). it refers to individuals’ unique outlooks and perspectives, which are shaped by subjective factors of identity such as race, class, gender, sexuality, religion, political associations, roles and other characteristics that determine how people live their daily lives in a group and/or society (boylorn, 2008). in other words, lived experience signifies individuals’ unique accounts in a society in comparison with others (boylorn, 2008). these unique accounts can be life-affirming or negating, depending on one’s experiences of ordinary and everyday events (boylorn, 2008). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 7-14 9 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 1.2. objective the main goal of study was to provide a platform for young rural women who relocate to urban centres for better livelihoods to recount their situations from their own voices and perspectives. it sought to answer this question: what are the lived experiences of young rural women who relocate to urban centre for better livelihoods in tanzania? although this question does not address all the urban areas in tanzania, but only in mwanza, it largely covers two important issues facing young rural women who relocate to urban centre for better livelihoods in tanzania: their everyday lived experiences (both past and present), and their experiences in their workplaces, including how they negotiate to find employment, the types of employment available to them, and the other viable options for their livelihoods. all these issues were raised to inform us not only about how young rural women strategize for their livelihoods in the face of multiple constraints and barriers, but also how they comprehend agency in their respective environments, as well as how they envisage and shape their own futures. this was important in the context where women’s voices have been restricted and the opportunities for them to speak about themselves and their lived experiences have been almost non-existent (unicef, 2006). this study, therefore, intended to afford a space for the marginalized and silenced to speak about themselves and allowed them voices, perspectives, and agency in articulating their stories, so as to counteract the abundant dominant prejudices about these young women. on the defence of this, atkinson, coffey, and delamont (2003) write that allowing or “giving voice to the subjects includes the representation of individuals and groups who have been muted and marginalized. it implies the expression of their unique experience, usually through the reproduction of personal testimony and narrative.” in the same line of thought, blatt (1981) argues that a person is defined by the stories she tells about herself as well as by the stories that are told about her. then bogdan and biklen (1998) describe facilitating voices as “empowering people to be heard who might otherwise remain silent” or who have been silenced by others. 2. methodology to achieve the above objectives, kurtz (2014) participatory narrative inquiry (pni) was found pertinent approach. pni is an inductive approach which blends participatory and narrative approaches for a group of people to work through stories of personal experiences so as to unravel their complex situations (kurtz, 2014). pni takes into account social contexts, beliefs, feelings and perspectives in obtaining new knowledge (kurtz, 2014). it emphasizes ‘meaning’ as something that exists in its own right, and not as something we just find out there; meaning is given as human beings interact and interpret their conditions in a particular social context (o’leary, 2004). i largely became captivated by pni because it provides a narrative mode through which the participants make a sensible reading of the ‘world’ based on authentic experiences (abbott, 2008). this is because narrative can be, and often is, an instrument that provokes affective thinking about events through talking about them and hearing them being told (abbott, 2008). it is said that “memory itself is dependent on the capacity for narratives,” for “we do not have any mental records of who we are until narrative is present as a kind of armature, giving shape to the records that are in our minds” (abbott, 2008). without the told narratives, opinions might be formed, but the magic and value embedded in storytelling for shaping memories disappears (kurtz, 2014). what an inquirer or researcher in the pni process does is to collect stories, asks questions, and lets the participants look at, think and talk about the patterns themselves, but does not decide for the participants what the stories might mean (blumer, 1954; kurtz, 2014). in doing so, pni deeply immerses the inquirer or researcher in the world of the participants and leads the inquirer or researcher to ‘de-experience’ and ‘de-world’2 the world of participants with the hope of gaining in-depth understandings of their lived experiences (guignon, 1999; safranski, 1998). 2.1. data collection informed by the literature that young rural women who relocate to urban areas for their livelihoods are often employed as house or bar maids (kibuga, 2000; msigwa & mbongo, 2013) and knowing that a thin line exists between barmaid and sex worker in tanzania, i decided to visit bars in the neighbourhood and make contact with potential participants in the study. this task would fall into what dickson and green (2001) call “bridge activity – something short term to help with entering a site or community, and giving its members a chance ‘to size you up and get to know you.’” i soon became acquainted with two young rural women who worked in a popular bar on the main road to musoma, and a purposeful dialogue and reflexivity started from there onward (see also (shaw, 2010; watt, 2007)). i can recall how difficult the initial contacts the two young women were as i attempted to explain the study and relate it as humanly as possible. it was not easy at all as it required a considerable inner change of attitude and behaviour on my part, particularly in my attitude towards the young women who were surviving in and negotiating a complex body-related industry for their livelihoods. i needed to learn and practise, for example, how to ask delicate questions in a non-offensive manner. i became conscious of the need to be friendly, courteous, conversational and unbiased. in this regard, i had to strike a balance between being humorous and serious. i also learnt to be patient and in a respectful manner. the idea was to put the young rural women at ease so that they could be themselves and talk freely. i decided, therefore, to use a snowball sampling technique (maher, 2000) to reach out to other young rural women in their respective situations as some of the places where some of them worked and/or lived were staffed by men and women who would certainly not be pleased with my idea of researching ‘their girls’, especially during working hours. in this regard, my initial relationship with the two young women became providentially helpful. this was possible thanks to the solidarity that exists amongst the young rural women who work as barmaids but also trade sex in mwanza town. the truth was that these young rural women knew each other well and met 2 the terms ‘de-experience’ and ‘de-world’ are used here in heidegger (2001) sense, which presumes that if we reduce our understanding to an objective opinion, bracketing out all prior experiences and emotions, then we may ultimately bracket out the meaningfulness of the experience we are trying to explore; we de-experience the experiences and de-world the world as we encounter others in their present situations (guignon, 1999; safranski, 1998). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 7-14 10 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group regularly for social and psychological support. i therefore had a rare and important opportunity to ‘enter’ their wider community, in which i became ‘a member of the landscape’ (clandinin & connelly, 2000). as soon as rapport had been built between the young rural women and me, i purposefully recruited six participants for my research, for several reasons. first, a relatively small number of participants would foster trust more easily. second, a small number of participants would keep the process personal and active, and would make our contact more direct and consistent (ospina, 2004). third, with a small number of participants, we could access thick and rich data, which is an important aspect of qualitative research (langdridge, 2007). i targeted young rural women aged between 18 and 25 years, an age group that i thought would articulate their lived experiences well. the pni process placed us in a friendly and supportive context; we felt protected and confident as a group, and became less anxious. apart from sharing stories of lived experiences, we also spent time together eating, drinking and sometimes dancing. i sometimes stayed with them until midnight. however, this required patience on my part, and understanding from my family and society at large. keeping a field diary was important in this process of narrative inquiry. in it, i documented almost everything that i heard, observed and found. my field diary contains the evidence on which my research is based. i always took notes in our meetings so that i could focus on the person, using journal records (pondering) (savin-baden & van niekerk, 2007). i also conducted unstructured open-ended interviews that were dyadic or one-to-one (see also (hofmann, puzicha, & jordan, 1998)). written or visual documents such as personal text messages, photos of the participants or artworks, for example, were also collected as important pieces of information. this process of narrative inquiry revealed that statements became more meaningful within the context of a story (see also (clandinin & connelly, 2000; riessman, 2008)). therefore, taking notes on where and when the narrative emerged, and the circumstances surrounding it, was very important (ellett, 2011). i chose not to tape-record the participants as some of them were nervous about tape recorders and did not want to be recorded, especially on this sensitive topic3, which is concerned with their intimate lived experiences. therefore, i felt it was not mandatory to make any audio recordings of the pni process. in the process of analysing the stories, i organized my data into three main areas: past experiences, current experiences and future aspirations. in doing so, i was guided by strauss and corbin (1998) recommendation to allow new themes, knowledge or theory to emerge from the data, without any restraints imposed by structured methodologies (see also thomas (2006)). i liked this method of data analysis because it involves relating the facts obtained from the field (empirical data) to concepts drawn from models or theories – that is, it is data-driven analysis (braun & clarke, 2006). in addition, this way of data analysis as part of the general inductive method would immerse me in the raw material so as to allow me to look for more details and establish patterns of relationships (braun & clarke, 2006). my inquiry included a process of reflexivity, not only to account for any power imbalances, but also out of consideration for the validity and reliability of the data (maxey, 1999). with reflexivity, i was made aware of stereotypes, and i was often reminded to act only as a catalyst to promote inquiry into issues that affected the participants (may, 2000). i should also say here that although it has been claimed that most researchers have organizational and institutional power (henry, 2003) this was not strongly the case in this study (see also grenz (2005)). quite often, i experienced varying levels of power in different phases of my research. at some stages, i felt that power was fluid and possessed by nobody – neither the participants nor i – an idea also noted by tang (2002). at the beginning of the study, for example, i felt powerless while trying to recruit the participants, afraid that they would lose interest in the pni process. i struggled several times to enhance the sense of rapport between the participants and me, or among the participants themselves, so as to build a considerate and sympathetic relationship – a sense of mutual trust (see also karnieli-miller, strier, and pessach (2009)). 3. findings the participants were urged to narrate why they had left home, left everything, to go to mwanza town. in what ways might their choices possibly have been coerced? from the stories narrated, an array of situations which had led them to prefer urban lifestyles were revealed, ranging from broken homes due to the loss of parents or guardians, to gender discrimination and economic independence. some participants particularly described being brought up by harsh stepmothers or cruel and unfair relatives, and in abusive environments, making it almost impossible to lead a sane life. they also described a lack of people to trust and confide in as one of the reasons for moving out of their localities. in some cases, the very people they relied on for survival turned out to be their abusers. notably, the participants repeatedly narrated how gender inequality and oppression were interwoven into the social fabric of their rural family and society. they particularly pointed out that their rural family was organized in such a way that girls were socialized to accept lower status and to view themselves as less human and less valuable not only in the family itself but also in the community at large. they underscored how social and cultural notions about ‘real men’ loaded all the heavy domestic tasks and chores onto girls’ and women’s shoulders. these tasks, unfortunately, were hardly valued and limited girls’ potential for education and other productive prospects as girls were generally considered economic and social liabilities (lacking income-earning capabilities) that only drained the household wealth with no hope of return. in the hope of escaping onerous gender restrictions and parental control, some participants dreamt of the ‘freedom’ they would obtain by living away from home. they particularly narrated their deeply held wishes to be independent and free from patriarchal constraints. they often used phrases that illustrated how free they felt in comparison with the pasts. phrases such as ‘nobody checks anyone,’ ‘you do whatever you like’ and ‘you oversee your own life’ were commonplace. unlike their controlled peers in the rural areas, the participants cherished the ability to do whatever they liked, despite the consequences of that freedom. they were delighted to be out of the reach of the customs and social arrangements which had restricted and constrained their voices and choices. 3 research is described as sensitive if it requires a disclosure of behaviours or attitudes which would normally be kept private and personal, or if it tackles issues which might result in discomfort or offence for those taking part in the research (dickson-swift, james, kippen, & liamputtong, 2006). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 7-14 11 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group speaking about their current experiences of working as barmaids but also trading sex for their livelihoods in mwanza town, the participants narrated different forms of violence which had much in common with other kinds of gendered violence such as sexual harassment, stalking, rape, battering, torture and other injustices. they recounted experiencing a dilemma in the sense that they tried to be normal, to feel that they were doing ‘fairly okay’ for their own and their family’s survival, yet they felt deeply stigmatized. when they were asked which specific aspects were linked to social stigma, they initially answered that bar maiden and sex work were highly unwelcome in tanzania. because those activities were unwelcome and also criminalized for the case of sex work, some people come to believe that stigmatizing or even abusing a barmaid or sex worker is justifiable, as she is seen as a ‘criminal’ who deserves no good. as a result, the young women felt ashamed for being deviants from the social norm and were often forced to live hidden lives or to lie about themselves, often leading to burnout and depression. their stories contained vivid examples of how they were often abused as they were often depicted as deviant, vicious, depraved and fallen – forever damaged by immorality, and beyond redemption. on their future aspirations, against the above view, a fair number of the participants thought that their present life in mwanza town was better than their previous life in the rural areas. they cited economic independence, access to social networks, increased mobility, and the ability to support their families back home as signs of better livelihoods. however, the feelings of unfinished business, of not having gathered enough resources to adequately support the family back home, held them hostage in the servitudes in urban centres. therefore, they wished to change their lifestyle only if other options became available, mentioning possibilities such as setting up small businesses or investing in farming. some of the participants had already taken concrete steps to become entrepreneurs, but still wanted to achieve more, to earn cash before moving into an alternative lifestyle and/or returning home. 4. discussion it was clear that most of the young women fled their homes because girl and young women in rural areas experience increased hardship due to oppressive and violent structures embedded in social relations within patriarchy, as also reported in other studies in tanzania (buberwa, 2016; ellis, blackden, cutura, macculloch, & seebens, 2007; hagues & parker, 2014; msigwa & mbongo, 2013; silberschmidt, 2001; wamoyi, fenwick, urassa, zaba, & stones, 2011) in botswana (mookodi, 2004) and zimbabwe (kambarami, 2006). most of these studies maintain that from a tender age, girls are taught to be gentle, obedient, passive and submissive housekeepers, a process which leads to gender inequality in the family and in society at large. the division of labour in the household, for example, demands that girls and women must work much longer hours than men (see also (bayles & bujra, 2000; setel, 1999; varkevisser, 1973)). whilst this family work gives women some power in specific spheres, in general it greatly benefits men who are owners of land and or/household (akeroyd, 1997) a fact which some men recognize (swidler & watkins, 2007). as a result, rural women are far less able to sell their labour in comparison with men, and remain of lower social status, culturally inhibited from asserting their interests in public (akeroyd, 1997; bayles & bujra, 2000). in these contexts, girls and young women in rural areas may feel compelled to relocate to urban centres in hopes of being free from patriarchal constraints – to claim forms of autonomy and freedom and to create a different future (mcdowell & pringle, 1992). while trying to strategize for their livelihoods as barmaids and sex worker in mwanza town, young rural women were often abused because they were often depicted as deviant, vicious, depraved and fallen young women – forever damaged by immorality beyond redemption. this is also supported in the literature that bar maiden and sex work do not generally tally with traditional and social norms in tanzania (beckham, 2013; wamoyi et al., 2011). women are generally expected to maintain their sexual respectability, and this norm is particularly important in relation to negotiating sex work and other servitudes (wamoyi et al., 2011). haram (2005) writes that sex workers are particularly denounced in tanzania primarily because they go against the “cultural logic of secrecy in sexual life.” implying that it is not the exchange of sex for money that violates social norms in tanzania; rather, it is the public acknowledgement or flaunting which is connected to extramarital relationships that is condemned and brings ‘shame’ to women (not to men). in other words, it is the explicit solicitation of sex (to have sex with many partners as barmaids or sex workers are thought to be) with relatively little selectivity or discretion that is condemned and brings ‘shame’ to women. as long as women maintain secrecy about their sexual relationships, they also maintain respectability (beckham, 2013). indeed, bar maiden is unwelcomed and sex work is criminalized in tanzania (beckham, 2013) which justifies why some people believe that abusing or stigmatizing a bar maid or sex worker is right, as she is seen as a criminal who deserves no good (beckham, 2013) as also reported in other countries in sub-saharan africa (ngugi, roth, mastin, nderitu, & yasmin, 2012; scheibe, drame, & shannon, 2012; scorgie et al., 2013). this explains why some feminists, particularly liberal and radical feminists, argue against the criminalization of sex work (bindel, 2017). in their views, if sex work is legalized, some criminal aspects of it can be controlled, which could also reduce social stigma and sexual exploitation (bell, 1987; daly, 1985; mackinnon, 1993; rubin, 1984). while it is true that some poor women are compelled to have sex with wealthier men to meet their own basic needs (personal and family needs), it is also true that in sex work there is a continuum between ‘survival sex’ and sexual transactions in which women strive to obtain desirable consumer goods in order to enhance their social status (leclerc-madlala, 2003; stark, 2017) making quite hard to quit or to seek alternative life options. what is implied here is that in the structure of gender inequality where men hold the money and the power, sex is just one commodity among others used by poor women to bargain with wealthier or more powerful persons (leclercmadlala, 2003; preston-whyte, varga, oosthuizen, roberts, & blose, 2000; stark, 2017). in other words, sex work offers “a space in which impoverished young rural women in urban centres renegotiate their identities and actively imagine for themselves a better future” (stark, 2017). no matter how ugly and dehumanizing sex work is, it is a commercial enterprise within capitalist patriarchy, and evidence strongly suggests that women who engage in it do so primarily, and often exclusively, for economic reasons, albeit in contexts of limited choice (overall, 1992). bass (2015) writes that “just as sex work can be an avenue for some women to take control in a situation where they had none, some sex workers and psychologists see it as a way to triumph over tragedy.” this means that in a context of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 7-14 12 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group men’s economic power and women’s economic insecurity, women may feel compelled to ‘choose’ sex work for survival and financial gain (see also (farley, 2006; kempadoo, 1999; overall, 1992)). the above is especially true in context where sex workers and barmaids often assume the responsibilities of mothers (basu & dutta, 2011; delacoste & alexander, 1987; zalwango et al., 2010) which gives them respectability for their families (haram, 2003; hollos & larsen, 2008). haram (2003) has particularly observed in tanzanite that some women who are considered sex workers by outsiders (other members of society) see themselves as single mothers who strategically enter and exit partnerships with men for material gain for their families. in that context, sex work is just one job among others used by poor women (‘mothers’) to gain income and be able to support their ‘children’ or other members of the extended family (mbonye et al., 2012; scorgie et al., 2012; zalwango et al., 2010). this means that, although sex work can be extremely difficult, when it is driven by both ‘poverty’ (survival) and ‘want’ (desire for consumer goods), some women may find it hard to exit it or may simply decide not to leave it unless they have other means to alleviate their lack of income for their well-being and social status. 5. conclusion it is shown in this stud that patriarchal structures in rural areas in tanzania deny young women opportunities for self-actualization compelling them to relocate to urban centres in the hope of finding salaried jobs, stable incomes, viable lives and predictable futures but their lack of qualifications, skills and abilities required for employment in the formal sector in the urban centres, they find themselves relegated to the informal sector, which expose them to unconventional and dehumanizing livelihood strategies, including sex work. even though sex work offers social and economic independence for poor young rural women, and even though some scholars contend that trading sex is just one form of unpleasant labour among many others in the neoliberal economy, similar to factory work (hardman, 1997; smith & marshall, 2007), sex work is a nightmare and it hurts. it is a nightmare because it is a way of life that is stigmatized by much of society, that is physically dangerous at times, that leaves young women with little control over their bodies or earnings, and that causes them considerable legal and health complications (bartlett, rhode, grossman, & buchalter, 2014; bindel, 2017). in that context, sex work is a form of exploitation of women who are exclusively victims within the patriarchal system of exchange. whether it is done by choice or not, sex work is a practice which is constructed within a system that reinforces male supremacy where women service men’s sexual needs and desires (farley, 2006; farley et al., 2003; overall, 1992). in other words, sex work is an extension of male privilege within patriarchy (overall, 1992; rubin, 1984) but because it is driven by poverty, young rural women cannot simply decide to leave it unless they have other means (better options) to alleviate their lack of income. it is recommended, therefore that while the young women in this study can be considered adults – independent, autonomous, and able to make decisions, to defend and protect themselves and those in their care – it is important to be aware of the oppressive and abusive relationships which plague many young rural women in patriarchal society. there is a need to explore and comprehend the factors or even structures that limit and prevent opportunities and independence for young women in rural areas in tanzania. if unfair structures are not disrupted and broken, there remains the danger of perpetuating stereotypes and the culture of blaming ill-treated and weak individuals. as a social worker myself, i argue social work professional in tanzania to be actively present and engaged with affected (ill-treated and weak) individuals, letting their voices be heard and assisting them in legal proceedings. references abbott, p. 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(2010). parenting and money making: sex work and womens choices in urban uganda. wagadu, 8, 71-92. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 288 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 4, 288-294, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.288.294 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group assessment of factors influencing the development and sustainability of small scale foundry enterprises in nigeria: a case study of lagos state kehinde a. olanipekun centre for entrepreneurship and innovation, university of ibadan, ibadan, nigeria. abstract the study identifies types of small scale foundry enterprises operating in lagos state and also assesses their development and sustainability. data for the study were obtained from thirty (30) selected small scale foundry enterprises in lagos and randomly sampled one hundred and fifty (150) of their consumers using questionnaire, focus group discussion (fgd) and key informant interview (kii). data was analyzed using simple frequency method, statistical package of social sciences (spss) and qualitative analysis from the fgd and kii. the study revealed that the majority of the foundry enterprises jobbing foundries. the management strategy of the enterprises in terms of reliability (2.11), product and service quality (2.29), and business relationship with consumers (2.09) were satisfactory. overall ranking shows erratic power supply, flooding market with imported goods, difficulty in obtaining raw materials, flooding the market with imported goods, low linkage between the knowledge institution and the industry, policy discontinuity as factors that highly affect the development of the foundry enterprises. it was concluded that most foundries in lagos state in nigeria are jobbing foundries and the remaining few are production foundries. also, the rate of development of the foundry sector in nigeria is very low. it was recommended that government policy continuity, provision of soft loan to foundry entrepreneurs, stable power supply, availability of raw materials at low cost, improving the linkage between the knowledge institution and the industry would enhance the development and sustainability of the small scale foundry enterprises in nigeria. keywords: foundry, small-scale enterprise, development, sustainability, knowledge institution, linkage, policy discontinuity. jel classification: l1, l6, m10, m11, oo, o2, o5. citation | kehinde a. olanipekun (2020). assessment of factors influencing the development and sustainability of small scale foundry enterprises in nigeria: a case study of lagos state. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(4): 288-294. history: received: 21 september 2020 revised: 13 october 2020 accepted: 29 october 2020 published: 16 november 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 289 2. statement of the problem ............................................................................................................................................................ 289 3. materials and method ................................................................................................................................................................... 289 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................. 290 5. conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................. 293 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 294 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.288.294&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2331 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8312-636x asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 288-294 289 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 1. introduction the importance of the small-scale sector cannot be underestimated in any economy given the fact that it occupies a position of prominence and contributes over 50% of the industrial production in terms of value addition. the smes accounts for one-third experts in the manufacturing sector and employs the largest manpower or labor next to agriculture. casting in the foundry industry involves the manufacture of metal products in a single step from liquid to solid without intermediate operation of mechanical workings such as rolling, fabrication or forging. one of the oldest metal processes is casting to desired shape of the consumer. it involves pouring out of molten metal into a prepared mold cavity of the desired shape and allowing the molten metal to solidify. it dates approximately to four thousand (4000) b.c.” (khanna, 1997). a wide variety of size and shapes of intricate nature can be produced in different metals. foundry processes can be divided into two parts based on the materials being cast, that is, whether it is ferrous or non-ferrous foundries. “it could also be classified based on products, quantity and organizational framework” (lbhabode, 1997). the advantages of metal casting over other manufacturing: casting provides the greatest freedom of design in terms of shape, size and product quality. it impacts uniform directional properties and better vibration damping capacity to the cast part. shapes difficult and uneconomical to produce through other manufacturing processes could be achieved at low cost through casting processes. metal casting enables product to be cast in one piece, thereby eliminating the need of metal joining processes. very heavy and bulky parts (like those of power plants and mill housing), that are sometimes difficult to fabricate may be cast with ease. metals difficult to be shaped by other manufacturing processes may be cast with little or no difficulty. casting can be designed for equal distribution of loads (on all members of a product) and for minimum stress concentration in order to achieve more strength and increase service life. casting processes can classify into four groups: cottage, small, medium large scale enterprise. the small scale foundry enterprise consists of individual entrepreneur who are self-employed and have some skilled labor and also apprentices to make the job smooth and faster. in order to aid achieving sustainable development and growth in the metal casting industry, it is pertinent to assess the performance of the foundry enterprises in the economy, identify the factors militating against its growth and possible ways to minimize them, identify the efforts being made by the industry to improve its growth and possible assistance from the government in developing the sector. majority of the foundries in nigeria are small scale, many of which are mainly small job outfit, to compliment other sector like their machine and metal fabrication shops. “their products ranges from industrial spare parts like brake shoe for rolling stock, pulleys, gears, shafts and brass bushing” (adejuyigbe, 1979; ibitoye, 1995). the capacity of the country’s foundry industry is put at 152,000 metric tones annually which is made up of about 59.1% (60,178 metric tones) cast iron, 27.3% (41,465 metric tones) of cast steel and 33.1% (51,370 metric tones) nonferrous all valued at about 19.6 billion naira (us $196.3 million). “this output from a total of about 60 active foundries is considered unimpressive with the well over 7,000 active foundry shops, with an annual output of about 3million metric tones per annum in india”. raw material research and development council (1991) also reported about the difficulty faced in obtaining metal scraps locally and this scarcity had led to a large increment in the price of the scraps. according to a report of the rmrdc in 1991, there were about 50 foundries, which produce an estimated 80,000 tones of castings annually. their product ranges include municipal castings, water pipe fittings, grinding media, components for cement industries, automotive castings, agricultural castings and industrial spares. from their survey, this sub sector has remained largely undeveloped despite the high demand for foundry products. enhanced use of the existing foundries is handicapped occasionally by the prevailing dull economic activities, low capacity utilization of installed facilities and in some cases outright inactivity. the total installed capacity of about 30 foundries that were surveyed by the rmrdc was about 50,000 tones. their current capacity utilization as at 1996 was 30-40%, 12-20% and 60-70% for private organized foundries, public sector capacity foundries and small-scale foundries respectively. 2. statement of the problem foundry industry can be a hub for economic development in any nation. this is because a considerable number of the foundry products serve as equipment or replacement materials for all other industries such as agriculture, transportation, petrochemical, cement and quarrying (atanda & ibitoye, 2004). the level of awareness on its role on the economic development in nigeria is low. in the asian countries small scale foundries add a lot to the gdp of the economy while nigeria, the contribution of the small scale foundry enterprise is almost insignificant. this can be attributed to the flooding of the market with imported goods which made patronage of the locally produced foundry products very low. this has led to some of the foundry firms folding up thereby leading to a decrease in their number. since it is a multi chain reaction, it has also led to high increase in unemployment rate for those already trained to work in the enterprise. since the foundry industry is of great importance to achieving sustainable economic development of the nation, hence, the need to assess the factors influencing the development and sustainability of the foundry enterprises in nigeria. 3. materials and method the study was carried out mainly in lagos state. this was because small scale foundry enterprises are more prominent in the state and its suburb than any other state in nigeria. the study adapted mixed method approach using both quantitative and qualitative methods. structured and unstructured questionnaires and multiple visit contribution of this paper to the literature this paper gave more insight to the challenges facing the small scale foundry enterprises in nigeria with focus on lagos state. it also made recommendations emanating from the study that could bring about sustainable development and growth to the foundry enterprise in nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 288-294 290 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group approach were used to collect the information needed. focus group discussion (fgd) and key informant interview (kii) was also used in the study. participants in the focused group were the small scale foundry entrepreneurs. participants for the kii include respondents from knowledge based institutions and consumers of the foundry products. purposive sample size of 30 respondents was used for the survey whose list was gotten from the record of foundry association of nigeria, lagos branch and randomly sampled one hundred and fifty (150) of their consumers within and outside the state. a pre-test was carried out in 5 foundry firms in oyo state to determine the validity and reliability of the questionnaire. both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed in the analysis of the survey data. the quantitative data that may have influence on the development and sustainability of the foundry enterprises were analyzed using statistical package of social science (spss). this was presented simple frequency, percentage and relative importance index (rii). qualitative instruments in form of focus group discussion (fgd) indepth interview (idi) were used to obtain information from the participants. this was recorded with audio tape, transcribed and translated. 4. results and discussion the survival of the foundry enterprises depends mainly on the percentage of the small and medium scale enterprises. ninety percent (90%) of the foundry enterprises produces for small organizations, eighty six percent (86%) produces for medium organizations and forty seven percent (47%) for large organizations. also, all of the enterprises accept jobs from individuals that come to their establishments for any type of foundry work. this implies that majority of the foundry enterprises are jobbing foundries. this corroborate the work of andrews and gikunoo (2011) which states that the small scale foundries in ghana are semi production foundries and have contributed greatly to the growth of the national economy. most of the foundry enterprises (83%) produce many products while few (10%) produces single products table 1. some of these establishments consume some of their products themselves as confirmed by the respondents. for instance the rotary furnace that is usually used for melting scraps and metals are produced by the foundry enterprise themselves. majority of the foundry enterprise (93%) also produce for individual consumption while some of the products are consumed by other organizations (90%). this also indicates that most of the foundries are jobbing foundries. it was observed that in the operations management of the foundry enterprises, about eighty eight percent (88%) of the entrepreneur of the foundry establishments indicated that there had been product and process innovations within the past five to ten years. the innovations range from the use of pit furnace to crucibles and later on to rotary furnace. sixty two percent (62%) claimed that everybody is involved in ensuring the quality management while seven percent (7%) indicating that specific individual was charged with ensuring the quality of their products. table-1. production activities of the foundry firms in lagos state (n =30)*. parameters % production for large-scale organizations 46.68 production for medium-scale organization 86.67 production for small-scale organization 83.33 production for individuals 93.33 organization produces: 10 single products 83.33 many products 6.67 other types of productions 73.33 consumption of the products by: individual 93.33 other organizations the organization 90.00 note: *multiple responses. some of the entrepreneurs rated their product as excellent forty one percent (41%) of the consumers are very satisfied with the product quality while forty seven percent (47%) are satisfied table 2. this shows that the local products produced by the local foundry entrepreneurs meet the needs of the people (andrews & gikunoo, 2011). therefore utilization of local products should be encouraged so as to develop this sector. this can be achieved by banning of imported products and increasing tariff rate on imported products. also, organizing trade fair for exhibition of locally made foundry products will increase the patronage. majority of the enterprises, seventy eight percent (78%), obtain their raw materials both locally and by importation, while the rest used only local materials throughout their production processes. this shows bulk of the raw materials used in the foundry are locally sourced. some of the difficulties being encountered in obtaining the raw materials in the foundry enterprises were of cost, transportation and their availability to foundry entrepreneurs as reported by eighty five percent (85%) of the entrepreneurs. high price of fuel is also one of the factors adding to the difficulties being faced by the entrepreneurs. also, some of the facilities or equipment used during the production was obtained locally and through importation sixty seven (67%). twenty six percent (26%) of the foundry industry used only local facilities alone. forty three percent (43%) experienced breakdown on a yearly basis, sixteen percent (16%) every six months, seven percent (7%) quarterly and three percent (3%) bimonthly. about thirty percent (30%) of the entrepreneurs claimed that breakdown of equipment could occur at any period and the time taken to repair each part varied depending on the gravity of the repair work to be done to the equipment to function properly. forty percent (40%) of the foundry enterprises changed their equipment within two years while twenty percent (20%) changed theirs after five years. the production system is very economical to thirteen percent (13%) and economical to about fifty seven percent (57%) of the entrepreneurs while thirty five percent (35%) claimed that it was not economical. on average, it can be said that the source of energy. the issue of electrical power is central to the economic viability of the foundry enterprises. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 288-294 291 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-2. production management of the foundry enterprises (n=30)*. parameters frequency % innovations within the organization yes 25 83.33 product rating excellent 12 40.00 very good 14 46.67 fairly good 4 13.33 method of quality management everybody is involved 19 63.33 a particular unit is involved 8 26.67 an individual is involved 3 10.00 source of raw materials local 9 30.00 both 21 70.00 difficulties in obtaining raw materials yes 24 80.00 types of difficulties experienced by the foundry operators cost of materials 11 36.67 transportation 9 30.00 quantity 10 33.33 source of finance personal savings 23 76.67 bank loan 6 22.22 others 1 3.70 turnover of the foundry enterprises excellent 7 23.33 very good 12 40.00 good 6 5 fair 5 16.67 growth positive growth 25 83.33 negative growth 5 16.67 product grade excellent 11 36.67 very good 15 50.00 good 4 13.33 source of facilities local 7 23.33 imported 2 6.67 both 21 70.00 equipment maintenance within the organization 6 20.00 outside the organization 1 3.33 both 23 76.67 table-2. production management of the foundry enterprises (n=30)*cont’d. parameters frequency % equipment breakdown bimonthly 1 3.33 quarterly 2 6.67 every 6 months 5 16.67 yearly 13 43.33 equipment repair few hours 6 20.00 few days 5 16.67 one week 10 33.33 one month 3 10.00 others 6 20.00 equipment replacement < 1 year 4 13.33 1 year 3 10.00 2 years 12 40.00 5 years 6 20.00 > 5 years 5 16.67 production economy very economical 4 13.33 economical 17 56.67 not economical 9 30.00 method of conserving energy combine electrical energy with fuel 26 86.67 use of fuel only 4 13.33 total 30 100 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 288-294 292 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.1. factors affecting production and performance of the foundry industry the result of the performance rating of the foundry enterprises by the consumers showed that reliability of the organization and delivery time were rated as average, while rating for the precision of the products was poor. product service quality was rated above average and business reliability with the consumers and responsiveness were rated just above average (table 3). the performance of the enterprises in terms of reliability of the organization (2.11), product and service quality (2.29), and business relationship with consumers (2.09), delivery time (2.01) and responsiveness to consumer feedback (2.03) were satisfactory based on 3-point likert scale table 3. however factors such as erratic power supply, difficulty in obtaining raw materials, exportation of scraps, flooding market with imported goods, inconsistency in government policies, inadequate or non-existence of funds, and high cost of labour were factors militating against the development and performance of this sector table 4. analysis shows that the foundry firms, knowledge institutions and the consumers considered erratic power supply, flooding market with imported foundry products as factors that were highly affecting the performance of the foundry industry this is in agreement with the findings of nwosu, ikwu, and uzorh (2013) that poor electricity supply is one the greatest infrastructure problem confronting the manufacturing sector which imposes a huge cost on the firm arising from idle production workers, spoiled materials, lost output, damaged equipment and restart costs. the consumer and implementing agencies considered obtaining local raw materials as the factor highly affecting performance. other factors affecting performance are high cost of materials, low patronage of local products and high cost of labor which is similar to the problems facing the foundry industry in china (tata energy research institute, 1999). table-3. performance rating of the small scale metal casting industry enterprises. parameters weighted mean (i) reliability of the organization 2.11 (ii) adequacy of price of products 1.73 (iii) precision of products 0.90 (iv) product and service quality 2.29 (v) business relation-ship with consumers 2.09 (vi) delivery time 2.01 (vii) responsiveness to consumer feedback 2.03 note: sum =6. mean = 2, standard deviation =1, range =mean + standard deviation. 1.0 – low, 2.0 – average, 3.0 – high decision rule =2.0 table-4. factors affecting development and sustainability of the small scale foundry enterprise. factors affecting production performance variables research institutes consumers foundry entrepreneurs and staff implementing agencies overall ranking r ii r a n k r ii r a n k r ii r a n k r ii r a n k r ii r a n k flooding market with imported goods 1.00 1 0.90 3 0.93 2 0.88 6 0.92 2 erratic power supply 1.00 2 0.91 2 0.93 2 0.75 11 0.92 1 low patronage of local products 0.95 3 0.86 6 0.85 5 0.91 3 0.87 5 inadequate man power 0.93 4 0.79 8 0.79 6 0.75 11 0.80 8 inexperienced labor/human resources 0.92 5 0.76 11 0.75 10 0.72 16 0.78 10 high exchange rate 0.91 6 0.64 15 0.63 15 0.88 6 0.68 15 high import duty 0.91 6 0.62 16 0.60 17 0.81 8 0.66 16 other source of power 0.89 8 0.81 7 0.78 7 0.75 11 0.81 7 high cost of materials 0.89 8 0.89 4 0.94 1 0.91 3 0.90 4 usage of obsolete equipment 0.88 10 0.76 12 0.73 12 0.78 9 0.77 11 technology transfer 0.87 11 0.79 8 0.78 8 0.78 9 0.79 9 lack of innovation 0.86 12 0.72 14 0.73 13 0.69 17 0.74 14 obtaining imported materials 0.86 12 0.56 16 0.63 16 0.75 11 0.62 17 inconsistency in government policies 0.86 12 0.78 10 0.64 14 0.91 3 0.76 12 high cost of labor 0.81 15 0.88 5 0.76 9 0.97 1 0.85 6 transportation 0.80 16 0.75 13 0.75 11 0.75 11 0.75 13 obtaining local raw materials 0.78 17 0.95 1 0.89 4 0.94 2 0.92 3 note: rii= relative importance index. however studies revealed that erratic power supply and flooding market with imported goods are the ones highly affecting development and growth of the foundry enterprise. manufacturers’ association of nigeria (m.a.n) reported the result of a survey carried out by the united nations industrial development organization unido in 2008 on the factors affecting the growth rate of the manufacturing industry. the result showed that lack of infrastructure, lack of access to funds and low demand for product are major factors affecting growth rate. this support the findings of onuoha (2005) in a survey carried out on the manufacturing firms in abia state in 2005 that the manufacturing sector’s environment in nigeria is problematic and harsh. apata and alani (2016) also reported that source of financing small scale foundry enterprises is one of major challenge the sector is facing. the findings also showed that these problems can lead to business failure which essentially is seen as rising operational costs without increasing sales volume. some of these factors according to respondents during interview have led to some foundries folding up totally or operating at skeletal levels and equipment are grounded and depreciating in value. similar challenges are also facing the foundry industry in ghana and this has resulted into production of low asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 288-294 293 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group quality cast products compared to imported ones. in addition, lack of proper quality control management practices resulted into lots of reworks during the manufacturing processes of the various components (andrews & gikunoo, 2011). respondents of the study urged the federal government to find lasting solution to the problem of instability of power and flooding market with imported goods coupled with exportation of scraps which can serve as input for the foundry industry in lagos state. 4.2. adequacy of factors that can sustain the foundry enterprise table 5 showed various factors that were listed to all the respondents to determine which one is most adequate in sustaining the foundry industry. result showed that mean rating ranges from 2.55 to 3.88. enforcement of local utilization of local foundry products in all government contracts (mean=3.88) was rated by the foundry firms as well as maintaining national industrial policy as related to the metal sector (mean= 3.88) by the implementing agencies as the most adequate way of sustaining the foundry industry. table-5. adequacy of factors in sustaining the foundry enterprise. parameters mean k.i i.a f.f consumers provision of adequate foundry raw materials 3.44 3.00 3.57 3.36 provision of good infrastructure 3.44 3.38 3.61 3.45 provision of r and d control laboratory to ensure good quality 3.40 3.08 3.59 3.24 enforcement of local utilization of local foundry products in all government contracts 3.40 3.25 3.88 3.33 encourage metal scrap recycling 3.40 3.25 3.65 3.62 interaction of the government agency with foundry industry to obtain specification of all their materials 3.28 2.88 3.45 3.13 manual production on safety regulation to minimize accident and hazard 3.20 3.00 3.04 3.08 maintaining national industrial policy as relate to the metal sector 3.20 3.88 3.28 3.16 using local foundry products in other manufacturing industries 3.08 3.00 3.70 3.40 availability of fiscal and monetary policy to support the industry exportation of foundry products 3.08 2.55 3.48 3.08 maintaining good health and environment standard goo funding of r and d 3.20 3.00 3.22 3.16 establishment of metal data bank 3.04 2.75 2.96 2.88 compliance with international standard (son,iso) 3.04 2.75 3.28 3.25 removing non -tariff barriers that disrupts industry access to international market 3.00 3.57 3.57 2.82 tariff regulation on foundry industry 2.92 3.13 3.13 2.87 key: k.i= knowledge institutions, i.a=policy implementing agencies, f.f = foundry firms. very adequate=4, adequate=3, not adequate=2, not sure=1 decision rule =3.0 this is followed by encouraging metal scrap recycling (mean=3.65) by the foundry firms. recycling these metals will lead to reduction in unit cost per production and it will also reduce waste of materials. this corroborate a report in a survey by archarya, archarya, and vadher (2014) which states that recycling old iron castings was the easiest manner to remake another casting and reuse society’s unwanted cast articles. other factors with mean above 3.0 include provision of good infrastructure which will also lead to improving and development of the sustainability of the foundry industry (3.61), provision of adequate raw materials and using local foundry products in other manufacturing industries (3.59), and provision of research and development control laboratory to ensure good quality (3.70). 5. conclusion and recommendations the development and sustainability of the foundry enterprise is considered average due to some factors which include among others inaccessibility of most entrepreneurs to low interest rate loan, erratic power supply, the use of locally fabricated low-tech equipment, non-linkage between the industry and knowledge institutions, flooding market with imported goods and inconsistency in government policies. the bulk of the raw materials and facilities used in the foundry are locally sourced but on the high side in terms of cost. the products produced by the local foundry entrepreneurs on the average meet the needs of the consumers. the difficulties encountered in the foundry enterprises include difficulty in obtaining raw materials and its high cost, transportation and availability to foundry entrepreneurs, erratic power supply, low patronage, flooding market with imported goods, discontinuity in government policy. it was also inferred that in spite of various challenges encountered, the production system employed in most foundry enterprises is generally economical. the study recommended that easy access to loans at low interest rate should be made available to the foundry entrepreneurs to assist the existing entrepreneurs to improve and maintain a good product standard through financial institutions like microfinance banks, bank of the industry (boi). funds should also be made available as part of initial capital investment to sponsor individual to establish new foundries. however, the existing and new establishment should strive to break-even so as to reduce dependence on government assistance. this can be achieved by employing relevant and competent hands, improving the skill of their employee among others. linkages between research institutions and the industry should be encouraged by creating a research and development unit (r&d). alternative source of electricity can also be considered and produced at lower rate such as solar power since nigeria is located in an environment where we have adequate sunlight throughout the year. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 288-294 294 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group references adejuyigbe, a. (1979). manufacturing, in oloku, f.a. et al, eds., “structure of the nigeria economy. london: macmillan. andrews, a., & gikunoo, e. (2011). small scale foundries in ghana: the challenges. leonardo electronic journal of practices and technologies, 19(7), 1-12. apata, a. o., & alani, g. (2016). sources of financing small scale foundry enterprise. journal of emerging trends in engineering and applied science, 7(3), 91-94. archarya, s. g., archarya, g. d., & vadher, j. a. (2014). a review on evaluating green manufacturing for sustainable development in foundry industry. international journal of emerging technology and advanced engineering, 4(1), 232-237. atanda, p. o., & ibitoye, s. a. (2004). an appraisal of the foundry industry in nigeria, a way forward. paper presented at the proceedings of the nigerian materials congress (nimacon), emdi, akure. ibitoye, s. a. (1995). unpublished m.phil thesis, department of metallurgical and materials engineering, obafemi awolowo university, ileife, osun state, nigeria. khanna, o. p. (1997). a textbook of foundry technology (vol. 2). danyagani, new delhi: dhanpat ra publications (p) ltd. lbhabode, a. o. (1997). introduction to manufacturing technology (pp. 217-219). benin-city: ambik publishers. nwosu, m. c., ikwu, g. o. r., & uzorh, a. c. (2013). investigation of some factors affecting manufacturing worker’s performance in industries in anambra state of nigeria. european journal of business and innovation research, 1(1), 44-71. onuoha, b. c. (2005). impact of government policies on entrepreneurship development (1980-2000); a study of abia state, nigeria. unpublished ph.d thesis, department of management studies, abia state university, nigeria. raw material research and development council. (1991). report on the techno-economic and development council. survey of the motor vehicles and miscellaneous part manufacture, 24-25. tata energy research institute. (1999). need for a small-scale perspective. retrieved from: www.teri.res.in/terin/news/terivision/issue26/tech.htm. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.teri.res.in/terin/news/terivision/issue26/tech.htm http://www.teri.res.in/terin/news/terivision/issue26/tech.htm asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 4, no. 1, 36-41, 2017 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 36 a comparative study of private security regulations of mongolia, belgium and the united kingdom galbat lkhagvamaa1 julak lee2  ( corresponding author) 1 professor, law enforcement university, mongolia 2 professor, kyonggi university, republic of korea abstract regulation of the private security industry in mongolia is relatively recent with the first specific legislation dating back to 2000. in 2000, the state great hural(parliament of mongolia) passed the law on contracted private security service and has been revised twice, by which „modern‟ private security was legally born. the aim of this study is to compare and evaluate the regulation of private security in the mongolia, belgium and the united kingdom. in particular, this study illustrates the differences which exist in the level of regulation governing the operation of the industry in these countries in four areas such as areas covered private security companies, entrance requirement for companies, restriction on the background of owner/management, restriction on the background of employee, training/education. the comparative study of the three countries shows an imperative need to make further amendments to the law on contracted private security service. according to the findings, this study proposes the direction for constructive amendments to strengthen the law on contracted private security service. keywords: private security, security regulations, mongolia, belgium, united kingdom. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 37 2. previous research on private security regulations in mongolia ...................................................................................... 37 3. comparison of private security regulations of mongolia, belgium and the united kingdom ........................................ 37 4. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 41 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 41 citation | galbat lkhagvamaa; julak lee (2017). a comparative study of private security regulations of mongolia, belgium and the united kingdom. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(1): 36-41. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.36.41 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. history: received: 24 november 2016/ revised: 20 december 2016/ accepted: 30 december 2016/ published: 13 january 2017 ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.36.41 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=galbat lkhagvamaa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=julak lee http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.36.41 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.36.41 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=galbat lkhagvamaa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=julak lee http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.36.41 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.36.41 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=galbat lkhagvamaa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=julak lee http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.36.41 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.36.41 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=galbat lkhagvamaa https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=julak lee http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.36.41 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 36-41 37 1. introduction the aim of this study is to compare and evaluate the regulation of private security in the mongolia, belgium and the united kingdom. while no research has been found with regard to the regulation of private security in mongolia. for mongolia, it is crucial to study experiences of foreign countries, especially those where private security service has been developed well, in order to improve legal regulations of the security service. thus, the purposes of this comparative study are to study how the legal environment of the private security service has been formed and compare relevant legislation for the further analysis. this study employs the method of comparative analysis based upon previous and present legislations in mongoli a related to private security and agency records and statistics. this study also investigates other cases of legal regulati on of private security such as case of some european countries. there are some problems in comparing different regu latory systems and varied private security industries. a fundamental problem is the lack of information available in di fferent countries, furthermore, is not comparable, and often differing methodologies are used, which make compariso ns difficult (lee, 2008). methods of data collection depend upon examining written legal resources in legal development of mongolian laws and enactments on public and private security service adopted in mongolia since 1990s. however, it is necessary to underline that the data on which this study is based varies in terms of its quality. this study represents, a formal picture of the state of legislation in three countries; it does not contribute to clarifying the understanding of foreign private security companies in practice. therefore, although it provides an idea of numerous regulations that are in place in each country, it does not tell us whether the rules are strictly implemented and enforced in practice. 2. previous research on private security regulations in mongolia although the law on contracted private security service has been implemented since 2001, there still is no fundamental research in this field. few authors, namely, davaadorj and batjav (2009) “grounds of the contracted security service activity”; (chuluunbat, 2014) “protection of the object”; (khurelbaatar, 2014) “some issues of the protection of the object”; (kaplonski, 2008) “theory and methods of the protection” and odmandakh (2009) “contracted private security service”; (bayanmunkh, 2013). “compilation of legal documents respective contract private security company‟s activity”. but in the study of the private security service, these works concern more the issues on protection of objects and theory of security service. the legal regulations of the activities of the contracted private security service have been enlighten in brief in works of davaadorj and batjav (2009) “grounds of the contracted security service activity”, odmandakh (2009) “contracted private security service”. it is important to note that the main resources of this research work are laws and enactments on public and privat e security service adopted in mongolia since 1990s. there are definitely different from those that were in application before 1990s, and it should be noted that the new regulations have been determining the legal grounds of the private security service in the circumstances of the new social relations. there is still lack of fundamental comprehensive res earches of the respective legal instruments scientifically in mongolia. 3. comparison of private security regulations of mongolia, belgium and the united kingdom regulation of the private security industry in mongolia is relatively new, with the first specific legislation dating back to 2000. the parliament of mongolia passed the law on contracted private security service in 2000 and has been revised twice (purev, 2011). the law on contracted private security service includes provisions for registering, requirements for private security company, limitation of private security activities, contract of security service, training content and curricula of private security staff, obligations of security service companies, its personnel as well as clients, qualifications of personnel, oversight of security service and penal clause. the establishment of the first private security undertakings in belgium dates back to 1905 (weber, 2002). the pri vate security is governed by the law on private and special security of 1990, (last modified on 10 june 2001) and ro yal decree of 31/12/ 1999 on training and law on the use of arms of 30 january 1991 and the law of 19.06.1991 on private investigators. the united kingdom for long time exceptional for having the largest private security market with little or no regulation. this has recently been changed with private security industry act (may 2001) which is currently being implemented. this act has been amended twice in 2006. security industry authority (sia) is competent national authority in charge of drafting and amending legislation regulating the private security industry (private security services in europe, 2011). despite these new regulations, controls and coverage of legislation are set to remain rather minimal, although the conditions and controls of licensing still needs to be implemented by the sia. besides the legal framework, a wide range of standards and inspectorates have supervised security industry in the uk. the bsia is the most prominent of the trade associations which have carried out self-regulation in this sector. the lack of legal regulations is now changing with the implementation of new legislation (weber, 2002). the following section illustrates the differences which exists in the level of regulation governing the operation of the industry in the three countries in areas such as areas covered private security companies, entrance requirement for companies (licensing, financial viability), restriction on the background of owner/management (criminal background, cumulation, age limits, training), and restriction on the background of employee, training/education (basic training, examination, continuous training, accreditation of trainers providers). 3.1. area covered by private security companies private security companies offer a great variety of services in these countries, which can be divided into the following 7 categories. first, private security companies offer the protection of sites and buildings, including airport, harbors, nuclear power plants. this category also includes setting up and maintaining alarm response services and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 36-41 38 video surveillance (cctv) in all countries where studied. second, private security companies offer protection services for valuables and cash in transit in all countries where studied. third, private security companies offer guarding and control of persons and access in public place in all countries where studied. fourth, private security companies offer guarding of goods and persons all countries where studied. fifth, private security companies offer private investigators (in belgium and united kingdom). sixth, private security companies offer close protection services, such as bodyguards in all countries where studied. seventh, private security companies offer security consultancy in belgium and mongolia. table-1. key legislation governing the industry in each state country legislation areas covered by the legislation general characteristics of the sector united kingdom private security industry act general guarding airport security maritime security cash-in-transit monitoring and remote surveillance door supervisors close protection/ body guarding the uk was for long time exceptional for having the largest private security market with little or no regulation. this has been changed with the private security industry act (2001). the law does not allow armed private security service. beside the legal framework, wide range of standards and inspectorates have supervised the uk security industry. belgium law on private and special security general guarding airport security maritime security cash in transit (cit) monitoring and remote surveillance other segments such as body guarding, mobile guarding, control of persons, accompanying of secured special transport. consultancy legislation in belgium is rather strict and emphasizes the protection of citizens from any abuse of power by private security providers. mongolia law on contracted private security service law on personal protection guarding of transit of valuables, cash and transit airport security guarding of persons guarding and control persons and access in public place security consultancy installation and maintenance of alarm systems body guarding guarding of buildings the private security industry in mongolia is largely governed by law on contracted private security service and law on personal protection. legislations in mongolia basically focuses on contract security. source: gantumur and lkhagvamaa (2009) 3.2. entrance requirements the regulation of entrance requirements for companies active in the industry are generally designed to provide for: checks on financial viability and checks on reputable of nature of the management team of company. difference in requirements across the countries therefore pose potential uncertainties when companies seek to provide services across national borders. 3.2.1. licensing across the countries, provisions vary as to the entrance requirements to be fulfilled by companies setting up to provide private security services. all countries operate system of licensing for private security companies. in the uk only, companies may be approved under a voluntary inspection arrangement. licensing is limited to individuals. license valid ranges from 1 to 5 years. however, there is significant variation in the nature and level of information required for license to be granted, level of rigor of implementation and the level at which licenses are approved and reviewed. 3.2.2. financial viability while doing this research we tried to analyze the minimum financial viability checks at international level but it was impossible due to the lack of relevant data. the granting of license to private security undertakings need to be closely linked with checks on background of owners and managerial staff of private security companies to prevent the establishment of companies by individuals with unsuitable background of private security. in belgium and the uk financial viability checks are required. the most restrictive legislation on entrance requirements is in place in belgium, where license are required and time limited. table-2. entrance requirements for companies country license required? awarding authorities other entrance requirements united kingdom companies may be approved under the voluntary inspection arrangement. licensing is limited to individuals and is valid for 3 years. the security industry authority the private security industry act introduces a voluntary scheme for providers of security services to apply for approved status. belgium yes, license is mandatory. license is valid for 5 years ministry of the interior in consultation with ministry of justice. insurance requirements. at least one manager must have followed compulsory training for managers and at least one person must have followed compulsory training for the activity for which license is requested. necessary infrastructure and material required for the activity for which the license is requested. mongolia law on contracted private security service requires a certificate certificate is valid for 1 year. metropolitan police and local police station. necessary material (page of 128 chapter 4.2) required for the activity for which the certificate is required. source: gantumur and lkhagvamaa (2009) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 36-41 39 3.3. restriction on the background of owner/management team legislation and regulations governing the background of owners and managers of private security companies currently relate to the following factors: criminal background, minimum age requirements, cumulation with other activities, qualifications and financial viability. all countries currently have some form of regulation governing the restrictions placed on the background of owners and management team of private security undertakings, except mongolia. however, number of differences arise in relation to level of restrictions imposed and the way in which compliance is verified. 3.3.1. criminal background the most comprehensive definition of exclusion criteria can be found in belgium. important differences exists with regard to the level at which background checks a carried out (by national or local authority, by representative of the sector or by companies themselves). which could have an impact on the rigor of such background checks. 3.3.2. cumulation a significant of number of countries see the management of private security undertakings as being incompatible with a number of other activities and therefore forbid the cumulation of such tasks with those of the ownership and management of a private security company. examples include the activities of private investigation and role of a civil servant. cumulation with activities in forbidden in belgium. 3.3.3. age limits age limits are imposed by all countries, the limit is generally set at 18, with the exception of belgium which set age limits of 21. 3.3.4. training belgium needs not only operational staff but also managerial staffs to receive certain hours of training. however, training is not required for management staffs in united kingdom and mongolia. the highest level of regulation in relation to on background of owners and staff can be found in belgium, where precise exclusion criteria and cumulation restrictions apply. table-3. restriction of owner and management staff country criminal record minimum age restrictions on cumulation with other activities other requirements united kingdom legislation requires a criminal records check. license required which is valid for 3 years and renewable. employees should be fit and proper persons, skilled and fulfilling the demands for insurance, training and registration. 18 no provisions financial viability check belgium precise exclusion criteria are set based on criminal record. investigations carried out by official nominated by ministry of justice. owners and managers should fulfill the demands of the morality check carried out by federal police. 21 cumulation forbidden with private detective work and production or dealing of arms, or any other occupation likely endanger public safety. must not have been member of police and secret service in last 5 years. financial viability check health status training required mongolia no relevant criminal record no specific provisions source: gantumur and lkhagvamaa (2009) 3.4. restriction on the background of employee the regulation and implementation of strict background checks for the staff of private security companies is therefore one of the main concerns of legislation in this area. the legislation and regulation governing the background of employees are similar to those for owners and managers of private security companies and currently primarily relates to the following factors: criminal background, minimum age requirement, qualification and simulation with other activities 3.4.1. criminal background all countries where studied require a criminal background check. in most cases this is carried by the police but in some cases for example: in united kingdom all operational staff will have to undergone a criminal background check carried out by either security industry authority or the local authority in order to obtain a license prior to being employed. 3.4.2. age limits age limits are imposed, by all countries, the limit is generally set at 18 at the legal age of maturity. 3.4.3. training all countries currently require security guards to undergo a course of basic training. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 36-41 40 table-4. restriction on background of employees country criminal record minimum age restrictions on cumulation with other activities other requirements united kingdom completing a criminal record bureau criminal record check. license required which will be valid for 3 years and renewable. 18 no specific provisions a medical examination a psychological examination belgium license to be obtained from the ministry of the interior. legislation requires a criminal background check. individuals must not have been sentenced to more than 6 months in prison or any criminal offence or lesser term for a relevant offence. ministry of justice carry out investigations by official nominated. 18 cumulation forbidden with private detectivework and production or dealing of arms, or any other occupation that might present danger to the state. must not have been member of police and secret service in last 5 years. private investigators are forbidden no investigate political, philosophical religious or union beliefs. positive medical examination positive psychological examination successfully completed compulsory training mongolia criminal background check is required 20 no specific provisions health check, training is required. source: gantumur and lkhagvamaa (2009) 3.5. training/education it is in the area of training and education that provisions vary most significantly between the countries which we studied. this is an area which is inextricably linked with the image and developing professionalism of the sector, but also significant problems relating to freedom of movement through the lack of portability of qualifications. differences between countries relate to the following aspects: is training obligatory and voluntary?, are examinations required?, are provisions made for obligatory cont inuous training?, and how is the quality of trainers and training providers regulated ? 3.5.1. basic training belgium currently provides for some form of obligatory training for private security guards. training in mongolia and the united kingdom is obligatory for operational staff and the management staff is voluntary. the sia with prescribe the conditions regarding training the licensee is to undergo or maintain. in order to improve comparability and to increase professionalism in the sector, it seems appropriate to enhance a national level requirement for obligatory basic (theoretical and practical) training by comparing these countries. table-5. education/ training country obligatory/ voluntary initial training and duration examinations continuous training training providers/control over training providers united kingdom training is obligatory for operational staff but training is not obligatory for management staff. the sia with prescribe the conditions regarding training the licensee is to undergo or maintain. no regulated the trainings are provided by the company, colleges and other training providers. belgium obligatory. length of training varies depending on sector activity. managerial staff 52-100 hours; operational staff 127 hours. yes, certificate awarded for 5 years. follow-up or refresher training exits. the follow-up or refresher training is mandatory by law and organized every 5 years. first aid training is and refresher course are mandatory by labor law and organized each year. the training is provided by certified training institutes, which are licensed by the ministry of the interior. mongolia training is obligatory for operational staff but training is not obligatory for management staff. training is regulated by ministry of justice. 42 hours of theoretical instruction and 38 hours of practical experience. examination and certification not obligatory training takes place in law enforcement university and centers approved for this purpose by the mongolian national police. internal and external controls are carried out for initial and training. source: gantumur and lkhagvamaa (2009) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 36-41 41 3.5.2. examination countries with obligatory training generally require trainee to pass an examination either after each module of study or at the end of the course. in some cases, the certification gained is time limited thus providing for the regular updating of skills. this is the case in belgium. 3.5.3. continuous training currently, belgium makes explicit provision for obligatory continuous training 8 hours every 5 years for operatio nal staff. in all other countries continuous training is voluntary. in the light of rapid operational and technological inn ovations in the sector, consideration should be given to national level regulation relating to the regular updating of sk ills for operational and managerial staff in the sector. 3.5.4. accreditation of trainers and training providers many countries make provision for state or industry accreditation of trainer and training providers to allow for a level of financial and quality control. curricula are often set in co-ordination with representative organizations of the industry thus providing for regular updating for training programs to reflect development in the sector and needs of employers. in majority of cases, employers fund basic training, sometimes with the assistance of state grants. in some cases, guards are responsible for funding their own training costs. 4. conclusion the question of enhancing the laws and regulations should be a sustainable process, not merely limited to enact new laws and regulations or to introduce amendments therein, but a focus should be made on how to enforce the existing laws and regulations in keeping with life realities and on how to ensure the correlation of laws with changing life realities and challenges and on the ways of how to secure the interdependence and the interrelation between the provisions of all laws and regulations concerned (gantumur and lkhagvamaa, 2009). in other words, the precondition for the law enforcement process to become a reality can be ensured in the case if any law is enacted based on the life realities and life imperatives and if its practical implementation is also ensured in strict correlation with the other laws and regulations concerned. on the basis of the comparative study made on the legal regulations governing the private security service indust ry as discussed in the previous section, we wish to make the following conclusion. despite the fact that the legal regu lations governing the private security service industry in mongolia are in conformity with the established internation al standards and practices, still there is an imperative need: -to revise, where necessary, and correctly define the names of laws and the legal terms and references therein; -to improve the procedures and operations for the registration of the legal entities applying for running the private security service activities; -to change or extend the term of validity of licenses for the private security service entities; -to toughen up the requirements both with regard to chief-executive and to security service officers and to make them equally accountable for their actions and responsibilities; -to expand the framework of the activities and the power of the union of the private security service officers. references bayanmunkh, b., 2013. compilation of legal documents respective contract private security company‟s activity. kitab publishing co. chuluunbat, b., 2014. protection of object. ulaanbaatar, mongolia: soyombo press. davaadorj, d. and b. batjav, 2009. grounds of the contracted private security service activity. ulaanbaatar, mongolia: bit press publishing company. gantumur, g. and g. lkhagvamaa, 2009. pardon and its legal regulation. munkhiin useg press. kaplonski, c., 2008. prelude to violence: show trials and state power in 1930s mongolia. american ethnologist, 35(2): 321-337. view at google scholar | view at publisher khurelbaatar, t., 2014. some issues of the protection of the object. ulaanbaatar, mongolia: munkhiin useg press. lee, c.m., 2008. a comparative study on regulation of private security in the united states and south korea. journal of applied security research, 3(2): 157-170. view at google scholar | view at publisher odmandakh, b., 2009. contract private security service. ulaanbaatar, mongolia: soyombo press. private security services in europe, 2011. coees fact & figures. confederation of european security: 1-255. purev, b., 2011. history of the development of the legal regulations for police organizations: the foundation of the legal basis for police organization. compilation of report of conference, the national police agency printing office. pp: 35-37. weber, t., 2002. a comparative overview of legislation governing the private security industry in the european union. birmingham: ecotec research and consulting. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=prelude%20to%20violence:%20show%20trials%20and%20state%20power%20in%201930s%20mongolia https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=prelude%20to%20violence:%20show%20trials%20and%20state%20power%20in%201930s%20mongolia http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1425.2008.00038.x https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=a%20comparative%20study%20on%20regulation%20of%20private%20security%20in%20the%20united%20states%20and%20south%20korea http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19361610802135854 asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 4, no. 1, 57-64, 2017 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 57 tax incentives and the flow of foreign direct investment to non-oil sector: empirical joseph amuka1  fidelis ezeudeka2 ( corresponding author) 1 university of nigeria nsukka nigeria 2 federal inland revenue service abuja-nigeria abstract foreign direct investment has become an important source of bridging the gap between domestic savings and domestic investments in developing countries in the past three decades. in order to increase the flow of foreign direct investment, nigeria like many other developing countries reformed her tax system in late 1990s to create incentives for the flow of foreign direct investment into the country. she reviewed company income tax downward from 50% in 1980s to 30% in 1999. similarly, investment allowance was reviewed upward from 25% in 1980s to 95% in 1999. this study investigated whether the incentive policy has brought any significant change in the pattern of flow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector. the study adopted a multiple regression model which was transformed into log-log model in the analysis. regime switch model helped us to evaluate the effectiveness of the policy introduced in late 1999. both company income tax and investment allowance appeared with the right sign. result suggests that the tax incentive policy introduced changed the flow of foreign investment to the non-oil sector, showing that the country‟s tax incentives can help revive the ailing non-oil sector. keywords: tax incentives, foreign direct investment, non-oil sector. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 58 2. theoretical framework ....................................................................................................................................................... 59 3. review of related literature .............................................................................................................................................. 59 4. methodology......................................................................................................................................................................... 60 5. result .................................................................................................................................................................................... 61 6. discussion of research finding ........................................................................................................................................... 62 7. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 63 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 63 citation | joseph amuka1; fidelis ezeudeka (2017). tax incentives and the flow of foreign direct investment to non-oil sector: empirical. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(1): 57-64. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.57.64 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. history: received: 26 july 2016/ revised: 9 january 2017/ accepted: 16 january 2017/ published: 23 january 2017 ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.57.64 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=joseph amuka https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=fidelis ezeudeka http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.57.64 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.57.64 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=joseph amuka https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=fidelis ezeudeka http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.57.64 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.57.64 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=joseph amuka https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=fidelis ezeudeka http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.57.64 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.57.64 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=joseph amuka https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=fidelis ezeudeka http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.57.64 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 57-64 58 1. introduction the use of tax incentives as potent tools to induce flow of foreign direct investment into an economy increased in tempo since early 1990s in majority of the developing countries. the competition for foreign direct investment became so stiff that some of incentives designed were seen to be against the interest of the economies of the developing countries. even at highpoint criticism, many of the developing countries remained indifference. there are scholars who gave their backing to the incentive policy and at the same time, some remained skeptical on how the incentives can bring good result. kransdorff (2010); christiansen et al. (2003) and asiedu (2002) saw rationality in developing countries trying to induce inflow of foreign capital into their economy. asiedu (2002) says that foreign investment is a growth accelerator because it is a veritable source of investment capital, employment, managerial skills and technology. this she says is important in developing countries where savings mobilization is poor. christiansen et al. (2003) share asiedu‟s view and contend that in a depressed poor economy, foreign direct investment not only provide finance for long term investment, but can equally produce a spillover effects to other firms in the form of transfer of technology and human capital formation. kransdorff (2010) also accepts that foreign direct investment goes with new technology and management practices which can benefit the economy of developing countries. however, some other scholars saw cost in tax incentives which may work against the interest of developing countries at a later period (james, 2009; klemm and van, 2010). these scholars believe that tax incentives come with revenue loss to government which will have serious consequence on the spending power of the government in developing countries, especially in social services that affects the poor. in a similar manner, edmiston et al. (2003) hold the view that tax incentives can increase the tax burden of those firms that are not benefiting from the given incentives. the consequence is that the increase in tax burden on non-benefiting firms can discourage them from further investment in that economy, even when they could have done so in the absence of those incentives. in that sense, tax incentives can crowd-out some other investments. nigeria turned attention to foreign sourcing of investment capital for two important reasons. first is the poor level of domestic savings which have been inadequate for the mobilization of long term investment capital needed to speed-up economic growth and development. the second major reason is the fall in international price of oil in early 1980s which adversely affected the revenue profile of the government, causing serious slowdown in economic activities in the country. the sudden fall in global oil demand and price dealt a serious blow to nigeria economy because of the large share of oil revenue in the total revenue of the government since early 1970s. with much revenue coming from oil, government over relied on oil as her major source of external revenue. thus, government activities were almost grounded to a halt as soon as the revenue performance of oil fell. resort to borrowing to finance government expenditure after the oil price fall plunged the country into serious internal and external crisis. nigeria‟s economic crisis lingered for long and effort by the government to remedy the situation led to the introduction of structural adjustment programme (sap) and economic liberalization in 1986. structural adjustment and economic liberalization were intended to diversify the economy and reduce government dependent on the oil sector for her revenue. a decade after the introduction of structural adjustment and the liberalization of nigerian economy, the expected improved performance of non-oil sector could not come to fruition. trade and exchange rate liberalization failed to stimulate the growth of non-oil export revenue. the search for solution led to the introduction of tax incentives to induce flow of foreign capital into the country. policy makers believed that inflow of foreign resources will raise the economy‟s carrying capacity which has been very low since the oil boom era nigeria investment promotion council was established in 1995 to negotiate major tax incentive packages to encourage, promote and coordinate inflow of foreign investment to the country, with particular attention to deserving industries and sectors. as a specific instruction, the commission was directed to identify the areas of great importance in the economy and recommend investment incentive measures consistent with the government policy. in response to this, the nigeria investment commission went ahead to design some tax incentives in 1996 which will make the country one of the destinations of foreign direct investment not only in africa but in the world. for the purpose of the growth of the non-oil sector, discriminatory tax incentives were introduced to favour investments in the manufacturing and agriculture businesses. in the incentive reform, company income tax was reviewed downward to 30 percent from 50, and investment allowance reviewed upward to 95 percent from 25 for investments in non-oil activities. in the oil activities, new entrants into the sector are to pay profit tax of 50% for a period of 5 years, while the existing ones are to pay 65% of their earned profit as tax. under the pioneer status, industries located at the economically disadvantaged areas are exempted from tax up to a maximum period of 7 years during which they are expected to recover their initial investment. in the oil sector, companies benefiting from pioneer status are only allowed maximum period of 5 years tax exemption. the incentive provisions are revelation of the interest of the government and her objective to revive the non-oil sector. foreign direct investment is the acquisition of not less than 10% shareholding of a firm by a foreign investor. it is the resources flowing into a country from outside for the purpose of building new plant, with non-citizens having at least 10% voting rights or voice in the management of the enterprise. before the introduction of tax incentive in nigeria in 1999, the share of the non-oil sector from the total foreign direct investment in nigeria economy was 21.6 percent in 1984. the share fell ten years later to 11.2 percent in 1994. by 1996 when the tax incentives were being designed, the share of non-oil sector from the total flow of foreign direct investment was 2.64 percent. a year after the implementation of the incentive stimulus, which is, in 2000, the share of non-oil from the total foreign direct investment to nigeria rose to 10.5 percent, but declined to 5.4 percent in 2002, and rose again to 8.1 and 9.9 percent respectively in 2004 and 2007 (central bank of nigeria statistical bulletin, 1995;2001;2007). the trend shows that the share of the non-oil sector from the total foreign direct investment flow to nigeria between 1994 and 2007 has continued to fluctuate. this is what raised the concern in the minds of people on whether the incentives are really on track. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 57-64 59 adepeju (2012) investigated how the tax incentives introduced in nigeria have affected the flow of foreign direct investment into the oil sector of the nigeria economy. his study shows that tax incentive has positive effect on the flow of foreign direct investment to the oil sector. in a similar manner, saidu (2015) carried out a study on the effect of corporate taxation on foreign direct investment in nigeria. his result shows that higher corporate tax will reduce the flow of foreign direct investment into nigeria. the present study is however different from the two studies both in content and methodology. in content in the sense that the present study is directed to the non-oil sector in line with government major objective of introducing those incentives. methodology in the sense that none of the studies evaluated the effect of the tax policy changes on foreign direct investment as expected in a research like this. 2. theoretical framework before the twenty-first century, the decision to invest outside the domestic economy was explained notably on the bases of differences in return to capital in different economies (capital theory), trade protection (mundell and the heckscher-ohlin model), level of risk attached to investment (portfolio theory), and changes in factor intensity caused by technological innovation and knowledge diffusion (product cycle theory). the capital theory argues that investors are driven at any point in time by profit motives. being money makers, investors are always looking for investment opportunities where the return to investment is higher. as a consequence, an economy will be a destination point for the flow of foreign resources if it offers higher return to capital when compared with other economies competing for the same scarce resources. trade protection theory hints that protective policy of countries is a strong factor which has influenced the flow of foreign direct investment because relocation is a means of indigenizing production. in this regard, firms try to take their investment to the countries where import trade is more restricted. however, for the portfolio theory, investment and risk go together and the argument of the portfolio theory is that the level of risk a firm may encounter oversea determines whether it is worthwhile to invest in a particular country. as risk averse, a rational investor whether as an individual or corporate entity will go beyond the calculation of rate of return on investment to the calculation of risk that follow such return. in that case, a firm may not likely invest in the economy with high return to investment if the risk on investment is equally high. . because of the various criticisms which followed the theories discussed above, twenty-first century scholars have found the eclectic theory developed by dunning a better guide in what may be the determinants of foreign direct investment. according to the eclectic theory, three important factors drive firms to seek for oversea investment. they are (1) ownership, (2) location, and (3) internalization, all together known as the oli model or paradigm. dunning‟s argument is that without any of the above advantages, a firm will rather remain in its home country than relocate its investment to another country. ownership advantage may come in the form of market size of the host country and the zeal to grow will push a firm to take its investment to where the market is large. more importantly, if the firm is in a monopolistic competitive market in its home country, movement to a new country is faster if it will find itself in a pure monopoly condition in another country. the other advantage which may compel a firm to invest in another country is the resource endowment possessed by the foreign country which the firm can use to lower its cost of production, especially when resources are less mobile. finally, by internalization, the firm can be more efficient by relocating to another country because of its ability to make good use of some market imperfection and market failure to its advantage. despite the growing popularity of the eclectic theory today, the capital theory is still relevant in the decision of firms to seek for oversea investment. this is because no matter what happens, the main objective of the business firm is to make profit. tax incentive falls within the framework of capital theory because it affects the rate of return on investment. higher tax rate reduces the net income of the firm and firm will likely invest in the environment with friendly tax policy. favourable tax policy will have positive effect on the flow of foreign direct investment into a country. this underscores the recent aggressive use of tax incentives to drive foreign investment by majority of the developing countries. 3. review of related literature foreign direct investment has been defined in different ways by scholars of international economics. pettinger (2012) sees foreign direct investment as a movement of capital from one country (known as origin) to another country (known as host) which is meant to acquire physical capital such as factories or machines. the acquisition must be a lasting interest which involves control of at least 10% share or vote of an enterprise doing business outside the investor‟s home country. mwilima (2003) clearly states that for a foreign investment to be defined as direct, an individual or entity must make a lasting interest in the management of an enterprise doing business in a foreign country which must include having at least 10% voting stock and equity share in that enterprise. organisation for economic co-operation and development (oecd) (2008) in the same way sees foreign direct investment as an investment interest made by a citizen of a country in another country which gives him 10% voting right in an enterprise doing business in a country other than his own. denisia (2010) equally saw foreign direct investment as not less than 10% holding of a firm‟s equity by an individual outside his home country. in all the above definitions, one will deduce that foreign direct investment entails a non-national purchasing a new capital in a firm outside his home economy. at least, the investor must have 10% shareholding or voting right in the firm. although research evidence on the effect of tax incentive on the inflow of foreign direct investment is scanty in nigeria and some other sub-saharan africa, such evidence abounds in europe, america and asia. what has remained clear from available studies is that results are never the same across countries. countries encounter different results in the use of tax incentives to increase inflow of foreign direct investment into their economies. for instance, cross-country study done by klemm and van (2010) suggests that tax incentives have significant effect on the flow of foreign direct investments in latin america and the caribbean. for africa, their study suggests that tax incentives have not been effective in this regard. the effect of tax incentives on foreign direct investment in africa is asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 57-64 60 similar to the research finding in post-communist countries by beyer (2002). the study by beyer (2002) reveals that tax incentives have not stimulated the inflow of foreign direct investment into the post-communist countries as expected. other research evidences that showed the potency of tax incentive to induce the flow of foreign direct investments include buettner and ruf (2005); tung and cho (2000); guo (2010) and shah and slemrod (1990). research evidences from these people showed that tax incentives increased the flow of foreign direct investments in germany, china and mexico. in all these studies, evidence suggests that tax incentives are important tools to use in inducing the flow of foreign resources or to increase re-investment in the host country by existing firms. result of the other study in china by lin and wang (2014) was mixed. in the first instance industry specific tax incentive was attractive to taiwanese enterprises. unfortunate, the china‟s tax law as a whole did not provide incentive for location advantage for taiwanese enterprises. hence, there was a conflicting result in china between the studies of lin and wang (2014) and guo (2010) which showed that foreign direct investment location increases in the country as corporate income tax as a whole and local tax rates fall. but of note are some other studies which showed that tax incentives have not led to increase in the flow of foreign direct investment in some countries. cross country study in 25 european union by wolf (2007) shows that corporate tax rate has an insignificant effect on the flow of foreign direct investment in the 25 countries studied. though, the european countries are all in the developed countries category and the opportunities for growth are higher for firms in developing countries. the markets in developed countries are nearing saturation and completion is stiffer in them. the stiff competition may scare new firms even in the presence of incentives. effiok et al. (2013) carried out a research to investigate the effect of tax policy and incentives on foreign direct investment in the export processing zone in nigeria. their study has serious methodological problem because of the combination of primary and secondary data together. the use of macro data in a micro study is always unwarranted because of the misleading result it will produce. they used simple regression as if to say tax is the only determining variable that affects the flow of foreign direct investment. the present study used macro data in a macro study together with regime switch model to overcome the methodological problems in the study. 4. methodology the paper adopted a linear multiple regression model which was transformed into log-log model. the ordinary least squares econometric analysis was found to be a very appropriate tool for the analysis because of its unique properties. regime switch model was used to take care of the tax policy change in nigeria in 1999. the introduction of regime switch model is to measure the impact of tax policy change on the flow of foreign direct investment into nigeria. the regime switch model is the appropriate way to measure the effectiveness of a regime change. data were generated from (cbnsb, 1995;2001;2007;2014). the multiple regression models are specified as-: fdit= b0+b1σpnnt-i+b2σpcapt-i+b3σext-i+b4σinft-i+b5σcitt-i+b6σivat-i+b7σhut-i +et …. 1 transforming equation 1 into log-log model in order to rescale and interpret the result in elasticities; lnfdit= b0 + b1lnpnnt+ b2lnpcapt+b3 lnext+b4inft+b5citt+b6ivat+b7lnhut +et ………2 equation 2 explains foreign direct investment (fdi) to the non-oil sector as being determined by the degree of openness (pnn) defined as the ratio of the sum of export and import to gdp, per capita income (pcap) which measures market size, exchange rate (ex) and inflation (inf) which are the measure of macroeconomic stability, company income tax (cit) and investment allowance (iva) being the two tax incentives, and human capital (hu). ln= elasticity, b0= intercept and b1, b2 , …, b7= slope 4.1. cointegration and error correction time series data have high probability of not being stationary and it is important to test their level of stationarity to avoid spurious results. equation 2 was transformed into an error correction model (ecm). fdit =  + ixt-i + ecmt-1………………………………………………………… 3 where fdit = differenced foreign direct investment xi = differenced exogenous variables in the model i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 (slopes of the model that measures the long run relationship between foreign direct investment and the exogenous variables  = parameter of the ecm and measures the adjustment to previous period equilibria achieved in the current period. 4.2. tax policy change the importance of the study is to find out if the tax incentive policy introduced in 1999 has produced any significant effect on the flow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector of nigeria economy. two methods can be used to make the evaluation in econometric analysis. they are the chow test and the dummy variable estimation. current research has shifted from chow test to dummy variable estimation. the present study used the dummy variable approach to evaluate the effect of tax policy change on inflow of foreign direct investment. therefore, lnfdit=a0+a1lnpnnt-i +a2lnpcapt-i +a3ext-i +a4inft-i +a5lnhut-i +ut………………4 equation 4 cannot sufficiently measure stability or the significance of the tax policy change in 1999 on inflow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector. hence, lnfdit= 0+1lnpnnt+2lnpcapt+3lnext+4inft+5lnhu+6d+t…………………………… 5 where d = dummy binary response variable for tax policy change (takes value 1 when there is change in policy and 0 otherwise) a1-a5, 1-6 = slope asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 57-64 61 other variables remain as defined before. from equations 4 and 5, the value of incremental „f‟ was computed for the significance of change in policy. 5. result 5.1. unit root tests the first task in time series analysis is to test for stationarity of the data to avoid getting spurious result from the analysis. to ensure that the parameters are estimated using stationary time series data, the augmented dickey-fuller (adf) test for unit root was employed. the essence of the adf tests is to verify the null hypothesis of unit root or non-stationary stochastic process. the result of the unit root test is presented in table 1 below. 5.2. unit root test table-1. the summary results of unit root test level first difference variables adf test statistics 1% critical level adf test statistics 1% critical level prob order of integration d.log_fdi -1.718 -3.485 -13.170** 3.485 0.0000 1(1) d.log_pnn 0.306 -3.485 -13.395** -3.485 0.0000 1(1) d.log_pcap -2.767 -3.485 -13.525** -3.485 0.0000 1(1) d.ex 0.201 -3.485 -13.410** -3.485 0.0000 1(1) d.inf 3.058 -3.485 -14.115** -3.485 0.0000 1(1) d.cit -1.067 -3.485 -13.347** -3.485 0.0000 1(1) d.iva -0.761 -3.485 -13.181** -3.485 0.0000 1(1) d.log_hu -2.912 -3.485 -13.511** -3.485 0.0000 1(1) source: author‟s computation based on from central bank of nigeria note: ** indicate significance at 1%. from the result in table1 above, the adf indicates that all the variables are integrated at order one ( = 1). this is an indication of possible long-run linear combination of the variables, hence, the study conducted a cointegration test for possible long run relationship among the dependent and independent variables. 5.3. cointegration test table-2. summary results of the adf cointegration test test statistic 1% critical value 5% critical value 10% critical value z(t) -1.058 -3.485 -2.885 -2.575 source: author‟s computation based on data from central bank of nigeria from the adf cointegration test conducted, the absolute value of the computed adf test statistic (-1.058) is less than the absolute value of the tabulated adf critical value (-2.885) at 5% level of significance as presented in table 2 above, hence, making all the variables not to have long run relationship, that is, they are not cointegrated. because the dependent and independent variables are not cointegrated, we could not proceed to error correction model as specified in equation 3. 5.4. regression result result of the regression is presented in table 3 below. table-3. dependent variable = d.log_fdi variables coef. std. err. t p>|t| d.log_pnn. 0.343721 0.1411218 2.44*** 0.016 d.log_pcap 0.0075598 0.2525796 0.03 0.976 d.ex -0.0232011 0.0045487 -5.10*** 0.000 d.inf -0.0129584 0.0040164 -3.23*** 0.002 d.cit -0.1211886 0.0533941 -2.27** 0.025 d.iva. 0.0109855 0.0057815 1.90* 0.059 d.log_hu. 0.1985137 0.4662362 0.43 0.671 _cons 0.0198207 0.0286198 0.69 0.490 source: author‟s computation based on regression result ***= significant at 1%; ** = significant at 5%; * = significant at 10%; r2= o.27 dw (8,175) = 2.006 from the result presented in table 3, all the variables in the model appeared with the expected signs. it is not only the core variables that satisfied the a priori theoretical expectation but other determining variables as well. openness (pnn), per capita income (pcap), investment allowance (iva) and human capital (hu) have positive relationship with foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector. but inflation (inf), exchange rate (ex) and company income tax (cit) negatively affect flow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector in nigeria within the period of study. before we proceeded to the discussion of research finding, some post estimation tests were carried out to find out the reliability of the result presented in table 3. the tests are important to check the violation of the assumptions of the ordinary least square. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 57-64 62 5.5. test for multicollinearity existence of collinearity in a regression result violates one of the assumptions of ordinary least square and makes the result unacceptable for policy reference. the result of multicollinearity conducted is presented in table 4. table-4. summary results of the multicollinearity test variable vif 1/vif cit 1.64 0.609452 iva 1.47 0.681556 log_pnn 1..30 0.68405 log_pcap 1.33 0.752046 inf 1.13 0.883143 log_hu 1.14 0.875758 ex 1.02 0.975740 mean vif 1.29 source: author computation based on from central bank of nigeria result of the multicollinearity test is presented in table 4. since the inverse of the variance inflation factor (1/vif) is closer to the value 1, there is no suspicion of multicollinearity. 5.6. specification error test the ramsey reset test was employed to test for wrong specification in the model. ramsey reset test followed the f-distribution. the result is presented below. hence, ftab(0.05 (3, 164) = 2.60 fcal (3, 164) = 1.58. the result therefore suggests that the model is well-specified since f-cal < f-0.05, and the null hypothesis is rejected and the conclusion is that the model is well-specified. 6. discussion of research finding all the tests conducted have not shown any violation of the assumptions of the ordinary least square which can impose serious limitation in accepting the regression result presented in table 3 above. our detailed discussion was restricted to the tax incentives, the interest of the study. 6.1. tax incentives the variables used to evaluate the tax incentives in nigeria are company income tax (cit) and investment allowance (iva). company income tax has a negative coefficient according to result in table 3, revealing negative relationship between company income tax and flow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector of nigeria. the consequence of the negative relationship is that as company income tax fall the flow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector increases. higher company income tax will lead to reduction in the amount of foreign direct investment flowing into the non-oil sector of the country. the two move in the opposite direction. from table 3, 1% increase in company income tax will lead to 0.12 % fall in the flow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector of the economy. on the other hand, a reduction in company income tax by 1% will increase the flow of foreign direct investment by 0.12 %. based on the probability, company income tax has a significant effect on the movement of foreign direct investment into nigeria within the period the study covered. the significant effect of the tool on the flow of foreign resources justifies the revenue sacrificed by the government for the moment. government expects to recover the revenue lost at the initial period of incentive when business activities pick up in future. our attention turns to investment allowance and its effect on the flow of foreign capital in the non-oil sector of nigeria. the positive coefficient of the variable signifies that it satisfied the a priori theoretical expectation. it is a sign that investment allowance and foreign direct investment into the non-oil sector move in the same direction. when investment allowance increases, more firms will invest in the non-oil sector. if government increases investment allowance by 1 percent, foreign direct investment will increase by 0.01 percent, and 1 percent fall in investment allowance will reduce flow of foreign investment by 0.01 percent. however, investment allowance has no significant effect at the 5% level on the flow of foreign direct investment into nigeria within the period of study. the outcome of this study is very important to nigeria and some other developing countries that have employed different tax incentives to mobilize foreign capital and complement domestic savings. nigeria introduced different tax incentives in 1999 as a strategy to mobilize more investment in the non-oil activities. mobilization of foreign resources became very important because of poor domestic savings which has affected domestic investment in the real sectors, and has slowed down economic growth and development. nigeria had depended on revenue from oil to finance government expenditures before the move. the performance of the non-oil as sector as well as its contribution to the revenue of the government in nigeria fell drastically after the oil boom in early 1970s. since early 1980s, nigerian government has been trying to find solution to the revival of the non-oil sector so that the sector plays its role of growth driver. the effort of government to revive and diversify the economy was frustrated against the backdrop of the weakness of the economy to support long term investment. as an alternative to domestic mobilization of investment funds, the country offered fiscal incentives to foreign investors in varying degrees. the cost of doing business in the country was reduced through tax reduction so that higher profit will be an inducement to locate investment in the economy. by reducing company income tax, government is indirectly reducing her tax income. by implication, her spending power is negatively affected. however, it is expected that with the reduction in company income tax, the cost of doing business in nigeria will fall. this will send positive signal to firms to come to the country and invest. when investment capital flow from outside into the economy, economic activities will come to live in the sectors asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 57-64 63 affected. with increase in economic activities, the demands for factors of production will equally increase and invariable raise factor income and government revenue from income tax. therefore, government revenue may fall in the short-run, in the long-run, the revenue lost will be recovered. this research finding has suggested that the expectation of the nigerian government when she introduced the fiscal incentives may be met. at least, the effect of company income tax has shown that. but for the investment allowance, the result suggests that government should think twice. there are two good reasons she should do so. in the first place, it has no significant effect at the 5% level on the flow of foreign capital to the deserved sector. in the second place, the firms are repatriating home almost all the profits earned in nigeria economy. it is never done like that in other countries because it denies an economy of substantial amount of investible fund. even if the country will offer incentive through investment allowance, it should not be as high as 95%. this is another form of capital flight. 6.2. tax policy change the result presented in table 3 only explained the effect of tax incentives on the flow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector of nigeria economy. it is not an evaluation of the effectiveness of the change in tax policy to bring an increase in inflow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector. in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the tax incentive policy change on inflow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector, incremental „f‟ based on regime switch model of equations (4) and (5) was estimated. the result of the effect of tax incentive policy change on the flow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector of the nigeria economy is presented in table 5 below. table-5. summary results of the incremental “f” block residual block f df df pr > f r2 d1 132.14 1 174 0.0000 0.4316 source: author‟s computation based on regression result the important thing to note in estimating the effect of regime change on the dependent variable is that the coefficients of the independent variables no longer matter. it is the value of the incremental „f‟ that is important for policy purpose. from, equation (5), the incremental f-test was estimated to determine whether tax policy change significantly affects foreign direct investment (fdi) inflows to nigeria economy. 6.3. evaluation of change in tax policy from the result in table 5, the value of incremental fis highly significant at 1% with a probability of 0.000. this therefore suggests that tax policy change significantly affect foreign direct investment (fdi) inflow into the nigerian economy. flow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector changed with the introduction of tax incentives in nigeria in 1999. to say the least, the pattern of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector changed due to the introduction of tax incentives. from the point of view of policy shift, the objective of the introduction of the policy is being achieved for now. thus, if the incentives continue, every other thing remaining the same, the flow of foreign direct investment to the non-oil sector will revive the sector and position it as the growth driver of the economy. the message it is sending to government is that nigeria is reaping the gain from the introduction of tax incentives in late 1990s. 7. conclusion the competition to mobilize capital funds from outside the domestic economy increased so much in the last three decades, especially among developing countries who are more hit by poor domestic savings. both theory and empirical evidence have provided different sides of tax incentives and how they have affected the flow of foreign direct investment in many countries. in nigeria, tax incentive policy was implemented in the late 1990s. hence, the country is not among the early implementers of fiscal incentives. in the study by nwankwo (2006) she discovered that natural resources and political instability were the major attractors of foreign direct investment into nigeria. bazo (2008) equally hinted that developing countries will find it difficult to mobilize foreign direct investment in the presence of political instability. but, today, there is an evidence to suggest that incentive factors can drive the flow of foreign direct investment into a developing country like nigeria. finally, the study was undertaken for the purpose of finding out if tax incentives can help revive the ailing nonoil sector through mobilization of foreign capital. the conclusion is yes, it can, based on evidence. this is because the pattern of flow of foreign capital to nigeria changed after the introduction of tax incentives with the non-oil sector benefiting from it. though it is arguable to say that there are costs associated with incentives such as revenue loss, the gain is also there. references adepeju, b.s., 2012. the impact of tax incentives on foreign direct investment in the oil and gas sector in nigeria. journal of business and management, 6(1): 1-15. view at google scholar | view at publisher asiedu, e., 2002. on the determinants of foreign direct investment to developing countries: is africa different? world development, 30(1): 107-119. view at google scholar | view at publisher bazo, p.a., 2008. do developing countries‟ tax incentives attract investment or create disaster? tax notes international, 52(4): 299-303. beyer, 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issn(e) 2313-7401 / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.34.38 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group unremarkable but crucial: motivating employees in business as usual work matthias cheong school of business, university of western australia. abstract ‘business as usual’ (bau) tasks refers to the daily, mundane but necessary operational tasks performed by companies both large and small. while technology and automation have gone a large way towards reducing its necessity, some tasks still need to be performed by a human. employees have typically shunned such roles as uninteresting, unrewarding, and unlikely to lead to career growth or recognition within the company. this in turn leads to low levels of motivation when performing such tasks, giving rise to a greater risk of mistakes being made, poor performance, or turnover as employees shun such work. this paper examines one typical team in the singapore finance industry, highlighting the difficulties of motivating employees in performing such unremarkable but crucial tasks, and proposing some possible solutions that may be adopted. it is hoped that this article will give some insight to line managers in how to motivate employees to perform unremarkable but crucial bau tasks. keywords: motivation, management, employee performance, retention, work satisfaction, organisational behaviour. jel classification: m19, f23, j24. citation | matthias cheong (2020). unremarkable but crucial: motivating employees in business as usual work. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(1): 34-38. history: received: 24 december 2019 revised: 20 january 2020 accepted: 27 february 2020 published: 6 april 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 35 2. theories of motivation ................................................................................................................................................................... 35 3. identification of solutions ............................................................................................................................................................. 37 4. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 37 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 37 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.34.38&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1475 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5816-3193 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1475 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5816-3193 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1475 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5816-3193 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 34-38 35 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper examines one typical team in the singapore finance industry, highlighting the difficulties of motivating employees in performing such unremarkable but crucial tasks, and proposing some possible solutions that may be adopted. 1. introduction this paper highlights the present problem of a lack of motivation in performing business as usual (bau) within a team at a company. this could potentially hamper operational productivity. motivational theories, applied correctly, could offer a solution to the problem. this paper outlines three possible theories – (a) expectancy theory, (b) cognitive evaluation theory, and (c) self-determination theory, and explores the feasibility of each. this paper then concludes by highlighting self-determination theory as the most appropriate and applicable one, as it allows for the employees’ need of autonomy, relatedness and competency to be met, thus facilitating an integrated regulation that should see an increase in motivation for bau work. 1.1. background the company under study is a global provider of information and analytics. one of the company’s core product is the credit derivative swaps (cds) pricing data, which helps customers make better decisions in gauging the creditworthiness of companies. the cds pricing data team in asia-pacific consists of four personnel between the ages of 24 to 29 years old. two employees are based in india and two are based in singapore. 1.2. the problem a recent june 2019 employee engagement survey (ees) points to a lack of motivation in the company’s asiapacific cds team. the results of the ees showed that:  75% of employees believed that they do not feel they were learning and growing.  50% of employees believed that they do not have good career opportunities at the firm. the second indicator is that the voluntary employee turnover rate in the team had jumped to 50% in both india and singapore in 2018. this is above the financial services industry’s average voluntary attrition rate of 18.7% in india (kpmg, 2018) and 10% in singapore (half, 2018). the third indicator is that in the employees’ exit interviews, they mentioned that spending 70% of their time on bau work was a key factor for them to leave the firm. they cited that greater exposure to client interaction, having more time to lead projects and write credit research articles would have incentivised them to stay with the firm. the results of the employee engagement survey and employees’ exit interviews echoed the findings of a pricewaterhousecoopers survey which found that 29% of millennials wanted more opportunities for personal development (pwc, 2012). the consequences of employee resignations include disruptions to existing operations, delays in planned projects and additional time spent to hire and train the employee’s replacement. this loss is estimated to cost between 50% to 150% of the employee’s annual salary (sujansky & ferri-reed, 2009). addressing the root cause of the lack of motivation is thus crucial to the team’s continued growth and operations. part of the low levels of employees’ motivation can be attributed to the perception that client facing, trading and investment related roles are more desirable (butcher, 2015). although bau work may seem repetitive and mundane compared to these jobs, it is hoped that the application of relevant organisational behaviour theories such as expectancy theory (vroom, 1964) and self-concordance theory (sheldon et al., 2004) can help to increase employees’ motivation levels. 1.3. understanding the root causes the employees’ expressed their concerns at a feedback session conducted subsequent to the ees. in the exit interviews with departing employees, the manager found that these employees mentioned that spending 70% of their time on bau work was a key factor for them to leave the firm. they felt that they were not learning new skills on the job. they cited that they had no choice but to perform the bau tasks as these are specified as key performance indicators in the quarterly performance appraisals. they found these tasks to be uninteresting and repetitive. monitoring of file deliveries and price publications to client is a tedious and mundane job. their first concern was they did not feel they were learning new skills by performing repetitive bau work such as performing data quality checks on cds prices. employees stated that they performed bau work to avoid a negative performance appraisal. their second concern was they felt micromanaged because of frequent reminders from the manager to perform bau work. their third concern was the reprimands for making mistakes in bau work and the lack of praise when they performed bau work satisfactorily. they felt that management does not recognize them for doing bau tasks as much as work on other more visible projects. this then tends to lead to decreased growth and promotional opportunities for them. this created a situation of high risk for low reward and they were worried about their career opportunities at the firm. 2. theories of motivation this paper examines three organisational theories from the existing literature – expectancy theory (et: (vroom, 1964) cognitive evaluation theory (cet: (deci, 1975)) and self-determination theory (sdt: (edward & ryan, 1985) and analyses how an application of these theories can increase employees’ motivation levels in respect of bau work. 2.1. expectancy theory et states that individuals are more likely to do a task well if they perceive the possibility of the reward to be high and is appealing (vroom, 1964). the porter and lawler model further suggested that employees will be more motivated to perform a task if the task was redesigned to be more interesting and that there are clear connections to link higher salary and promotions to the performance of the task (porter & lawler, 1968). one main assumption asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 34-38 36 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group in porter and lawler model is that the overall job satisfaction is based on the accretive effects of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. in the present context, et suggests that the employees are more likely to do bau work well if there is the possibility of higher financial remuneration and/or a promotion that comes with a good performance appraisal. however, there are limits in applying et at to the team. it will be difficult to justify why the firm should increase the salary of employees just for continuing to do the same job. this is because the firm will most likely perceive there to be minimal additional value that the employees had provided for doing the same task. separately, one study found that material rewards reduced intrinsic motivation levels in individuals while intangible rewards such as praise enhanced intrinsic motivation (deci, 1971). this further explains why using compensation and promotions may instead reduce the employees’ motivation to do bau work. as such, while et may offer some benefits, its application to the present problem within the team is limited. 2.2. cognitive evaluation theory the findings in deci (1971) et study led to the development of cet (edward, cascio, & krusell, 1975). cognitive evaluation theory proposes that deadlines (amabile, dejong, & lepper, 1976) is more likely to lead to perceived lower autonomy, reducing intrinsic motivation. other extrinsic motivators such as providing choices increases intrinsic motivation (zuckerman, porac, lathin, & deci, 1978). cet posits that there are three kinds of motivation – (i) amotivation, (ii) extrinsic motivation, and (iii) intrinsic motivation. while material rewards may increase extrinsic motivation, it also reduces intrinsic motivation in individuals as performance of the task is attributed to their desire to obtain the reward and not from their internal need of competence and autonomy. a study demonstrated that praise enhanced intrinsic motivation while tangible rewards reduced it dec, koestner, and ryan (1999). cet thus explains that employees lack motivation while performing bau work as they feel micromanaged and are not acquiring new skills. this reflects their unmet need for autonomy and competency. the lack of positive feedback from the manager and fear of negative performance appraisals appear to have decreased the employees’ intrinsic motivation. however, as discussed by gagné and deci (2005) there are limitations to applying cet in to the modern-day corporate firm, where employees’ remuneration are pegged to the value of the work they perform. this increases extrinsic motivation while decreasing intrinsic motivation. therefore, the use of pecuniary rewards as a mechanism to increase motivation for bau work is not ideal as it merely increases an employee’s extrinsic motivation while not addressing the employee’s intrinsic motivation. this problem is further compounded by the nature of bau work being mundane. this therefore restricts the manager’s options for increasing intrinsic motivation, as there is limited scope make bau work more ‘interesting’. additionally, while cet appears to suggest mere positive feedback is enough to increase intrinsic motivation, cet has been further developed into sdt, which offers a more nuanced approach and complete theory of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. 2.3. self-determination theory sdt posits that if an individual’s needs of autonomy, relatedness and competence are met, the individual is likely to internalize a behaviour and its underlying values (deci & ryan, 2000; edward. & ryan, 1985). sdt states that self-determination is a continuum ranging from amotivation to extrinsic motivation (which is further broken down into four types: external, introjected, identified and integrated regulation) to intrinsic motivation: figure-1. the self-determination continuum. source: gagné and deci (2005). as illustrated in figure 1 above, intrinsic motivation refers to an inherent autonomous motivation on part of the individual, where they are truly interested and enjoy the task. this means being motivated from one’s interest in an activity (gagné & deci, 2005) and as such, is arguably difficult to induce by virtue of external motivational devices. the closest to this state that can practically be achieved by a manager, is possibly integrated regulation. it is therefore this state that the proposes in the hopes of achieving this with the team. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 34-38 37 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group a study confirmed that when parents provided their children with a supporting environment to meet their need of autonomy, relatedness and competence, the children were more likely to internalize school-related behaviour resulting in higher grades (grolnick & ryan, 1989). another study involving employees in bulgaria and united states found that employee satisfaction improved when their need for competence, autonomy and relatedness were addressed at work (deci et al., 2001). applying sdt to the present context, it is likely that the employees’ need for autonomy, relatedness and competence are unmet as they feel they are being micromanaged, and they believe that they are not learning new skills. therefore, the employees are likely to have not fully internalized the behaviour of performing bau work. another study found that providing a meaningful reason for performing a task, acknowledging that the task is uninteresting, and providing choices resulting in individuals wholly integrating a regulated behaviour as their own (deci, eghrari, patrick, & leone, 1994). in this same study, the researchers also noted that if there were at least two out of three needs were met, individuals were more likely to internalize the behaviour; if less than two out of three needs were met, the individuals were more likely to display introjected motivation. the implications of the study to the present context is important as it shows that the manager will have to adopt solutions that satisfy at least two of these three needs in order to help employees reach a state of integrated regulation. 3. identification of solutions 3.1. providing a meaningful rationale the manager can share feedback from customers that were happy about the quality of the cds pricing data and as a result had either renewed or signed contracts with the firm. this lets the employees understand that doing bau work has helped to bring in revenue to the firm, providing a meaningful reason to do these tasks well. also, the manager can explain to the employees that doing bau work involves great attention to detail. being meticulous is an important skill used by managers in writing specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and timely (smart) goals in their strategy plans regarding the future direction of the division. thus, the employees’ need for competence would most likely be satisfied. 3.2. conveying choice rather than control to facilitate a less controlling environment, the manager should refrain from verbally reminding employees to do bau work too frequently. the manager should instead, suggest employees set their own calendar alerts to remind them of the task. this gives the employees a sense of autonomy, which as found in the research by deci et al. (1994) should allow for employees to integrate bau work values as their own. 3.3. acknowledging the employee’s perspective as suggested by deci et al. (1994) the manager can praise the employees when they have not made any errors. in the team meetings, the manager can also acknowledge that doing bau work is uninteresting to the employees by saying the following (adapted from deci et al. (1994)): “most of you have told me that doing bau work is not fun. i understand your feelings and accept that these are not the most interesting of tasks.” by fostering a positive connection between the manager and employees, it is hoped that their need for relatedness will be met. 3.4. implementation plan in the next three months, the manager should as a base, refrain from frequently berating employees to perform bau work. further, the manager should acknowledge that doing bau work is uninteresting in the team meetings, and praise the employees when bau work is performed well and inform them about satisfied clients that have signed up for the firm’s products as a result of the bau work. this would meet the autonomy, relatedness and competency needs of employees. to test for the effectiveness of these solutions on how much the employees have internalized doing bau work, the manager can see if there are improvement in satisfaction scores in future ees, reduction in number of errors committed by the employees and increase in the team’s retention rates. 4. conclusion while performing bau work is uninteresting to the employees, these tasks are crucial in ensuring a high quality of cds prices conveyed to clients that help to retain existing clients and bring in new deals to the firm. while et suggests that the employees would be motivated to perform the tasks well due to the linking of these tasks to good performance appraisal and financial remuneration, this offers adopted controlled motivation at best. while cet can enhance extrinsic motivation with financial compensation, it does so at the risk of reducing intrinsic motivation. sdt thus offers the most applicable solution as it addresses the employees’ need for autonomy, competence and relatedness, thus allowing employees to fully internalise bau values as their own. in adopting the solutions proposed by sdt, it is hoped that employees will be happier in their job and stay with the firm, resulting in greater operational productivity. references amabile, t. m., dejong, w., & lepper, m. r. (1976). effects of externally imposed deadlines on subsequent intrinsic motivation. journal of personality and social psychology, 34(1), 92–98.available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.34.1.92. butcher. (2015). the 20 most desirable jobs in global finance. retrieved from: http://static1.businessinsider.com/the-20-most-desirablejobs-in-global-finance-2015-6. dec, e. l., koestner, r., & ryan, r. m. (1999). a meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. psychological bulletin, 125(6), 627-626.available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627. deci, e. l. (1975). intrinsic motivation. new york: plenum. http://static1.businessinsider.com/the-20-most-desirable-jobs-in-global-finance-2015-6 http://static1.businessinsider.com/the-20-most-desirable-jobs-in-global-finance-2015-6 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 34-38 38 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group deci, e. l., ryan, r. m., gagné, m., leone, d. r., usunov, j., & kornazheva, b. p. (2001). need satisfaction, motivation, and well-being in the work organizations of a former eastern bloc country: a cross-cultural study of self-determination. personality and social psychology bulletin, 27(8), 930-942.available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201278002. deci, e. l., eghrari, h., patrick, b. c., & leone, d. r. (1994). facilitating internalization: the self-determination theory perspective. journal of personality, 62(1), 119-142.available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00797.x. deci, e. l., & ryan, r. m. (2000). the" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior. psychological inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.available at: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1104_02. deci, e. l. (1971). effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. journal of personality and social psychology, 18(1), 105– 115.available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030644. edward, d., el, cascio, w., & krusell, j. (1975). cognitive evaluation theory and some comments on the calder and staw critique. journal of personality and social psychology, 31(1), 81–85.available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076168. edward, d. e., & ryan, r. (1985). intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. new york: plenum. gagné, m., & deci, e. l. (2005). self-determination theory and work motivation. journal of organizational behavior, 26(4), 331-362.available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/job.322. grolnick, w. s., & ryan, r. m. (1989). parent styles associated with children's self-regulation and competence in school. journal of educational psychology, 81(2), 143-154.available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.81.2.143. half, r. (2018). from salary to work-life balance: what motivates singaporean workers, press release. retrieved from https://www.roberthalf.com.sg/sites/roberthalf.com.sg/files/pressrelease/sg_robert%20half%20press%20release_employee%20turnover.pdf [17 october 2019]. kpmg. (2018). kpmg in india’s annual compensation trends survey 2018-2019. retrieved from https://assets.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/in/pdf/2018/04/kpmg-india-annual-compensation-trends-survey.pdf porter, l. w., & lawler, e. e. i. (1968). managerial attitudes and performance. homewood, il: irwin-dorsey. pwc. (2012). millennials at work reshaping the workplace in financial services. retrieved from https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/financialservices/publications/assets/pwc-millenials-at-work.pdf sheldon, k. m., elliot, a. j., ryan, r. m., chirkov, v., kim, y., wu, c., . . . sun, z. (2004). self-concordance and subjective well-being in four cultures. journal of cross-cultural psychology, 35(2), 209-223.available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022103262245. sujansky, j., & ferri-reed, j. (2009). keeping the millennials. new york: wiley. vroom, v. h. (1964). work and motivation. new york: wiley. zuckerman, m., porac, j., lathin, d., & deci, e. l. (1978). on the importance of self-determination for intrinsically-motivated behavior. personality and social psychology bulletin, 4(3), 443-446.available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/014616727800400317. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.roberthalf.com.sg/sites/roberthalf.com.sg/files/press-release/sg_robert%20half%20press%20release_employee%20turnover.pdf http://www.roberthalf.com.sg/sites/roberthalf.com.sg/files/press-release/sg_robert%20half%20press%20release_employee%20turnover.pdf http://www.pwc.com/gx/en/financial-services/publications/assets/pwc-millenials-at-work.pdf http://www.pwc.com/gx/en/financial-services/publications/assets/pwc-millenials-at-work.pdf 23 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 6, no. 2, 23-29, 2019 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2019.62.23.29 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the impact of financial malpractice on service delivery: a conceptual examination of literature wiston mbhazima baloyi1 lourens johannes erasmus beyers2 ( corresponding author) 1,2university of limpopo, polokwane, south africa. abstract this paper argues that financial malpractice has not always been remedied in the public sector. legislation that governs financial administration in the public sector is, thus, being disregarded. officials continuously engage in unwanted expenditure (i.e. unauthorised, irregular, fruitless and wasteful expenditure) and no action is taken against them. the purpose of this paper was to probe the impact of financial malpractice by public officials as an impediment to service delivery. the methodological approach of this paper was the conceptual examination of literature which ultimately lead to proposed strategy measures towards financial malpractice and service delivery. this paper finds that officials unethically pursue their self-interest in enriching themselves by looting the government funds and neglecting the focus of enhancing service delivery. consequently, this has relegated the impoverished citizens to a crisis situation. the lack of proper planning and the embezzlement of public funds have both been identified as factors that impede service delivery. this paper suggests that the government should tighten its internal control measures and reinforce compliance with the applicable laws and regulations. furthermore, it suggests that officials should be held liable for any financial malpractice and, therefore, penalties for financial misconduct should be instituted against them. lastly, government should provide comprehensive training and awareness programmes on financial malpractice and financial misconduct. keywords: financial malpractice, financial misconduct, irregular expenditure, unauthorised expenditure, service delivery, corruption. citation | wiston mbhazima baloyi; lourens johannes erasmus beyers (2019). the impact of financial malpractice on service delivery: a conceptual examination of literature. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 6(2): 23-29. history: received: 1 july 2019 revised: 6 august 2019 accepted: 9 september 2019 published: 3 october 2019 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 24 2. research methods ............................................................................................................................................................................ 25 3. the nature of financial malpractice and service delivery .................................................................................................... 25 4. factors affecting financial malpractice and service delivery .............................................................................................. 25 5. techniques for enhancing service delivery and inhibiting financial malpractice .......................................................... 27 6. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 28 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 29 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2019.62.23.29&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1038 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9130-3450 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1038 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9130-3450 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1038 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9130-3450 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 23-29 24 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the purpose of this paper was to probe the impact of financial malpractice by public officials as an impediment to service delivery. 1. introduction the global leaders adopted the 2030 agenda for sustainable development to eradicate poverty and ensure that all citizens live in harmony (giamatteo and valdivia, 2018). the view was to accelerate service delivery the lack of which is a serious crisis around the globe. this predicament arises on the account of lack of proper financial management expertise and engagement into fraudulent and corrupt activities by public officials (booranakit et al., 2018); (meyer, 2018). hence, the effective and efficient management of public finances should lead to good financial governance and reduction of financial malpractice. this research paper intended to examine the impact of financial malpractice by public officials as an impediment to service delivery. there are laws that govern public finances and administration; and public officials are obliged to adhere to them. however, in some instances these are disregarded. in most cases, the examples of financial malpractice emanate from unethical procurement practices and non-compliance with applicable laws by public officials. according to mazibuko and fourie (2017) the unethical supply chain practices arise from “uncompetitive or unfair procurement processes, inadequate contract management, awards to close family members of employees, lack of documentation to the awards and awards to employees of government institutions”. this situation has been declared a major contributor to adverse audit outcomes in the public sector (auditor-general south africa (agsa), 2017). furthermore, it has accelerated the incurring of irregular expenditure, unauthorised expenditure, corruption, fraud and bribery activities. accordingly, the research enquiry that is fundamental to this paper is: how does financial malpractice impact service delivery? given this research enquiry, the objective of this research paper was to examine the impact of financial malpractice on service delivery. the paper suggests that officials should be held liable for any financial malpractice and, therefore, penalties for financial misconduct should be instituted against them. furthermore, leadership in the public sector should foster the compliance with applicable policies and procedures. hence, improved service delivery and sound financial management are both the cornerstone of the public service. this research paper is significant in the republic of south africa, the african continent and the world at large, in that it suggests the strategies or techniques that public officials could apply to eliminate the occurrence of financial malpractice and thus enhance service delivery to the citizens. further, the policy makers in government could employ the suggestions of this paper to develop the prescripts that would provide more oversight into the persistent financial malpractice which has an adverse impact on service delivery. this research paper is motivated by the significant practical challenges (e.g. shortage of water, shelter and sanitation), that are encountered on a daily basis by the society at large. for example, the pervasive service delivery protests are evident in most of the countries around the globe, including the republic of south africa. consequently, politics plays a pivotal role in the public service. public officials continuously engage in political activities. this often leads to service delivery being compromised. kasum (2009) advocates that “the rate at which public office holder in developing economies perpetrate financial malpractice is dangerously alarming”. it is evident that there is a consistent failure in the ability of public service to comply with and implement public service policies effectively and efficiently (department of public service and administration (dpsa)-rsa, 2018). therefore, given the current situation, a rapid intervention and remedy by public service is required. although, several studies have focused on service delivery, this research paper embarks on a conceptual examination of the literature relating to financial malpractice and its potential references to service delivery. succinctly, it intended to examine how financial malpractice might impact service delivery, with the view of alleviating poverty and social distress among the citizens. for the purpose of this paper, the concepts of public sector and public service are used interchangeably. this research paper is structured as follows: the next section illustrates the research methods. it is followed by a discussion of the nature of financial malpractice and service delivery. the next section is the examination of the factors that are associated with financial malpractice and service delivery. techniques for enhancing service delivery and inhibiting financial malpractice are also discussed; and lastly, the research paper culminates with conclusions. table-1. different approaches and methods used to probe the impact of service delivery. author approach findings akpan (2019) a quantitative using survey design was utilised to investigate the harnessing of egovernance for enhanced public service delivery in nigeria the implementation of e-governance would ensure enhanced efficiency in performing the administration in the public sector mfuru et al. (2018) a mixed methods approach was used to explore the impact of political interference in public administration the major findings of this study reveals that public officials are unable to carry their mandates effectively due to political interferences dzomira (2017) a qualitative approach using interpretative approach was applied to probe financial accountability and governance in an emerging economy the results suggests that south african public financial governance should put measures to erode the occurrence of irregular, fruitless and wasteful and unauthorised expenditure sibanda (2017) a conceptual examination of literature was employed to investigate the control, ethics and accountability in the financial management performance of municipalities in the eastern cape the results proposed that public finance should be conceptualised to embrace ethics and accountability in the public sector asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 23-29 25 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2. research methods the methodological approach employed in this paper was the conceptual examination of existing literature that ends with proposed strategies or techniques that could be implemented to reduce financial malpractice in the public sector, and thus, enhance service delivery. different approaches and methods were utilised to probe the impact of service delivery on society. several studies focused on the empirical researches where in-depth interviews and selfadministered researches were done by various scholars to investigate service delivery. in addition, conceptual studies were conducted to probe the subject of service delivery and accountability (jashari and pepaj, 2018); (mazibuko and fourie, 2017) service delivery and financial accountability (sibanda, 2017); (ngwakwe, 2012). as highlighted above, different approaches and methods were used to investigate the impact on service delivery. some of these approaches are outlined table 1. 3. the nature of financial malpractice and service delivery there is an emerging trend of government departments failing to manage their finances properly (agsa, 2017). financial malpractice is rooted in the manifestations of fraud, corruption and bribery activities in the public sector which are universally rampant (kasum, 2009). in addition, it focuses on the phenomenon of fruitless and wasteful, irregular and unauthorised expenditure proliferating on a daily basis. in the context of this paper, financial malpractice refers to reckless financial activities committed by public officials that obstruct the enhancement of service delivery to the citizens. financial malpractice is viewed as being a fundamental impediment to service delivery. therefore, this research paper has intended to examine the impact of financial malpractice by those public officials as factor which is crucial to the provision of enhanced service delivery. according to naidoo (2012) service delivery refers to “the implementation of public policies aimed at providing services to the citizens”. akpan (2019) defines service delivery as the “provision of goods which are tangible, and services which are intangible to the public”. therefore, in this paper, service delivery refers to the provision of integrated and better services to the citizens of the country. the concepts of financial malpractice and service delivery are irreconcilable because the manifestation of financial malpractice in the public sector impedes the delivery of services to the citizens. in other words, the two concepts are pointing in different directions, that is, they are two variables which oppose each other. however, public officials persist in committing financial malpractice, incurring irregular, fruitless and wasteful expenditure (dzomira, 2016). this persistent irregular conduct has been escalating as a result of “failure by management to take effective and appropriate disciplinary steps against officials who made or permitted unauthorised, irregular or fruitless and wasteful expenditure” (phago, 2015). sustainable service delivery has been a hurdle in the world at large (giamatteo and valdivia, 2018). the lack of financial accountability in the public sector has impeded the success of service delivery (mutuma et al., 2017). to support this statement, mazibuko and fourie (2017) states that “the public sector needs to improve the efficiency of managing public finances”. this can enable the governments to speed up the service delivery process and achieve the long-term goals. 4. factors affecting financial malpractice and service delivery various challenges in the society (including protests, the malicious damage of state goods; political unrest and so forth) have emerged due to lack of service delivery. these irregularities have emanated from a lack of devotion and commitment by the public officials in serving their communities. however, solutions could be devised to mend the status quo within the public sector. in the main, service delivery depends on good financial governance, and effective allocation and distribution of scarce resources. in this paper, the researchers identify the number of factors that affects financial malpractice and service delivery, whether negative or positive. thus, this research paper finds the following:  lack of financial capacity.  unfair public procurement and supply chain management.  inappropriate planning.  improper delegation of authority.  embezzlement of public funds.  lack of internal control systems.  corruption.  fraud.  political interference. these factors are actually interlinked in such a way that one factor could well influence the other. these are discussed below. 4.1. lack of financial capacity the origin of financial malpractice lies in the absence of expertise required to administer public finances. lack of appropriate expertise has been reported as an obstacle to effective administration of public finances (sibanda, 2017); (saka, 2016); (phago, 2015); (dzomira, 2015); (ngwakwe, 2012). public officials are appointed to higher positions based on their political affiliation and interference (mfuru et al., 2018). in essence, their political status is paramount in pursuing their self-interest and neglecting the needs of the society (thomas, 2016). the independent (2016) states that the selection panels should contain an independent element, to increase objectivity and public credibility. furthermore, this independent element should embark on constant standard setting and observations that would enhance and sustain public confidence in the appointments process. consequently, due to incompetence, public officials are unable to take informed decisions. furthermore, dzomira (2016) posits that the lack of financial management skills among public officials significantly impedes efficient service delivery which leads to maladministration in the public service. in addition, a study by edoun asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 23-29 26 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group (2015) asserts that “public enterprises are the channel by which political leaders redistribute wealth by giving employment to comrades who lack the necessary skills and knowledge to manage”. insufficient accounting skills among politicians results in intensification of corruption and fraud, and thus unclean audit findings (meyer, 2018); (sibanda, 2017); (masiloane and dintwe, 2014); (naidoo, 2012). therefore, politicians end up embezzling the state funds. 4.2. unfair public procurement and supply chain management supply chain management entails the process of acquiring products and services at the most affordable costs (ngwakwe, 2012). it includes, amongst others, units such as procurement, assets, transport and logistics. public procurement has been identified as being pivotal to improved service delivery as huge budgets are allocated to it. ngwakwe (2012) argues that the non-existence of openness and transparency in public procurement has led to the misuse of funds on the african continent. hence, non-compliance with the applicable policies governing public supply chain and procurement processes has triggered a great deal of irregular and fruitless expenditure in the public service (mazibuko and fourie, 2017); (dzomira, 2017); (naidoo, 2012). again, these unethical procurement practices include employees who are doing business with government without the necessary declarations (agsa, 2017); (masiloane and dintwe, 2014). this happens as a result of insufficient internal control systems in the public sector. 4.3. inappropriate planning planning is the first portion of management functions; which is followed by organising, leading and controlling (mfuru et al., 2018). therefore, the executives and management need to pay careful attention to planning. in the context of the public sector, planning is in the form of strategic planning sessions in which the budgeting allocations of scarce resources to various programmes are contemplated (sibanda, 2017); (saka, 2016). this activity is undertaken by the executives of the department. in the main, the participants are likely to be politicians and this has an adverse influence on the processes. the process requires knowledgeable officials who understand the financial perspectives of the public service. the significance of financial planning in the public service cannot be overlooked as service delivery depends on sound financial management. the service delivery improvement planning (sdip) becomes crucial during the planning stage. essentially, sdip facilitates the commitment of government institutions to continuous service delivery improvement mechanisms that intend to enhance the quality of actual service provided (dpsa-rsa, 2018). in order to ensure continuous improvement, government institutions should establish sdip and ensure its successful implementation. the sdip should be aligned with the long-term objectives as highlighted in the strategic plan of the government institution. 4.4. improper delegation of authority according to edoun (2015) delegation of authority entails “the shifting of management responsibilities from the center to the lower level, but the center retaining the overall control of powers”. public officials on the higher authority tend to abuse these powers for their own personal interests and gain, and to neglect the needs of the vulnerable citizens (thomas, 2016). although there are legislative frameworks and policies that govern public financial management including delegation of authority in the public service, they are neglected. thus, the accounting officer of the government department should establish an explicit system of delegation of authority to improve operational standards and “provide adequate checks and balances” (sibanda, 2017). 4.5. embezzlement of public funds the lack of good financial governance and continuous incurring of unwanted expenditure both remain as challenge that obstruct service delivery (dzomira, 2017). this resulted in the mismanagement of public funds and thus, maladministration in different government departments. the lack of accountability in public finances has been accompanied by irregular procurement of goods and services and unaccounted public funds (agsa, 2017); (dzomira, 2017); (dzomira, 2017); (saka, 2016); (naidoo, 2012). in addition, public officials have exploited their ranks by utilising public funds for personal benefit (edoun, 2015). as a result, poor compliance with applicable rules and regulations has been evident in the inability to manage public funds (agsa, 2017). this has relegated service delivery and left vulnerable citizens in a dire situation. 4.6. lack of internal control systems ample internal control measures should be in place to direct the functions on the daily basis. the research findings by dzomira (2017) reveal that inadequate financial governance in the republic of south africa is continuing to ensure the incurring of unauthorised expenditure, irregular expenditure and, fruitless and wasteful expenditure. for example, it has been noted that limpopo province, amongst other provinces, has contributed significantly to the rise of irregular expenditure (agsa, 2017). the leaders in the public service tend to act based on their best interest and ignore compliance with applicable legislation. they engage in fraudulent activities by manipulating the systems for their personal gain and at the expense of the public; and no remedial actions are being taken against them. hence service delivery suffers and the protests continue to happen in the society. dzomira (2017) argues that various public agencies still experience challenges in relation to the evaluation of governance structures and agreements. 4.7. corruption ngwakwe (2012) states that corruption is a “cancer that appears to be endemic in african public service”. according to mazibuko and fourie (2017) public service institutions are still experiencing challenges of insufficient control over contract performance and assessment. this lack of control creates a loophole and possibility for escalating corruption. thomas (2016) argues that corruption is a “consequence of the nexus between bureaucracy, politics and criminals”. furthermore, corruption creates economic obstacles in the public service in that public asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 23-29 27 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group officials redirect public funds for their own personal gains and fail to render services to the communities (thomas, 2016). this has placed impoverished citizens in a crisis situation. therefore, good governance is an essential factor in combating corruption in the public sector (meyer, 2018); (booranakit et al., 2018); (jashari and pepaj, 2018); (dzomira, 2017). according to sibanda (2017) corruption leads to “public funds being misused, applied to benefit a select individual or entity, or results in potential public funds being diverted from government revenue to private income”. the anti-corruption resource centre (4u guide) (2019) undertook the study to measure corruption in the public sector. the study was based on the global corruption barometer which includes latin america and africa geographical areas. the acrc (2019) conducted a research on corruption statistics and the measurement of corruption as set out table 2. table-2. corruption related statistics. type description examples administrative statistics characteristics of government or its performance relevant to corruption or anticorruption outcomes  number or percentage of procurements conducted under specific rules or systems  percentage of civil servants who meet certain position qualifications  number of negative audit findings per agency criminal or legal statistics data on corruption complaints, investigations, prosecutions, convictions  number of corruption arrests, investigations by a specific agency  number of corruption convictions  ratio of arrests to convictions population surveys and user surveys survey data on corruption perceptions or experience (also called victimisation surveys)  regional barometer surveys  global corruption barometer (experience survey)  surveys of population sub-groups (e.g., enterprise surveys, ad hoc user surveys) compiled from the acrc (2019). 4.8. fraud dzomira (2015) posits that government departments should ensure sound governance of risks and fraud, and also the fraud prevention plan needs to be regularly updated. generally, fraud relates to unethical procurement processes which include amongst others, unjust procurement practices, insufficient contract administration and the awarding of tenders to relatives and friends (mazibuko and fourie, 2017); (masiloane and dintwe, 2014); (naidoo, 2012). in addition, fraud practices should be avoided at all cost and the public sector should develop and implement coercing policy that deals with risks associated with fraudulent activities (ngwakwe, 2012). mazibuko and fourie (2017) postulate that the manifestation of fraud in the public sector has an adverse effect on the citizens and lead to service delivery being compromised. however, the lack of skills intensifies the manifestation of risks relating to procurement processes and thus, fraud. furthermore, the lack of fraud prevention strategies and policies in the government departments disrupts the process of enhancing better service delivery (sibanda, 2017); (phago, 2015); (naidoo, 2012). 4.9. political interference the appointments of public office bearers in the public sector should be subject to the overriding principle of merit, so an independent body should set standards and monitor compliance (the independent, 2016). the public service functions under bureaucratic mode of operation or modus operandi. therefore, the accounting officers have power and control over budgets, supply chain management and other activities. however, financial capacity has always been a hurdle in the public sector. the lack of financial capacity and political interference makes it difficult for public officials to administer public finance (meyer, 2018); (mfuru et al., 2018); (naidoo, 2012). to support this, mfuru et al. (2018) assert that political interference in the public service has resulted in illegitimate decisionmaking processes, fruitless budget allocations and ignorance of applicable laws and regulations. the chief financial officer (cfo) of the government departments has to ensure effective and efficient systems of financial and internal control are in place. however, in some instances, the cfos are dismissed from their duties even before the end of their tenure due to political interferences. this statement is supported by phago (2015) that “the high vacancy and turnover rates of accounting and chief financial officers remain a cause for concern from the auditor general's office”. 5. techniques for enhancing service delivery and inhibiting financial malpractice this paper provide a discussion of the suggested techniques that could be applied to enhance service delivery and inhabit financial malpractice. these are discussed below. 5.1. transparent supply chain management systems challenges with supply chain management have remained one of the key contributors to poor audit outcomes (agsa, 2017). supply chain management is the heart of service delivery and it is essential to recognise that it is imperative. the high rate of irregular expenditure in the public sector stems from the governance challenges emanating from the poor supply chain activities (dzomira, 2017); (mazibuko and fourie, 2017); (agsa, 2017). a sound procurement system in the public sector is characterised by aspects such as responsiveness, openness and accountability (mazibuko and fourie, 2017); (sibanda, 2017); (naidoo, 2012) which are currently not effective. mazibuko and fourie (2017) provides for the continuous vigilance in respect to procurement practices in the public sector. these include the following:  reinforcing ethical behaviour as pointed out by applicable prescripts. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 23-29 28 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group  ensuring ample procurement planning including evaluation of risks.  operating in a transparent way such as openly sharing procurement plans.  ensuring supervision, including regular spot checks of procurement transactions.  reporting instances of fraud and corruption emanating from procurement activities. 5.2. transparency and accountability in public administration masiloane and dintwe (2014) argue that the reduction of the bureaucratic modus operandi enables the public sector to enhance openness and accountability. openness and transparency in the public service play a huge role in the way in which the public service operates and supports the high level of approachability, efficiency and effectiveness to various stakeholders (jashari and pepaj, 2018); (naidoo, 2012). transparency refers to “unfettered access by the public to timely and reliable information on decisions and performance in the public sector” (jashari and pepaj, 2018). transparency in the public service is maintained by means of implementing modernised systems of information communication and technology (ict). therefore, citizens should know where to get information about the services, and how those services are rendered by the public sector. transparency is at the heart of honesty and trustworthiness in the public sector and it improves public confidence and support (sibanda, 2017); (ngwakwe, 2012). to support this statement, the implementation of binding ethics in public supply chain practices is crucial for the enhancement of transparency and accountability in the public sector (booranakit et al., 2018); (mazibuko and fourie, 2017). however, in order to promote ethical conduct in the public sector and tackle the issues and allegations relating to accountability, the following should be contemplated (ngwakwe, 2012):  institute a restricted hotline for reporting illegal behaviour, including the abuse of authority.  reinforce compliance with the applicable legal frameworks by ensuring standards of conduct.  convey information concerning disciplinary cases.  develop grievance procedures outside formal channels through the office of the joint ombudsperson.  formalise an obligatory code of conduct/ethics capacity for all staff. 5.3. effective internal control and audit systems internal audit systems are paramount to the achievement of long-terms objectives of the public service institutions. the internal audit and audit committees play a pivotal role in ensuring that they recognise any contravention with applicable laws and regulations (sibanda, 2017). tight internal control systems enable the public sector to ensure reliability, and this inspire public officials to report any arising irregularities resulting from corrupt activities (masiloane and dintwe, 2014). internal audits pave the way for the external audit and help earmark the areas of administration that require urgent attention. it should thus be taken seriously in the public sector as it provide a preliminary audit just before the external audit commences. as a part of strengthening internal control, leadership in the public sector needs to develop and effectively implement the anti-corruption policy and strategy to diminish the spreading of corruption and fraud (masiloane and dintwe, 2014). 5.4. effective information communication and technology information communication and technology (ict) is the “science and activity of moving data digitally” (lucas, 2016). information technology systems should be enhanced and customised to specific areas of service delivery, including financial management and its delegation of authority (jashari and pepaj, 2018). further, it is crucial for the public sector to deliver its mandates efficiently by constantly strengthening its systems and processes. ngwakwe (2012) asserts that the efficient use of information communication and technology (ict) necessitates the provision of comprehensive training and the development of all staff, including finance staff, in the public service to ensure effective public administration. for example, ict systems can be enhanced in such a way that they track and trace the records of service delivery. the business process re-engineering was applied by the department of justice and constitutional development of the republic of south africa to enhance efficiency and responsiveness to service delivery pertaining to court administration (lucas, 2016). in addition, the implementation of e-governance tool could help accelerate the process of delivery of services to the citizens (akpan, 2019); (salam, 2017). akpan (2019) defines e-governance as “the application of ict to improve the delivery of services in the public service to attain transparency, accountability, timeliness and efficiency”. 5.5. implement corrective measures against perpetrators financial misconduct should be instituted against the public officials who continuously incur irregular, fruitless and unauthorised expenditure. furthermore, public officials should be held liable and accountable for committing corruption, fraud and bribery-related activities. the financial skills in the public sector have been perceived as being scarce, thus the public sector should implement comprehensive training and development programmes to equip their staff. these include, but are not limited to the provision of in-house training, mentoring and outsourcing of training initiatives. staff rotation to different sections could also help to curb the acts of financial malpractice in the public sector. in their study, masiloane and dintwe (2014) contend that “if there are sufficient internal controls and sufficient number of perpetrators are apprehended for corruption and punished adequately, there is a likelihood that the prospective perpetrators will stop immediately”. in addition, public awareness with regard to corrupt activities can help diminish its occurrence. 6. conclusion this paper has examined the impact of financial malpractice on service delivery. it has emphasised that financial malpractice is an obstruction to enhanced service delivery. it has uncovered various factors associated with financial malpractice and service delivery. these include the lack of financial capacity, unfair public asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2019, 6(2): 23-29 29 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group procurement and supply chain management, inappropriate planning, improper delegation of authority, the embezzlement of public funds, the lack of internal control systems, corruption, fraud and political interference. furthermore, this paper has proposed the techniques for enhancing service delivery and inhibiting financial malpractice. these include, amongst others, transparent supply chain management systems, transparency and accountability in public administration, effective internal control and audit systems and effective information communication and technology. this paper finds that officials unethically pursue their self-interest in enriching themselves by looting government funds and neglecting the focus of enhancing service delivery. such activities have relegated the impoverished citizens to a crisis situation. the lack of proper planning and the mismanagement of finances have both been identified as factors that impede service delivery. this paper suggests that the government should tighten its internal control measures and reinforce compliance with the applicable laws and regulations. furthermore, the fruitful allocation and disbursement of the scarce resources is still a challenge in the public sector and hampers the provision of service delivery. it also suggests that officials should be held liable for any financial malpractice and thus, penalties for financial misconduct should be instituted against them. lastly, government should provide comprehensive training and awareness programmes focused on financial malpractice and financial misconduct. references akpan, a.g., 2019. harnessing e–governance for quality public service delivery in akwa ibom state, nigeria: benefits and challenges. european journal of business and social sciences, 7(5): 1117-1127. anti-corruption resource centre (4u guide), 2019. guide to using corruption measurements and analysis tools for development programming. auditor-general south africa (agsa), 2017. overall audit outcomes. booranakit, n., p. tungkunanan, d. suntrayuth and j. ebenezer, 2018. good governance of thai local educational management. asia-pacific social science review, 18(1): 62-77. department of public service and administration (dpsa)-rsa, 2018. service delivery improvement plan. dzomira, s., 2015. governance and fraud risk management in the public sector in south africa. public and municipal finance, 4(3): 25-36. dzomira, s., 2016. espousal of combined assurance model in south africa’s public sector. public and municipal finance, 5(4): 23-30.available at: https://doi.org/10.21511/pmf.05(4).2016.03. dzomira, s., 2017. financial accountability & governance in an emerging economy. corporate ownership & control, 14(3): 204-218. edoun, e.i., 2015. the implication of governance in the management of public enterprises in africa. journal of governance and regulation, 4(2): 7-14. giamatteo, l. and a.o. valdivia, 2018. the 2030 agenda for sustainable development: how to get students involved? world journal of educational research, 5(4): 358-367.available at: https://doi.org/10.22158/wjer.v5n4p358. jashari, m. and i. pepaj, 2018. the role of the principle of transparency and accountability in public administration. university of pecs. administration, 10(1): 60-69. kasum, a., 2009. the relevance of forensic accounting to financial crimes in private and public sectors of third world economies: a study from nigeria. in proceedings of the 1st international conference on governance fraud ethics and social responsibility. lucas, t., 2016. the application of business process re-engineering systems to enhance service delivery in the public sector. european journal of research in social sciences 4(7): 13-22. masiloane, d. and s. dintwe, 2014. developing an anti-corruption strategy for the south african public sector. journal of public administration, 49(1): 180-198. mazibuko, g. and d.j. fourie, 2017. manifestation of unethical procurement practices in the south african public sector. african journal of public affairs, 9(9): 106-117. meyer, d., 2018. predictors of good governance and effective government management: the case of poland. polish journal of management studies, 18(1): 206-217. mfuru, a.w., a.c. sarwatt and g. kanire, 2018. the impact of political interference in public administration in kibaha town council. global journal of political science and administration, 6(4): 21-31. mutuma, m.n., m. iravo, e. waiganjo and j. kihoro, 2017. moderating effect of government policies on relationship between shared responsibility and service delivery by county government workers in kenya. international journal of academic research in business and social sciences, 7(4): 713-731.available at: https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v7-i4/2863. naidoo, g., 2012. the critical need for ethical leadership to curb corruption and promote good governance in the south african public sector. journal of public administration, 47(3): 656-683. ngwakwe, c., 2012. public sector financial accountability and service delivery. journal of public administration, 47(special issue 1): 311-329. phago, k.g., 2015. public human resource practices and performance management development systems in the public sector. journal of public administration, 50(special issue 1): 620-622. saka, g.o., 2016. public finance legislation and accountability for public finances in uganda’s rural health sector. home bus iness journal, 15: 1-16. salam, m.a., 2017. e-governance for good governance: experiences from public service delivery. methodology, 7(3): 26-29. sibanda, m.m., 2017. control, ethics and accountability in the financial management performance of eastern cape municipalities. journal of public administration, 52(2): 313-339. the independent, 2016. public appointments are finally made on talent, not connections but we must fight to keep it that way. thomas, s., 2016. a critical analysis of controls on maladministration and corruption in india. international journal of legal insight, 1(1): 31-46. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 3, no. 3, 229-233, 2016 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 229 multimodal counselling therapy in the management of intimate partner violence among married couples in owerri, nigeria chima ify martha-rose1 1 faculty of education imo state university, owerri nigeria abstract the study investigated the effectiveness of multimodal counselling therapy (mct) in managing intimate partner violence such as all forms of wife battering, whether physical, psychological or emotional and marital rape. the study adopts pretest, post test, and control group quasi experimental design using a 2x2 method. participants for the study included (10) identified married couples (20 subjects) experiencing domestic violence. they were randomly assigned into mct treatment group and the control. participants in the mct group received treatment on multimodal therapy while the control group received placebo. components of the mct therapy include: empathy, rapport, anxiety management self-control, conflict resolution skills, effective communication skills, assertiveness and social skills training. findings reveal that mct was very effective in reducing intimate partner violence. it was also discovered that participants with higher educational level yielded more to treatment effects than their counterparts with low educational level. recommendations were made based on the findings of the study. keywords: multimodal counselling theraphy, intimate partner viiolence, owerri nigeria. contents 1. introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................... 230 2. results ................................................................................................................................................................................ 232 3. discussion of findings ....................................................................................................................................................... 232 4. conclusion and recommendations ................................................................................................................................... 233 references .............................................................................................................................................................................. 233 citation | chima ify martha-rose (2016). multimodal counselling therapy in the management of intimate partner violence among married couples in owerri, nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 3(3): 229-233. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.229.233 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. history: received: 25 february 2016/ revised: 15 march 2016/ accepted: 17 may 2016/ published: 8 june 2016 publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.229.233 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=chima ify martha-rose http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.229.233 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.229.233 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=chima ify martha-rose http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.229.233 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.229.233 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=chima ify martha-rose http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.3/500.3.229.233 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 229-233 230 1. introduction intimate partner violence is a behavioral condition that is often manifested within the home. this form of violence is prevalent in all climes and cultures. as dahlberg and krug (2002) and unicef (2005)would posit, it is a regular phenomenon that occurs globally in most parts of the world. it is the intentional and persistent abuse of one’s intimate partner at home in a way that causes pain, distress and injury (aihie, 2009). the national domestic violence hotline (national domestic violence hotline, 2007) sees domestic violence as a pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner. for krug et al. (2002) it is any act of physical, sexual or emotional abuse by a current or former partner whether cohabiting or not. any act or omission committed within the framework of the family by one of its members that undermines life, bodily or psychological integrity, or the liberty of another member of the same family or which seriously harms the development of his or her personality falls under this category. intimate partner violence (ipv) occurs in marital relationship and among other intimate partnerships practiced by same-sex, cohabiting and dating couples. this aberrant behavioral tendency is almost always veiled, given that it is often played out at the home theatre, specifically within the confines of the conjugal arena. apart from marital relationship, other intimate partnerships exist in nigerian society although culturally not acceptable and therefore data about that are scanty. the thrust of this study is on violence occasioned by marital relationship and how such a condition can be managed using multimodal therapy. abuse in marital relationship can be physical, sexual, emotional, economic and psychological although physical abuse is mostly noticed since it comes with visible and observable imprints. ipv as reported by ndvh (2007) can be manifested through blame, fright, intimidation, terror manipulation, humiliation, hurting, injuries and wounds. according to lee (2000) signs and symptoms of violence include: message of embarrassment, shame, guilt, physical injuries on all parts of the body and sexual assault. severe cases can lead to medical conditions such as traumatic brain injury, post traumatic stress disorder, sexually transmitted diseases, ulcer etc. the prevalence or existence of intimate partner violence in contemporary human societies is not in doubt. as reported by bureau of justice statistics (2008) out of about 59 million couples living together in the united states, 15 million experience ipv each year and more than 3 million live out serious episodes of assault. djaden and thoennes (2000) also noted that in the usa, each year, women experience about 4.8 million ipv related physical assault and rape cases while men are victims of about 2.9 million physical assaults. ipv is prevalent in parts of third world and west africa. according to aihie (2009) a study carried out by irin (2007) revealed that 25% of women in dakar and kaolack in senegal are victims of physical attacks by their partners. it is even disheartening that most of the 60% victims that reported to family members were advised to be quiet and endure the abuse. the study also reported that 56% of indian women surveyed by an agency justified life battery for poor culinary techniques, disrespect to in-laws, inadequate mentoring of the girl-child, and leaving home without information. according to amnesty international (2004a) between one third and two thirds of women in nigeria are believed to have been victims of physical, sexual and psychological violence, inflicted on them by their intimate partners. the situation is worse in nigeria and the major cause is that most ipv cases are neither reported nor documented. this stems from the fact that culturally, ipv is still regarded as a family secret and married partners may not want to report their suffering for fear of stigmatization and labeling. narayan (2000) noted that in many social contexts, intimate partner violence (physical, sexual, psychological) is supported by social norms such as a cultural ideology which promotes the primacy of men over women. in severe cases of abuse, women may not want to leave for reasons ranging from losing custody of the children, employment, lack of property, poor pecuniary standing to not being able to care for the children. other correlates of ipv may be poverty, low self-esteem, and low academic achievement, lack of social network, social isolation, substance abuse, and cultural male dominance. victims may also develop difficulty in trusting others, anger and stress which may lead to depression, poor self confidence, suicidal thinking, suicidal act, suicidal ideation. it limits the victim’s personal growth, productivity, socio-economic roles and physical and psychological health (esere et al., 2009). there is without doubt, an ever increasing need for the management of the trauma associated with ipv. this study is designed to offer a therapeutic panacea for couples involved in ipv through multimodal counseling approach. multimodal therapy is a comprehensive, holistic and systematic counseling approach that combines features from several theories towards assessing, analyzing, understanding and treating all modalities of human personality problems developed by lazarus (1989). the therapy is grounded in social-cognitive theory, and adopts technical eclecticism that borrows techniques from many other therapeutical approaches. such techniques include anxiety management training, behavior rehearsal, bibliotherapy, biofeedback, communication training, contingency contracting, meditation, modeling, positive imagery, positive reinforcement, relaxation training, self instruction training, sensate-focus training, social skills, assertiveness training, time projection and thought-stopping (corey, 2005). most of these techniques are applied in this study to build the multimodal treatment package. kottler (2004) also maintains that the therapy guides in understanding: (a) how the client characteristically functions (b) how, where and why the presenting problem manifests itself (c) how specifically to use the profile as a blueprint for promoting change in individuals. multimodal therapy relies on seven broad interrelated modalities of human personality and functioning with the acronym basic id where b= behavior, a= affective response, s= sensations, i= imagery, c= cognitions and other broad life style and health issues including nutrition, medication, exercise, sleep, self care. applying multimodal therapy in this study, the therapist used didactic and psycho educational approaches such as coaching, advice-giving, skills training and home work as suggested by webber and mascari (2009) in managing intimate partner violence among participants. during therapy, the therapist was active, humanistic, positive and flexible as she serves as a trainer, educator consultant and role model, providing viable and usable information, construction, feedback, challenging self defeating beliefs, offering constructive criticism and suggestion (corey, 2005); (webber asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 229-233 231 and mascari, 2009). the study finally ascertained the effectiveness of carefully selected multimodal treatment therapy on intimate partner violence in owerri, nigeria. 1.1. purpose of the study the study is carried out to: a) determine the efficacy of multimodal counseling therapy (mct) in managing intimate partner violence among couples b) ascertain the effect of treatment based on educational level 1.2. research question 1) will mct reduce intimate partner violence among married couples? 1.3. research hypotheses 1. there is no significant difference between the mean scores in violent behaviors among intimate partners in the multimodal counseling therapy mct) and the control at posttest. 2. there is no significant difference in the treatment effect based on educational level. 1.4. research design the study is quasi experimental and adopts a pre-test, post-test, control group method. the study also adopted a 2x2 design with the treatment group of multimodal counseling therapy (mct) and control forming the row while educational levels (high and low) formed the column. the participants were randomly assigned into mct treatment group and the control. 1.5. participants and setting the population of study consists of all married couples in owerri municipal council, imo state nigeria who are experiencing domestic violence. the actual number of couples experiencing intimate partner violence cannot be determined. this is because culturally, couples would want to maintain secrecy in their domestic affairs. with the help of friends and three trained research assistants, twenty four married men and women were identified. they were asked to come along with their spouses. those whose partners refused to honour the invitation were disqualified. ten out of the twenty four identified subjects were randomly selected through their responses on the intimate partners violence identification questionnaire (ipviq) making a total of twenty participants for the study. educational level was considered in the selection. high level (ond/nce, hnd, first degree and higher degree holders), low level (no formal education, primary and secondary school education). the twenty participants were further administered with intimate partner violence checklist (ipvc) to collect baseline data for the study. therapy was given to the participants on an agreed venue in owerri. they were assigned to two groups of mct and the control. only those in the mct received intervention treatment while the control received placebo. 1.6. instruments intimate partner violence identification questionnaires (ipviq) and intimate partner violence checklist (ipvc) used for data collection in this study have thirty items each on four point scale of strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree. the instruments yielded to a test retest reliability of 0.74 and 0.81 respectively after two weeks interval and adequate content validity after scrutiny by two professionals in guidance and counseling and one in measurement and evaluation. 1.7. procedure for data collection data were collected at pre-test, treatment and post-test stages. the baseline data were established using ipvc. treatment was based on a multimodal counseling therapy. there were five sessions of treatment that lasted for 90 minutes each. the mct treatment packages include: session i  creation of rapport  general briefing on the aims of the therapy  signing of the contract form session ii  general discussion on all forms of violence among intimate partners (physical, sexual, emotional, psychological)  teaching on empathy and rapport session iii  discussion on the causes of domestic violence  teaching on self control and effective communication skills  rehearsal on the skills learnt. session iv  discussion on the consequences of intimate partner violence  lectures and training on social and assertiveness skills session v  teaching on conflict resolution skills  tasks and assignments, progress verification, feedback asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 229-233 232 2. results research question: will mct reduce intimate partner violence among couples. table-1. data for mean scores of mct reduction of intimate partner violence among couples s/n pre-test x post-test x treatment effect 1. does not permit my meeting and interacting with friends 2.8 1.3 positive 2. restricts interaction with my family members 3.2 1.7 p 3. does not permit my handling money 3.6 1.8 p 4. does not permit me to make choices of items 3.2 1.4 p 5. does not allow me to buy things myself 3.1 1.4 p 6. irritated, suspicious, angry if i talk to other men. 3.5 1.6 p 7. accuses me of being unfaithful 3.0 1.5 p 8. insists on always knowing where i am 2.8 1.5 p 9. treats me like a servant 2.8 2.2 p 10. does not allow me to partake in decision making 3.2 1.6 p 11. keeps away from home for days/weeks without informing me 2.9 2.2 p 12. keeps away from home for days/weeks without giving me money 3.1 1.3 p 13. unfaithful to me and keeps extra-marital relationships 3.7 2.7 n 14. does not react against his relatives when they insult me 3.1 1.6 p 15. teams up with his relations against me 3.2 1.5 p 16. insults me in front of others 2.9 2.3 p 17. threatens to harm me physically 3.1 2.4 p 18. slaps me 2.9 1.6 p 19. beats me on other parts of the body 3.0 1.8 p 20. twists my arms 2.7 1.5 p 21. pushes/shakes me or throws something at me 3.2 1.5 p 22. kicks me 2.9 1.8 p 23. pulls my hair 3.2 1.7 p 24. pushes me with fist or some objects 3.0 2.2 p 25. drags me 2.8 1.7 p 26. inflicts burns on me 2.8 1.9 p 27. ignores me purposely by not having sexual intercourse with me 3.2 1.6 p 28. has sexual intercourse with me forcefully when i am not interested 3.1 2.6 n 29. attacks me with knives or some other weapons 3.2 1.8 p 30. forces me to engage in un-natural sexual practice which i hate. 2.5 1.3 p 2.1. testing the hypotheses 1. there is no significant difference between the mean scores in the violent behaviours among intimate partners in the mct and the control group at post-test. table-2. ancova statistics of post-test scores of treatment groups sources of variation df ss ms f-cal f-critical rows 2 4218.75 2109.38 39.86 3.49 columns 1 490.44 490.44 interaction 1 490.44 within 19 5199.63 baseline mean score =mct =95.10 and control= 94.30 the hypothesis one is rejected based on the fact that the f-cal of 39.86 is greater than the f critical (3.49) at 0.05 level of significance (see table 2). 2. there is no significant different in the treatment effect based on educational level at post-test table-3. ancova statistics of post-test scores of high and low educational levels source of variation df ss ms f-cal f-critical btw.(col.) 12 731.46 565.73 5.83 4.10 error 7 438.94 62.71 corrected total 19 1170.40 = p<0.05 hypothesis two is also rejected. the data presented in table 3 shows that the f.cal of 5.83 is greater than f critical of 4.10 at 0.05 significant levels. 3. discussion of findings the result of the study shows that the mct was very beneficial to subjects exposed to the therapy. reductions in intimate partner violence of participants were demonstrated in the difference between the pre-test and the post-test scores as shown on table 1. data as presented on table 1 reveal that at pre-test all the items in the questionnaire were significant which implies that all the twenty participants used for this study were involved in domestic or partner violence. the result became positive at post-test which is attributed to the mct treatment effect. it is pertinent to note that treatment effect did not change infidelity, extra-marital relationship, sexual abuse and exploitation and its concomitant emotional consequences on participants. this confirms the findings of esere et al. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2016, 3(3): 229-233 233 (2009) that intimate partners especially women experience sexual harassment, exploitation, assault and intimidation but are not reported because of associated social stigma. culture and religion as noted by afro news (2007)are also reasons why assaulted partners may continue to endure abuse. in a similar study by chima (2013) culture was seen as supporting and fuelling male chauvinism and jingoism and show of superiority. on the other hand, christian tenets that are anchored on the indissolubility of marriage “till death do us part” may contribute to continued endurance and suffering in troubled marriages. the result as presented in table 2 on the efficacy of multimodal counseling therapy reveals that there is significant difference in the mean scores of those in the treatment group and the control at post-test. the f-cal (39.86) which is greater than the critical f (3.49) portrays the efficacy of multimodal counseling therapy. the potency was demonstrated in its capability in reducing the violent behaviors of intimate partners against each other. this corroborates the assertions of lazarus (2005); corey (2005) and webber and mascari (2009) that multimodal therapy is a comprehensive, holistic and systematic counseling approach that combines features from several theories towards assessing, analyzing, understanding and treating all modalities of human personality problems including marital violence. it is also evident from this study that there is a significant difference in the treatment effects of participants based on educational level (high and low) at post-test. the treatment favored participants with higher educational level than their counterparts in the lower rung. this may be as a result of the fact that an educated person understands his or her self worth and also financially and economically independent unlike their counterparts who as a result of educational level are disadvantaged. this goes to confirm the assertions of esere et al. (2009) that ipv may be as a result of poverty, low self-esteem, low academic achievement, cultural male dominance etc. it also supports chima (2006) position that education influences women empowerment at the same time boosts their image in public life, politics and employment. 4. conclusion and recommendations from the foregoing, it can be seen that this study has portrayed the efficacy of multimodal counseling therapy in bringing calmness and reducing aggression and violence among intimate partners. it has also demonstrated the importance of education given that treatment favored more participants with higher educational levels. based on findings emanating from the study, it is recommended thus: 1. there is need to involve all stakeholders made up of religious groups, institutions, community members, psychologists, counselors and government in anti-domestic violence campaign. 2. there is need for seminars, workshops on the ills of intimate partner violence. 3. increased emphasis should be laid on marital and family counseling and intimate partners should seek the services of professional and competent marital counselors to keep their marriages alive. 4. there is need for pre-marital counseling and platonic courtship before engaging in a marital relationship. emphasis should be on establishing unconditional love for one another and ascertaining compatibility of partners. references afro news, 2007. half of nigeria’s women experience domestic violence. available from http://www.afro.com/. aihie, o.n., 2009. prevalence of domestic violence in. nigeria: implications for counselling. edo journal of counselling, 2(1): 1-8. amnesty international, 2004a. interview with a human rights defender who campaigns to end violence against women in the family. lagos state. available from https://www.amnesty.org/en/. bureau of justice statistics, 2008. intimate partner violence in the u.s. available from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs. chima, i.m., 2006. maximizing women potentials in tertiary institutions through counseling services. worec journal of gender studies, owerri, 1(3): 123-129. chima, i.m., 2013. towards a re-orientation of igbo cultural beliefs: blueprints from cognitive restructuring strategy. international journal of development studies, houston, texas, 25(1): 37-50. corey, g., 2005. theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. 7th edn., cole united states: thomson, books. dahlberg, l.l. and e.g. krug, 2002. violence: a global public health problem. in king e, dahlberg, meray j.a. and a.b. zwi, lozano r. (eds). world report on violence and health. geneva, switzerland who. pp: 1-56. djaden, p. and n. thoennes, 2000. extent, nature and consequences of intimate partner violence in the united states. available from http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/181867.pdf. esere, m., a. idowu, i. durosaro and j. omotosho, 2009. causes and consequences of intimate partner rape and violence: experiences of victims in lagos, nigeria. journal of aids and hiv research, 1(1): 001-007. kottler, j.a., 2004. introduction to therapeutic counseling: voices from the field. 5th edn., cole: thomson, books. krug, e.g., j.a. mercy, l.l. dahlberg, j.a. mercy, a.b. awi and r. lozano, 2002. world report on violence and health. geneva, world health organization. lazarus, a., 1989. the practice of multimodal therapy. baltimore: johns hopkins university press. lazarus, a.a., 2005. multimodal therapy in j.c. norcross and m.r. goldfried (eds). handbook of psychotherapy integration. 2nd edn., new york: oxford university press. pp: 231-263. lee, d., 2000. hegemonic masculinity and male feminization: the sexual harassment of men at work. journal of gender studies, 9(2): 141155. narayan, d., 2000. voices of the poor: crying out for change. new york: oxford university press. national domestic violence hotline, 2007. get educated. available from http://www.thehotline.org/. ndvh, 2007. get educated. available from http://www.thehotline.org/. unicef, 2005. violence at home (archive) voices of youth forum. internet article. available from http//www.unicef.org/roy/discussions/archieve/index. webber, j. and j.b. mascari, 2009. multimodal therapy in the aca encyclopedia of counseling. alexandria: american counseling association. pp: 350-351. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.afro.com/ http://www.amnesty.org/en/ http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/181867.pdf http://www.thehotline.org/ http://www.thehotline.org/ http://www.unicef.org/roy/discussions/archieve/index 1 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 9, no. 1, 1-10, 2022 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v9i1.3692 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group managing information communication technology and effectiveness of electricity distribution companies: a re-strategizing and evolving paradigms eromafuru edward godbless1 omoye ezie israel2 ( corresponding author) 1department of business administration, delta state university, abraka, nigeria. email: eeromafuru@yahoo.com 2department of business administration and management, delta state university, abraka, nigeria. email: ezieisrael@gmail.com abstract preponderance of literature on the effects of information communication technology addressed ict functionality and usage majorly, leaving a lacuna in strategic alignment and management of ict systems and processes. the study investigates the impact of information communication technology management (ictm) on organizational effectiveness of electricity distribution companies. hypotheses were formulated to guide the study which relied on the survey research design. the population consisting of 937 was taken from the staff of the major electricity distribution companies in nigerian namely: port-harcourt and benin electricity distribution companies and subsidiaries; a sample of 280 was selected. questionnaire was structured and administered through online survey. consistency of instruments was confirmed at cronbach alpha value of 0.93 and confirmatory factor analysis used to assess strength of the good fit of variables that predict the variables. results affirmed significant relationship between ictm’s constructs of facility availability, integration, polices, and effectiveness of nigerian electricity distribution companies. keywords: information communication technology, management, effectiveness, ict integration, ict management policy, electricity distribution companies. citation | eromafuru edward godbless; omoye ezie israel (2022). managing information communication technology and effectiveness of electricity distribution companies: a restrategizing and evolving paradigms. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 9(1): 1-10. history: received: 15 december 2021 revised: 18 january 2022 accepted: 31 january 2022 published: 11 february 2022 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................... 2 3. methodology ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 3 4. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4 5. discussion ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 7 6. implications for theory, research value, and future research .............................................................................................. 7 7. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 7 references ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7 mailto:eeromafuru@yahoo.com mailto:ezieisrael@gmail.com http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v9i1.3692 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 1-10 2 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the study contributes to the existing literature on ict and its management through integration of key ictm practices vis-à-vis effectiveness of edc. the study is presumably the first to investigate how integrated constructs of ictm can be adapted to the operational and strategic needs of edc in nigeria and diasporas. 1. introduction the growing interest and researches in information technology notwithstanding, there is paucity of evidence to support management of the ict infrastructures for organisational and operational efficiency of the edc in nigeria (basri, alandejani, & almadani, 2015; mousa, 2013). this is even as prolific and erudite writers have stressed the need to ensure proper management of the infrastructures to enhance their capacity to deliver and in keeping pace with the emerging information revolution (cuevas-vargas, estrada, & larios-gómez, 2016; hashem, 2015; kyle & muhammad, 2015; williams, 2011). in recent times, ict has been viewed as a green area of growth partly due to its novel ideas and dynamic and demanding nature of the business environment (allen & morton, 2004; faisal & kisman, 2020). unarguably, ict infrastructure has been thought of as improving efficiency, achieving cost effectiveness, and enhancing quality products and service delivery to customers and clients (allen & morton, 2004). in the same vein, ict has been considered a strategic tool for marketing, outsourcing and contacting stakeholders as well as presenting ict services to distinguished potential services users (undp, 2001; werthner & klein, 2005). ict integration has made many corporate organizations resilient amidst strong opposition in the organizational environment (chege, wang, & suntu, 2020). evidently, most corporate organization thrived in spite of the ravaging pandemic of covid-19 and lockdown enforced by government and other regulating agencies (hyunjin, taejung, & jongwon, 2020). most ict-oriented organizations have taken advantage of the opportunity necessitated by the ravaging syndrome to advance their legitimate cause and corporate existence. in the recent times, ict has been trending in almost all areas of organization sphere covering product decision and distribution spectrum. against the above backdrop, it has become self-evident that ict has become a major vehicle through which products information reach their target costumers even before the physical product gets to them (stawnicza, 2014).many organizations, ranging from governmental, private to public are now begin to embrace the importance and usefulness of ict with little or no attention given to ictm. ict in recent times has been a major link between the organization and its stakeholders such as the staff, customers, buyers and suppliers (leavitt, 2004).with the advent of ict, organizations have developed capabilities to provide efficient services to their customers and prospective ones (bird, 2010), basically, for many companies, e-mail is the principal means of communication between employees, suppliers and customers and over the decades, a good number of communication tools have evolved thus facilitating use of live-chat systems, online meeting using zoom, and videoconferencing (patru & petrache, 2011). with the evolving communication devices such as voice over internet protocol (voip) and smart-phones, interactions between employees and employers have been made easier (hyunjin et al., 2020). further to this, some organization install ict for the purpose of advertisement and for capturing and tracking sales and online payments through portals (patru & petrache, 2011). battistella and de toni (2011) advocated that an organizational absorptive capacity is a prerequisite to installing an appropriate technological infrastructure and stimulating innovations. consequently, the role of top management in designing effective structures and technological infrastructures to stimulate unhindered information flow cannot be outstretched (ermelinda, gorica, & ahmetaj, 2011; kamal, 2011; naqshbandi & kamel, 2017). ictm has made possible adaptation of latent innovations and devices thus triggering opportunities for integrating new processes, models and methods with new ict solutions. it therefore becomes germane to gauge the strategic impact of ictm on organisational effectiveness of the ngbs amid evolving information and knowledge technology. 2. literature review 2.1. conceptualization of ict management a corporate organization is supposedly established for profitability while maintaining uninterrupted service delivery in the environment it situates. it calls to reason that the obviously growing trend of activities surrounding the use of ict calls for its effective management in all facets of the organization (birchall & giambona, 2008; chirani & tirgar, 2013). however, some organization could outsource ict services rather than integrating and installing any (hanafizadeh & zareravasan, 2020). the advent of ict has given rise to installations of automatic teller machines (atm), point of sales (pos) and prepaid meter machines (pmm) mostly used by electricity power distribution company in nigeria (hashem, 2015; patru & petrache, 2011). battistella and de toni (2011). despite their potential strategic relevance, oftentimes satisfactions or dissatisfactions could result from how the ict facilities are used of calling for the efficient management of the process (cuevas-vargas et al., 2016; tezci, 2009). in the absence of effective management platform, decision making becomes problematic as records are not always readily available and any strategic misstep can be fatal and can abruptly obliterate an organization that has taken years to build (hashem, 2015). consequently, vital issues such as customer’s needs and demand, suppliers and stakeholders’ information may turn out to be elusive. leavitt (2004) saw information communication technology as output consisting of organizational image, product and services to be distributed to the frontend users. most organizations are starved of information that can improve and enhance their performance, thus justifying case for ict management to improve their operations (aristovnik, 2012); thus aligning with the observation by scholars that no meaningful improvement can be made if ict facilities are not adequately and appropriately managed (brown, 2016). qosasi et al. (2019) revealed that icts have been used by organization in a wide range of business applications with significant strategic undertones. icts’ relevance can also be inferred from the fact they provide opportunities and help in dramatic reductions in the cost of obtaining, processing, and transmitting information which are increasingly changing the business landscape in the contemporary society (heath, maghrabi, & carr, 2015). the vast changes in icts make technology undisputedly the backbone of commerce (brynjolfsson, rock, & syverson, 2019). technology underpins the operations of individual companies, ties together far-flung supply chains, and increasingly links businesses to customers they serve (nakata, zhu, & kraimer, 2008). with asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 1-10 3 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group information communication technologies underpinning the way businesses operate, it is not surprising that business spending on these icts continues to grow with its attendant returns. the us department of commerce’s bureau of economic analysis recorded 1965 figures of american companies’ expenditure on information technology at less than 5%. by the end of the 1990s, this figure rose to near 50% of expenditure. in the heat of spiral down-turn in expenditure on information technology in the early 2000s, businesses around the world continue to spend well over $2 trillion” per annum on ict’s (heath et al., 2015). prastacos, söderquist, spanos, and van wassenhove (2002) also see that technology changes are occurring at increasing rates. the change, coupled with the wide application of these technological developments, has recorded a breakthrough among management scholars and ict practitioners. in many industries nowadays, the existence and effectiveness of any organizations depend largely on the exhaustive application of information communication technology (ict) and the way it is managed (ermelinda et al., 2011). organizations are intensely seeking to apply information communication technology to support existing business, and to create competitive advantages. over the years, ict has been thought of significantly changing corporate behavior and organization structure, which should increase productivity (brynjolfsson et al., 2019).the internet resource is extending to other platforms such as commerce, entertainment, communication, and industry. over the globe, monthly internet traffic in 2010 is two-third higher than one year ago (naqshbandi & kamel, 2017). information on cost is supplied by accounting section and the capacities and technology to be available in the future depend greatly on financial investments, both planned and recently undertaken. demands hinge not only on the marketing strategy of the firm, but on the competition and the economic climate (mcclain & thomas, 2003). 2.2. hypotheses development research works on ict while presumably sound and strategically compelling, may have ignored the managerial impacts of ict deployment and usage for competitive enhancement of an enterprise. nigel, kraemer, and gurbaxani (2004) undertook a study on “information technology and organizational performance: an integrative model of it business value”. the study involved exploratory review of literature on the association between information technology and organizational performance. study found that it was valuable, but the extent and dimensions are dependent upon internal and external factors including complementary organizational resources of the firm and its trading partners as well as the competitive and macro environment. fernandez and borias (2008) investigated the impact of ict on organizational performance in a brewing in dublin, ireland, using a sample of 300 respondents from five departments of the brewing namely brewing, engineering, marketing, distribution and safety departments. the study employed research survey design and found that ict had a positive and significant impact on organizational performance in the brewing he studied. in a related study by jalagat and al-habsi (2017) the study found significant positive relationship between it’s use of variables of internet applications, mobile and devices, data management system and college performance in the measures of financial performance, accountability, quality service and operational efficiency. studies have also buttressed strong correlation between ict utilization and improving performance of employees in local government administrations in south africa. in another study, day, paquet, scott, and hambley (2012) deployed exploratory structural equation modeling to assess the moderating effect of organisational ict support in the interface of perceived information and communication technology demands on employees and outcomes with the results showing partial moderating effects. a study was conducted by sagir (2013) on impact of organizations as information communication processors on the effectiveness of a brewery industry in lagos using a sample of 260 respondents, interviewed through structured and undisguised questionnaire study affirmed positive relations between ict and effectiveness of organizations. although the study made appreciative impacts on ict usage, it made limited impacts on management of ict in the organizations. in their empirical study to investigate the ictbased innovations on organisational performance, yunis, el-kassar, and tarhini (2017) found corporate entrepreneurship mediating the relationships. study was however limited by research scope in use of instrument and sampling procedure. the corollary of this study was effort by nyarko & kozari to assess the use of icts among agricultural extension workers and implications on service delivery extension. with a sample of 153 field extension workers, structured questionnaire was adapted to glean information from sample respondents. statistical packages including ibm and spss version-22 were instrumental bases for analysis. finding had it that agricultural extension officers use ict for personal communication beyond extension activities. aligning with the above, the hypotheses to be tested are: h1. there is no relationship between ict integration and organizational effectiveness. h2. there is no relationship between ict availability and effectiveness of organization. h3. there is no relationship between ict management polices organizational effectiveness. the model that explains the above relationships is shown in the figure 1: the below model illustrates how ictm’s constructs of integration, infrastructures and management policies relate to measures of organisational effectiveness of productivity, commitment, competitiveness, cost reduction, profitability and organisational image. of electricity distribution company of nigeria (edcn). 3. methodology this research work adopted a descriptive survey design in exploring the opinions of the respondents on relationship between ictm and organizational effectiveness of edc. the population of 937 from which a sample size of 280 was randomly selected, consisted of all employees of the edc in south-south nigeria namely: the port-harcourt electric power distribution company (epdc) plc in rivers state; and the benin electricity power distribution company (epdc) plc in edo state. the port-harcourt and benin grids have subsidiaries in balyesa and delta states respectively. electronics e-mail survey through structured questionnaire was used to elicit responses from sampled employees. the mailed questionnaire was organized in two sections a and b, in which a dealt with demography of the respondents and b for obtaining information pertaining to the subject focus of the research. a five-point likert scale was designed to elicit responses ranging from strongly agree (sa 5), agree (a 4), neutral (n 1), disagree (d 3), and strongly agree (sd 2). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 1-10 4 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 1. authors’ model showing relationship between ictm and organizational effectiveness (2021). instrument reliability appendix b was confirmed at cronbach’s alpha ( = 0.93) and content validity (straub, boudreau, & gefen, 2004) was deployed to measure the appropriateness of the research instruments. confirmatory factor analysis was used to test for the good-fit of the variable for the analysis appendix c. the cfa carried out, complements the investigation result and erodes every doubt about the validity of the questionnaire used for the analysis. descriptive statistics of the mean, and standard deviation were used for the analysis whereas pearson product moment correlations (ppmc) alongside multiple regression engaged to test the hypotheses by means of the statistical packages for social sciences, version 26.1, at p<0.05 level of significance. also microsoft visio 2016 for management model development software was used for the conceptual framework. model specifications are: oes = ð0 + ð1, ifa +e1 (1) oes = 0 +1, ii + e2 (2) oes = 0 + 1, imp + e3 (3) where ð0, 0, 0, are the constant terms while ð1, 1, 1, are the coefficients whereas e1…e6 are the error terms. oes = organizational effectiveness. ifa = ict facility availability. ii = ict integration. imp = ict management policy. 4. results 4.1. descriptive analysis of ictm constructs table 1 depicts the descriptive analysis of the mean value of ict facilities availability among the electricity distribution company in the south-south nigeria. all the mean shown in the table are above the bench mark of 2.5 except, ifa_2 (2.0564±0.867), this is because the electricity distribution company has not fully embraced the optimal use of pos and pmm machines for operations, therefore the responses were below acceptable limit. the highest mean value ifa_3 (3.664±0.679) above 2.5 acceptable limits was obtained as a result of the high use of internet connectivity and websites for online services such as e-mail addresses. table 1. descriptive analysis of the mean value of ict facility availability. variable ict facility availability mean std. deviation remark ifa_1 we have multimedia such as projector for management board meetings 3.179 0.659 agree ifa_2 my organization has introduced the use of p.o.s machine, prepay meter machine (pmm) and customers use them 2.036 0.867 disagree ifa_3 our organization has internet connectivity and websites for our online services such as e-mail addresses 3.664 0.679 agree ifa_4 we have ict department fully equipped for functional ict and telecommunication services (telephone calls) 3.236 0.458 agree ifa_5 we have wi-fi and mi-fi and intercom facilities 2.625 0.976 agree asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 1-10 5 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group a grasp at table 2 reveals the mean statistics of value of ict integration. the mean responses are all above bench mark of 2.5 level of acceptance. the highest mean obtainable was identified with ii_5 (3.671±0.580) with the affirmation that memo and information letters are communicated to stakeholders easily through the use of ict. the lowest mean value of all the items was identified with ii_4 (2.939±1.094). table 2. descriptive analysis of the mean value of ict integration. variable ict integration mean std. deviation remark ii_1 our staff has been trained on the use of ict facilities and thus enhance workflow 3.750 0.517 agree ii_2 our organization has migrated from manual and traditional to automated payment mechanism 3.754 0.568 agree ii_3 we use collaborative work through staff engagement in use of ict 3.157 0.840 agree ii_4 our organization share information and communication resource easily between staff 2.939 1.094 agree ii_5 memo, and information letters are communicated stakeholders easily through the use of ict 3.671 0.580 agree the descriptive statistics in table 3 shows the mean value of ict management policy, with each dimension assuming the value above the bench mark of 2.5. this means that the electricity distribution company has good knowledge of ict policy and it is being implemented satisfactorily for the benefit of the stakeholders. however, item imp 4 (3.154±0.843) show that effort need to be made to periodically review and modified ict polices to reflect challenges in ict business environment. table 3. descriptive analysis of the mean value of ict management policy. variable ict management policy mean std. deviation remark imp_1 our organization has an ict guide to decision making or action 3.668 0.472 agree imp_2 we have a laid-down course of action with the organization 3.593 0.492 agree imp_3 our organization laid-down the limits within which ict decisions are made and operated 3.104 0.877 agree imp_4 we periodically reviewed and modified ict policies to reflect challenges in ict business environment 3.154 0.843 agree imp_5 our ict policies is to an extent is to adopt ict to reduce managerial cost 3.443 0.546 agree the descriptive analysis of the mean value for organizational effectiveness is reflected in table 4. on the measures of organisational effectiveness, agreement was reached among the respondents that ict installation has increased productivity and profitability margin; and stakeholders’ commitment to the organization, and has benefited the organization better than traditional and manual operation. the mean value for the items being above 2.5 bench mark limit is within the acceptance range. table 4. descriptive analysis of the mean value of organisational effectiveness. variable organisational effectiveness mean std. deviation remark oes_1 ict installation has increased our productivity and profit margin 3.755 0.432 agree oes_2 ict management has increased stakeholders’ commitment to the organization 3.429 0.674 agree oes_3 ict management has benefited our organization better than traditional and manual operating 3.825 0.381 agree oes_4 ict management in our organization has helped to keep sales information intact 3.557 0.539 agree oes_5 we get information easily from our stakeholders 3.904 0.371 agree table 5a. summary of correlation matrix and logistics regression of the hypotheses formulated. variable oes 1 2 3 oes 1.000 ifa -0.023 1.000 ii 0.258 -0.271 1.000 imp 0.218 -0.605* 0.290 1.000 r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 0.348a 0.121 0.105 0.357 anovaa model sum of squares df mean square f sig. regression 4.822 5 0.964 7.561 0.000b residual 34.949 274 0.128 total 39.771 279 coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. 95.0% confidence interval for b collinearity statistics b std. error beta lower bound upper bound tolerance vif (constant) 1.230 0.494 2.488 0.013 0.257 2.202 ifa 0.152 0.085 0.149 1.788 0.075 -0.015 0.320 0.460 2.174 ii 0.242 0.064 0.228 3.808 0.000 0.117 0.368 0.891 1.122 imp 0.263 0.102 0.235 2.587 0.010 0.063 0.463 0.389 2.569 note: dependent variable = oes (organizational effectiveness). independent variable = ifa (ict facility availability), ii (ict integration) and imp (ict management policy). source: researcher computation, using spss version 26). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 1-10 6 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.2. hypotheses testing table 5a displays the result of multiple logistic regressions (lr) performed in determining the level of prediction of ifa, ii and imp to oes, ifa (β = 1.788, p = 0.075); ii (β = 3.808, p = 0.000); and imp (β = 2.587, p = 0.010). results strengthen the evidence that ict integration and ict management policy contributed significantly to organizational effectiveness (oes). the ‘*’ in the correlation matrix shows high correlation (r = 0.605) which suggests further analysis of lr. the logistic regression column, ‘a’ depicts the r-value of the predictors (independent variables, ifa, ii and imp) showing 0.348 contribution to the dependent variable oes. the ‘b’ reflects the f-ratio (r = 7.561) which is significant at p = 0.000 < 0.05, thus affirming strength of relationship. the column, ifa (t = 1.788, p = 0.075), ii (t = 3.808, p = 0.000) and imp (t =2.587, p = 0.010) support the standardized coefficient, ifa (0.149), ii (0.228) and imp (0.235). in the confidential interval, imp shows high lower and upper bound (0.063 0.463) evident that ii and imp contributed more significantly than ifa (ict in predicting organizational effectiveness (oes) at p < 0.05 level of significance. furthermore, with the variance inflation factor (vif = 2.174, 1.122 and 2.569) being below the level of diagnosing which is 10, it implies low tolerance of co linearity in the regression analysis. the model plot with factor correlation categorically explained the above table clearly. model 1 h1. there is relationship between ict availability and organizational effectiveness. the covariance estimated standard (0.575) and calculated (p = 0.001< 0.05) makes the hypothesis statistically significant leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis. the ict availability and organizational effectiveness have relationship (see appendix c). model 2 h2 there is relationship between ict integration and effectiveness of organization. this the covariance estimated standard (0.413) and calculated pvalue (0.001) less than 0.05 level of significance imply that the hypothesis is statistically significant. consequent upon the above result, the ict integration and organizational effectiveness have relationship (see appendix c). model 3 h3 there is relationship between ict management polices organizational effectiveness. with covariance output of estimated standard (0.908) calculated pvalue (0.001) less than 0.05 level of significances strengthens the evidence that the hypothesis is statistically significant and implies rejection of the null hypothesis (see appendix). the ict management policy and organizational effectiveness have relationship. off the three factors predicted organizational effectiveness, ictm policy has higher value of correlation than the other two factors. 4.3. factor correlation analysis of ictm variables the factor analysis and model pilot showing how ictm constructs correlate with measures of organisational effectiveness is aptly depicted in table 5b & figure 2: table 5b. factors correlation. estimate std. error z-value p 95% confidence interval lower upper ifa↔ii ifa↔imp ii↔imp oes 0.575a 0.063 9.070 < 0.001 0.451 0.699 0.413 b 0.052 7.955 < 0.001 0.515 0.311 0.908 c 0.046 19.688 < 0.001 0.998 0.817 model plot figure 2. factor analysis of the correlation of information communication management variables as it impacts on organizational effectiveness of electricity distribution companies in the south-south nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 1-10 7 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the above model plot is an output of the confirmatory factor analysis (see appendix) designed to examine the nature of the relationships between the observed measures or the predictors, where ifa and imp predicting oes = 0.58’ ii and imp predicting oes = 0.91; and ifa and imp predicting oes = 0.41. the posited measurement model for the 20-items with five likert scale is as presented in the model plot (see figure 2). the conventional model plot notations are depicted by circles and indicators by rectangles or squares. factor loadings can be found on the large unidirectional arrows, and are clearly outlined in the tables of factor covariance (see appendix c) where all are positive and significant. consequently, in the model plot (figure 2), all the factor loadings are significant at (0.001< 0.05) level of significance. all the variances and residuals have positive values which shows that the predictor (ifa, ii and imp) are positive and significantly determines the dependent variable (oes) thus imp which is ict management policy has higher relationship value (0.91) than the other two, ifa (0.58) and ii ( 0.41). 5. discussion from the model 1, finding has shown evidence of significant relationship between ict facility availability (ifa) and organizational effectiveness (oes) of electricity distribution companies in nigeria. evidently organisational effectiveness will to a large extent be affected by integration and deployment of ict facilities. it is no doubt that a number of organizations are craving for new technology to remain at the competitive edge. in addition, the model specification has revealed effective usage of ict resources at management board meeting and the introduction of innovative ict devices have helped to facilitate the distribution of electricity companies; notwithstanding, the finding has revealed that the use of these machines are in low key. the second finding has shown that ict integration significantly impact on organizational effectiveness in south-south nigeria. this was exhibited in table 4.9 under summary of multiple regression analysis for hypothesis 2. results align with the findings of ssewanyana and busler (2007) that investigated the extent of incorporating and usage of ict on one hundred and ten firms with respect to their contributions. the above evidence correlates with the current study in such areas as ict integration and utilization. heeks (2002) also advocated that ict integration is far-reaching than firms sourcing ict contract from external firms. this, study has confirmed would not give organizations an upper grip on the ict system. findings from the second hypothesis conform to the work of hyunjin et al. (2020). the finding from the analysis of third hypothesis affirms that ict management polices significantly influence organizational effectiveness of electricity distribution companies in nigeria. the result accords with (calder, 2011). the effect of size of the ict management on the organizational effectiveness is even more visible with the variables of the ict management policy as could be seen in table 5(b). this is aspect is the central focus of this research. 6. implications for theory, research value, and future research the piece of research work revolves around existing theories on ictm through construction and validation of model relating typologies of ictm to effectiveness of electricity distribution companies in nigeria. while it could be averred that research endeavors in this area have addressed the use, benefits, impacts and trends of ict, literature on the management of the ict is still scanty. it becomes imperative that strategies and processes for managing ict infrastructures be developed in order to optimize ict effectiveness. it is within this context that this research found its originality as it is the first of its kind in the pool of extant literature that underscored the place of management processes in the use of ict resources. implicated in the above is the need to review ict management policy periodically to meet the increasing dynamics in the ict environment. it is also instructive to assert that proper management of ict device availability and integration will bear positively on the organizational effectiveness. moreover, the study will form a vital platform for other researchers and pointed grey areas to research into related areas such as customers’ opinion and satisfaction with ict’s device and its consumption in the south-south, nigeria. future research may also conduct a comparative analysis of ictm deployment, use and integration across countries. 7. conclusion electricity distribution companies in the south-south nigeria are majorly two: the benin electric distribution company controlling the edo and delta region, and the port-harcourt electricity distribution company controlling rivers, bayelsa, akwa-ibom and cross-rivers states. the study stressed the need for the regional power grids to adopt the information communication technology in their effort to ensure swift and stable distribution of electricity in the region. to be fully integrated and for effectiveness, the distributing companies must brace-up actions to imbibe rudiments of sound management practices. even as at now, quite a handful of companies have deployed prepay meter machine (pmm) and point of sales (pos) machine to assist the stakeholders and investors in designated areas. the ict facilities availability is yet to cover all the south-south nigeria. consequently, the study has foreclosed the strategic bearing of ictm constructs of ict availability, ict integration and ict management policy on the organizational effectiveness of the electricity distribution companies. references allen, t., & morton, m. 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(2017). impact of ict-based innovations on organizational performance: the role of corporate entrepreneurship. journal of enterprise information management, 30(1), 122-141.available at: https://doi.org/10.1108/jeim-01-20160040. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 1-10 9 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group appendix a. presents confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) with model fit table 1. model fit. chi-square test model χ² df p baseline model 3656.800 120 factor model 2448.554 101 < 0.001 table 2. parameter estimates. factor loadings factor indicator symbol estimate std. error z-value p lower upper ifa ifa_1 ð11 0.644 0.030 21.400 < 0.001 0.585 0.703 ifa_2 ð12 0.388 0.050 7.738 < 0.001 0.289 0.486 ifa_3 ð13 -0.434 0.037 -11.730 < 0.001 -0.506 -0.361 ifa_4 ð14 0.300 0.025 12.091 < 0.001 0.251 0.349 ifa_5 ð15 0.761 0.050 15.178 < 0.001 0.662 0.859 ii ii_1 21 -0.131 0.032 -4.047 < 0.001 -0.195 -0.068 ii_2 22 -0.274 0.035 -7.893 < 0.001 -0.342 -0.206 ii_3 23 -0.495 0.051 -9.755 < 0.001 -0.594 -0.395 ii_4 24 0.264 0.069 3.849 < 0.001 0.130 0.399 ii_5 25 -0.277 0.031 -8.835 < 0.001 -0.338 -0.215 imp imp_1 31 0.286 0.025 11.231 < 0.001 0.236 0.336 imp_2 32 -0.273 0.028 -9.832 < 0.001 -0.327 -0.219 imp_3 33 -0.295 0.051 -5.743 < 0.001 -0.395 -0.194 imp_4 34 -0.143 0.048 -2.997 0.003 -0.236 -0.049 imp_5 35 0.546 0.026 20.652 < 0.001 0.494 0.598 oes oes 36 -0.011 0.023 -0.495 0.621 -0.055 0.033 appendix b. cronbach-alpha reliability test. [dataset1] c:\users\isytech-zinox\desktop\reliability calculation. sav table 1. warnings. each of the following component variables has zero variance and is removed from the scale: q.18, q.24. the determinant of the covariance matrix is zero or approximately zero. statistics based on its inverse matrix cannot be computed and they are displayed as system missing values. table 2. scale: all variables. case processing summary n % cases valid 2 100.0 excludeda 0 0.0 total 2 100.0 note: a. listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. table 3. reliability statistics. cronbach's alpha cronbach's alpha based on standardized items n of items 0.932 0.964 28 table 4. item statistics mean std. deviation n q.1 35.0000 7.07107 30 q.2 27.5000 7.77817 30 q.3 27.5000 6.36396 30 q.4 28.5000 3.53553 30 q.5 24.5000 6.36396 30 q.6 21.5000 13.43503 30 q.7 15.0000 19.79899 30 q.8 19.0000 24.04163 30 q.9 25.5000 19.09188 30 q.10 21.5000 7.77817 30 q.11 21.0000 9.89949 30 q.12 27.0000 15.55635 30 q.13 30.5000 3.53553 30 q.14 31.5000 2.12132 30 q.15 28.5000 9.19239 30 q.16 25.5000 3.53553 30 q.17 32.0000 8.48528 30 q.19 30.0000 1.41421 30 q.20 28.0000 1.41421 30 q.21 15.5000 19.09188 30 q.22 20.0000 8.48528 30 q.23 27.0000 2.82843 30 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 1-10 10 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group q.25 28.5000 0.70711 30 q.26 22.0000 11.31371 30 q.27 32.0000 8.48528 30 q.28 34.5000 7.77817 30 q.29 30.5000 12.02082 30 q.30 28.5000 10.60660 30 table 4. summary item statistics. mean minimum maximum range maximum / minimum variance n of items item means 26.357 15.000 35.000 20.000 2.333 27.571 28 appendix c. presents confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) with the removal of unrelated item * table 1. factor variances. 95% confidence interval factor estimate std. error z-value p lower upper ifa 1.000 0.000 9.071 < 0.001 1.000 1.000 ii 1.000 0.000 -7.954 < 0.001 1.000 1.000 imp 1.000 0.000 -19.701 < 0.001 1.000 1.000 table 2. factor covariances. 95% confidence interval factor estimate std. error z-value p lower upper ifa ↔ii ifa ↔imp ii ↔imp 0.575 0.063 9.071 < 0.001 0.451 0.699 -0.413 0.052 -7.954 < 0.001 -0.515 -0.311 -0.908 0.046 -19.701 < 0.001 -0.998 -0.818 table 3. residual variances. 95% confidence interval indicator estimate std. error z-value p lower upper if_1 0.018 0.013 1.356 0.175 -0.008 0.043 ifa_2 0.599 0.051 11.693 < 0.001 0.498 0.699 ifa_3 0.270 0.024 11.302 < 0.001 0.224 0.317 ifa_4 0.119 0.011 11.235 < 0.001 0.098 0.139 ifa_5 0.370 0.037 10.100 < 0.001 0.298 0.442 ii_1 0.251 0.021 11.716 < 0.001 0.209 0.292 ii_2 0.246 0.022 11.125 < 0.001 0.203 0.290 ii_3 0.459 0.045 10.287 < 0.001 0.372 0.546 ii_4 1.123 0.096 11.729 < 0.001 0.935 1.311 ii_5 0.189 0.018 10.784 < 0.001 0.154 0.223 imp_1 0.128 0.011 11.149 < 0.001 0.106 0.151 imp_2 0.167 0.015 11.477 < 0.001 0.138 0.195 imp_3 0.677 0.057 11.797 < 0.001 0.565 0.790 imp_4 0.617 0.052 11.828 < 0.001 0.515 0.720 imp_5 0.001 0.014 0.102 0.919* -0.026 0.029 oes 0.142 0.012 11.832 < 0.001 0.118 0.165 note: * not included in the model formation because not significant at 0.05 level of significance. table 4. intercepts. 95% confidence interval indicator estimate std. error z-value p lower upper ifa_1 3.179 0.039 80.885 < 0.001 3.102 3.256 ifa_2 2.036 0.052 39.367 < 0.001 1.934 2.137 ifa_3 3.664 0.040 90.530 < 0.001 3.585 3.744 ifa_4 3.236 0.027 118.512 < 0.001 3.182 3.289 ifa_5 2.625 0.058 45.097 < 0.001 2.511 2.739 ii_1 3.746 0.031 121.131 < 0.001 3.686 3.807 ii_2 3.754 0.034 110.788 < 0.001 3.687 3.820 ii_3 3.157 0.050 62.969 < 0.001 3.059 3.255 ii_4 2.939 0.065 45.035 < 0.001 2.811 3.067 ii_5 3.721 0.031 120.908 < 0.001 3.661 3.782 imp_1 3.700 0.027 135.105 < 0.001 3.646 3.754 imp_2 3.593 0.029 122.369 < 0.001 3.535 3.650 imp_3 3.104 0.052 59.404 < 0.001 3.001 3.206 imp_4 3.071 0.048 64.357 < 0.001 2.978 3.165 imp_5 3.486 0.033 106.527 < 0.001 3.422 3.550 oes 3.829 0.023 169.985 < 0.001 3.784 3.873 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 53 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 8, no. 2, 53-60, 2021 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2021.82.53.60 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group a study into the nature of emotional intelligence in public and private institutions in ghana chief bright akomeah1 francis duah2 ernest owusu3 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3sunyani technical university, ghana. abstract the purpose of the study is to examine the nature of emotional intelligence in a survey using respondents from both public and private institutions. the study design is quantitative, descriptive, and cross-sectional research. the sample size for the study was 140 sampled using the convenience sample method. the questionnaire for the collection of data was designed by the researchers using the likert scale format. the reliability of the scales and the dimensions of the scales were investigated using reliability, and factor analysis tests respectively. the data was analysed using the ibm spss statistics 26. the results show the responses were reliable and the scales were also unidimensional. various dimensions of emotional intelligence were identified as awareness of own emotions; management of emotions; awareness of others’ emotions; and management of others’ emotions. management of institutions should consider in their organisational strategies, the findings of the present research to ensure the efficient running of the institutions. the role of demographic features in emotional intelligence is a recommended direction for future studies. keywords: awareness of own emotions, management of own emotions, awareness of others’ emotions, management of others’ emotions, emotional intelligence, public institutions. jel classification: d90, d91. citation | chief bright akomeah; francis duah; ernest owusu (2021). a study into the nature of emotional intelligence in public and private institutions in ghana. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 8(2): 53-60. history: received: 6 april 2021 revised: 10 may 2021 accepted: 3 june 2021 published: 28 june 2021 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 54 2. literature survey ............................................................................................................................................................................. 54 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 55 4. empirical results and discussions ............................................................................................................................................... 56 5. conclusions ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 59 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 59 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2021.82.53.60&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/3026 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7897-6391 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5408-0091 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4578-7973 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 53-60 54 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the paper contributes to the body of literature in the area of emotional intelligence by examining the nature of emotional intelligence in the current study areas since in the knowledge of the authors no such work exists, and hence the paper fills in this knowledge gap. in the current infrastructure of the institutions, with technology and modern processes of doing things, the present paper investigates whether emotional intelligence among the respondents is high or low. addressing the gap will afford management of institutions information on the nature of emotional intelligence levels among the employees to appropriately provide the needed human resources programmes that will help them optimize productivity, in the bide to achieve their core goals as management of the institutions. 1. introduction research in the area of emotional intelligence (ei) continues to attract attention in the literature ever since the formal treatment of the subject in terms of theory by mayer and salovey (1990) after previous empirical works. this sustained interest stem from the fact that emotional intelligence impact significantly on all known cultures and academic communities. these research works have taken the form of academic debate in the field of management and psychology, among researchers and practitioners, intending to understand the concepts of emotional intelligence and how to put into use the principles of emotional intelligence (emmerling & goleman, 2003). according to researchers (boyatzis, 1982; goleman, 1998; goleman, 2001; goleman, boyatzis, & mckee, 2002; schmidt & hunter, 1981; spencer & spencer, 1993; sternberg, 1997), empirical research in emotional intelligence is currently still relevant since ei is very important in predicting worker performance, job satisfaction, motivation and many issues, even higher than that of the traditional measures of intelligence, such as the intelligence quotient. in the literature (gardner, 2013; mayer & salovey, 1990; mayer, caruso, & salovey, 1999; steiner, 1984) emotion is explained as an individual potential to be able to manage personal emotions and feelings, and other persons also emotions and feelings. it is further considered as an individual capacity to be able to recognise and bring out emotions to be able to aid judgement. emotional intelligence is considered to vary from individual to individual and that an individual deals with emotional issues differently. hence, peoples use different adaptive strategies to deal with emotional issues (george, 2000; mayer & salovey, 1990). the literature (mayer & salovey, 1990; wasielewski, 1985) indicates that individuals with higher levels of emotional intelligence are more productive on various tasks as compared with individuals that have lower emotional intelligence, and they are also good leaders. higher levels of emotional intelligence in addition help individuals to be able to deal with other person feelings and emotions appropriately when socialising. the current research is necessitated by the fact that empirical research findings (cote & miners, 2006; law, wong, & song, 2004; van rooy & viswesvaran, 2004) conclude that workers higher on emotional intelligence are more productive at the job place than workers with lower emotions and feelings, who are considered as less productive, and poor leaders with weak planning skills. the nature of emotional intelligence has not been examined in the current study areas in the knowledge of the authors, and hence the paper fills in this knowledge gap to add to the existing literature. in the current infrastructure of the institutions, with technology and modern processes of doing things, the present paper investigates whether emotional intelligence among the respondents is high or low. addressing the gap will afford management of institutions information on the nature of emotional intelligence levels among the employees to appropriately provide the needed human resources programmes that will help them optimize productivity, in the bide to achieve their core goals as management of the institutions. respondents will also be aware of their emotional intelligence nature and that will help them to take achieve decisions in improving their emotional levels if they happen to have low emotional levels. knowledge of the respondent’s emotional level will help respondents to be able to predict their work behaviour and the other demands of their job. it will also help to determine whether respondents in the survey are emotionally stable or not. the research is based on a global objective of investigating the nature of emotional intelligence among the employees and the ranks of the emotional intelligence among the respondents. the particular intentions of the present study are to assess the sorts of emotional intelligence among the respondents and to rank the identified emotional levels of the respondents. the research is underpinned by the following question: what are the sorts of emotional intelligence among the respondents in the survey? what are the ranks of the emotional intelligence identified? the propositions for the paper are; there are higher levels of emotional intelligence among respondents in the study and that, some emotional constructs are highly ranked than others by the respondents. the research delimitations are that some respondents might have been economical with information when responding to the items in the questionnaire. there could be under-reporting or over-reporting of responses by respondents. causality issues were also not examined in the study. the sample is based on a non-probability sample method and as such, the findings may lack external validity. the study did not consider the effect of emotional intelligence on other dimensions of an individual employee, and work environments such as job performance, motivation, satisfaction, and adaptive strategies of emotional intelligence. the rest of the manuscript looks at the literature survey (section 2); methodology (section 3); results and discussions (section 4); and conclusions (section 5). 2. literature survey there have been prior research efforts to examine and measure the nature of emotional intelligence empirically in various institutions both private and public. the findings are found in the works of various researchers (asrarul-haq, anwar, & hassan, 2017; befort & hattrup, 2003; bono, foldes, vinson, & muros, 2007; bono & vey, 2007; brotheridge, 2006; carmeli, 2003; day & carroll, 2004; diefendorff, croyle, & gosserand, 2005; fox & spector, 2000; grandey, fisk, & steiner, 2005; joseph & newman, 2010; kellett, humphrey, & sleeth, 2006; mayer & cobb, 2000; mayer, salovey, caruso, & sitarenios, 2001; murphy, 1989; offermann, bailey, vasilopoulos, seal, & sass, 2004; pugh, 2001; sy, tram, & o’hara, 2006). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 53-60 55 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group fox and spector (2000) in a survey identified various emotional intelligence measures and their effect on worker performance and reported that respondents have different levels of emotional intelligence, such as high and low levels. mayer and cobb (2000) in their study examined the various construct of emotional intelligence among respondents and reported that emotional intelligence is associated positively with respondents work effort. mayer et al. (2001) reported that respondents have different levels of emotions and that those with higher emotional levels have a good work relationship with co-workers than those with low emotional intelligence levels. in the empirical study of befort and hattrup (2003), they pointed out various emotional measures among the respondents and indicated that respondents with higher emotional intelligence can manage effectively their psychological state of mind and also are more productive at the job place than respondents lower on the emotional intelligence scale. day and carroll (2004) investigated different constructs of emotional intelligence, and reported various dimensions of emotional intelligence among the respondents and concluded that they are associated with worker performance. they indicated that there is a need to improve the emotional performance of employees to enhance worker work effort. offermann et al. (2004) studied the emotional profiles of respondents and reported that respondents exhibit various aspects of emotional intelligence and concluded that worker performance in teamwork is associated with emotional intelligence. in the study by kellett et al. (2006) on the role of emotional intelligence in leadership, they recognized various emotional intelligence measures and concluded that the identified emotional intelligence measures predict the surfacing of leaders in a group. sy et al. (2006) in a study of leadership and emotional intelligence recognised different aspects of emotional intelligence among the respondents and stated that emotional intelligence is associated with the performance of leaders. their findings are also in support of that of bono et al. (2007) study on emotional intelligence and leadership. bono et al. (2007) also concluded that leaders high in emotional intelligence are more stable in their temperament when dealing with co-workers. they also identified various aspect of emotional intelligence with various levels. dunaway (2013) explored the dimensions of emotional intelligence and reported various dimensions of emotional intelligence such as awareness of own emotions; management of own emotions; awareness of others’ emotions; and management of others ‘emotions. they concluded that awareness and management of one’s own emotion significantly affect team effectiveness. ugoani, amu, and kalu (2015) investigated emotional intelligence and how it affects leadership. their study findings indicated self-awareness, self-confidence, emotional management, empathy, and transparency are emotional intelligence domains among the respondents and they affect leadership performance. masa’deh (2016) in jordan investigated the nature of emotional intelligence and the effect it has on organisational effectiveness. the study reported various dimensions of emotional intelligence such as management of other’s emotion; awareness of other’s emotions; management of one’s own emotion; and awareness of one’s own emotion. in pakistan, asrar-ul-haq et al. (2017) examined the effect of emotional intelligence on worker performance and identified various constructs of emotional intelligence such as conflict management, developing other colleagues, achievement, self-confidence, emotional self-awareness, and self-confidence. 3. methodology 3.1 research design/strategy/type the quantitative research design employed in the present research, to quantify the responses on the nature of emotional intelligence in the study area. the research is also a descriptive study in which the domains of emotional intelligence as exist in the study area are described. in addition, the study is not longitudinal but cross-sectional research and as such data is taken from the respondents once and analysed. 3.2. research population/sample size/sampling method the target population for the study is the staff of the public and private institutions in sunyani municipality. a sample size of 140 respondents was used. table 1 in section 4 shows the respondents biographical information. the sample size for the study was selected using the convenience sampling method. in this method of sample, a respondent is included for the reason that the respondent is easily accessible to the researchers. 3.3. data collection instruments the research questionnaire in the format of the five-point (5-point) likert scale (strongly agreed, agreed, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree), and codes were designed by the researcher, using information from the prior research effort surveyed in section 2 of the current paper. the working hours of the respondents were used to administer the questionnaire. the items on the questionnaire were closed-ended. hence, respondents only ticked the responses as applied to them. 3.4. data analysis and presentation of empirical results data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, mean, and standard deviation of responses. the reliability test was also performed to assess the reliability of the responses provided by the respondents. the results are presented in tables in section 4 of the paper. 3.5. conceptual framework figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework for the current research. the model considers emotional intelligence as consisting of various domains which are indicated in figure 1. various models in the literature are used to measure the domains of emotional intelligence (ugoani et al., 2015). these models are found in the works of various authors (bar-on, 1997; goleman, 2001; mayer & salovey, 1997; petrides, pita, & kokkinaki, 2007). the models are mayer, salovey, and caruso (2002) (msceit); interpersonal eq, adaptability eq, stress management eq, impulse control eq, and general mood eq; emotional competency inventory (eci); the trait emotional asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 53-60 56 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group intelligence questionnaire (teique). the current model has based on the works of these authors (goleman, 1995). goleman (1995) identified five subdomains (know your emotions; manage your emotions; motivate yourself; recognise and understand other people’s emotions; manage relationships (other people’s emotions)) of emotional intelligence from the main four domains and stated that emotional intelligence consists of (1) self-awareness; (2) self-management; (3) social awareness; and (relationship management). figure-1. a conceptual framework for the explanation of emotional intelligence domain. 4. empirical results and discussions 4.1. background information on respondents table 1 indicates the demographic features of the respondents in the study. the results show that the majority (57.9%) of the respondents were males; a majority (39.3%) belong to the age group of 30-39 years; a majority (62.1%) hold undergraduate certificate; a majority (50.7%) are married; most (43.6%) are senior members; most (32.9%) have worked between 3-5years; a majority (69.3%) were christians; and lastly, a majority (57.9%) of the respondents were from brong ahafo. table-1. demographic profile of respondents. variables frequency percentage (%) gender male 81 57.9 female 59 42.1 total 140 100.0 age 20-29 37 26.4 30-39 55 39.3 40-49 38 27.1 50-59 10 7.1 total 140 100.0 educational status first degree/hnd/diploma 87 62.1 masters 41 29.3 phd 12 8.6 total 140 100.0 marital status single 62 44.3 married 71 50.7 divorced 7 5.0 total 140 100.0 current work status junior staff 48 34.3 senior staff 61 43.6 senior member 30 21.4 missing response 1 0.7 total 140 100.0 length of service in the current position 2years and less 40 28.6 3-5years 46 32.9 6-8years 26 18.6 9years and above 28 20.0 total 140 100.0 religion (belief) christian 97 69.3 muslim 30 21.4 traditional 6 4.3 other religion 7 5.0 total 140 100.0 region (culture) upper west 12 8.6 upper east 9 6.4 northern 10 7.1 brong ahafo 81 57.9 ashanti 6 4.3 western 7 5.0 eastern 4 2.9 central 7 5.0 greater 1 0.7 volta 3 2.1 total 140 100.0 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 53-60 57 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.2. results of reliability test the results of reliability test for the dimensions of emotional intelligence are shown in table 2 (all the domains of emotional intelligence analysed together), and table 3 (when the domains are separated into four) the results show high internal consistency since the value of the cronbach alpha coefficients is all above 0.7. this means the questionnaire used to collect data is adequate and reliable as cronbach (1951) explained. table-2. results of reliability analysis for emotional intelligence dimensions. categories of statements cronbach’s alpha no. of items conclusion emotional intelligence domains 0.860 15 high reliability table-3. results of reliability analysis for emotional intelligence dimensions. categories of statements emotional intelligence domains cronbach’s alpha no. of items conclusion awareness of own emotions 0.901 4 very high reliability management of own emotions 0.771 4 high reliability awareness of others’ emotions 0.818 3 high reliability management of others ‘emotions 0.854 4 high reliability 4.3. test for dimensionality of the key domains of emotional intelligence used in the study after testing for the reliability of the set of items used, the set of items were statistically examined to determine if they measure just one common thing (emotional intelligence), using the dimensionality test. the results are shown in table 4 to table 7. the test results in all the tables indicate uni-dimensionality of the scales, since in all the test results as shown in the tables, only the first component is larger and also explains the variance in the components using the initial eigenvalues. in table 4, the first component explains about 77%; in table 5, about 60%; in table 6, about 73%; in table 7, about 70%, in the variance. table-4. test results for dimensionality. initial eigenvalues extraction sums of squared loadings components totals % of variance cumulative % total % of variance cumulative % 1 3.096 77.402 77.402 3.096 77.402 77.402 2 0.496 12.399 89.800 3 0.232 5.789 95.589 4 0.176 4.411 100.000 table-5. test results for dimensionality. initial eigenvalues extraction sums of squared loadings components totals % of variance cumulative % total % of variance cumulative % 1 2.403 60.070 60.070 2.403 60.070 60.070 2 0.736 18.408 78.477 3 0.538 13.445 91.922 4 0.323 8.078 100.000 table-6. test results for dimensionality. initial eigenvalues extraction sums of squared loadings components totals % of variance cumulative % total % of variance cumulative % 1 2.201 73.365 73.365 2.201 73.365 73.365 2 0.510 17.011 90.376 3 0.289 9.624 100.000 table-7. test results for dimensionality. initial eigenvalues extraction sums of squared loadings components totals % of variance cumulative % total % of variance cumulative % 1 2.793 69.816 69.816 2.793 69.816 69.816 2 0.576 14.391 84.207 3 0.381 9.513 93.720 4 0.251 6.280 100.000 4.4. normality test the kolmogorov-smirnova and shapiro-wilk tests were performed to explore the nature of normality of the data set. table 8 report the test results. the results in table 8 indicate the data set are not normally distributed, since the p-values of the tests are less than 0.05. this indicates the data significantly deviate from a normal distribution. 4.5. analysis of emotional intelligence domains table 9 shows the values of the standard deviations and the score of means for each emotional intelligence key domains. in all, four (4) domains were identified in the research. they are awareness of own emotions; management of own emotions; awareness of others’ emotions; and management of others’ emotions. each domain has subdimensions as a measure of the key domain. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 53-60 58 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-8. normality test results. scales kolmogorov-smirnova shapiro-wilk statistic df p-values statistic df p-values i can explain the emotions i feel to my colleagues. 0.290 140 0.000 0.799 140 0.000 i can discuss the emotions i feel with other colleagues. 0.292 140 0.000 0.834 140 0.000 if i feel down, i can tell my colleagues what will make me feel better. 0.251 140 0.000 0.846 140 0.000 i can talk to other colleagues about the emotions i experience 0.286 140 0.000 0.845 140 0.000 i respect the opinion of my colleagues, even if i think they are wrong. 0.267 140 0.000 0.859 140 0.000 when i am frustrated with my colleagues, i can overcome my frustration. 0.242 140 0.000 0.832 140 0.000 when deciding on a dispute, i try to see all sides of a disagreement before i conclude. 0.289 140 0.000 0.820 140 0.000 i give a fair hearing to my colleagues’ ideas 0.289 140 0.000 0.825 140 0.000 i can read my colleagues “true” feelings, even if they try to hide them. 0.228 140 0.000 0.882 140 0.000 when i talk to my colleagues, i can gauge their true feelings from their body language. 0.245 140 0.000 0.867 140 0.000 i can tell when my colleagues don’t mean what they say. 0.270 140 0.000 0.865 140 0.000 my enthusiasm can be contagious for my colleagues. 0.266 140 0.000 0.862 140 0.000 i am able to cheer my colleagues up when they are feeling down. 0.309 140 0.000 0.815 140 0.000 i can get my colleagues to share my keenness for a project. 0.307 140 0.000 0.828 140 0.000 i can provide the “spark” to get my colleagues enthusiastic. 0.257 140 0.000 0.850 140 0.000 the subdimensions have been ranked. the two most ranked dimensions of each key domain as indicated in table 8 are as follows: for the awareness of own emotions domain, they are ‘i can explain the emotions i feel to my colleagues’, and ‘if i feel down, i can tell my colleagues what will make me feel better, respectively. in the case, of management of own emotions, they are ‘when i am frustrated with my colleagues, i can overcome my frustration’, and ‘when deciding on a dispute, i try to see all sides of a disagreement before i conclude’, respectively. the first two most ranked dimensions for awareness of others emotions are ‘when i talk to my colleagues, i can gauge their “true” feelings from their body language, and ‘i can read my colleagues “true” feelings, even if they try to hide them’, respectively. lastly, for the management of others’ emotions, the first two most ranked dimensions are ‘i can provide the “spark” to get my colleagues enthusiastic’, and ‘i can cheer my colleagues up when they are feeling down, respectively. table-9. results on the dimensions of emotional intelligence. dimensions of emotional intelligence n mean standard deviation ranks awareness of own emotions i. i can explain the emotions i feel to my colleagues. 140 3.9286 1.1165 1 ii. i can discuss the emotions i feel with other colleagues. 140 3.8357 1.0361 3 iii. if i feel down, i can tell my colleagues what will make me feel better. 140 3.8857 1.0394 2 iv. i can talk to other colleagues about the emotions i experience. 140 3.8286 0.9441 4 management of own emotions i. i respect the opinion of my colleagues, even if i think they are wrong. 140 3.8571 0.9412 4 ii. when i am frustrated with my colleagues, i can overcome my frustration. 140 4.0500 0.8841 1 iii. when deciding on a dispute, i try to see all sides of a disagreement before i conclude. 140 4.0071 0.8439 2 iv. i give a fair hearing to my colleagues’ ideas. 140 3.9929 0.8936 3 awareness of others’ emotions i. i can read my colleagues “true” feelings, even if they try to hide them. 140 3.7214 1.0254 2 ii. when i talk to my colleagues, i can gauge their true feelings from their body language. 140 3.7214 1.0733 1 iii. i can tell when my colleagues don’t mean what they say. 140 3.6714 1.0139 3 management of others ‘emotions i. my enthusiasm can be contagious for my colleagues. 140 3.7000 0.9574 4 ii. i am able to cheer my colleagues up when they are feeling down. 140 3.8786 0.9404 2 iii. i can get my colleagues to share my keenness/zeal for a project. 140 3.7929 0.8855 3 iv. i can provide the “spark” to get my colleagues enthusiastic. 140 3.9000 0.9237 1 4.6. discussions the research used both public and private institutional-based cross-sectional research to investigate the nature of the key emotional intelligence domains in sunyani township. the research findings show four key emotional intelligence domains in the study. they are awareness of own emotions; management of own emotions; awareness of other’s emotions; and the management of other’s emotions. the research findings are in line with that of prior research efforts that explored the nature of emotional intelligence such as dunaway (2013) who explored the dimensions of emotional intelligence and reported various dimensions such as awareness of own emotions; management of own emotions; awareness of others’ emotions; and management of others ‘emotions; ugoani et al. (2015) who investigated the emotional intelligence dimensions and indicated self-awareness, self-confidence, emotional management, empathy, and transparency as the main domains asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 53-60 59 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group among the respondents; masa’deh (2016) who examined the nature of emotional intelligence and reported of various dimensions such as management of other’s emotion; awareness of other’s emotions; management of one’s own emotion; and awareness of one’s own emotion. in a similar study, asrar-ul-haq et al. (2017) identified conflict management, developing other colleagues, achievement, self-confidence, emotional self-awareness, and selfconfidence as the key dimensions of emotional intelligence. the findings imply that respondents in the study do not have a problem with the issues of emotional intelligence and as such other aspects of the organisations might not suffer negatively since they score higher on the scale used to measure the nature of emotional intelligence. emotional intelligence is and continues to be important in any organisation, and worker must be encouraged to learn skills that will aid them to improve on these emotional intelligence dimensions. 5. conclusions the purpose of the study has been achieved by examining the nature of emotional intelligence in a survey using respondents from both public and private institutions. the reliability of the scales and the dimensions of the scales (whether unidimensional and multidimensional) were investigated using reliability test (cronbach alpha), and factor analysis (principal component analysis) respectively. the results show the responses were reliable and the scales were also unidimensional. various dimensions of emotional intelligence and their subdimensions were identified as awareness of own emotions; management of emotions; awareness of others’ emotions; and management of others’ emotions. the various subdimensions of emotional intelligence are differently ranked among respondents. management of institutions should consider in their organisational strategies, the findings of the present research to ensure the efficient running of the institutions. various policies should be put in place to help employees to learn to improve on their emotions and feelings so that the organisations will benefit from employees’ high emotions and feelings. the findings support the theories on the dimensions of emotional intelligence among employees. the theories indicate workers possess various emotional intelligence at very levels of high and low, and that these levels can be enhanced through learning. further empirical studies, considering comparative analysis involving private and public universities are worth embarking on. the role of demographic features in emotional intelligence is also a good line of research in future studies. studies on the effect of emotional intelligence on motivation, job satisfaction, and job performance are in addition worth doing in the current study area. causal studies using the structural modelling method on the effect of emotional intelligence on motivation, job satisfaction, and job performance should be considered in subsequent studies. references asrar-ul-haq, m., anwar, s., & hassan, m. 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(1985). the emotional basis of charisma. symbolic interaction, 8(2), 207-222. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 208 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 3, 208-218, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.208.218 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group stakeholders’ participation in school activities in public secondary schools in los baños, laguna roden torrena lacanilao ( corresponding author) los banos national high school batong malake (department of education), philippines. abstract this study was conducted to measure the stakeholders’ participation in school activities los baños district, laguna for the school year 2013-2014. it aims to compare the level of participation by school among (4) secondary public schools in los baños, laguna. the data collected from the responses of the four (4) principals/oic’s, one hundred eleven (111) teachers, forty (40) barangay officials, one hundred twenty six (126) students and parents were tabulated and encoded for analysis and interpretations. the survey questionnaire was done for the survey among the (5) stakeholders which are students, principals, teachers, parents, and lgu’s. it was used to determine the difference in the level of assessment and level of participation among various stakeholders in which anova was used. the findings of the study revealed that the overall mean assessment of stakeholders’ participation in school activity is as follows; tuntungin putho national high school has the highest mean level of participation. los baños national high school-poblacion has the lowest levels of participation. and it was determined that there is a significant difference among stakeholders’ level of participation as far as planning, decision making, information drive, and implementing were concerned. keywords: stakeholders, school activities, planning, decision making, information drive, school operation. jel classification: i21 analysis of education. citation | roden torrena lacanilao (2020). stakeholders’ participation in school activities in public secondary schools in los baños, laguna. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(3): 208-218. history: received: 30 april 2020 revised: 3 june 2020 accepted: 1 july 2020 published: 14 july 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. the problem and its background .............................................................................................................................................. 209 2. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................. 212 3. presentation, analysis and interpretation of data ................................................................................................................. 213 4. summary, conclusions and recommendations ........................................................................................................................ 217 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 218 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.208.218&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1882 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1943-5509 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1882 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1943-5509 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1882 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1943-5509 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 208-218 209 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study has a unique contribution in terms of focusing and measuring the participation of stakeholders in identified school activities rather just participation in general, supported with national guidelines highlighting the roles and limitations of school stakeholders’ involvement. 1. the problem and its background 1.1. introduction article xiv section i of the philippine constitution declares that “the state shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all”. in order for the government to give education to its citizens, it provides free education by having public elementary and secondary schools but with minimal payment at state universities and colleges. public schools are educational institutions established and administered by the government. an act providing for the establishment and maintenance of an integrated system of education, batas pambansa bilang 232 likewise, declares government policy to foster, at all times, a spirit of shared purposes and cooperation among the members and elements of the educational community, and between the community and other sectors of society, in the realization that only in such an atmosphere can be true goals and objectives of education be fulfilled. similarly, stakeholders have great involvement in the school operations of the public secondary schools. they are the individual internal or external members to an organization that has a “stake” in the success of the institutions, (edu/strategicplan/02.html). the department of education has programs that stakeholders are involved in like: child-friendly school system (cfss). through this project, students engage more in active participation among fellow students and other school staff: teachers become more active as agents for students protection, and parents become involved in school activities; the brigada eskwela, demonstrates how the communities could work in teams to maintain public schools. still another in adopt-a-school programs formalized by ra 8525. the program is deped’s vehicle to mobilize support from private and non-government sectors. based on a menu of assistance packages develop by deped, interested companies can sponsor certain school programs/projects. the enactment act of republic act 9155, otherwise known as governance of basic education act of 2001, gave added impetus to the earlier efforts of the department of education to decentralize the governance of basic education at the grassroots level, however, stakeholders and the community seems to lack awareness on their roles resulting to being inactive into school’s activities. it is in this situation that the researcher became concerned in getting the stakeholders’ participation in school activities of public secondary schools in los baños, laguna. results of the study can help the school administrators to assess the effectiveness of involving the stakeholders in school activities. it can also help teachers who aspire to be principal or school administrator in preparing themselves in the administration and supervision of school. likewise, the researcher conducted this study to find out how the public schools operates in terms of its activities, and who are the persons involved in the success of the school activities. 1.2. background of the study the lack of awareness among stakeholders’ of their roles in the school activities has been the persisting problem of the public secondary school in los baños district. despite the department of education imposition of the batas pambansa bilang 232 about their participation, their being passive in their participation to some extent affects the level of performance of the school operation. the foregoing mandate was supplemented by the national education policy act 27 of 1996 which encouraged parental participation at home and at school and to link home and school more effectively. as a result of the selected observations made by the deped, they generalized that children whose parents are involved in their schooling have significantly improved in their academic achievement, personality development and active in school activities. however, the ideal and expected conditions generally were not observed in the public secondary schools in the district of los baños. it is true that the fundamentals of the organization of parents teachers associations were well attended usually in the preliminary part of the school year where parents attended the meeting for the election of pta officers however, nothing significant follows. it is expected that every pta shall provide mechanisms to ensure proper coordination with the members of the community, provide an avenue for assistance and support to the school for the promotion of their common interest. a very obvious instance are meeting called for brigada eskwela and feeding program, or any school activity that needs full cooperation of the parents, where less than 50% of parents come and support the program. the students officially enrolled in the school are the important internal stakeholders of the school. section 15 of batas pambansa bilang 232, explicitly described the important role and responsibilities of the students where they need to exert their utmost development of their potentialities; uphold the academic integrity of the school; promote and maintain peace and tranquility of the school; participate actively in civic affairs, social, economic and cultural development of their community; and exercise his rights respectively. however, in most of the observed realities, the students do not feel their sense of belongingness and the significance of this, in the future. these feelings and attitudes may affect in school activities. they do not attend to school activities, show negative attitudes to teachers and other students, and also not responsible of being students. the students need to have harmonious relationships with school staff and with other students to feel that they belong to the school. teachers in their employment as regular manpower of the school have big and important responsibilities as the role conveyor of knowledge to the students. actually they still need support from other stakeholders to augment those tasks which they cannot perform alone toward the realization of the school objectives. the school principal is the highest-ranking administrator in a public secondary. principals are responsible for the overall operation of a school, the one who discovers that engaging the entire school staff in making decisions results in more commitment to school reform initiatives, accountable for facilitating their school’s interactions with parents and others in the school community, in addition principal is liable to ensure constant supervision of the http://www.coblesskll.edu/strategicplan/02.html asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 208-218 210 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group very young students in the school. without effective leadership, it is not possible have “harmonious development” of each student. only effective principals can excite the support of constituents, stakeholders, teachers, students, parents and community. the duties and responsibilities of principal are specified in batas pambansa bilang 232. section 17. nevertheless some of the principals do not perform their duties in the school operation and have no agreeable attitudes with school staff, and to the external stakeholders. the barangay as the basic political unit of the country must be visible in doing its share to every school. section 36 of batas pambansa bilang 232 defined extensively the role as well as the extent of participation of the officials of barangay especially the counselor for education to the school located in their area. similarly, the officials and other key personnel in sangguniang barangay seemed not acquainted to their actual role. the support they draw-out to the school in their area has been infrequent, what has been started was not fully sustained. in the light of this essential information concerning the existence of different stakeholders of the school, the researcher prompted to focus the study in the determination of the extent of participation of the stakeholders in the school activities. 1.3. theoretical framework the essentials of a vygotskian theory, social constructivist perspective for education for teachers: believes that education is to develop a student’s personality; that education must facilitate the development of the creative potential of students; that effective learning requires the active involvement of the learner; that teachers direct and guide the individual activity of the students but they do not dictate or force their own will on them. authentic teaching and learning come through collaboration by adults with students; that the most valuable methods for students’ teaching and learning correspond to their development and individual characteristics, and therefore, these methods cannot be uniform and that schools should provide the tools that learners need to internalize the ways of thinking central to participation in the cultural world around them. according to maslow, a., in his free levels of higher-order needs, there is a need for love and belongingness. the need to belong is a basic human need. students who are accepted by teachers and classmates feel they belong to the class. students who feel are part of the class look forward to attending class and participating in class. the sense of belongingness enhances their learning and performance. erikson, e., the theory of eight psychosocial stage of development is a basis for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality and behavior, and also for understanding and for facilitating personal development – of self and others. it can help the teacher in becoming more knowledgeable of and at the same time understand the various environmental factors that affect his/her own and his/her students’ personality and behavior. this theory is useful for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing with conflict, and generally for understanding self and others. according to bandura’s theory as cited by agquiz (2011) in her thesis, the idea on observation of parent’s attitude on the manifestation of student’s behavior can be gleaned in bandura’s theory of social learning which emphasized the importance of observing and modeling the behavior, attitudes and emotional reactions of others. it focused attention on the conditions that affect the acquisition, performance and maintenance of behavior. according to epstein, as cited by calica (2011) in his theory of overlapping spheres of influence discussed six types of involvement in school, family and community partnership. the theory states that students succeed at higher levels when the internal and external model of influence interest and work together to promote students earning and development. the students learn and achieve more when the external context in which they live work together to support and enhances academic learning and success. these interactions all face under what is known as the six types of involvement or activities developed to design and implement involvement linked to the school’s academic mission. epstein six types of involvement are: (1) parenting, (2) communicating, (3) volunteering, (4) learning at home, (5) decision making, and (6) collaborating with the community. leader-member exchange (lmx) theory was initially called the vertical dyad linkage theory. the theory was introduced by george graen and various colleagues in the 1970s and has been revised and refined in the years since. lmx theory emphasizes the dyadic (i.e., one-on-one) relationships between leaders and individual subordinates, instead of the traits or behaviors of leaders or situational characteristics. the theory’s focus is determining the type of leader-subordinate relationships that promote effective outcomes and the factors that determine whether leaders and subordinates will be able to develop high-quality relationships. according to lmx theory, leaders do not treat all subordinates in the same manner, but establish close relationships with some (the in-group) while remaining aloof from others (the out-group). those in the in-group enjoy relationships with the leader that is marked by trust and mutual respect. they tend to be involved in important activities and decisions. conversely, those in the out-group are excluded from important activities and decisions. 1.4. conceptual framework the research paradigm illustrated in figure 1 serves as the basis for identifying the different variables considered in conducting this study. these variables are the independent variables, and the dependent variables. moreover, figure 1 presents the research paradigm of the study of stakeholder’s participation in school activities of public secondary schools los baños district school year 2013 – 2014. under the independent variable are the school activities such as brigada eskwela, pta meeting, health and safety and sports fest. dependent variables include the level of stakeholders’’ participation in planning, decision making, information drive and implementing. the roles of stakeholders included in the dependent variables are the main facets of stakeholders’ participation that will determine their level of involvement in the school activities. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 208-218 211 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure-1. research paradigm. 1.5. statement of the problem this study aims to determine the level of participation of stakeholders in school activities of public secondary schools in los baños, laguna s.y. 2013-2014. it also aim to compare the level of participation by school among the four (4) public secondary schools in los baños, laguna. specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions: 1. what is the assessment of stakeholders in the school activities such as brigada eskwela, pta meeting, sports fest, and school’s health and safety? 2. is there a significant difference among the stakeholders assessment of the school activities such as brigada eskwela, pta meeting, sports fest and school’s health and safety? 3. what is the level of stakeholder’s participation in the activities of their respective school in terms of planning, decision making, information drive and implementing? 4. is there a significant difference among stakeholder’s level of participation in school activities of public secondary schools in los baños, laguna in terms of planning, decision making, information drive and implementing? 1.6. hypotheses 1. there is no significant difference among stakeholders’ assessment of the school activities in terms of brigada eskwela, pta meeting, sports fest, and health and safety. 2. there is no significant difference among stakeholder’s level of participation, in terms of planning, decision making, information drive, and implementing. 1.7. significance of the study this study determined the participation of teachers, students, parents local government unit and school principals, in the school activities of public secondary schools, and their significance to the following: students. they develop and increase their motivation, achievement and potentialities for service, particularly by undergoing an education suited to their abilities, in order that they may become assets to their family and to society. non – academic teaching staff. they have the sense of belongingness to the school by involving them in the operations and cognizance in doing their duties and responsibilities. teachers. their great sense of participation in the school goals and objectives, help to motivate and give strong view to students and parents in involvement in school activities, and become more responsible as a being a classroom facilitator and member of school board, because they know that their support from others. school principal. he/she will become more responsible as school leader is important in relation to school operations, convey plans, decision-making, and apply programs of activities which have involvement of stakeholders thereby, sharing the operating responsibility in performing the different tasks through developing in them the trust and confidence for more efficient communication systems. school. the successful operation and wiser decision making in the school are possible through the help of stakeholders. school’s vision and mission will be accomplished through the strong link between and among parents, teachers, students, local government unit (barangay officials) and the principal. parents. through giving more time to academic and non-academic schools activities of their children that can also contribute good influence on values, belief that would boost the students’ self-confidence relative to fulfillment of their dreams, improve learner’s performance and strengthen harmonious relationship with students, teachers, principals and their co-parents. local government unit. this study gives awareness, provides concrete concepts for the school development besides it help to them to do their duties as public servant and stakeholders of school operations. the researcher believes that the finding of this study will help the school in its operation to become successful through the help of stakeholders, because each of them realizes their integral part to the school. this study serves as a springboard for future principals to identify who are the stakeholders that they should approach for the improvement of the school’s operation. 1.8. scope and limitation of the study the study focused on the stakeholders’ participation in school activities of public secondary schools in los baños, laguna s.y. 2013 – 2014 . it seek to determine the participation of stakeholders of school such as teachers, students, parents, school’s principals and local government unit (barangay officials) in public secondary school namely: los baños asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 208-218 212 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group national high school (lbnhs), los baños community national high school (lbcnhs), tuntungin putho national high school (tpnhs) and los baños integrated school (lbis) in terms of their school activities. this includes planning, decision making, information drive and implementing as dependent variables and also brigada eskwela, pta meeting, health and safety and sports fest that serve as independent variables. this study was conducted from july to october 2014 in four (4) public secondary schools in los baños, laguna. 2. research methodology this chapter presents the research methodology that plays an integral part of the study. this covers the locale of the study, research design, research population and sampling, research instrument, data gathering procedure and statistical treatment. 2.1. research design the researcher used the descriptive method of research because it involves the description, recording, analysis and interpretation of the present nature, composition or process of the activities of the public secondary schools in los baños, laguna. the focus is on the prevailing conditions or how the various stakeholders functions/behaves in the present. it also involve comparison of their level of participation whether it significantly affects school activities as far as its end results are concerned. 2.2. respondents of the study this study was conducted in the four (4) public secondary schools in los baños, laguna namely; los baños national high school (lbnhs) batong malake, los baños national high school (lbnhs) poblacion, puthotuntungin national high school (ptnhs) and los baños integrated school (lbis). the respondents of the study are the 126 parents, 111 teachers, 126 students, 40 local government unit (barangay officials) and the principals in public secondary school in los baños, laguna. the sample size was determined using slovin’s formula. 2.3. sampling techniques the tables represents the total number of stakeholders from four (4) public secondary school in los baños district, it was determined using slovins formula. table-1. total population of respondents in public secondary schools in los baños district. school students parents teachers barangay officials principal/oic los baños national high school (lbnhs) – batong malake 949 949 165 10 1 los baños national high school (lbnhs) – poblacion 339 339 51 10 1 tuntungin putho national high school (tpnhs) 128 128 20 10 1 los baños integrated school (lbis) 243 243 37 10 1 total 1659 1659 273 40 4 table 1 shows the total population of respondents in public secondary schools in in los baños district. there are four (4) high schools in the district namely, los baños national high school (lbnhs) – batong malake, los baños national high school (lbnhs) – poblacion, tuntungin putho national high school (tpnhs), and los baños integrated school (lbis). the respondents from each school are consist of students, parents, teachers, barangay officials, and principals. with regards to the table, the los baños national high schoolbatong malake has the largest population of respondents because it is situated in a highly densed populated area. table-2. sample size of respodents in public secondary school in los baños district. school students parents teachers barangay officials principal/oic sample size 40% sample size 40% sample size 40% lbnhs – batong malake 184 74 184 74 165 66 10 1 lbnhs – poblacion 66 26 66 26 51 20 10 1 tpnhs 25 10 25 10 20 8 10 1 lbis 47 18 47 18 37 15 10 1 total 322 128 322 128 273 109 40 4 the table 2 shows the sample size of respondents in public secondary schools in los baños district. the sample size was obtained applying stratified random sampling, from which sample size was derived from each school using their total population as a reference. los baños national high school-batong malake got the higest sample size of respondents since it had the largest number of population among the four (4) schools. 2.4. research instrument the researcher used a self-made questionnaire that was submitted to his adviser and other experts for corrections and validations. the questionnaire was divided into two parts: part 1 contains the assessment of stakeholders in school activities such as brigada eskwela, pta meeting, sports fest and health and safety, part 2 on the otherhand contains the level of participation of stakeholders in schools activities in terms of planning, decision making, information drive and implementing. for the first part, on the assessment of school activities, a scale of 1 to 100 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 208-218 213 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group was used, the higher the value indicates better assessment, while on the second part, a 1 to 5 number scale was used wherein 5 is very highly participative and 1 is non participative. 2.5. research procedure a letter of request for approval to conduct the study was handed personally by the researcher to the district supervisor, principals and also to barangay officials and parents in los baños, laguna. the researcher personally administered the questionnaire among the principals, teachers, students, parents and barangay officials. data were tallied, tabulated, analyzed and interpreted. 2.6. statistical treatment of data mean and standard deviation were used to measure the mean assessment of stakeholders in the school activities and level of participation in terms of planning, decision making. information drive, and implementing. anova was employed to determine the level of stakeholders’ assessment of school activities and level of participation in terms of planning, decision making, information drive, and implementing. 3. presentation, analysis and interpretation of data this chapter presents the data gathered from the study and their corresponding analysis and interpretation. the study was conducted to determine the stakeholders’ participation in school activities in public secondary schools in los baños laguna school year 2013-2014. the presentation of findings is based on the sequence of the statement of the problem such as to find the assessment of stakeholders in the school activities such as brigada eskwela, pta meeting, sports fest and school’s health and safety, level of stakeholders’ participation in activities of their respective school in terms of plannin, decision making, information drive, and implementating and to determine the difference between the mean of stakeholders’ participation in school activities. the level of stakeholders’ assessment in school activities in terms of brigada eskwela is reflected on table 3. the principals have the highest mean on the assessment of brigada eskwela with 4.25, followed by teachers with 3.96. it showed that all stakeholders reflect a high level of assessment in brigada eskwela and the lowest mean assessment were the lgus with 3.29, described as good. the overall assessment of 3.87, described as very good, means that almost all materials were prepared, most of the invited stakeholders participated, classrooms and chairs were fixed and school buildings were painted in the bridada eskwela. table-3. assessment of stakeholders in school activities in terms of brigada eskwela stakeholders’ participation stakeholders n mean standard deviation descriptive interpretation brigada eskwela students 126 3.94 0.862 very good parents 126 3.89 0.858 very good teachers 111 3.96 0.704 very good lgu 40 3.29 0.860 good principal 4 4.25 0.000 excellent overall mean 3.87 very good note: 3.41-4.20 very good (vg) ; 2.61-3.40 good (g) ; 1.81-2.60 fair (f) ; 1.00-1.80 poor (p). since the principals were considered the head of the school, they understand clearly the importance of brigada eskwela more than anyone and it reflects to their assessment, giving brigada eskwela an excellent rating. however, the lowest assessment was given by the lgus. this implies that lgus have little awareness of the activities regarding brigada eskwela. table-4. assessment of stakeholders in school activities in terms of pta meeting. stakeholders’ participation stakeholders n mean standard deviation descriptive interpretation pta meeting students 126 4.15 0.892 very good parents 126 3.87 0.872 very good teachers 111 3.85 0.789 very good lgu 40 3.21 0.738 good principal 4 4.15 0.000 very good overall mean 3.85 very good note: 4.21 -5.00 excellent (e); 3.41-4.20 very good (vg) ; 2.61-3.40 good (g) ; 1.81-2.60 fair (f) ; 1.00-1.80 poor (p). the mean assessment of stakeholders in school activities in terms of pta meeting is shown in table 4. it shows that principals and students have the same highest mean of 4.15, lgu had the lowest mean value of 3.21 with regards to pta meeting. lgu seems not to be very satisfied in terms of the turnouts of pta meeting. all of the stakeholders gave an overall rating of very good in terms of pta meeting. lgus on the other hand rated it only good. an overall rating of 3.85 described as very good implies that the school provides many opportunities for parents to interact and get to know each other building a strong ties with the school. table-5. assessment of stakeholders in school activities in terms of sports fest. stakeholders’ participation stakeholders n mean standard deviation descriptive interpretation sports fest students 126 4.33 0.761 excellent parents 126 4.16 0.827 very good teachers 111 3.97 0.839 very good lgu 40 3.33 0.779 good principal 4 4.31 0.000 excellent overall mean 4.02 very good note: 4.21 -5.00 excellent (e); 3.41-4.20 very good (vg) ; 2.61-3.40 good (g) ; 1.81-2.60 fair (f) ; 1.00-1.80 poor (p). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 208-218 214 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 5 represents the assessment of stakeholders on sports fest. both students and principals gave it a grade of excellent with the mean of 4.33 and 4.31 respectively. this was followed by parents with 4.16 and teachers with 3.97 both giving a grade of very good. lgu had the lowest mean of 3.33 and rated as good. an overall assessment of 4.02, described as very good means that sports fest has influenced many students to engage in sports activities. students, teachers and principals were the most involved in terms of sports fest activities. that is why they were able to give a high assessment. table-6. assessment of stakeholders in school activities in terms of health and safety. stakeholders’ participation stakeholders n mean standard deiation descriptive interpretation health and safety students 126 4.18 0.942 very good parents 126 3.92 0.927 very good teachers 111 3.76 0.820 very good lgu 40 3.09 0.746 good principal 4 4.44 0.000 excellent overall mean 3.88 very good note: 4.21 -5.00 excellent (e); 3.41-4.20 very good (vg) ; 2.61-3.40 good (g) ; 1.81-2.60 fair (f) ; 1.00-1.80 poor (p). assessment on health and safety is shown on table 6. principals gave the highest assessment with the mean of 4.44 which means excellent. students, parents and teachers have means of 4.18, 3.92 and 3.76 respectively which is very good. again lgu only managed to come up with an assessment of good. the average mean assessment given by stakeholders was 3.88 which means that all stakeholders understand their roles and took part in ensuring student’s health and safety. the result revealed that health and safety was one of the top priorities of each school. table-7. assessment of stakeholders on different school activities. activity mean rank remarks brigada eskwela 3.67 4 very good pta meeting 3.84 3 very good sports fest 4.01 1 very good health and safety 3.87 2 very good overall mean 3.85 extent of assessment on different activities is high note: 4.21-5.00 very highly participative (vhp) ; 3.41-4.20 highly participative (hp) ; 2.61-3.4 moderately participative (mp); 1.81-2.60low participative (lp) ; 1.00-1.80 non-participative (np). the overall assessment of stakeholders in the district of los baños on the different school activities is shown in table 7. sport fest has the highest mean of 4.01, next is health and safety with 3.87, followed by pta meeting with 3.84 and brigada eskwela with 3.67. from the given data, all activities were assessed and given the rating of very good by the stakeholders. this simply means that all activities were conducted and participated well by the different stakeholders which reflects their high awareness and support to the school activities. the data presented in table 8, shows that there is a high significant difference among the stakeholders’ assessment in school activities such as brigada eskwela, pta meeting, sport fest and health and safety (sig=0.000). in brigada eskwela lgu is significantly different from the assessment of the other stakeholders. table-8. test of difference on the assessment of stakeholders on different school activities. activities students parents teachers lgu head f-value sig brigada eskwela 4.00a 3.87ab 3.88ab 3.29c 4.25ab 11.57 0.000 pta meeting 4.04a 3.95ad 3.74b 3.21c 4.15ad 13.33 0.000 sports fest 4.20a 4.05be 3.89ce 3.33d 4.31ae 16.64 0.000 health and safety 4.04a 3.95a 3.96a 3.08b 4.44a 16.04 0.000 note: mean with common letter is not significant ρ<0.05 significant. in pta meeting, the assessment of lgu which is the lowest, is significantly different with those of the other stakeholders. likewise the assessment of teachers as well as the students are also significantly different, however, the assessment of parents and principals, which are all very good are not significantly different. table-9. the mean level of stakeholders’ participation in school activities in terms of planning. stakeholders’ participation stakeholders n mean standard deviation descriptive interpretation planning students 126 4.01 1.209 highly participative parents 126 3.73 0.985 highly participative teachers 111 3.85 0.851 highly participative lgu 40 3.34 0.764 moderately participative principal 4 4.58 0.000 very highly participative overall mean 3.90 highly participative note: 4.21-5.00 very highly participative (vhp) ; 3.41-4.20 highly participative (hp) ; 2.61-3.4 moderately participative (mp); 1.81-2.60low participative (lp) ; 1.00-1.80 non-participative (np). table 9 shows the mean value of their participation in terms of planning school activities. the principal as the head of the school took the highest level of participation with mean value of 4.58 which is very highly participative. next are students with mean of 4.01, teachers with 3.85 and parents with 3.73 all three being highly participative. the least participation was the lgus with 3.34 which is moderately participative. the principal is the most active in terms of planning of school activities. reason for this may account to his/her duty as the main initiator and planner of the school activities. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 208-218 215 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group overall, the stakeholders were highly participative in terms of planning, which means that they attend to planning meetings conducted by the school and they are also involved in the conceptualizing of every school activity. table 10 shows stakeholders’ participation in decision making. the principals were the highest mean level of participation with 4.25 which is described as very highly participative, followed by students and parents, both with 4.02, then teachers with 3.87 all three are highly participative and the lowest mean level of participation were the lgus with 3.36, which is moderately participative. table-10. the mean level of stakeholders’ participation in school activities in terms of decision making. stakeholders’ participation stakeholders n mean standard deviation descriptive interpretation decision making students 126 4.02 1.02 highly participative parents 126 4.02 0.951 highly participative teachers 111 3.87 1.05 highly participative lgu 40 3.36 0.860 moderately participative principal 4 4.25 0.000 very highly participative overall mean 3.90 highly participative note: 4.21-5.00 very highly participative (vhp) ; 3.41-4.20 highly participative (hp) ; 2.61-3.4 moderately participative (mp); 1.81-2.60low participative (lp) ; 1.00-1.80 non-participative (np). the lgu’s are the least involved in terms of decision making, a duty of a barangay official is very tasking, the school is not their only concern, the whole community is. that is why among the stakeholders they fair low in terms of participation in decision making. however, the overall mean level of participation suggests high participation which indicates that most of the stakeholders were part of the school’s decision making body. they contribute substantial ideas and information that can be a big indicator in the success of school activities. principals were the one who’s exposed to many aspects of decision making. circumstances may arise that needs immediate response which he/she can provide. table-11. the mean level of stakeholders’ participation in school activities in terms of information drive. stakeholders’ participation stakeholders n mean standard deviation descriptive interpretation information drive students 126 4.21 0.95 very highly participative parents 126 3.69 1.07 highly participative teachers 111 4.04 0.787 highly participative lgu 40 3.58 0.796 highly participative principal 4 4.34 0.000 very highly participative overall mean 3.97 highly participative note: 4.21-5.00 very highly participative (vhp) ; 3.41-4.20 highly participative (hp) ; 2.61-3.4 moderately participative (mp); 1.81-2.60low participative (lp) ; 1.00-1.80 non-participative (np). table 11 shows the mean level of participation in terms of information drive. the highest mean level of participation were the principals with 4.34, very highly participative. same with students with 4.21, followed by teachers with 4.04, parents with 3.69 and lgu with 3.58, all with high participation. it make sense that the principals were the most involved in information drive because he/she is the main source of information and the students as the dissemination of it that act as a bridge to their parents and community. the overall mean of 3.97, described as highly participative, revealed that there is a strong network of communication between the school and the stakeholders. dissemination of information was fast and effective which is very important to ensure maximum participation of stakeholders in school activities. table-12. the mean level of stakeholders’ participation in school activities in terms of implementing. stakeholders’ participation stakeholders n mean standard deviation descriptive interpretation implementing students 126 4.15 0.994 highly participative parents 126 3.70 1.03 highly participative teachers 111 4.10 0.804 highly participative lgu 40 3.56 0.831 highly participative principal 4 4.59 0.000 very highly participative overall mean 4.02 highly participative note: 4.21-5.00 very highly participative (vhp) ; 3.41-4.20 highly participative (hp) ; 2.61-3.4 moderately participative (mp); 1.81-2.60low participative (lp) ; 1.00-1.80 non-participative (np). the mean level of participation in terms of implementing is presented in table 12. it shows that the principal had the highest mean level of participation with 4.59, described as very highly participative, followed by students with 4.15, teachers with 4.10, parents with 3.70 and lgus with 3.56, all are highly participative. all stakeholders reflected that they have high level of participation in terms of the implementation of school activities. the principal is the immediate and major implementing body of the school rules, guidelines, decisions and school activities must be consulted first to the principal before being implemented. overall mean value of 4.02, described as highly participative, only shows that every stakeholder were part of the implementation of every school program. all must have shared purposes and responsibilities on the implementation of school activities. table 13 represents the mean level of stakeholders’ participation in school activities in terms of planning. tpnhs with the mean of 4.01 was the highest, it means highly participative as well as the other schools. lbis got 3.96 while lbnhs-poblacion and lbnhs-batong malake had 3.82. the result shows high participation of stakeholders in terms of getting involved in the planning of school activities. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 208-218 216 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-13. mean level of stakeholders’ participation in the school activities of their respective schools in terms of planning. schools n mean standard deviation descriptive interpretation lbis 62 3.96 0.719 highly participative lbnhs-poblacion 83 3.82 0.86 highly participative lbnhs-batong malake 217 3.82 0.875 highly participative tpnhs 45 4.01 .594 highly participative overall mean 3.90 highly participative note: 4.21-5.00 very highly participative (vhp) ; 3.41-4.20 highly participative (hp) ; 2.61-3.4 moderately participative (mp); 1.81-2.60low participative (lp) ; 1.00-1.80 non-participative (np). table-14. mean level of stakeholders’ participation in the school activities of their respective schools in terms of decision making. schools n mean standard deviation descriptive interpretation lbis 62 3.94 0.713 highly participative lbnhs-poblacion 83 3.83 0.946 highly participative lbnhs-batong malake 217 3.81 0.749 highly participative tpnhs 45 4.03 0.645 highly participative overall mean 3.90 highly participative note: 4.21-5.00 very highly participative (vhp) ; 3.41-4.20 highly participative (hp) ; 2.61-3.4 moderately participative (mp); 1.81-2.60low participative (lp) ; 1.00-1.80 non-participative (np). the mean level of stakeholders’ participation in school activities in terms of decision making is shown in table 14. tpnhs ranked first with the mean level of 4.03 which is highly participative as well as lbis with 3.94, lbnhs-poblacion with 3.83 and lbnhs-batong malake with 3.81. the data shows that stakeholders from four (4) public secondary schools have high participation in making decisions regarding school activities. table-15. mean level of stakeholders’ participation in the school activities of their respective schools in terms of information drive. schools n mean standard deviation descriptive interpretation lbis 62 3.88 0.697 highly participative lbnhs-poblacion 83 3.93 0.721 highly participative lbnhs-batong malake 217 3.95 0.772 highly participative tpnhs 45 4.11 0.634 highly participative overall mean 3.97 highly participative note: 4.21-5.00 very highly participative (vhp) ; 3.41-4.20 highly participative (hp) ; 2.61-3.4 moderately participative (mp); 1.81-2.60low participative (lp) ; 1.00-1.80 non-participative (np). table 15 shows the mean level of participation of stakeholders in information drive. the four (4) schools have been highly participative. tpnhs had the highest mean level of participation with 4.11, followed by lbnhsbatong malake with 3.95, lbnhs-poblacion with 3.93 and lbis had the lowest mean of 3.88. this means that all four (4) public secondary schools were highly participative in the dissemination of information involving school activities. table-16. mean level of stakeholders’ participation in the school activities of their respective schools in terms of implementation. schools n mean standard deviation descriptive interpretation lbis 62 4.17 0.693 highly participative lbnhs-poblacion 83 3.87 0.639 highly participative lbnhs-batong malake 217 4.00 0.803 highly participative tpnhs 45 4.08 0.771 highly participative overall mean 407 4.03 highly participative note: 4.21-5.00 very highly participative (vhp) ; 3.41-4.20 highly participative (hp) ; 2.61-3.4 moderately participative (mp); 1.81-2.60low participative (lp) ; 1.00-1.80 non-participative (np). table 16 represents stakeholders’ participation on the implementation of school activities. the data shows that lbis had the highest mean level of participation with 4.17, tpnhs with 4.08, lbnhs-batong malake with 4.00 and lbnhs-poblacion with 3.87. again the four (4) public secondary schools exhibit high participation, this time in terms of the processes and guidelines of implementing school activities. table-17. involvement of stakeholders on different school activities. activity mean rank remarks planning 3.90 3.5 highly participative decision making 3.90 3.5 highly participative information drive 3.97 2 highly participative implementing 4.03 1 highly participative overall mean 3.95 extent of involvement on different activities is high note: 4.21-5.00 very highly participative (vhp) ; 3.41-4.20 highly participative (hp) ; 2.61-3.4 moderately participative (mp); 1.81-2.60low participative (lp) ; 1.00-1.80 non-participative (np). table 17 shows that stakeholders were more participative in implementing of school activities with the mean of 4.03. second is information drive with 3.97 and 3.90 for planning and decision making. stakeholders were least involved in planning and decision making, implementing and information drive on the other hand got the better participation. with the overall mean of 3.95 the extent of involvement on the school activities is high. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 208-218 217 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-18. test of difference on the participation of stakeholders on different schools activities. activities students parents teachers lgu head f-value sig planning 3.7a 3.79a 3.72a 3.34a 4.58b 2.874 0.023 decision making 3.73a 4.05bd 3.69ac 3.36a 4.25d 7.071 0.000 information drive 4.01a 3.82ac 4.03a 3.56bc 4.34a 2.741 0.028 implementation 3.90a 3.81a 4.09a 3.56b 3.56b 3.078 0.016 note: mean with common letter is not significant ρ<0.05 significant. table 18 specifically shows that the computed values were found to be significant. this means that there is significant difference among the stakeholders participation in terms of planning, decision making, information drive and implementing. in planning, the principal’s level of participation is significantly different with the other stakeholders. in terms of decision making, the participations of parents and principals were significantly different with the others. the lgu in terms of information drive, was significantly different with the other stakeholders and in terms of implementation of school activities, the table shows that the level of participation by the principals and lgu’s were significantly different with the participation of other stakeholders. stakeholders differ in their level of participation this may be accounted on their awareness of the activities happening in the school, internal stakeholders seem to be more aware and committed to the school activities. a study made by masarap (2013) which indicate findings that principals are the one who had the greatest involvement in the school operations and activities was supported this study. on the other hand, masarap’s study revealed that parents are the least involved in terms of school activities, this is quite different, relative to the results and findings of this study which showed that the lgu’s were the least involved. structures and characteristics of stakeholders varies from place to places, and this explains the difference of findings between the two, at least on the part revealing who were the least involved. 4. summary, conclusions and recommendations this chapter presents the summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations of the study. 4.1. summary the study showed that as far as the assessment in school activities was concerned, among (4) secondary schools in the district of los baños, tuntungin putho national high school have the highest mean assessment, and the lowest mean assessment was los baños national high school-poblacion. the principals have the highest mean assessment in school activities while lgu gave the lowest mean assessment. all of (4) high schools in los baños district are highly participative in terms of the school activities, tuntungin putho national high school have the topmost mean level of participations, and los baños national high school-batong malake was in the bottom mean level of participation. in terms of participation in school activities, all (5) stakeholders were highly participative, principals had the highest mean level of participation, and lgu was in the bottom mean level of participation. there was significant difference of stakeholders’ assessment as far as school activities was concerned. the mean assessment of stakeholders in school activities was reflected that the principals had the highest mean assessment of the school activities and the lowest mean assessment were the lgu’s. there were also significant differences among students, parents, teachers, lgu’s, and principals in terms of their participation in the different school activities. the highest mean levels of participation were the principals and the lowest levels of participation were the lgu’s. there was significant difference among stakeholders assessment among (4) high schools as far as school activities are concerned. there is a significant difference among the (4) high schools in the municipality of los baños , in terms of stakeholders participation in school activities. 4.2. conclusion the null hypothesis stating that there is no significant difference among stakeholders’ mean assessment of school activities such as brigada eskwela, pta meeting, sports fest, and health and safety was rejected, there were significant differences among stakeholders’ mean assessment of school activities such as brigada eskwela, pta meeting, sports fest, and health and safety. the null hypothesis stating that there is no significant difference among stakeholders’ level of participation in terms of planning, decision making, information drive, and health and safety was rejected, there were significant differences among stakeholders’ level of participation in school activities in terms of planning, decision making, information drive, and implementing. a school is composed of stakeholders, each with different role and responsibility, thus their participation also varies. the principal acts as the leader, and the most involved in the implementation of the school activities, on the other hand lgu’s are focus on a much broader issue including facing the problems of the barangay, this explains why they were the least involved in activities of the school. 4.3. recommendations relative to the results and findings, the principals must have a good relationship with every stakeholder, to be able to build a strong network of communication which is necessary on the success of school activities. a spirit of acceptance must be felt by stakeholders, making them part of every school activity, promoting shared purposes and responsibilities. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 208-218 218 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group teachers may inform students and parents about their duties and responsibilities as stakeholders of the school. constant communication with parents is very important. they must be the role model of their students in showing their commitment cooperation to the school’s activities. students may have a sense of responsibility, being aware of their role which play a big part on the success of school activities. they are whom who provide the main structure of every school activity and which the success of it greatly depends on them. parents may ask their children regarding on the activities happening on the school, it will be good to pay a visit once in a while to be updated of the school’s programs and activities. also provide the school with necessary information to be used as reference if the needs arise wherein their participation is necessary. local government unit (barangay officials) may extend their help and support to school activities. they must have a constant line of communication with the school, giving the school the assurance of their help and cooperation on every school activity. references agquiz, p. l. (2011). the impact of parents’ role among the first year students’ behavior at national high school in tanauan city west: a basic for an action plan. calamba city: laguna college of business and arts. calica, c. g. a. (2011). parent’s participation in the education of their children and its impact on academic performance and behavioral development a basis for an action plan. calamba city: laguna college of business and arts. masarap, j. w. (2013). stakeholders’ participation in school operations of lowland public elementary schools in bay district, laguna sy 2010-2011. los baños, laguna: laguna state polytechnic university-los baños campus. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 265 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 4, 265-270, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.265.270 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the effect of personality on epl self-efficacy and outcome expectations among graduates in nigerian universities adeola samuel adebusuyi1 olubusayo foluso adebusuyi2 ( corresponding author) 1department of psychology, nigeria police academy, wudil kano, nigeria. 2phd student of the department of science and technology education, obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria. abstract the study tests the big five personality traits on entrepreneurial, professional and leadership (epl) self-efficacies, job and entrepreneurial outcome expectation. it also examined the influence of these efficacies on their corresponding outcome expectations. the study design was crosssectional and used a sample of 363 new graduates from nigeria’s tertiary institutions. we used a regression path analysis to determine the causal model tested in this study. results showed that extraversion, openness and agreeableness significantly lead to concurrently high epl selfefficacies, neuroticism inversely related to professional and leadership self-efficacies, but conscientiousness did not relate with any of the self-efficacies. second, agreeableness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness led to job and entrepreneurial outcome expectations. third, only leadership self-efficacy led to both job and entrepreneurial outcome expectations. these findings deepen our understanding of how entrepreneurial, professional and career mindset can be achieved in an individual. keywords: entrepreneurial, professional, leadership, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, personality trait. citation | adeola samuel adebusuyi; olubusayo foluso adebusuyi (2020). the effect of personality on epl self-efficacy and outcome expectations among graduates in nigerian universities. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(4): 265-270. history: received: 10 june 2020 revised: 20 july 2020 accepted: 24 august 2020 published: 16 september 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 266 2. theoretical frameworks and literature review .................................................................................................................... 266 3. methods ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 267 4. results .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 268 5. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 269 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 270 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.265.270&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2147 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7044-246x https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3878-0252 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 265-270 266 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper showed the role of the big-five personality in the development of career adaptability. 1. introduction nowadays, given the changing and unpredictable world of work, scholars and governments are in agreement about graduates’ ability to adapt to other areas outside of their primary field of study. to achieve this, entrepreneurship education was introduced into school curricula at all levels of education. governments also have introduced several programmes to stimulate entrepreneurial interest among the youths. despite all that has been done, school graduates remain attached to the traditional career of white-collar jobs (sinclair, 2008). the reason for this, according to frese, gielnik, and mensmann (2016) is that government programmes to facilitate entrepreneurship, without proper consideration of the psychological sides will lead to failure of such programmes. the psychological aspects of adapting to different career paths have attracted theoretical and empirical attention from scholars. prominent theorists such as savickas (2013) have shed light on this crucial topic. further theoretical explanations came from lent and brown (2013) called the social cognitive model of career selfmanagement (csm). csm is a process theory of adaptive career behaviour across the life span. another theoretical explanation is from chan et al. (2012). they introduced a theory that showed that people could subjectively be concurrently high on entrepreneurship, leadership and professional (epl) career motivation, self-efficacy and intention. the main thrust of this theory is that graduates should be simultaneously high on epl career mindset in order not to be stranded when they enter the labour market. however, their theory did not discuss the predictors of this framework. the purpose of this study, therefore, is to investigate the antecedent of one of their theoretical construct – i.e. epl self-efficacy. we did this by integrating the chan et al.’s epl framework with lent and brown’s csm framework. 2. theoretical frameworks and literature review 2.1. social cognitive theory of career self-management (csm) the csm is a process theory proposed by lent and brown (2013). it is an updated version of the social cognitive career theory (scct) of lent, brown, and hackett (1994). whereas scct is a content theory of how people arrive at a particular career choice, the csm is a process theory of the different activities people engage in to manage, cope, adjust to changes etc. concerning various phases of career life throughout the lifetime. it is a theory that emphasizes proactively influencing to things to work in one’s favour, rather than passively waiting for an opportunity to come. for instance, a graduate should not wait for an advert to be placed before sending applications to the organizations of his choice. the theory is not assuming that all the power to change things is in the hands of the actors; it just argues that a substantial ability to change things is in the hands of the actors. 2.2. the entrepreneurship, professionalism, leadership (epl) career framework the epl framework by chan et al. (2012) is a specific strategy that actors can use during the process of career entry, especially after graduating from school. it argues that graduates should be not only professional minded but also entrepreneurial and leadership inclined. this is because being a professional is limiting, and the times we live in require people to be able to adapt to different changes as they come. a professionally-minded graduate may find himself stranded in an environment where there is a high rate of unemployment. surviving in such an environment requires being entrepreneurially inclined since entrepreneurship as been seen as a panacea for unemployment. furthermore, even in an organization, a professional who suddenly finds himself in a managerial position has to know how to lead people to achieve organizational goals. thus, the theory proposes that individuals have to be concurrently high in entrepreneurial (e), professional (p) and leadership (l) career mindset in order to cope with the work challenges of today. 2.3. personality and epl self-efficacy the theoretical proposition of csm argues that personality predicts self-efficacy. self-efficacy is the subjective confidence that an individual has about his/her perceived ability to perform an action or complete a process. in the context of epl, this means that the individual has the confidence to be concurrently high in entrepreneurial, professional, and leadership self-efficacy. many types of researches in vocational studies (e.g., ireland & lent, 2018; lim, lent, & penn, 2016) and entrepreneurship (e.g., fuller, liu, bajaba, marler, & pratt, 2018; prabhu, mcguire, drost, & kwong, 2012) have found personality to predict self-efficacy. within the context of epl, chan, uy, chan., uy, chernyshenko, ho, and sam (2015) investigated the relationship between personality and epl motivation. however, there has not been an empirical investigation on the role of personality on epl self-efficacy. thus, studies examining the personality trait (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness) that leads to high epl self-efficacy is lacking. brandstätter (2011) showed extraversion, conscientiousness and openness to be relevant to entrepreneurship. therefore, this study proposes that these traits should positively predict entrepreneurial self-efficacy. also, we expect that these traits will positively influence leadership self-efficacy. this is premised on the high relationship that has been found (butler, 2017; felix, aparicio, & urbano, 2019) between entrepreneurship and leadership. furthermore, chan et al. (2015) found a positive correlation between personality traits and entrepreneurial and leadership aspects of epl motivation. on the professional aspect of epl self-efficacy, we argue that the traits mentioned above will also be high on professional efficacy. this is because all of the participants sampled for the study were graduates, so, they should have professional efficacy to perform in their area of specialization. hypothesis 1: extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness will lead to concurrently high epl self-efficacy, whereas, those high in neuroticism and agreeableness will be high on professional self-efficacy. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 265-270 267 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.4. personality, job and entrepreneurial outcome expectations outcome expectation is the beliefs about the consequences of performing an action. self-efficacy is about “can i do it”, whereas, outcome expectation is about “what will happen if i do it”. csm theory identifies different types of outcome expectations: social (e.g., benefits to my family), material benefits (e.g. monetary gains) or self-evaluative (e.g., self-approval) outcome expectations. lanero, vázquez, and aza (2016) also identified two types of outcome expectations, which are: internal or external outcome expectations. in the context of this study, we have two outcome expectations, which are: job (joe) and entrepreneurial outcome expectations (eoe). joe asks the question: “what will happen if i get a good job”. similarly, eoe is about: “what will happen if i venture into my own business”. csm theory did not propose a direct path from personality to outcome expectations. however, recent empirical studies (brown & cinamon, 2015, 2016) have shown a direct path from personality to outcome expectations. in this study, we argue that just as personality determines who has self-efficacy for a particular action, it also should determine the belief about the consequences of an action. personality has been proven to influence career choice (rogers, creed, & glendon, 2008). people get attracted to careers whose expected outcomes are valued. for instance, open individuals should like the consequences of being a professional and an entrepreneur because their personality allows for receptiveness to different options. conscientious individuals are achievement-driven. achievement motivation is a core aspect of entrepreneurial pursuit; therefore, we proposed that conscientious people will score higher on eoe. also, conscientious people are planful, think carefully before acting, and accept traditional norms. these characteristics are oriented towards a more traditional career. thus, we argue that those high on conscientious personality will also be high on joe. extraverted people are assertive, dominant energetic and outgoing people. these characteristics are also useful for entrepreneurial careers than salaried jobs. so, high extraverted individuals should more incline towards eoe than joe. agreeable individuals are cooperative, loving, less self-centred. therefore, agreeable individuals should be inclined towards joe than eoe. finally, neuroticism has to do with negative emotions towards a particular task. therefore, individuals high in neuroticism should score low on both eoe and joe. hypothesis 2: extraversion, conscientiousness and openness will lead to high eoe and joe, whereas, neuroticism and agreeableness will lead to only high joe. 2.5. epl self-efficacy, job and entrepreneurial outcome expectations self-efficacy has been both theoretically and empirically proven to influence outcome expectations. epl selfefficacy should influence corresponding outcome expectation (lent & brown, 2006). that is, entrepreneurial selfefficacy aspect of epl should influence a corresponding eoe; professional self-efficacy influences a corresponding joe. lastly, leadership self-efficacy should influence both eoe and joe because outcome expectations associated with leadership can be found both as a business owner and as a manager in an organization. hypothesis 3: entrepreneurial and professional self-efficacy should lead to its corresponding outcome expectation, but leadership self-efficacy should lead to both types of outcome expectations. 3. methods 3.1. study participants participants were 363 national youth service corps (nysc) members, selected from three cities (abuja, kano, and ado-ekiti) in nigeria. we collected data in a paper and pencil format after developing a rapport with the participants. one hundred and ninety-one (52.6%) were male, and one hundred and seventy-two (47.4%) were females. their age ranged from 19 to 39. the mean age is 25.82, and the sd is 3.08. yoruba ethnic group was 26.7%, igbo was 16.5%, hausa 36.4%, and the south-south was 20.4%. the number of christians was 79.6%, and muslims were 20.4%. 3.2. research instruments we used four research instruments in this study. they are epl self-efficacy, eoe, joe, and personality scales. epl self-efficacy. this was measured with the scale developed by chan et al. (2012). this was a 19-item scale measured on a 5-point likert scale with endpoints of not at all confident to extremely confident. sample items include: “come up with ideas for products and services that may be needed in a market” (entrepreneurial self-efficacy); “become one of the best experts or professionals in my field of specialization” (professional self-efficacy); and “motivate others working with me to do more than they dreamed that could do” (leadership self-efficacy). the three dimensions of epl self-efficacy have cronbach’s alpha that ranged from .84 to .88. as for validity, chan et al. (2012) subjected the scale to both exploratory (efa) and confirmatory factor analysis (cfa). the fit indices for this include a comparative fit index (cfi) that ranged from .90 to .91 and standardized root mean square residual (srmr) that ranged from .04 to .05 for each factor. joe. this was measured with kolvereid (1996) scale. we rewrote the scale’s instructions to capture job outcome expectations. the revised instruction reads: “if i found a good job, i expect the following things will happen…” like it was done in other measures of outcome expectations (e.g., lent, ezeofor, morrison, penn, & ireland, 2016) change of scales instructions have been done by other researchers such as lim et al. (2016). it was an 11-item scale, measured on a 5-point likert scale from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree”. the scale was found to be reliable with the subscales ranging from .68 to .90. also, from the data collected for this study, the scale reported a cronbach’s alpha of .81. eoe. this was measured with a scale developed by lanero, vázquez, and aza (2015). they developed two subscales (namely: extrinsic and intrinsic) for entrepreneurial outcome expectation. for this study; however, the subscales were collapsed into one single measure of entrepreneurial outcome expectation. altogether, the scale is a 14-item scale measured on a likert scale from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree”. the scale has a reliability coefficient of .92, and convergent validity was calculated using average variance extracted (ave), and it asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 265-270 268 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group ranged from .64 to .70 for the subscales. sample items include: “good economic compensation”; “the chance to perform challenging and interesting work”. personality. personality was measured by the big five inventory (bfi) developed by john and srivastava (1999). lent et al. (2016) found this scale to be very appropriate for career-related issues. it is a 44-item scale. it comprises five subscales (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience). extraversion subscale consists of eight items. sample item includes: “i see myself as someone who generates a lot of enthusiasm”. agreeableness consists of nine items. sample item includes: “i see myself as someone who is helpful and unselfish with others”. conscientiousness has nine items, and a sample item is: “i see myself as someone who makes plans and follows through with them”. neuroticism has eight items, and sample item includes: “i see myself as someone who gets nervous easily”. finally, openness has ten items. sample item includes: “i see myself as someone who is curious about many different things”. cronbach’s alpha for the scale ranged from .79 to .88. for validity, john and srivastava reported convergent validity for the five factors that ranged from .83 to .97 4. results the descriptive statistics comprising of mean and standard deviation with the zero-order correlations of the variables in this study are presented in table 1. looking table 1, apart from neuroticism that is not significantly correlated with job (r = -.09, p > .05) and entrepreneurial (r = -.07, p > .05) outcome expectation, all the other variables of this study are positively correlated with each other. table-1. mean scores, standard deviations, and inter-correlations between the variable entered into the model. variable mean sd extraversion 1.05 .27 agreeableness 2.68 .48 .66** conscientiousness 1.50 .25 .54** .67** neuroticism 21.93 4.29 -.09 -.22** -.35** openness 35.33 4.08 .57** .54** .47** -.18** entrepreneurship se 3.45 .72 .37** .38** .28** -.13* .33** professional se 3.75 .70 .43** .49** .43** -.27** .42** .75** leadership se 3.80 .71 .45** .48** .42** -.25** .40** .83** .92** joe 43.46 6.58 .36** .35** .26** .09 .31** .31** .32** .32** eoe 60.04 8.57 .51** .55** .49** -.07 .40** .43** .50** .51** .55** note: se = self-efficacy, eoe = entrepreneurial outcome expectation, joe = job outcome expectation, *p≤.05, **p≤.01. 4.1. hypotheses testing we used a regression path analysis to test the hypotheses raised in this study, using analysis of moment structure (amos) version 23. for the hypothesized model, scholars (e.g., iacobucci, 2010; worthington & whittaker, 2006) are unanimous about the importance of fit statistics for any hypothesized model. this model showed a chi-squared value of χ2 (14) =.632, p = .655; comparative fit index (cfi) value of 1.0; root mean square error of approximation (rmsea) of .000; closeness of fit (pclose) = .98 and; standardized root mean square residual (srmr) = .02. all these fit statistics meet the standard values of a good statistical model. figure-1. the relationship between personality epl self-efficacies and outcome expectations. *p≤.05, **p≤.01, ***p≤.001. looking at table 2 and figure 1, the result of hypothesis one was partly supported. extraversion led to high entrepreneurial (β = .17, p <.05), professional (β = .17, p <.01) and leadership (β = .22, p <.001) self-efficacy. openness also led to high entrepreneurial (β = .14, p <.05), professional (β = .18, p <.001) and leadership (β = .14, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 265-270 269 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group p <.05) self-efficacies. contrary to our hypothesis, agreeableness contributed to entrepreneurial (β = .19, p <.01), professional (β = .29, p <.001) and leadership (β = .26, p <.001) self-efficacy. conscientiousness surprisingly however, did not significantly influence any of the self-efficacies. lastly, neuroticism negatively related to professional (β = -.12, p <.001) and leadership (β = -.12, p <.001) self-efficacies. for hypothesis two, none of our hypothesized models led to eoe and joe. conscientiousness, however, led to a significant eoe (β = .19, p <.001), as shown in table 2 and figure 1. therefore, (except for the conscientiousness that was partially supported), our alternate hypothesis is rejected. neuroticism also significantly related with eoe (β = .25, p <.001) and joe (β = .18, p <.001) table-2. results of the significant paths in the model. hypothesized paths β b se (b) p openness → leadership se .14 .024 .010 <.05 extraversion → leadership se .22 .573 .163 <.001 agreeableness → leadership se .26 .391 .091 <.001 neuroticism → leadership se -.12 -.128 .029 <.001 openness → entrepreneurial se .14 .024 .011 <.05 openness → professional se .18 .030 .010 .001 leadership se → joe .24 2.258 .497 <.001 extraversion →entrepreneurial se .17 .436 .176 <.05 extraversion →professional se .17 .435 .160 <.01 agreeableness →entrepreneurial se .19 .289 .099 <.01 agreeableness →professional se .29 .416 .089 <.001 agreeableness → joe .22 3.077 .734 <.001 agreeableness → eoe .25 4.521 1.005 <.001 conscientiousness → eoe .19 6.558 1.755 <.001 neuroticism →professional se -.12 -.123 .034 <.001 neuroticism → joe .25 2.394 .457 <.001 neuroticism → eoe .18 2.229 .514 <.001 leadership se → eoe .33 4.045 .554 <.001 note: se = self-efficacy, eoe = entrepreneurial outcome expectations, joe = job outcome expectations. the result of hypothesis three, as presented in table 2 and figure 1, is also partially supported. contrary to our predictions, entrepreneurial and professional self-efficacy did not influence their corresponding outcome expectations. however, in consonance with our hypothesis, leadership self-efficacy led to job (β = .24, p <.001) and entrepreneurial outcome expectations (β = .33, p <.001). finally, as presented in figure 1, extraversion, openness, and agreeableness contributed 18% (r2 = .18) of the variance in entrepreneurial self-efficacy. extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and neuroticism contributed 30% (r2 = .30) of the variance in professional and 29% (r2 = .29) of the variance in leadership self-efficacies. 5. discussion the result of hypothesis one supported the theoretical propositions of lent and brown (2013) about the relationship between personality traits and self-efficacy. there are some points to highlight from this result. first, past studies (e.g., antoncic, bratkovic kregar, singh, & denoble, 2015; kerr, kerr, & xu, 2018) have found business founders to be low on agreeableness personality, this study, however, found that agreeable people are high in entrepreneurial self-efficacy. the explanation for this could be that, since self-efficacy is subjective confidence to achieve a purpose, agreeable people tend to agree with others that they have self-efficacy to be an entrepreneur. the same argument applies to their positive relationship with professional self-efficacy. educated agreeable people may also be quick to assume they have the confidence (i.e. self-efficacy) to be a professional. lastly, on the positive relationship between agreeableness and leadership self-efficacy, leadership, on the surface, is about relationships. agreeable people may have the confidence to be a leader because they are good at working together with people. another point to highlight in hypothesis one is the non-significant relationship between conscientiousness and the self-efficacies in this study. unlike past researches that found conscientiousness as an essential predictor of entrepreneurial (e.g., zhao & seibert, 2006) or vocational (e.g., brown & hirschi, 2013; lent et al., 2016) selfefficacy, this study found that conscientiousness did not relate with any of the self-efficacies investigated in this study. antoncic et al. (2015) also find that conscientiousness did not relate to entrepreneurial intention and behaviour. more specifically, chan et al. (2015) corroborated the result of hypothesis one by showing that conscientiousness performed poorly with respect to entrepreneurial and professional motivation. neuroticism, as shown in the result of hypothesis one was negatively related with both professional and leadership self-efficacies. this result also corroborated the report of many studies (e.g., hartman & betz, 2007; nauta, 2004; schaub & tokar, 2005; spurk & abele, 2011) that also showed that neuroticism negatively related with self-efficacy. the result of hypothesis two showed that only conscientiousness and neuroticism related to both eoe and joe. studies relating personality to outcome expectations are scarce. but the few ones available, such as brown and cinamon (2015) and chan et al. (2015) also supported our result by showing that conscientiousness and neuroticism related to outcome expectations. this result also partly supported the theoretical proposition of tran and von korflesch (2016) about the direct influence of personality traits on outcome expectation. the result of hypothesis three countered the theoretical proposition of lent and brown (2013) by showing in hypothesis three that entrepreneurial and professional self-efficacies did not significantly relate with their corresponding outcome expectations. leadership self-efficacy related, however, with both outcome expectations. the reason for this result may be the fact that leadership self-efficacy is needed in both entrepreneurial and salaried asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 265-270 270 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group jobs. therefore, individuals high in leadership self-efficacy may find outcome expectations associated with entrepreneurial and job outcome expectations appealing. references antoncic, b., bratkovic kregar, t., singh, g., & denoble, a. f. 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(2006). the big five personality dimensions and entrepreneurial status: a meta-analytical review. journal of applied psychology, 91(2), 259–271. available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.2.259. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 11 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 9, no. 1, 11-17, 2022 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v9i1.3700 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the impact of service quality dimensions on customer satisfaction: case study of university utara malaysia aree mohammed ali1 shivan a.m. doski2 aveen idris saadon3 ( corresponding author) 1technical college of administration, duhok polytechnic university, iraq. 1email: aree.ali@dpu.edu.krd tel: +9647504577794 2,3college of administration & economics, university of duhok, iraq. 2email: shivan.doski@uod.ac tel: +9647504503919 3email: aveen.saadon@uod.ac tel: +9647507415211 abstract the purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of service quality (reliability, empathy, tangibility, assurance, responsiveness) on customer satisfaction in university utara malaysia (education service). each variable is measured using 7-point interval scale: reliability (6 items), empathy (6 items), tangibility (5 items), assurance (10 items), and responsiveness (5 items) on customer satisfaction (6 items). using the primary data collection method, 160 questionnaires were distributed to postgraduate students inside university utara malaysia (sintok campus), in north malaysia. the responses collected were 98 completed questionnaires representing with 61.25 % response rate. the data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (sem) using amos 7. confirmatory factor analysis of measurement models indicates adequate goodness of fit after a few items were eliminated through modification indices verifications. goodness of fit for the revised structural model shows adequate fit. this study has established five direct effects: (1) reliability customer satisfaction; (2) empathy and customer satisfaction; (3) tangibility and customer satisfaction; (4) assurance and customer satisfaction; (5) and responsiveness on customer satisfaction. and, this study concludes that all hypotheses have been asserted in the revised model. keywords: service quality, servqual scale, customer satisfaction, education sector, university utara malaysia, servqual dimensions. jel classification: m1, m31. citation | aree mohammed ali; shivan a.m. doski; aveen idris saadon (2022). the impact of service quality dimensions on customer satisfaction: case study of university utara malaysia. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 9(1): 1117. history: received: 17 december 2021 revised: 20 january 2022 accepted: 3 february 2022 published: 15 february 2022 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 12 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 12 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 4. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14 5. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 6. conclusion & suggestion for future research .......................................................................................................................... 17 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 17 mailto:aree.ali@dpu.edu.krd mailto:shivan.doski@uod.ac mailto:aveen.saadon@uod.ac http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v9i1.3700 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1926-7085 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1744-8138 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4783-4657 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 11-17 12 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to the body of knowledge in the area of service quality in the education sector, especially in universities in developing countries such as malaysia, due to fact that the education sector in malaysia rapidly developed in the last two decades and service quality increased in the same pace. this study has significance because it deals with customers’ satisfaction (students) who have the most influence on the performance of the university, especially the services provided. 1. introduction in an era of increased competition, the importance of achieving high levels of customer satisfaction has gained the attention of researchers and practitioners alike. this is especially the case in the service sector, where many companies are focusing upon service quality improvement issues in order to drive high levels of customer satisfaction. the relatively recent emergence of the relationship-marketing paradigm in modern marketing thought consolidates the increasing importance given by marketing academics to managing, developing and evaluating relationship (berry, 1995; payne, christopher, clark, & peck, 1995; sheth & parvatiyar, 1995). within this paradigm, the topic of relationship quality has stimulated a profuse production of scientific publications (samiee & walters, 2003). indeed, in an international business context, ‘‘the rate of hypotheses formulation conceptual development of new frameworks has tended to go faster than empirical testing and, not surprisingly, hard data on many aspects of relationship marketing is still lacking.’’ our study intends to empirically assess the quality of the relationship in an exporting context. 2. literature review this study builds on validated and reliable measurement scales from the strategy (menon, bharadwaj, adidam, & edison, 1999) and relationship-marketing literatures (ali, doski, & mohamamed, 2020; cannon & homburg, 2001) to propose a multidimensional scale to assess relationship quality (relqual) in an exporting context. this new multidimensional scale comprises four dimensions: (1) amount of information sharing in the relationship, (2) communication quality of the relationship, (3) long-term relationship orientation and (4) satisfaction with the relationship. our study furthers previous research by adapting and testing the four scales in a new relationshipmarketing context, the exporting– importing relationship. more importantly, our study proposes the existence of an underlying commonality among the five different dimensions and, hence, tests an integrated approach to the relationship quality phenomenon by integrating the previously isolated measures into a unique multidimensional scale. the nature and role of service quality is a complex construct that is one of the most investigated constructs in the marketing discipline (iaccobucci, 1998). it is generally viewed as an overall evaluation of the service provided (taylor & baker, 1994). it has also been viewed as a multidimensional construct formed from the consumer’s evaluation of a number of service-related attributes (brady & cronin, 2001). the service quality literature has seen a substantial debate on the nature and dimensionality of the construct. most of this debate centered on the dimensionality of the servqual scale and the appropriateness of measuring service quality as a gap between customer expectations and customer evaluations of performance (parasuraman, zeithaml, & berry, 1991). the result of this debate was general agreement that it is not necessary to measure consumer expectations of service performance in measuring the service quality construct (zeithaml, berry, & parasuraman, 1996). even though it is a widely use as measure of service quality, one of the serious deficiencies of the servqual scale is that it captures less than the full spectrum of issues and attributes on which consumers evaluate service quality. in resolving this problem, an alternative position is that there are three major dimensional antecedents of overall service quality; interaction quality, outcome quality and environment quality and in addition each dimension may have a number of sub-dimensions (brady & cronin, 2001). the nature of interaction quality is that what goes on in the service encounter between the customer and the service provider is a key determinant of the customer’s evaluation of service quality, environment quality relates to the extent to which the tangible features of the service-place play a formative role in consumer perceptions of overall service quality (brady & cronin, 2001). servqual is a generic instrument for measuring perceived service quality that is viewed as the degree and direction of discrepancy between consumers’ perceptions and expectations. thus, service quality, as perceived by consumers, stems from a comparison of what they feel service providers should offer with their perceptions of the performance of service provided by service providers (zeithaml et al., 1996). the researchers also identified that there are five dimensions to service quality. the following is a list of the five dimensions and a brief description of each: 1. tangibles: (physical facilities, equipment, and appearance of personnel). 2. reliability: (ability to perform the promised service dependably and accurately). 3. responsiveness: (willingness to help customers and provide prompt service). 4. assurance: (knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to inspire trust and confidence). 5. empathy: (caring, individualized attention the firm provides its customers). among the five dimensions, reliability was found to be the most important of the five dimensions for lodging consumers followed, in ranking, by assurance, responsiveness, tangibles, and empathy (ali et al., 2020; knutson, wullaert, patton, & yokoyama, 1990). subsequently, they analyzed the statistical methodology itself, comparing the uses of confirmatory analysis versus factor analysis in index testing and refinement. a second debate within the literature pertains to the relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction. satisfied customers tend to be loyal to the company and more likely to return. understanding satisfaction is important in the sense that dissatisfied customers rarely complain, but rather simply purchase from another service provider (milbourn, 1998). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 11-17 13 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group satisfaction is most commonly described in terms of the disconfirmation approach, which describes it as the variation between a customer’s pre-purchase expectations and post-purchase perceptions of the actual service performed (o'neill, 2001). the general thought is that satisfaction mediates the relationship between perceived service quality and firm performance (fornell, 1992). however, some research suggests that satisfaction is an antecedent to service quality (bolton & drew, 1991). thus, no consensus has been formed concerning the relationship between these two constructs. when a customer buys a physical good, they acquire a title to the goods and there is a transfer of ownership. in contrast, a service consumer receives only the right to that service and for only a specified amount of time (kandampully, 2002). service quality has been defined as a gap between the customer’s expectations of a service and the customer’s perceptions of the service received (parasuraman, zeithaml, & berry, 1985). definitions of quality have included: a) satisfying or delighting the customer or exceeding expectations; b) product of service features that satisfy stated or implied needs; c) conformance to clearly specified requirements; and d) fitness for use, whereby the product meets the customer’s needs and is free of deficiencies (grönroos, 1984) the consumer satisfaction literature views these expectations as predictions about what is likely to happen during an impending transaction, whereas the service quality literature views them as desires or wants expressed by the consumer (kandampully, 2002). the literature reveals that no generic measure of service quality for all industries has emerged (blose & tankersley, 2004). thus, service quality is generally believed to be a multi-level construct with multiple dimensions making up each level. however, scholars have varied as to the number of dimensions included in each model. the most popular conceptualization of service quality is parasuraman et al. (1985) servqual model. originally containing 10 dimensions, parasuraman, zeithaml, and berry (1988) later reduced the servqual instrument to its present five dimensions: a) tangibles; b) reliability; c) responsiveness; d) assurance; and e) empathy. however, scholars continue to examine issues related to the validity and reliability of the servqual instrument (nel, pitt, & berthon, 1997). 3. methodology all selected respondents (students) were involved in some aspect of customer service involving frequent interaction with customers or clients. questionnaires were hand-delivered to postgraduate students in sintok campus located in kedah state / north malaysia. the questionnaires were left with students studying in university utara malaysia in various course and different level of study with different background, also with different period of study. h1: reliability is related positively with customer satisfaction. h2: empathy is related positively with customer satisfaction. h3: tangibility is related positively with customer satisfaction. h4: assurance is related positively with customer satisfaction. h5: responsiveness is related positively with customer satisfaction. a seven-point likert scale ranging from strongly agrees to strongly disagree was used to measure each of the six impacting indicants. and the theoretical framework illustrates in figure 1 and the hypothesis has been write done as below. a total of 160 complete questionnaires has been distributed to university students who are studying different courses in all three main colleges in university utara malaysia were requested to complete a questionnaire that contained measures of the constructs of concern. the questionnaires were distributed to the respondents in their workplace by using purposive sampling method. a response rate of about 61.25% was collected back corresponding to 98 responses. figure 1. research framework data screening and analysis. the 98 datasets were coded and saved into spss version 18 and analyzed using amos version 7.0. missing data screening shows 26 data set were missing, thus the data have been treated using median of nearby point through spss. during the process of data screening for outliers, one dataset was deleted due to mahalanobis (d1) values more (74.472) than the χ2 value (χ2=70,71; p<0.001) leaving a final 98 datasets to be analyzed. we also conducted univariate normality computations using z-scores of skewness statistics and standard error of skewness as well as kurtosis statistics. z-score skewness of more than 2 needs to be transformed since it is considered as nonnormal data (hair, black, babin, anderson, & tatham, 2006). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 11-17 14 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 1. descriptive statistics of variables. variable name no. of items mean std. deviation cronbach alpha composite reliability empathy 6 4.8767 0.88808 0.874 0.845 reliability 6 4.3818 1.01160 0.837 0.615 tangibility 5 4.5827 1.11254 0.864 0.92 assurance 10 4.6082 0.92902 0.831 0.933 responsiveness 5 4.5745 0.99393 0.841 0.855 satisfaction 6 4.8194 0.85490 0.876 0.773 total items 38 the result indicates that responds number (42) is more than chi square, thus has deleted. after checking the missing data by using spss, there is need for replacing, because there is missing data, therefore detecting multivariate outliers should be calculated by mahalanobis distance for each respondent if the mahalanobis distance is greater than a critical value, they are deemed to be multivariate outliers. the new variable (mah_1) represents the mahalanobis distance (d2) for each respondent. if the d2 value is small than critical value (χ2), then that respondent is not a multivariate outlier. if the d2 value is larger than critical value (χ2), the respondent is a multivariate outlier. several statistical validity tests and analysis were further conducted such as reliability (cronbach alpha) and composite reliability tests, validity tests using confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) for construct convergent, discriminant, and nomological validities. subsequently, the data was subjected to descriptive analysis, correlation and structural equation modeling analysis. the steps in sem analysis are cfa analysis, measurement analysis, discriminate analysis, composite reliability analysis. 4. results the respondent’s information is shown that out of 98 respondents, 39 were female and 59 were male with percentage (39.8% and 60.2%) respectively. while for race data, 43 of the respondents were arab, 12 indonesian, 41 thai and only two from african. as for religion, 93.9% of them were muslims, 5.1% buddhist, and only 1% hindu. while, for marital status, 80.6% of them were singles, 18.4% were married and only 1% was divorced. the research framework consists of five exogenous and one endogenous variable. each construct shows cronbach alpha results in acceptable range of values of above 0.8, which are above nominally, (1970) recommendation of 0.60 limits. composite reliability shows similar high results. the convergent validity is examined by utilizing the confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) result; we observed that the regression estimates or factor loadings of all manifesting observed variables or items are adequate ranging from 0.53 to 0.98. the factor loadings of latent to observed variable should be above 0.50 (hair et al., 2006). this indicates that all the constructs conform to the construct convergent validity test. after deletions were made using modification indices suggestions, the remaining numbers of items for each construct are as follows: reliability (4 items of 6), empathy (3 of 6 items), tangibility (3 items of 5), assurance (5 items of 10), responsiveness (3 items of 5), and satisfaction (4 items of 5 items). the composite reliability calculations depend on the standardized factor loadings obtained from the final revised structural model. the results from composite reliability of all exogenous latent constructs are well above 0.60 (nunnally, 1970) as shown in table 1.to substantiate discriminant validity, average variance extracted (ave) is compared to correlation squared of the interrelated variables of concerned (fornell & larcker, 1981). from the variance extracted, ave is than calculated by averaging the two variances extracted of the variables. the finding is presented in a matrix as in table 2. for discriminant validity to be upheld, the value of ave must be more than correlation squared table 3. for example, between the variable’s assurance and empathy, the ave = 0.563 as shown in table 2, while correlation squared = 0.294 (the figures in brackets in table 3. hence, ave > correlation squared, or assurance discriminates from empathy. also, between reliability and responsiveness, the ave = 0.677 as shown in table 2. while correlation squared = 0.287 (the numbers in brackets in table 3. hence, ave > correlation squared, or reliability discriminates from responsiveness. thus, discriminant validity is supported. all constructs used for this study support discriminant validity. table 2. ave matrix of exogenous variables. variable name empathy reliability tangibility assurance responsiveness empathy 1.000 reliability 0.564 1.000 tangibility 0.436 0.609 1.000 assurance 0.563 0.643 0.625 1.000 responsiveness 0.484 0.677 0.554 0.745 1.000 table 3. correlation & correlation square matrix among exogenous variables. variable name empathy reliability tangibility assurance responsiveness empathy 1.000 reliability 0.530 (0.280) 1.000 tangibility 0.432 (0.186) 0.533 (0.268) 1.000 assurance 0.542 (0.294) 0.461 (0.213) 0.602 (0.362) 1.000 responsiveness 0.489 (0.239) 0.535 (0.287) 0.466 (0.480) 0.567 (0.322) 1.000 note: correlation is significant at 0.01 level (1-tailed), values in brackets indicate correlation squared. nomological validity examines whether the correlations between constructs in the measurement theory makes sense such that correlations must be positive or negative according to theory stipulated (hair et al., 2006). from table 3, it is observed that all directions of correlations are in the hypothesized direction as stipulated in the hypotheses in accordance to theory. thus, it can be deducted that nomological validity is substantiated for all asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 11-17 15 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group measures used in this study. to arrive to the structural model, confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) was conducted on every construct and measurement models table 4. the goodness of fit is the decision to see the model fits into the variance-covariance matrix of the dataset. the cfa, measurement and structural model has a good fit with the data based on assessment criteria such as gfi, cfi, tli, rmsea. all cfas of constructs produced a relatively good fit as indicated by the goodness of fit indices such as cmin/df ratio (<2); p-value (>0.05); goodness of fit index (gfi) of >0.95; and root mean square error of approximation (rmsea) of values less than 0.08 (<0.08) (hair et al., 2006). table 4. goodness of fit analysis(cfa) of models. finals models re em ta as res customer satisfaction hypothesized model revised model items remain 4 3 3 5 3 4 38 22 cmin 14.62 41.11 11.97 6.891 13.18 16.29 1523.54 371.56 df 11 21 5 5 2 5 650 194 cmin /df 1.625 1.523 2.394 1.378 6.591 3.321 2.344 1.915 p-value 0.031 0.035 0.042 0.032 0.019 0.041 0.000 0.061 gfi 0.977 0.939 0.966 0.981 0.958 0.921 0.596 0.975 cfi 0.94 0.985 0.986 0.996 0.975 0.986 0.466 0.781 tli 0.943 0.98 0.973 0.993 0.925 0.973 0.463 0.739 pnfi 0.585 0.718 0.489 0.493 0.324 0.489 0.556 0.693 rmsea 0.056 0.061 0.099 0.052 0.198 0.986 0.116 0.065 table 4 shows that the goodness of fit of generated or revised model is better compared to the hypothesized model. this is expected as hypothesized model is usually strictly confirmatory. gfi of revised model is 0.975 compared to gfi of hypothesized model of 0.556 root mean square error approximation (rmsea) also shows a better reading of 0.065 for revised model compared to 0.116 for hypothesized model (<0.08). as shown in the results of hypothesized model did not achieve model fit (p<0.000), hence, the explanation of hypotheses result will be based on generated or revised model, the result demonstrates that reliability is a significant positive related to customer satisfaction. hence, reliability has a direct significant impact on to customer satisfaction (cr=2.151; p<0.001) or h1 is asserted. empathy has a positive and direct impact on customer satisfaction (cr=3.556; p<0.05), i.e h2 is asserted. similarly, tangibility has a positive and direct impact on customer satisfaction. (cr=1.607; p<0.001), i.e h3 is also asserted. also, h4 is asserted due to (cr= 3.055; p<0.05), means assurance has a positive and direct impact on customer satisfaction. and finally, h5 also asserted due to (cr= 2.371; p<0.05), means responsiveness has a positive and direct impact on customer satisfaction, as shown in table 5. from table 6 indicates the amount of variance explained by the exogenous variables in the revised model. firstly, reliability explains 11.5% variance in customer satisfaction. secondly, empathy explains 27.3% variance in customer satisfaction. thirdly, tangibility explains 11.3% variance in customer satisfaction. fourthly, assurance explains 21.0% variance in customer satisfaction. and finally, responsiveness explains 33.8 % variance in customer satisfaction. table 5. direct impact of revised model: standardized regression weights. table 6. squared multiple correlation results. endogenous variable squared multiple correlation (smc) = r2 reliability 0.115 empathy 0.273 tangibility 0.113 assurance 0.210 responsiveness 0.338 5. discussion this study attempts to examine the relationships between five independents dimensions of service quality and customer satisfaction. as expected, the hypothesized model do not achieve model fit (p value=0.000, p <0.001). this implies that hypothesized model could not be generalized to the population. this is expected because the sample was small. the revised model accomplished model fit and supports all fifth direct effects as as resulted in the revised model in figure 2. firstly, reliability has a significant positive relationship with customer satisfaction. secondly, empathy has a significant positive relationship with customer satisfaction. thirdly, tangibility has a significant positive relationship with customer satisfaction. fourthly, also, this study concludes that the assurance has a significant positive relationship. and, finally, responsiveness has a significant positive relationship with customer satisfaction. hypothesis endogenous regression between exogenous std. estimate s.e. c.r. p-value status h1 customer satisfaction <--> reliability 0.208 0.085 2.151 0.031 sig h2 customer satisfaction <--> empathy 0.020 0.022 3.556 0.035 sig h3 customer satisfaction <--> tangibility 0.015 0.024 1.607 0.042 sig h4 customer satisfaction <--> assurance 0.023 0.030 3.055 0.032 sig h5 customer satisfaction <--> responsivene ss 0.231 0.025 2.371 0.019 sig asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 11-17 16 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 2. the first model. figure 2 illustrates that the relationships between five independents dimensions of service quality and customer satisfaction in the hypothesized model do not achieve model fit (p value=0.000, p <0.001), which iindicate that the results could not be genrelized to the context population thus a revised model generated as shown in figure 3. figure 3. the revised model. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 11-17 17 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 3 demonstrates that the relationships between five independents dimensions of service quality and customer satisfaction in the revised hypothesized model do achieve model fit (p value=0.000, p <0.001), which indicate that the results could be genrelized to the context population after a revised model generated. 6. conclusion & suggestion for future research this study has established five direct effects: (1) reliability and customer satisfaction; (2) empathy and customer satisfaction, (3) tangibility and customer satisfaction; (4) assurance and customer satisfaction, (5) responsiveness and customer satisfaction. this study concluded to present all service quality dimensions have relationships effects to be positively significant with customer satisfaction. this research found that, the result cannot be generalized for the whole of malaysia because it was only conducted in a limited area. this model has shown some interesting findings which could be applied for utilization in research on a bigger scale to include bigger geographical area. references ali, a. m., doski, s. a., & mohamamed, d. x. 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(1996). the behavioral consequences of service quality. journal of marketing, 60(2), 31-46. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. asian journal of social sciences and management studies issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 vol. 4, no. 1, 20-30, 2017 http://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms 20 the impact of packaging designs on consumer buying behaviour of fmcg during the hyperinflationary and after the dollarisation era in zimbabwe godwell karedza1  mike sikwila2 ( corresponding author) 1 department of international marketing chinhoyi university of technology, chinhoyi, zimbabwe 2 department of consumer science chinhoyi university of technology, chinhoyi, zimbabwe abstract purpose – the main thrust of this research paper is to investigate the effect of designs that come with a package and how they influence consumer purchasing habit of fmcg products in zimbabwe during and after the multicurrency period. the objectives of the research was to ascertain the major effect of packaging designs on consumer purchasing pattern of fmcg goods in zimbabwe, to establish the major function of packaging on fmcg products and to examine the salient effect of other factors that can be controlled and that cannot be controlled (such as price, quality, promotion, socio cultural environment, social class, personality and self concept, attitudes and learning) on the purchasing pattern of consumer on fmcg goods during and after the multi-currency period in zimbabwe. design/ methodology/ approach –the researcher adopted the descriptive survey and exploratory research designs to gather data from the retail sector. the research was conducted in harare zimbabwe where most of the retail outlets are mainly concentrated. a study sample of 47 respondents from the retail sector was used targeting firms in the fmcg sector. data to answer research problem was obtained through an in-depth interviews and questionnaires. 5 policy makers were interviewed while 42 questionnaires were sent to retail managers and of which 32 were then returned. the target samples were guided with a questionnaire with closed and open ended questions. respondents were stratified and conveniently selected. findings – the findings revealed that, the element with the most influential factor on purchasing habit of fmcg products is printed information as indicated by more respondents. thus the correct message will sell a product hence designers and product strategists must think first on all messages they are sending to consumers. printed information has more bearing on the buying pattern of consumers, followed by size. background image, colour and font styles were also pointed out as having an effect on the buying behaviour of fmcg products. font styles however have the least effect the purchasing behaviour of consumers. this corresponds with deliya and parmar (2012)study which concluded that font style has the least effect as compared to all the packaging elements. it should be concluded that size and material are the visual elements mainly considered by customers when buying products while product information is also the main verbal elements having an effect on consumer decision making. conclusively packaging elements are perceived to be an element of the product. the research also revealed that, during and after the multi-currency period, consumers in zimbabwe preferred to purchase more of foreign packaged products than local packed products. keywords: packaging, fmcg (fast moving consumer goods), consumer buying behaviour, imports. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 21 2. literature review ................................................................................................................................................................ 22 3. summary of findings .......................................................................................................................................................... 28 4. recommendations ................................................................................................................................................................ 29 references ................................................................................................................................................................................ 29 citation | godwell karedza; mike sikwila (2017). the impact of packaging designs on consumer buying behaviour of fmcg during the hyperinflationary and after the dollarisation era in zimbabwe. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(1): 20-30. doi: 10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.20.30 issn(e) : 2313-7401 issn(p) : 2518-0096 licensed: contribution/acknowledgement: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. history: received: 10 december 2015/ revised: 7 november 2016/ accepted: 24 november 2016/ published: 5 december 2016 ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. publisher: asian online journal publishing group http://dx.doi.org/10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.10.19 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.20.30 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=godwell karedza https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mike sikwila http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.20.30 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.20.30 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=godwell karedza https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mike sikwila http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.20.30 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.20.30 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=godwell karedza https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mike sikwila http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.20.30 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.20.30 https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=godwell karedza https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=mike sikwila http://search.crossref.org/?q=10.20448/journal.500/2017.4.1/500.1.20.30 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 20-30 21 1. introduction this research focuses on how packaging design impacts on consumer buying behaviour of fast moving consumer goods (fmcg) in zimbabwe during and after the dollarization era. the research emanates from the differences in packaging designs of local and imported fmcg products. the research seeks to find out what determines consumer buying habit on foreign packaged products as compared to local products in the period, before, and after the dollarization era in zimbabwe. 1.1. the background the post independence era in zimbabwe was characterised by the development of local industries including the fmcg sector. in this period a number of local fmcg products were being displayed in supermarket shelves and competition was mainly among players in the local fmcg sector until 2007 when there was hyper-inflation in zimbabwe forcing many companies out of business. local fmcg products that used to be on supermarket shelves were replaced by imports and others completely vanished. these imports however came with different packaging designs of attractiveness than what local manufacturers offered in line with size, colour, and materials. in 2009 zimbabwe adopted the multi-currency system to replace the local currency, it is during this period when local industries started to revive and the local fmcg products began flocking back into the supermarkets shelves at the back of cutthroat competition from the imports. zimbabwe products stated facing tough competition from imports as importers can as well afford to sell better appealing products than those of local manufactures. technology change is a key driver and in enhancing growth in a competitive business environment today. change of technology is enabling some manufacturers to produce more appealing, attractive designs than those being produced locally. this change of technology is a major threat to local manufacturers in zimbabwe in the fmcg industry. kangasharju (2000) highlights that competitive concentration in conjunction with actions and strategies of rivals have greater effects on the survival of companies and companies who fail to enact the appropriate market facing strategies may collapse. therefore a proper knowledge of the motives of rivals, the right marketing strategy and the corresponding action to the competition are crucial for the survival of any organisation. thus, it is important to be abreast with changinging game plan of competitors and try to adjust the products packaging designs to meet the same standards in the international markets or to outwit the competitor completely so as to survive in this dynamic environment where customer tastes are always changing. before the period denoted as world war ii, the main purpose of packaging of fmcg goods was to standardize, protect the product and ensuring that the product is safe during transportation and distribution, thus this is not a new concept. the main purpose of packaging was to ensure the preservation and transportation of the goods and even for ease-of-use by the consumers but packaging design was typically left to technicians. however at the end of world war ii companies became more interested in mass production and development of packaging and invested more in marketing and promotional tools as a means of converting customers minds to purchase their products. as a result many manufacturers of fmcg goods envisaged packaging as one of the job of a silent sales man. industrial revolution that took place at this time meant increased attention to packaging and with socio-economic changes that were taking place around the world consumers were becoming better educated and thus their expectations on package designs and their trust on them increased as well. packaging materials that were used for fmcg products include rigid and fixed plastic, metal, paper and glass. deliya and parmar (2012) assert that packaging design is seen as a vehicle for communication and branding and this has received wide spread attention. kuvykaite et al. (2009) referred to packaging design as a silent salesman that shapes consumer perception and becomes a determining factor in point of purchase decision. thus packaging is one of the salient ingredients determining un planned purchasing behavior of customers. in line with that, kotler (2002) highlights that packaging have an attractive bearing, thus it influences purchasing, perception about the product. packaging also gives value to products, thus enhancing its merchandise (underwood et al., 2001). on the other hand deliya and parmar (2012) highlight that packaging forms the end of ‘promotion chain’ and is close in time to the actual purchase. consequently the researcher seeks to establish the effect of packaging design on consumer buying behavior, the question is, to what extent do packaging designs impacts on customer orientation towards local fmcg products? 1.2. the study problem the imports products termed fmcg come with different packaging designs than those of local fmcg products. at the same time local fmcg products are on a cutthroat competition to those favouring products with import packaging designs more than those with local packaging designs. thus, this has motivated the researcher to explore the effect of packaging design on consumer buying behaviour of fmcg products in zimbabwe during and after the multi-currency period in zimbabwe. 1.3. research objectives the research aims: 1. to examine the impact of packaging designs on consumer purchasing habit of fmcg goods before, during and after the dollarization era in zimbabwe. 2. to establish the major role of packaging on fmcg products. 3. to examine the effect of other factors that can be controlled and that cannot be controlled (such as price, quality, promotion, socio cultural environment, social class, personality and self concept, attitudes and learning) on the purchasing pattern and habit of fmcg products in zimbabwe. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 20-30 22 1.4. justification as a result of increasing sophistication of the modern consumer, the growing of self-service and changing consumers’ lifestyle as a result of dollarisation in zimbabwe, is a course for concern, moreover, the interest in packaging as a promotional mechanism and stimulator of impulsive buying is growing increasingly important in many retail shops and is seemingly one of the influencers of consumer decision making. thus, retailers may benefit from this study. the research may also helps scholars to gain an in depth practical knowledge on how packaging act as a silent salesman in an increasing competitive environment. this study is important as policy makers may use the results of this study for their advisory purposes so as to ensure that retailers benchmark their packaging materials with the leading countries. 2. literature review 2.1. packaging deliya and parmar (2012) highlight that the definition of packaging vary and range from being simple and functionally focused to more extensive, holistic interpretations. the aforementioned assert that packaging act as an extrinsic value of the good. kotler (2000) asserts that packaging includes all activities that are involved until the final package is brought out. packaging is also seen as an attribute of the final product. arens (1996) highlights that packaging is the container which covers the manufactured product and ultimately enhances the final product through, colour, shape, labeling and materials used. 2.1.1. package design orth and malkewitz (2008) highlight that packaging design is seen as various blended elements that are designed to achieve a particular sensory effect. bruce and daly (2007) state that design increases products value and their organisations. the aforementioned researchers state that packaging designs add to the creativity, intellectual property and competence of the company. orth and malkewitz (2008) argue that package design is an incredibly significant medium because it has such a huge impact on a consumer’s decision making. the package is what the consumer sees and helps make his/her decision to purchase. marketers and designers can provoke different behaviours from consumers based on the designs of their packages. the final aim of the packaging is to get the consumer buying the product. 2.1.2. consumer behaviour belch and belch (2002) define consumer behaviour as a set of the activities that a consumer experience in searching for better prospects and this involves namely; searching for, selecting, purchasing, using, evaluating the product. it can also be a process undertaken by consumers to select, purchase, use, or dispose products, services, ideas, or experiences to satisfy their quest. consumer behavior generally means the behaviour of consumer as they look for the product that they feel will satisfy their intended needs and wants. vani et al. (2011) classified factors considered in consumer purchasing habit into those that can be controlled and those that cannot be controlled. controllable factors include mainly the 4ps whilst uncontrollable factors encompass demographic, socio economic, cultural, geographical and psychological factors. 2.1.3. fmcg defined deliya and parmar (2012) define fmcgs as goods that normally bear a low price and is sold fast. these products are charaterised by low profit margins although cumulative profits might be high based on large quantities sold. it is envisaged that fmcgs have an immediate turnover, and prices are relatively low and that these fmcg products have a quick shelf turnover, relatively low cost and do not need much financial investments. fmcgs include non-food items and consumables that are usually bought by many consumers for their daily usage for example groceries, toiletries, teeth cleaning materials, on the other hand non-durable products such as light bulbs, batteries, paper products and plastic goods. these products are normally found in grocery stores, supermarkets, hypermarkets. 2.2. theoretical literature review in this paradigm shift, the customers are demanding more value for their money and as such they are now reacting differently from the old ways. they have different perceptions about a product make up and have developed complicated perceptual scales that determine what they consider before purchasing fmcg products and what not to buy at all. material use is most preferred whilst size, shape, colour, text and graphics are less preferred. most complicated customers suggest that more emphasis should be put on visual package elements, development of innovative packages, aesthetic components that are soothing for the eyes and that labeled information must be accurate to an extent that consumers would understand it easily. in zimbabwe the companies in the fmcg sector are struggling to copy up with imports that are coming with advanced quality packaging technology. customers are usually influenced to buy those products as a result of the outward look of the product. packaging is being taken as a form of marketing to influence consumers. khan (2007) asserts that business managers tend to diminish the value of creative marketing on their products and pay no particular consideration to the competitive environment. in simple terms, marketing has become an unfamiliar terrain and as a result insufficient time is allocated to this vital function. it should be noted that an improved insight into market-related issues such as increased competition, limited market size, low demand for products and ineffective marketing is a vital factor for business success (kapoor et al., 1997). kotler (1999) however suggests that to prevent the biggest mistake of having poor marketing strategies or efforts, an organisation should conduct marketing audits to review whether their strategies are still in line with the marketing environment. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 20-30 23 change of technology has become a major threat to the local fmcg manufacturing sector in zimbabwe. after the economic crisis in 2009, a number of zimbabwean industries in the sector were at the verge of collapse. since then, there has been a growing concern about the effect of technological change on the work of companies in undeveloped countries, however zimbabwean companies had bigger issues at hand since they were struggling to survive as they were not able to upgrade their technology and machinery to match up with competitors in the region like south africa for example. blanchard (2006) is of the view that determinants of imports are a part of domestic demand that falls on foreign products. the aforementioned researcher asserts that this depends on domestic income. furthermore the researcher asserts that an increase in domestic income leads to a higher demand for all goods that is both local and foreign goods where this translates to what is known as higher domestic income, leads to higher imports. however blanchard (2006) also notes that although high domestic income translates to higher demand and ultimately high imports, there is also an issue of price where consumers may buy foreign products or services because they bear a favourable price than that of domestic products or alternatively that the foreign goods may be attractive than those manufactured locally. in view of rice (1997) a good package should be characterized by the following: 1. attractiveness: the package should be attractive and fascinating to draw customer’s attention. attractive packaging stimulates, thus packaging can dramatically influence customers’ minds hence some end up demanding the product due to its attractive package. 2. economical: a good package should be economical. costly package increases the price of the purchased component 3. protective: a product should be packaged neatly so that quality, quantity and colour of the components does not decline thus it should be insulated from damage by rain, dust or insects. proper package should ensure no damage or spillage during transportation. 4. communicative: a good package should provide information about quantity and brand utility of the merchandise 5. convenient: the package should allow free and easy movement of the product from one place to another. the shape and package size should also be compatible with retailers and wholesalers for shop or for consumers to keep at home. the package should preferably be re-usable. 6. a good packaging should reflect the conditions in which the product should be sold. 7. packaging needs to highlight compelling and believable claims on product differences. 2.2.1. background information of packaging prendergast and pitt (1996) assert that packaging is a crucial factor in purchase decisions. rettie and brewer (2000) further highlight that it forms a vital part of the selling process. silayoi and speece (2004) highlight that a lot of customers regard the package as part of a product but went on further to highlight that different consumers respond differently to packages depending on the involvement level. kotler (2002) is of the view that packaging draws consumer attention to a brand and enhances its image. underwood et al. (2001) state that packaging gives a noticeable value to products and works to guide for differentiation. alternatively, rundh (2005) is of the view that packaging influences consumer’s perceptions about the product. speece (2003) states that packaging is critical for customers and that it must communicate the advantages salient to a product inside. the aforementioned researcher highlights that customers are becoming more careful shoppers and are taking notice of packaged fmcg products. packaging comprise of different elements. smith and taylor (2004) confirm the six variables that producers and designers must take into consideration when creating efficient package and these are form, size, colour, flavor, material and graphics. underwood (2003) however distinguished packaging elements as two blocks that is graphic elements which include typography, colour, shapes used, and images furthermore, structural elements which include size, form of the containers, and materials. rettie and brewer (2000) highlight that elements that instill verbal stimuli can be recalled better when placed on the right-hand side of the package and those that trigger non-verbal stimuli on the left-hand side thus pictorial elements on the left-hand side of the package helps to maximize consumers' recall ability. 2.2.2. background information of consumer buying pattern of fmcg products there is a general agreement among many researchers that the behaviour of consumers towards fmcgs is the same despite cultural differences (speece, 2000).the researcher highlights that understanding issues that concern consumers in one sophisticated market should provide a useful guide for others. kotler et al. (1996) highlight that most fmcg products are low involvement products and consumers avoid searching extensively for information, evaluate characteristics and make considerable decisions on which one to buy. one reason for this kind of a norm by customers could be that the item is viewed as simply not very important. mcwilliam (1997) is of the view that lack of sufficient research by the customers’ lead to their failure to recognize leading brands resulting in consumers switching from one brand to the other. 2.2.3. approaches to the buying behaviour of consumers bray (2008) confirm that there are a lot of different mechanisms that have been accepted in trying to explain how consumers behave when they intend to purchase products thereby drawing on differing traditions of psychology. these approaches determine how a consumer behaves. the approaches include psychodynamic, cognitive, economic man, behaviourist and humanistic approaches. different researchers have different opinions on how these mechanisms contribute to the behavior of the consumer as explained below. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 20-30 24 2.2.4. economic man approach bray (2008) highlights that early proponents feel that man is entirely rational and self interested, making decisions based upon the ability to maximize utility whilst expending the minimum effort. the approach suggests that man should exhibit a rational behaviour in the economic sense. however for man to behave rationally a comprehensive research on alternative product should be done so as to have options on which to base the selection decision and be able to rank the alternatives properly while at the same time be able to select the optimum course of action. simon (1997) is of the view that the selection criterion highlighted above no longer holds water as many consumers rarely look for sufficient information to base their decisions, it is time consuming to search for reliable information to make such perfect decisions and as such consumers are influenced by social relationships and values. ‘herbert simons satisfying theory’ argues that, individuals are often described as seeking satisfactory rather than optimum choices (simon, 1997). 2.2.5. psychodynamic approach bray (2008) highlights that this approach is associated with behaviour which is subject to biological influence through ‘instinctive drives’ which operates outside of conscious thought. freud identified the psyche, namely the id, the ego and also the superego. the id component consists of the unconscious psychic that operates to fulfill basic urges, desires and needs. it is guided by the pleasure principle which seeks an immediate fulfillment of needs. ego is the state of awareness which thinks of you as different from another. ego never thinks about what is but what was and what could be. the super ego seeks to explain the moral values and natural skills acquired from parents and the society that guide how an individual behaves. these provide guidelines to an individual to sense wrong and right when making decisions. the major idea based on psychodynamic is that, what influences a human behavior are biological drives not individual cognition or environmental stimuli bray (2008). 2.2.6. behaviourist approach bray (2008) assert that behaviourism is a family of philosophies and is explained by external events and all things that organisms do including feelings, thoughts and actions can be seen as behaviours. what influences people to behave the way they do are linked to the external factors of an individual bray (2008). the most influential proponents of the approach to behaviour were ivan pavlov who studied classical conditioning and burrhus skinner who worked on operant conditioning. skinner (1938) argues that behavioural research is still contributing to the concept of how human behave. bray (2008) concluded that behaviourism does not appear to adequately contribute to the great diversity of response generated by a population exposed to similar or even near identical stimuli. 2.2.7. cognitive approach this term ascribes observed action (behaviour) to intrapersonal cognition whereby the individual is viewed as an information processor. intrapersonal causation challenges the environmental stimuli in consumer behaviour but however an influential role of the environment and social experience is acknowledged, with consumers actively seeking and receiving environmental and social stimuli as informational inputs aiding internal decision making. cziko (2000) acknowledges that the cognitive approach is helpful in aiding knowledge to the field of consumer decision making. the aforementioned researcher confirms that consumer behaviours have been further explained with the development of the stimulus-organism-response model by hebb during the 1950s. early stimulus-organism-response models like the one depicted in fig 2.1suggest a linear relationship between the three stages with environmental and social stimuli acting as external antecedents to the organism. this approach assumes that stimuli act upon an inactive and unprepared organism. however most modern theorists now acknowledge that information processing is conducted by an active organism whose past experience will influence not only the processing of such information but even what information is sought and received. fig-2.1. stimulus-organism-response model source:cziko (2000) hence information processing will be both stimulus driven and concept driven (moital, 2007). this development suggests a more recent explanation of how a consumer make decisions and has been cited to be circular in fashion or can be illustrated through a venn diagram (jacoby, 2002). 2.2.8. humanistic approach cognitive models are believed to be one of the most important models in explaining the concept of consumer motivation in making purchasing decisions, however a number of academics have exposed its weakness in their endeavour to come up with solid humanistic ideas that explain the behaviour of the consumer. this approach emphasize that people are capable of controlling their life and therefore will make decisions that will enrich their personal goals to realize their self-fulfillments and personal growth. 2.2.9. packaging design on consumer orientation towards fmcg products packaging is viewed as a composite of elements, thus it cannot be taken lightly since there are so many components that constitute packaging. others have considered the following elements namely; graphics, shape, size, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 20-30 25 printed information and innovation as components of a package. underwood et al. (2001) assert that for an individual to ascertain the effect of packaging on consumer behavior, there is need to study the role played by each element and observe how it affect consumer choices. packaging design should be conspicuous so as to attract customers causing them to form impressions towards it. silayoi and speece (2004) highlight that the features on a package clearly demonstrate the state of the product inside in terms of its quality and originality. hence, consumers associate the external features of the product with the quality and translate this into decision making. packaging design communicates favourable or unfavourable implied meaning about the product. underwood et al. (2001) consumers imagine the product and associate it with tastes, feels, smells, or sounds and this evokes their purchasing intentions. in some instances, some scholars generally use the holistic approach to packaging designs and claim that all the elements on a package affects purchasing intentions the same, this may not be the case considering the below arguments. 2.2.10. graphics in view of silayoi and speece (2004) graphics includes layout, colour combinations, typography and product photography all of which form the packaging designs. fmcg products are classified as low involvement products and in some instances evaluation of attributes is of less importance in low involvement decisions hence graphics and colour become critical. consumers usually learn colour associations and these lead them to prefer certain colours for various product categories. a colour used on package is believed to play a significant role in stimulating purchasing intentions and consumers’ perception of the product’s attributes is based on the colour on its packaging. silayoi and speece (2004) state that colour can be a potential cue on a package which customers can associate the product with especially if the brand is unique. madden et al. (2000) highlight that different cultures have different colour associations and hence their preferences are biased towards their culture’s associations. deliya and parmar (2012) are of the view that different colours on packages set different moods among customers. 2.2.11. package shape and size package size, shape are deemed to affect judgment and decision making (silayoi and speece, 2004). more elongated packages are regarded as larger and when these products are purchased customers experience true volume (silayoi and speece, 2004). raghubir and krishna (1999) confirm that disconfirmation of package size after consumption may not lead consumers to revise their volume judgments especially if the difference is insignificant. different sizes appeal differently to different involvement levels. deliya and parmar (2012) pin point that in cases where product quality is hard to determine, packaging size has a great effect on what the customer purchases. 2.2.12. printed information consumers with high involvement are insignificantly influenced by image issues and visual response. hence these people concentrate much on the information that is written on the package. accordingly, silayoi and speece (2004) state that information written on the package helps consumers in planning which product to consider for their purchasing. however, information on a package may mislead through over emphasizing thereby causing confusion through giving inaccurate information. a way to reduce confusion is that consumers reduce their choice of alternatives and evaluative attributes as suggested by deliya and parmar (2012). however this strategy is said to work for experienced consumers as heavy users usually do not compare to get the best brand alternatives. hausman (2000) also states that consumers who regularly search for product information develop a bank of information for each product and this makes them to be well informed and restrict further search in their next purchase. vakratsas and ambler (1999) highlight that more highly involved consumers evaluate message information and rely on message argument quality to form their attitudes and purchase intentions. deliya and parmar (2012) give a general conclusion that, consumer with low involvement usually purchase without carefully examining brand and product information. 2.2.13. innovation silayoi and speece (2004) highlight that technology developed for packaging comes from the current trends in products and consumer behaviours. packaging innovation in this dynamic environment must be consumer oriented, meet the green marketing agenda, meet the nutritional requirements of the society, must be efficiently manufactured, and should have a long shelf life and meet food safety requirements of the people. silayoi and speece (2004) are of the view that technology that comes in with a package plays a big role and thus forms a special form of informational element. deliya and parmar (2012) are of the view that innovative packaging increases the value of the goods if it meets a consumer needs. in most instance customers accept a product if its package is well innovated, thus product innovation plays a pivotal role in consumer decision making of fmcg products. as part of product innovation font style is also important. deliya and parmar (2012) affirm that font style of packaging grabs customer attraction. there is need to create mind blowing and attractive font styles in order to lure more customers. usually an attractive package has innovative font style and attracts consumers. according to deliya and parmar (2012) high quality packaging material attracts consumers. 2.2.14. roles of packaging according to lee and lye (2002) there are basically five functional roles that are performed by packaging. these are depicted below on the diagram. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 20-30 26 fig-2.2.role of packaging source:lee and lye (2002) 2.2.15. protection and preservation lee and lye (2002) assert that protection and preservation are roles of packaging. these involve protection from environmental, mechanical and chemical poisoning and also form contamination. deliya and parmar (2012) highlight that packaging provides physical protection of the objects from shock, vibration, compression and temperature. in the same line, deliya and parmar (2012) assert that if the product is safeguarded from becoming dirty or avoiding smudging customer hands through contamination then it is said to be a clean package. 2.2.16. market appeal lee and lye (2002) identified market appeal as another role of packaging. this is to say that packaging helps in improving people’s perception about the product. packaging is used to get the consumer’s attention, promote and convey messages about the product’s attributes whilst still on the shelf. 2.2.17. convenience another role of packaging is to add convenience in distribution, handling, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and re-use (deliya and parmar, 2012). lee and lye (2002) describe the convenience offered by packaging namely; openability, reclosability, carrying and dispensing facilities. packaging enables to carry out groupage where fragmented objects can be transported from one place to the other in one package, thus ensuring handling efficiency. according to deliya and parmar (2012) packaging reduces theft as once opened a package cannot be re-closed or gets physically damaged that is it shows signs of opening and is helpful in the prevention of theft. in this case packaging provides opportunities to include anti-theft devices. 2.2.18. helps in identification lee and lye (2002)state that packaging helps in identification and provision of information to customers. thus, a good packaging must contain valuable product information that consumer may need to know, information on how to transport, use, recycle, or dispose of the package or product is often contained as a label on the package. 2.2.19. empirical evidence deliya and parmar (2012) carried out a descriptive study in patan district of gujarat (india) about the roles of packaging in stimulating the behaviour of the consumers, their aim was to discover the relationship between independent variable and dependent variables. samples of 150 were chosen to represent respondents. the research revealed that packaging is the greatest factor and that consumer decision making is dependent on it. furthermore, it was discovered that packaging, the colour, background image, and packaging material, innovation, design of wrapper, printed information and font style were taken as predictors in consumer behaviour. the study concluded that package could be treated as one of most valuable tool in today’s marketing communications, necessitating more detail analysis of its elements and an impact of those elements on consumers buying behaviour. deliya and parmar envisaged that appropriate and vivid picture or packaging colour which delivers a happy feeling or an easy handle/open/dose/dispose package shape contributed to catch consumers’ attention and interest. for this purpose the main packaging elements could be identified as graphic, colour, size, form. similarly, material of packaging such as wrapper design, printed information, and innovation are all ingredients to product success in the market. 2.3. factors influencing consumer buying behaviour vani et al. (2011) highlight that these factors can be classified as controllable and uncontrollable. controllable factors are mainly the 4ps. uncontrollable factors are those that an organisation have no control and include factors like demographic, socio economic, cultural, geographical and psychological factors among others. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 20-30 27 2.3.1. controllable factors 2.3.1.1. product vani et al. (2011)affirm that product characteristics that includes attribute, taste, colour, quality, product knowledge and innovation, ingredients and brand image affect decision making. attributes of a product are important to consumers because they are the ones that deliver the benefits that consumers are seeking from the products. angela (2006) highlights that taste of the product also influences consumer buying behaviour. however, results from angela study showed no significant results on brand preferences because of different tastes that consumers have. colours just like words have been viewed by conveying ideas that prompt buying. vani et al. (2011) adds on to this view by highlighting that colours can be taken to be symbols which express definite meanings. vani et al. (2011)further pin point that the meaning of a particular colour may depend largely on individuals culture or their economic social status. product quality motivates customers to make a purchase. however product quality is viewed differently by many consumers and this sense, it is arguably that customers judge the degree of quality basing on the period of time of product usage. therefore consumers’ perception of quality determines their decision-making process. product innovation is also another factor contributing to consumer buying behaviour. shopping innovativeness is described as a tendency to try new products and brands. ingredients have also been identified as a factor that influences buying behavior. however, brand image is an extrinsic value of a good and is perceived to have less impact compared to intrinsic attributes. brand image should be considered as a consistently risk reliever before planning for a buying decision. consumers are strongly oriented toward products with brand image than toward products with no brand image (belch and belch, 2002). 2.3.1.2. price in view of smith and carsky (1996) in today’s markets, price is the most salient factor contributing to making choices. assuncao and robert (1990) is of the view that when faced with a buying decision in a product category consumers observe a price and considers their current budget position towards that product before making a purchase decision. in most cases when a consumer is exposed to alternatives there is a tendency to select a product that maximizes greatest utility based on the available brands. price alone in the absence of other cues is a powerful contributing factor in considering how the brands were perceived. consumers face brands with varying prices and perceived quality levels and they make a choice consistent with the relative value attached to both attributes. 2.3.1.2.1 place vani et al. (2011) state that the place where the merchandise is found plays a vital role in determining product acceptance in the market and the behaviour of the consumer towards it. in this regard, place becomes critical as consumers considers consumers considers where the product is being sold when making purchasing decisions. customers expect the availability of the product at the time and place where they want and not when and where the supplier wants to deliver. suppliers have to link their manufacturing plans to the demand of the customers but however this can create uncertainty in production planning of some marketers but winners’ know that it is important to meet demand in different markets that will set them apart from others. hence place is a determining factor in consumer buying patterns as customers will buy if they get the product where they want it not where the supplier wants. 2.3.1.2.2. promotion promotion is how people get to know about your product. this includes advertising, direct marketing, sales promotion and public relations. advertising play a crucial role on consumer brand preference. consumers tend to buy products that they have seen being advertised. direct marketing greatly influences the buying behaviour as marketers will be having a platform to communicate their product’s composition and hence convince customers to buy. shimp (2003) states that sales promotion describes incentives induced by a manufacturer to increase trade with consumers. promotional incentives are used to encourage desired behaviours from consumers. however, vani et al. (2011) highlight that sales promotion is short-term oriented and capable of influencing consumers behavior. 2.3.1.3. uncontrollable factors 2.3.1.3.1. social and cultural culture is learned behavior that is passed to an individual, reinforced through the family and through educational and religious institutions, this becomes part of the behavior over time. cultural influences are powerful and determine the success of any product in a market, companies that fail to recognize the value of culture in a society will never become successful, rather will dream success which will never be realized, and under such circumstances it will be difficult to develop products and market them successfully in those markets. sub cultures also exist and they influence the buying patterns of consumers. managers must recognize the following cultural elements namely; linguistic differences, geographical, religious beliefs if they want to succeed in foreign markets and must recognize these as providing opportunities rather than posing problems. 2.3.1.3.2. social class this is the most prominent social influence. income is a well known as the chief determinants of social class. high income earners spent more on luxurious goods and services and are considered to be on a higher social class while those who earn less are perceived to be of lower class. the life styles of these two groups, the way they spent money, their needs and wants are also different. the behavior of these consumers towards making purchase decisions is quite different. higher social class is price insensitive while the opposite is true for lower class that is price sensitive. the higher social class is quick to make purchase decisions and usually they buy in large quantities and in hypermarkets where there are minimum queues while the lower class takes time to make purchase decisions and they asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 20-30 28 buy in smaller quantities which they afford in busy supermarkets where queues seem to be insurmountable. classification of consumers on the basis of life style is becoming more meaningful today according to vani et al. (2011). however whatever income level consumers reach during lifetime, their basic attitudes and preferences do not shift radically. 2.3.1.3.3. personality and self concept personality and self concept also influences consumers when making decisions whether to buy a product or not. this means how people think and how other people see them and how they relate altogether. marketers are so particular about this behaviour since it is linked to the consumption patterns. the personality of an individual is enduring, it does not change in a matter of hours but last longer for years, and for example an extrovert consumer is outgoing while an introvert is the opposite. such personalities do not vanish in abrupt. a number of purchase decisions reflect the personality of an individual and therefore marketers must take note of personalities when making marketing appeals. bray (2007) asserts that psychological theory suggests that we are born with instinctive desires which cannot be fulfilled in a socially acceptable manner and are thus repressed. the purpose of marketing in this regard is to appeal to inner needs whilst delivering products which enable them to be satisfied in a socially acceptable way. 2.3.1.3.4. attitudes the more influential attitudes usually come from the family members and friends or close associates. more refined attitudes develop later. in the field of marketing, the total of attitudes is seen as the total set of cognitions that a buyer has in relation to a potential purchase or a purchasing environment. this is why some companies take their time to study consumer attitudes to increase their loyalty towards their particular brand or product bray (2008). an attitude is the most ruinous thing since once attitude has been formed in the mind of the consumer it might be difficult to alter. even a small dissatisfaction can cause a fundamental shift in disposition. thus attitudes influence the buying behavior of consumers. 2.3.1.3.5. learning learning is very crucial in influencing the buying behavior of consumers, a consumer who has experience with a product either through previous usage or through gaining information through peers has already developed perceptions towards a product and if this consumer is not handled properly may course company misfortunes. when the customer perceives that a certain product is consumed more by his reference group, then that product experiences repeat purchase to reinforce its acceptability within the group. hence learning influences consumer buying behaviour. in this regard, learning can also be viewed as information received through advertising, other publicity or through some reference group or other means. companies should be advised that a consumer today is well informed through learning and therefore his/her behaviour should be modified to the benefit of the company. failure to do that will result in customers shifting to the competitor. 3. summary of findings 3.1. on consumer buying behaviour the researchers discovered that packaging elements affect the buying pattern of consumers on fmcg products shown by printed information with 93.75% from respondents. background image, colour and font style also play a part in influencing consumers. font style however has the least effect as it only scored 31.25%. this corresponds with deliya and parmar (2012) study which concluded that font style has the least effect as compared to all the package elements. 3.2. on the role of packaging on fmcg products from the research findings it was revealed that protection is the main purpose of packaging fmcg products as highlighted by 63% of questionnaires ticking that packaging provides protection to a greater extend. protection as a role of packaging was also highlighted by 100% of interviewed respondents thereby showing that it is the main role of packaging. convenience in terms of opening, storage and handling is also another purpose that is served by packaging as evidenced by 50% responses from questionnaires, while 66.67% of the interviewed policy makers mentioned it second. preservation is also offered by packaging to a rather lesser extend because at times the products are found not to have been preserved well though they will be enclosed in their packages. 3.3. on other factors that affect consumer buying behaviour factors affecting consumer behaviour can be controllable or uncontrollable to firms. on controllable factors, the organisation can alter the factors to suit requirements of customers. uncontrollable factors are difficult to control. price has been considered as one of the leading factors affecting consumer decision making as indicated by 93.75% respondents and 100% of interviews confirming its importance. quality follows with 81.25% of questionnaire responses saying that it influenced buying behaviour and also 66.67% of interview responses rating it second. promotion on products is considered not that important to customers and the least factor that is considered by customers is place which is where the product is found, only 46.88% of the questionnaire responses being yes and 33.33% of interview responses highlighting that place is considered when consumers are making decisions. uncontrollable factors that influence the buying behavior of consumers include socio-cultural, learning, personality and self concept, attitudes and social class. it was revealed that the socio cultural environment factor has minimum influence on the purchasing behavior of consumers which had only 9.38% of questionnaire respondents dismissing that it has an influence on buying behavior. learning is next important with 78% that is 25 respondents of questionnaires saying that it has an influence and also 100% of the interviewees. personality and self concept follow. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(1): 20-30 29 the least factor that have a bearing in the consumer’s choices is social class with 84.38% of questionnaire respondents rejecting that it has an influence on buying behaviour and 66.67% of the management interviewed saying it has a bearing on buying behaviour. the major factor that was highlighted is that, during the hyperinflationary period consumers never took packaging seriously but were mainly concerned about the availability of the product from the shelf. 4. recommendations the researchers suggested the following recommendations.  it is recommended that the companies must prioritize investing in packaging technology as this will enhance competitiveness of their products.  in line with the conclusions drawn by the study, the researchers recommend that the firms in the fmcg  fmcg managers are recommended to use mostly preferred labels in their marketing appeals. basically the labels placed on products should describe where it was made, when it was made, what it contains and how to utilize it, dates when their products expire. in addition the researcher recommends that companies that are in the fmcg sector should use clear labels that are easy to understand.  the researchers also recommend that when designing packages, designers of the manufacturing firms must ensure that the package protects the product inside to a greater extend as this is considered to be the main role of packaging.  the researchers also recommend that fmcg manufacturing firms should competitively price their goods without compromising on quality if they are to be successful and win the consumers’ minds  the socio-cultural environment need to be greatly considered and the researchers recommend that firms should differentiate their product packaging designs to conform to the target market  the researchers also recommend that firms take packaging complaints from customers seriously and also they should create a platform for feedback from customers concerning their products  locally financially distressed companies should be empowered especially the smes (engine for economic growth) to produce products 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eromafuru, edward, godbless1 aigbomian, sunny ewan2 ( corresponding author) 1department of business administration, delta state university abraka, nigeria. 2department of business administration, school of business studies, edo state polytechnics, benin city, nigeria. abstract the study was undertaken with a view to exploring if the dimensions of organizational culture predict the citizenship’ behavior of employees in the nigerian broadcasting organisations. documented evidences have revealed that not much work have been carried out in this area to fully capture and address the real essence of the culture of an organization in relation to citizenship behavior of employees in nigerian. for the first time in the history of the nigerian communication industry, both private and public broadcast organizations were combined and the study was interested in analyzing how the benefits that spur from the figurative marriage between organizational culture and employees’ citizenship behavior can be adapted to the nigerian broadcast organisations ’needs. the cross-sectional research design through survey method and the inferential static of multi-variate regression were employed to conduct this research at 95% confidence level. the study, heavily anchored on the social exchange theory to explain the linkage between organization culture’s dimensions and employees’ citizenship behavior’ measures, has affirmed significant positive relationship among the intervening variables which are that: “the organizational culture’ dimensions significantly predict employees’ citizenship behavior’ measures; and the dimensions of organizational culture with the exception of risk tolerance are seen to significantly predict employees’ courtesy in the broadcast organizations”. it is concluded that to forge cohesion and secure employees’ undiluted commitment to missions and goals, management must sustain an ideal structure that integrate the needs of both the employees and those of the organization. key words: organization culture, citizenship behavior, broadcast organization, nigeria. citation | eromafuru, edward, godbless; aigbomian, sunny ewan (2020). focusing organizational culture and employees’ citizenship behaviour narratives on broadcasting organizations in nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(1): 71-79. history: received: 24 january 2020 revised: 4 march 2020 accepted: 6 april 2020 published: 28 april 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 72 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 73 3. method and materials ..................................................................................................................................................................... 73 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 74 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 77 6. recommendations ............................................................................................................................................................................ 78 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 78 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.71.79&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1546 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8081-6314 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4405-4217 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1546 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8081-6314 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4405-4217 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1546 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8081-6314 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4405-4217 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1546 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8081-6314 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4405-4217 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 71-79 72 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the study was undertaken with a view to exploring if the dimensions of organizational culture predict the citizenship’ behavior of employees in the nigerian broadcasting organisations. 1. introduction among the practical insights and lessons from the resource based theory are that human capital is hard to imitate, rare, valuable, irreplaceable, indefatigable, and socially complex. under proper climate, organisation can translate investment in its human resources into fleeting investment opportunities, superior product or service offering, shared values, higher productivity, good public image, enhanced job satisfaction, competent building, and competitiveness. mohanty and rath (2012) believed that the initiative can be “a unique source of competitive advantage for quite a number of organizations”. in the present realities, the way and manner in which the culture of the organization influences employees have been of deep curiosity. one essential area in the field of human capital development is the evolving culture that influences the ways employees and organizations should behave and act (aslam, 2012). it is held by beck and wilson (2000) that ensuring that the duties of an employee through task performance is not the only known means of assessing and appraising employee effectiveness but also includes performance that goes beyond expectations, adjusting, anticipating, and responding to future business dynamics and others. according to gülsevim (2017) “the recognition of employee is not rocket science but a clear and explicit thing for organizations to always embrace and do in their workplace”. concepts that have evolved in like manner to employees’ citizenship behaviour are organizational spontaneity, contextual performance and pro-social behaviour. they have been used interchangeably in various capacities to explain the meaning of the valuable non-task employees’ behaviour that exist in organizations (appelbaum, 2004; chamdan, 2013; denison, 2000; organ & ryan, 1995). the evolutionary dynamics of the different concepts to explain employees’ behaviour has been with a sustained interest in bringing out the sequential occurrence and the implications of such kinds of behavioral performance in modern organizations. organ (1997) demonstrated a clear picture of group differences of personality with respect to citizenship behaviour. but in real sense, the usefulness of personality in relation to such anticipated behaviours has been observed in the trait of conscientiousness to be very limited (shein, 1996). quite a good number of studies have been done concerning social exchange relation on how employees’ engage in beneficial behaviour in order to receive good attention from their organization (beck & wilson, 2000; gim & desa, 2014). no matter how relevant the social exchange framework may present, there are factors within the organization, like the culture that may function as a basic means for knowing the exact behaviours that are nontask (guillard & neweś, 2010). according to organ and ryan (1995) and denison (2000) only few studies have actually researched these relationships between the culture of the organization and employees’ citizenship behaviour. denison (2000) in his submission provided an explanation on behaviour by saying that cultures encourages, reinforce and elicit key behaviours of employees’ which propel the effectiveness of the culture of the organizations. while khan and rashid (2012) opined that organizational culture is a system of employees’ behavioral pattern that the organization has packaged over time to be able to survive the challenges of internal and external environments. according to gim and desa (2014) the belief that culture energizes employees’ behaviour has not adequately been substantiated by empirical review. hence, this leads to the current debate on the influences of culture on employees’ behaviour. current revelations in the literature on organizational environments suggest the understanding of cultural implication on employees (kroth & peutz, 2011). gim and desa (2014) further stressed that the japanese cultural system of operation in their organizations appears to be the key survival element of japan in the areas of cohesiveness and commitment. this further explains that culture in organization must be an ingrained component of behavioral pattern of employees’ with respect to individual level of achievement to the level of cooperation that exists in the system. these to a large extent are product of rule adherence to innovation within the organization. chamdan (2013) examined culture as a system of meaning for the employees who are sensibly making contributory progress towards the organization. in like manner, it is the way the individual and group behave in a unique pattern. according to hameed, ramzan, and zubair (2014) studies that have actually investigated the influence of culture of the organization on employees’ citizenship behaviour are scanty and limited in number. organizational culture comprises elements like symbols, artifacts and values. these elements allow the environment provide the employees with the needed framework of the expectations in the work place. guillard and neweś (2010) proposed the concept of role as the major perceptual means of leveraging between the individual and organization. role distinctions in organizational context ensure the fundamental relationship between employees’ behaviour and culture. in theory, it is the framework of social systems that connect the requirements in which the system affect their employees’ as individuals. the study of valentino and brunelle (2004) on the culture of organization suggests the importance of roles by emphasizing the influences of culture on the individual cognitive processes. this to a great extent energizes the retrieval processes of perceptions that are consistent with the overall organizational cultural values. thus, they concluded that the various cultures that are prevalent in the different organizations involve unique role understanding and perceptions that subsequently influence the behaviour of employees. the study is hung on the platform that, past organizational efforts to reap the reward that results from strategic management of their human capital have met with abysmal futility; partly due to the non-integrative posture of their cultural platforms or an enshrined defective structure that neither empowers nor supports employees’ personal growth and self-worth. literature is replete with record of frantic efforts made in these areas by concerted researchers and individuals from the industrialized nations of the world but not so much in the case of developing countries where none of such studies has been undertaken. this study fills that void. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 71-79 73 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 1.1. objectives of the study the general objective of this study is to examine organizational culture and employees’ citizenship behaviour in broadcast organizations in delta and edo states. the specific objectives are to: (i) establish if organizational culture predicts employees’ conscientiousness. (ii) investigate if organizational culture predicts employees’ civic virtue. (iii) measure if organizational culture predicts employees’ courtesy. (iv) appraise if organizational culture predicts employees’ sportsmanship. (v) find out if organizational culture predicts employees’ altruism. 1.2. research hypotheses ho1organizational culture does not significantly predict employees’ conscientiousness. ho2 organizational culture does not significantly predict employees’ civic virtue. ho3 organizational culture does not significantly influence employees’ courtesy. ho4 organizational culture does not significantly predict employees’ sportsmanship. ho5 organizational culture does not significantly influence employees’ altruism. 2. literature review 2.1. social exchange theory the study rests on social exchange theory (set) which explains social behaviour as a product of an exchange process. this theory was introduced by the sociologist, homans (1958) but later cited by erhan and hatice (2014) in his work “social behaviour as exchange”. in effect, the theory is about the social evaluation of human minds and group behaviour at work. the set explains the process of social change and stability as negotiated exchanges between the parties involved. implicit in the theory is the notion that the relationships that exist among humans are formed on the basis of personal gain (cost-benefit analysis) and the comparative assessment of the alternatives available. the focus of the exchange process is the expected maximum benefits which revolve around cost minimization principle. employees on a comparative note try to equate the potential benefits of the process with the risks involved in social relationships (arabaci, 2010). when the risks exceed the rewards or benefits, employees may choose eventually terminate such relationship. the theory assumes that relationships that guarantee the best returns for the least amount of effort are the ones the individual will value the most. the theory in effect holds the belief that the kinds of relationships social beings create and maintain are the ones that evolve the best rewards and reduce costs (appelbaum, 2004). the theory is a complex model in contrast with simple economic model of costs and rewards relationships and covers the three combinatorial factors: cost-benefit analysis, comparison and available alternatives. erhan and hatice (2014) opined that individuals involved in the exchange, expresses feelings about the expected returns. this theory further suggests that individuals should assist others. falemu and ojo (2013) in the same context explained that the behaviour individual would show comes from a burning desire to get the best expected rewards and reduce costs as much as possible. costs are issues that are assumed to have negative effects in a relationship. for example, one can spend money, time and putting effort into a relationship. the expectations of the individual are the benefits gotten from such relationship like social support, and others. to effectively and efficiently determine the value of such relationship, the theory prescribed that we take the benefits and minus the costs. positive relationships in a process exist when the benefits dominate the costs while negative relationships exist when costs are higher than the expected benefits. two approaches to social exchange theory are, the social interaction and the relationships approaches. the social interaction approach appraised employees’ and the individuals in particular, as rationally engaged to achieve what they need by exchanging their perceived valued resources with others that need it. this idea was corroborated by erhan and hatice (2014). secondly, the relationship approach examines exchange process between groups as a complete whole. the approach has it that when involved in a group that is based on a platform of loyalty, individuals contribute and subsequently get their expected benefits. previous applications of the social exchange theory emphasized the description of the starting and the ending of social relations in work places, family settings as well as in the area of romantic relationships (khan & rashid, 2012). present areas of interest of study include the evolvement of fairness in social exchange relations and how it connects to relational satisfaction and dissolution. the utilization and application of authority or power in social relations is based on the control of benefits and costs. the reckless use of such power as well as coalition role is altering the equilibrium of power among actors in the network of individuals or organizations (mahin & mohammad, 2014). with regard to the application to work settings and family environment, the social exchange theory has been applied in diverse organizations and inter-organizational relations contexts. organizations, in earnest, need various kinds of resources to effectively engage in strategic management. and requires good time. the resource dependence approach in this case shows and emphasizes the strategic application of the social exchange reasoning to the behaviours of organizations and its divisional units, obinozie (2016). interestingly, the emerging focus of economic sociology has started making inference on ideas that emerged from the social exchange theory (tansley, 2007). this was done to appraise the coming of network of entities and the pattern of power processes that evolved such networks. network effects on labour practices, informal influence among organizations, the organization of business groups, and the formation of international linkages that cross traditional national boundaries of economic and productive activity are important issues of debate in economic sociology (tahura & mehrali, 2015). 3. method and materials the research design for the study was cross-sectional, through survey method. the population of the study consists of 846 employees of broadcast organizations in delta and edo states. using yamane (1967) a sample size asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 71-79 74 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group of 282 staff of the organizations was engaged. . questionnaire was the research instrument employed to collect data. the five-point scale likert-type question response format was used and were assigned the values: strongly agree (sa) = 5 points; agree (a) = 4 point; undecided (u) = 3; disagree (d) = 2 and strongly disagree (sd) = 1. the reliability assessment was by means of cronbach’s alpha index tests, which gives above 0.8 coefficients see table, a1 (appendix a). data was analyzed using descriptive statistics including frequency tables, percentages, mean, standard deviation, and standard error of the mean. the inferential statistics of linear regression was used to test the hypotheses, and stata version 13.0 software was used to run the data. 3.1. model specification hanging on the general objective of the study, the functional form of relationship between employees’ behaviour and organizational culture is: employees’ citizenship behaviour = f (organizational culture) the regression equation can therefore be stated as: ecbi = a + b ci (eqn.1) where ecbi = employees’ citizenship behaviour (dependent variable) oc = organizational culture (independent variable) measures of the dependent variables are: conscientiousness, civic virtue, courtesy, sportsmanship, and altruism. similarly, the independent variable is measured by: individual responsibility, individual autonomy, conflict tolerance, risk tolerance, support, structure; and belief & norms. against this backdrop, the multiple regression method is deemed appropriate. here, a particular measure of dependent variable is expressed as multiple linear regression model of the set of dependent variables. thus, we have the following five models: model 1: cct = a + b1 inr + b2 ina + b3 rst + b4 cot+ b5 sup + b6 str + b7ben (eqn.2) model 2: civ = a + b1 inr + b2 ina + b3 rst + b4 cot + b5 sup + b6 str + b7 ben (eqn.3) model 3: cou = a + b1 inr + b2 ina + b3 rst + b4 cot + b5 sup + b6 str + b7 ben (eqn.4) model 4: spm = a + b1 inr + b2 ina + b3 rst + b4 cot + b5 sup + b6 str + b7 ben (eqn.5) model 5: alt = a + b1 inr + b2 ina + b3 rst + b4 cot + b5 sup + b6 str + b7 ben (eqn.6) where cct = conscientiousness civ = civic virtue cou = courtesy spm = sportsmanship alt = altruism inr = individual responsibility ina = individual autonomy rst = risk tolerance cot = conflict tolerance sup = support str = structure ben = belief & norms a, bi = parameters to be estimated in the regression equation, where the b’s are the coefficients of the variables. the decision rule is that if the value of bi is positive and statistically significant then it means that organizational cultural variable can significantly explain employees’ citizenship behaviour. the statistical significance of the parameter estimates is determined by comparing the probability values (p-values) of the t-score with 0.05% level of significance. if pvalue is less than 0.05% the estimate is significant and the null hypothesis is not accepted (that is rejected) 4. results and discussion table-1. descriptive characteristic of data collected. stats mean median max min std dv n individual responsibility (inr) 3.87 4 5 1 0.96 253 conflict tolerance (cot) 3.81 4 5 1 0.93 253 support (sup) 3.89 4 5 1 0.83 253 structure (str) 3.93 4 5 1 0.93 253 belief & norms (ben) 3.81 4 5 1 0.83 253 individual autonomy (ina) 3.93 4 5 1 0.97 253 risk tolerance (rst) 3.93 4 5 1 0.83 253 courtesy (cou) 3.86 4 5 1 0.97 253 civic virtue (civ) 3.83 4 5 1 0.93 253 conscientiousness (cct) 3.92 4 5 1 0.88 253 altruism (alt) 4.13 4 5 2 0.86 253 sportsmanship (spm) 3.90 4 5 1 0.86 253 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 71-79 75 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-2. group correlation matrix. inr cot sup str ben ina rst cou civ cct alt spm inr 1 cot 0.50 1 sup 0.54 0.45 1 str 0.56 0.63 0.49 1 ben 0.50 0.56 0.45 0.63 1 ina 0.54 0.51 0.63 0.57 0.51 1 rst 0.53 0.42 0.56 0.48 0.42 0.60 1 cou 0.65 0.59 0.63 0.66 0.59 0.68 0.62 1 civ 0.66 0.60 0.63 0.62 0.60 0.66 0.62 0.67 1 cct 0.61 0.35 0.41 0.40 0.35 0.43 0.39 0.52 0.57 1 alt 0.36 0.45 0.32 0.49 0.65 0.38 0.30 0.48 0.55 0.37 1 spm 0.38 0.30 0.69 0.32 0.30 0.63 0.75 0.47 0.46 0.53 0.30 1 the above table shows that all the studied variables are positively correlated and thus conformable for regression test. table-3. normality test. variable obs pr (skewness) pr (kurtosis) adj chi2(2) prob>chi2 inr 253 0.0000 0.293 30.24 0.0000 cot 253 0.0000 0.2900 21.24 0.0000 sup 253 0.0000 0.0027 36.29 0.0000 str 253 0.0000 0.0016 35.92 0.0000 ben 253 0.0000 0.2900 21.24 0.0000 ina 253 0.0000 0.0161 29.36 0.0000 rst 253 0.0000 0.0016 35.92 0.0000 cou 253 0.0000 0.0366 30.13 0.0000 civ 253 0.0000 0.1141 24.39 0.0000 cct 253 0.0000 0.0097 31.39 0.0000 alt 253 0.0000 0.2439 23.77 0.0000 spm 253 0.0000 0.0251 27.56 0.0000 the above test for normality indicates that all the variables are normally distributed and suitable for regression analysis. table-4. post regression analysis for hypothesis testing. vif test (mean) 2.19 heteroskedasticity 1.96 (0.1616) ramsey reset test 3.46 (0.1175) observation 253 the above test shows that the variation between the dependent and independent variables are homoscedastic that is, there is no heteroscedasticity problem at 1.96 (0.1616). therefore, the regression results can be used to test the formulated hypotheses. the test for variance inflation factor, the mean vif value is 2.19 which is less than the benchmark value of 10 indicates the absence of multicollinearity. similarly, the result of ramsey regression equation specification error test, with the probability value of 0.1175, is an affirmation that the model has no omitted variables. 4.1. test of hypotheses 4.1.1. hypothesis one ho1: organizational culture does not significantly predicts employees’ conscientiousness table-5. ols regression result of organizational culture and employee conscientiousness. variables. coef. std. err. t p>/t/ individual responsibility (inr) .3335 .0452 7.36 0.000 conflict tolerance (cot) .2481 .0492 5.04 0.000 support (sup) .3076 .0556 5.53 0.000 structure (str) .1391 .0553 2.52 0.013 belief & norms (ben) .1756 .0499 3.52 0.001 individual autonomy (ina) .2903 .0554 5.23 0.000 risk tolerance (rst) .1140 .0382 2.98 0.003 cons. -.5710 .1982 -2.88 0.004 r-squared 0.7229 adj. r-squared: 0.6941 f 91.29 prob.>f. 0.000. note: dependent variable: innovative work practice. the regression result as per above table, shows adjusted r-squared of 0.71, explaining about 71.49% systematic variation in employees’ conscientiousness, thus signaling that all the dimensions of organizational culture significantly predict employees’ conscientiousness in the broadcast organizations. the positive coefficient values (inr = 0.3335, cot = 0.2482, sup = 0.3076, str = 0.1391, ben = 0.1757, ina = 0.2903 and rst asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 71-79 76 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group =0.1140) show that a unit change in organizational cultural dimensions, will lead to 33.3%, 24.8%, 30.8%, 13.9%, 17.6%, 29%, and 11.4% variations respectively in employees’ conscientiousness. the t-value of the regression result for employees’ conscientiousness pass the threshold of 5% significance level. by this result, we accept the alternate hypothesis that organizational culture significantly predicts employees’ conscientiousness. 4.1.2. hypothesis two ho₂: organizational culture does not significantly predicts employees’ civic virtue. table-6. ols regression result of organizational culture and civic virtue. variables. coef. std. err. t p>/t/ individual responsibility (inr) .2429 .0487 4.98 0.000 conflict tolerance (cot) .2481 .0492 5.04 0.000 support (sup) .3076 .0556 5.53 0.000 structure (str) .1201 .0391 3.07 0.002 belief & norms (ben) .1706 .0538 3.17 0.002 individual autonomy (ina) .4442 .0597 7.44 0.000 risk tolerance (rst) .0902 .0412 2.19 0.029 cons. -.1789 .2135 -0.84 0.403 r-squared 0.659 adj. r-squared: 0.650 f 67.89 prob.>f. 0.000. note: dependent variable: civic virtue. the result as per above table, reflects adjusted r-squared of 0.6598, explaining about 65.98% systematic variation in employees’ civic virtue, evidencce that dimensions of organizational culture significantly predict employees’ civic virtue in broadcast organizations in nigeria. the positive coefficient values for individual responsibility (inr)= 0.243, conflict tolerance (ct) = 0.248, support (sup) = 0.307, structure (str)= 0.120, belief and norms (ben) = 0.171, individual autonomy (ina) = 0.444, and risk tolerance (rst) = 0.90, suggest that the dimensions of organizational culture, explains about 24.3%, 24.8%, 30.8%, 12%, 17.1%, 44.4%, and 0.9%, of the systematic variations in employees’ civic virtue of the sampled broadcasting organizations. the t-values of the regression result for employees’ civic virtue fall within 5% threshold or 95% confidence level a strong affirmation that organizational culture significantly predicts employees’ civic virtue. 4.1.3. hypothesis three ho3: organizational culture does not significantly impact on employees’ courtesy. table-7. ols regression result of organizational culture and employee courtesy. variables. coef. std. err. t p>/t/ individual responsibility (inr) .2238 .0549 4.07 0.000 conflict tolerance (cot) .2189 .0560 3.90 0.000 support (sup) .3774 .0634 5.95 0.000 structure (str) .0957 .0446 2.14 0.033 belief & norms (ben) .3114 .0606 5.14 0.000 individual autonomy (ina) .3063 .0672 4.55 0.000 risk tolerance (rst) .0730 .0464 1.57 0.117 cons. .0100 .2405 0.04 0.967 r-squared 0.589 adj. r-squared: 0.578 f 50.32 prob.>f. 0.000 note: dependent variable: employee courtesy. the positive coefficient values for individual responsibility (inr) = 0.223, conflict tolerance (ct) = 0.218, support (sup) = 0.377, structure (str) = 0.095, belief & norms (ben) = 0.311, individual autonomy (ina) = 0.306, & risk tolerance (rst) = 0.073, illustrate that, dimensions of organizational culture, explain about 22.3%, 21.8%, 37.7%, 95.7%, 31.1%, 30.6%, 7.3%, of the systematic variations in employees’ civic virtue. similarly, the adjusted r-squared of 0.5780, is equivalent to about 57.8% systematic variation in employees’ civic virtue, implying that dimensions of organizational culture significantly predict employees’ civic virtue in nigerian broadcast organizations. again, the t-values for employees’ civic virtue are observed to pass the 5% significance level, thus affirming organizational culture significantly predicting employees’ civic virtue. 4.1.4. hypothesis four ho4: organizational culture does not significantly predicts employees’ sportsmanship. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 71-79 77 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-8. ols regression result of organizational culture and employee sportsmanship. variables. coef. std. err. t p>/t/ individual responsibility (inr) .3335 .0452 7.36 0.000 conflict tolerance (cot) .3774 .0634 5.95 0.000 support (sup) .0957 .0446 2.14 0.033 structure (str) .1391 .0553 2.52 0.013 belief & norms (ben) .1756 .0499 3.52 0.001 individual autonomy (ina) .2903 .0554 5.23 0.000 risk tolerance (rst) .1140 .0382 2.98 0.003 cons. -.5710 .1982 -2.88 0.004 r-squared 0.722 adj. r-squared: 0.714 f 91.29 prob.>f. 0.000 note: dependent variable: employee sportsmanship. the regression coefficients for individual responsibility (inr) = 0.333, conflict tolerance (ct) = 0.377, support (sup) = 0.096, structure (str) = 0.139, belief & norms (ben) = 0.1756 individual autonomy (ina) = 0.290, & risk tolerance (rst) = 0.144, indicate that all dimensions of organizational culture, explain about 33.3%, 37.7%, 9.57%, 13.9%, 17.6%, 29%, & 11.4%, of the systematic variations in employees’ sportsmanship. similarly, the adjusted r-squared of 0.7149, is equivalent to about 71.49% of systematic variation in employees’ sportsmanship, suggesting that dimensions of organizational culture significantly predict employees’ sportsmanship. in the same vein, the corresponding t-values are also seen to pass the 5% significance level, meaning that organizational culture significantly predicting employees’ sportsmanship. 4.1.5. hypothesis five ho5: organizational culture does not significantly impact on employees’ altruism. table-9. ols regression result of organizational culture and employee altruism. variables. coef. std. err. t p>/t/ individual responsibility (inr) .2847 .0419 6.78 0.000 conflict tolerance (cot) .1804 .0533 3.84 0.001 support (sup) .2256 .0603 3.74 0.000 structure (str) .0955 .0424 2.25 0.026 belief & norms (ben) .2419 .0462 5.23 0.000 individual autonomy (ina) .3642 .0514 7.09 0.000 risk tolerance (rst) .1341 .0354 3.78 0.000 cons. -.5498 .1837 -2.99 0.003 r-squared 0.748 adj. r-squared: 0.741 f 104.04 prob.>f. 0.000 note: dependent variable: employee altruism. note: cct = conscientiousness civ = civic virtue cou = courtesy spm = sportsmanship alt = altruism inr = individual responsibility ina = individual autonomy rst = risk tolerance cot = conflict tolerance sup = support str = structure ben = belief & norms the positive regression coefficients: (individual responsibility (inr) = 0.285, conflict tolerance (ct) = 0.180, support (sup) = 0.226, structure (str) = 0.956, belief & norms (ben) = 0.242, individual autonomy (ina) = 0.364, & risk tolerance (rst) = 0.134), foreclose that organizational culture dimensions, explain about 28.5%, 18%, 22.6,%, 95.6%, 24.2%, 36.4%, and 13.4% of the systematic changes in employees’ altruism. the adjusted r-squared of 0.7411 which represents about 74.11% of systematic variation in employees’ sportsmanship, implies that dimensions of organizational culture significantly predict employees’ altruism. the corresponding tvalues are also seen to satisfy the 95% confidence level, evidence that organizational culture significantly predicts employees’ altruism. 5. conclusion there are evidences of wide spread conformity and acceptance in organizations that culture is obvious and that it exists, and as such has positive influence on citizenship behavioral variables. it is therefore important to state that citizenship behaviour features in these organizations is a function of good healthy organizational cultural practices, which every employee working in that organization holds with high regard. results have also identified good reward system as an antidote to designing and implementing sound organizational culture in the nigerian broadcast organizations and in diaspora. it stands to reason therefore that positive organizational cultural atmosphere evolves an environment where citizenship behaviour is guaranteed, and where the employees are willing and ready to deliver quality services with great commitment. in nigeria contextual literature, we have been made to understand that since the policy of deregulation of the broadcast sector in 1992 was carried out, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 71-79 78 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group employees’ behaviour (public and private combined) in the broadcast industry has not been appraised in line with the diverse cultures of their respective organizations. this is one of the gaps this study intends to bridge. we argued succinctly based on our findings that all the dimensions of organizational culture significantly and positively predict the employees’ citizenship behavior in the nigerian broadcasting industry. the implications of this for managers/organizations are: a workable structure that aligns the needs of the employees with those of the management will help to breed, nurture, and retain loyal, committed and energetic employees; while a weak or bureaucratic structure that neglect the plights of the employees will end up harvesting and breeding group of dissident, idiosyncratic, vindictive, and shoddy workers. 6. recommendations 1. management should be concerned with evolving behaviours geared towards yielding significant higher results in the very long term than in the short term. this can be partly accomplished in its sincere effort to establish individual level behaviour related appraisal ratings and allocation of rewards among employees in the organization. 2. management should make their employees’ to be more committed to culture that will eventually transcend to employees’ sense of belonging and self-identity in their roles as organisational citizen and stakeholders. 3. management should evolve a system that will help discern employees with good citizenship behavior. 4. the most effective and influential elements within the components of employees’ citizenship behaviour should be re-emphasized by management in a polite and considerable manner as this can further enhance such behaviours. in this way, mechanism to improving the 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(1967). statistics: an introduction analysis (2nd ed.). harper and row sciep. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 71-79 79 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group appendix a table-a1. test for reliability. item obs sign item-test correction item-rest correction average inter item covariance alpha inr 20 + 0.9069 0.8870 .6814354 0.9499 cot 20 + 0.7938 0.7571 .7123445 0.9538 sup 20 + 0.8816 0.8511 .6622967 0.9509 str 20 + 0.6055 0.5378 .7372249 0.9599 ben 20 + 0.7938 0.7517 .7123445 0.9538 ina 20 + 0.8707 0.8351 .6556938 0.9518 rst 20 + 0.6055 0.5378 .7372249 0.9599 cou 20 + 0.8988 0.8738 .6652632 0.9501 civ 20 + 0.8335 0.7957 .6833493 0.9526 cct 20 + 0.8822 0.8559 .6795215 0.9507 alt 20 + 0.9297 0.9146 .6786603 0.9492 spm 20 + 0.9381 0.9281 .7094737 0.9507 test scale .6929027 0.9566 figure-a1. relationship among the variables. source: adapted from mohanty and rath (2012). asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 307 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 4, 307-317, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.307.312 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group expectations in a marriage proposal: a gender-based comparison in pakistan asma amin malik1 wasmana khan2 fatima yusuf3 zainab raza4 kashaf aqeel zaidi5 bilal sarwar6 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3,4,6student, ziauddin university, karachi, pakistan. 5lecturer, ziauddin university, karachi, pakistan. abstract to determine the differences in expectations of males and females regarding marriage proposals. it was a cross-sectional study conducted in karachi. young people aged between 18 and 45 years were enrolled in the study. an online questionnaire was circulated through a convenience sampling technique. our sample had 456 participants with n=294 64.5% females. n=387 84.9% were between 18-25 years of age. n=292 64% did not have a preference regarding spouse’s skin tone but n=269 59.0% preferred a taller spouse. body type was a considerable factor for n=227 49.8%. n=309 67.8% preferred their partner to have a job, own a business and have a career. love marriage was preferred by n=194 42.5%. majority of the sample (58.1%) did not have a preference in terms of ethnicity but n=193 42.2% wanted a spouse from the same sect, denomination or caste. n=357 78.3% were against dowry. 52% of the participants said their choices were influenced by societal norms and culture to some extent. four most important personality traits in a potential spouse were loyalty (75.7%), respect (62.7%), maturity (49.3%) and honesty (46.5%). the findings of this study are reflective of our community and culture as the majority of individuals are under societal influence. moreover, their preference in traits emphasizes mutual understanding as opposed to physical characteristics. an adequate understanding of an individual's expectations from a marriage proposal decreases the risk of psychological distress associated with the relationship. keywords: marriage, dowry, socioeconomic status, marriage preferences, spouse, colorism in marriage, personality traits, joint family system, pakistani marriage culture. citation | asma amin malik; wasmana khan; fatima yusuf; zainab raza; kashaf aqeel zaidi; bilal sarwar (2020). expectations in a marriage proposal: a gender-based comparison in pakistan. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(4): 307312. history: received: 28 october 2020 revised: 16 november 2020 accepted: 30 november 2020 published: 14 december 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 308 2. materials and methods ................................................................................................................................................................. 308 3. results .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 308 4. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 310 5. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 311 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 311 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.307.312&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2442 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1032-7026 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1883-1841 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6499-7685 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0200-1600 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8421-2809 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9431-0445 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 307-312 308 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to the existing literature by determining the differences in expectations of males and females regarding marriage proposals. 1. introduction the primary reasons for a marriage are emotional, religious and sexual satisfaction. intimate relationships, physical and emotional health are greatly influenced by marital expectations of a partner and these expectations include age, ethnicity, gender, religion, marital status and experiences about relationships (savelsberg, 1995). there is a societal pressure on overweight women to slim down as being slim is considered an attractive attribute and the research proves that the husbands have positive relationship with their wives if they are non-obese (hasan, zafar, & yasmeen, 2019). moreover, women with bmi within the normal range have higher marital satisfaction than those with a higher bmi. males have a higher preference for wives that have a fairer skin tone than themselves and are more likely to use words like ‘beautiful’ and ‘lovely’ to describe them (jha & adelman, 2008) . in inter-caste marriages spouses prefer personality traits whereas in people marrying within their caste laid more emphasis on the family background. marriage in a different caste results in couples becoming social outcasts who are deprived of family support and even experience violence in some cases (rajadesingan, mahalingam, & jurgens, 2019). in pakistan people who live in joint family have a higher level of satisfaction as compared to those who live in joint family that is 87.5% v/s 81% (saqib lodhi et al., 2019) . larger dowries have significantly reduced domestic violence by increasing the economic resources of the household, and serving as an asset over which the woman enjoys more control in the household (srinivasan & bedi, 2007). 70 per cent of young women had a family-arranged marriage in which they had no effective say in the choice of their husband and have little or no interaction before getting married (jejeebhoy, santhya, acharya, & prakash, 2012). multiple factors including religious, social, cultural, economic and political factors influence the families to opt for consanguineous marriage but most of them result in spontaneous abortions, childhood deaths, cerebral palsy and mediterranean fever (tili & barker, 2015). intercultural marriages prove to be beneficial as they enhance personal growth, reduce ethnocentrism and provide global awareness and increase acceptance for other cultures (tili & barker, 2015). the likelihood of intimidate partner violence (ipv) decreases with increase in household standard of living and education (ackerson & subramanian, 2016). on evaluation of online matrimonial sites it was found 21% of the males preferred their spouses to have fair complexion, only 7% of the female profiles were looking for men with ‘fair’ complexion not a single male or female profile chose ‘dark’ as the expected complexion for their potential spouse (mishra, monippally, & jayakar, 2012). a research conducted in india revealed only 5% inter-caste marriages (dhillon-jamerson, 2019). approximately 90% of the bride’s parents offered dowry in terms of jewelry and cash but in some cases, 5060% of the dowry expenses were borne by the groom’s side. makino (2019) less than 5% of the females had a primary role in choosing their husbands whereas 65% of the females felt that they were “consulted” in this decision, allendorf and pandian (2016) studies have revealed that 5% of arranged marriages and 11% of love marriages were consanguineous marriages (ma, 2019) an online survey conducted in 2015 revealed that 75% of females expressed their desire to have a husband who owns a house and earns twice as them. an increasing trend was seen in women having this expectation as only 68% expressed this desire in 2012 (desai & andrist, 2010). some studies have been conducted in the south-east asian region however, not much research has been conducted in pakistan highlighting an individual’s expectations from a marriage proposal. these expectations usually develop the basis for a healthy relationship which is important for an individual’s mental, emotional, and physical well-being. therefore, it is important to determine individual preferences in regards to career orientation, age difference, personality traits, home chores distribution, pre-marital relationships, and other abovementioned factors including physical appearance. we will also be drawing a comparison between the preferences of males and females participating in the study. 2. materials and methods this was a cross-sectional study conducted in 2020, data was collected between april and july in karachi, pakistan. the sample size calculated was n=384 which was calculated based on a proportion of 50%, bound of error was 5% and confidence level was taken as 95%. an online questionnaire developed on google forms was circulated via social media, various websites and social forums through convenience sampling technique. it was an online survey as data was collected during the covid pandemic. the target population was young people between 18 and 45 years of age. an informed consent was taken at the beginning of the survey and those who did not wish to continue were allowed to leave the survey. the questionnaire was developed through literature review and researches conducted on similar topics 11,14. demographic profile variables included age, gender, ethnicity, and socio-income status. the questions related to expectations in a marriage proposal acquired opinions regarding preferences of males and females regarding various characteristics. data entry was done on microsoft excel via google forms which was imported to spss version 20. descriptive analysis for numerical data was done through mean and standard deviation and for categorical data through frequencies and percentages. chi square test was applied to identify associations between demographic factors and opinion about males and females regarding expectations in a marriage proposal. a p-value of less than 0.05 was taken as significant. institutional ethical approval was taken from the institute prior to the initiation of the study. 3. results the sample for our data consisted of 456 participants. majority of the group comprised of females n=294 64.5% while male respondents were n=162 35.5%. age group varied from 16 being the youngest to 80 being the oldest. most of the participants were between 18-25 years n=387 84.9% while those aged 25-30 gave the second highest number of responses n=51 11.2%. majority of the study sample was unmarried 92.1% while n=35 7.7% of the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 307-312 309 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group sample were married. when asked about religion, n=442 96.9% of the sample were followers of islam, n=9 2.0% followed hinduism, and n=2 0.4% belonged to christianity. when inquired about the education level, n=6 1.3% responded with matric/o levels, n=51 11.2% of the sample had done intermediate/a levels. the highest proportion of the sample n=298 65.4% were undergraduates, second highest response was by graduates n=60 13.2% and postgraduates were n=41 9%. regarding combined income for family per month, n=44 9.6% of the sample responded with less than rs. 50,000 per month. those with a combined income between rs. 50,000-1,00,000 were recorded to be n=101 22.1%, n=122 26.8% chose rs. 1,00,000-2,00,000 while n=189 41.4% said their combined income was more than rs. 2,00,000. only a small portion of the population was residing in the rural area n=48 10.5% whereas n=408 89.5% were residing in urban areas. when inquired about preference for the spouse being fairer than them, majority of the sample n=292 64% said they don’t have a preference, n=106 23.2 % responded with yes and n=57 12.5% responded with a no. the population was asked if they preferred their spouse being a homeowner, most of them n=186 40.8% stated yes and n=58 12.7% of the sample said that their spouse should not be a homeowner while the rest n=212 46.5% of them had no preference in this regard. the participants were asked about the importance of their future spouse owning real-estate, n=184 40.4% of the sample said it was not important for them, n=80 17.5% of the sample said it was important, whereas n=192 42.1% said they had no preference. the participants were asked about their spouse being taller than them, n=269 59.0% of the sample said they would prefer their spouse to be taller than them whereas, n=99 21.7% of the sample said they would prefer their spouse to be shorter and n=88 19.3% had no preference regarding this. most of the participants n=227 49.8% said that they would consider the body type of their potential spouse while n=69 15.1% said they will not. the rest of the sample which accounted for n=160 35.1% had no preference when it came to the body type of their potential spouse. a vast majority of the sample, n=309 67.8% of the sample said they would prefer their potential partner to have a job, own a business and have a career. only a small proportion of the population n=40 8.8% said they would prefer their potential partner to be a home-maker and stay at home. whereas, n=107 23.5% of the sample had no preference regarding the matter. contrary to common belief, most of the participants n= 168 36.8% said they would prefer their partners to be in the building phase of their careers whereas, n=141 30.9% preferred a spouse who is established in their career before marriage. only n=61 13.4% of the sample said they would prefer their partner to at least be educated if not employed before marriage. the least preferred option was that future partners should neither be educated nor employed which was selected by n=2 0.4% of the sample whereas, n=84 18.4% had no preference regarding their partner’s career establishment. when inquired about the presence of an age gap between the couple, n=274 60.1% sample said they would want an age gap between their potential spouse and them, however n=182 39.9% sample said they would not want any age gap at all. love marriage was the preferred option for majority of the participants with n=194 42.5% of the sample choosing it whereas, n=104 22.8% of the sample preferred arrange marriage, and n=158 34.6% had no preference in this regard. a significant majority of the sample n=265 58.1% said they had no preference in choosing a spouse of the same ethnicity or different. n=21 4.6 % wanted a spouse of a different ethnicity whereas n=170 37.3% of the sample wanted their partner to be of the same ethnicity. in relation to the sect, denomination or caste, n=193 42.2% of the sample preferred same sect/caste whereas, n=238 52.2% of the sample did not have any preference and n=25 5.5% of the sample wanted their spouse to be from some other sect or caste. a significant proportion of the sample n=288 63.2% preferred not being related to their spouse at all, n=21 4.6% of the sample did not mind a spouse who was their second cousin or closer in relation and n= 27 5.9% of the sample chose their spouse to be either a third cousin or distantly related. whereas, n=120 26.3% of the sample showed no preference for consanguineous marriage. when candidates were asked regarding the preferred age gap between themselves and their potential spouse, n=231 50.7% wanted 1-3 years, n=80 17.5% wanted 4-6 years, n=12 2.6% wanted 7-10 years and n=6 1.3% had no preference in this regard. a significant proportion of the population n=201 44.1% preferred marrying in nuclear family systems and only n=92 20.2% of the sample preferred getting married in the joint family system. whereas, n=163 35.7% of the sample showed no preference in this regard. in alliance to the future spouse settlement, n=65 14.3% of the sample preferred their spouse to be settled abroad, n=211 46.3% of the sample showed no preference at all, and n=180 39.5% of the spouse wanted their spouse to be settled within the vicinity of pakistan n=119 26.1% of the sample preferred their spouse to be settled within the same city of pakistan as theirs, n=30 6.6% said they wanted their spouse to be from a different city ,n=130 28.5% had no preference while n=177 38.8% did not respond. when questioned about the opinion regarding dowry n=357 78.3% of the sample were against it, whereas n=89 19.5% of the sample gave a neutral response and only n=10 2.2% of the sample supported it. when asked regarding the preference of qualities in their future spouse n=311 68.2% of the sample preferred their spouse to be an ambivert, n=36 7.9% of the sample wanted their spouse to be an extrovert, n=24 5.3% showed interest towards an introvert spouse whereas n=85 18.6% of the sample didn’t have any opinion regarding this matter. when questioned about their opinion regarding cooking, n=177 38.1% preferred cooking for themselves, n=96 21.1% preferred cooking for both of them and n=55 12.1% preferred that their partner cooked for them. the participants were asked about their preference regarding marrying a widowed or divorced spouse to which n=241 52.8% of the people said they could consider it depending on the situation while n=120 26.3% said that they would not marry a widow or a divorced and only n=95 20.8% stated they would not mind marrying a widowed or divorced individual. the participants were asked about the influence of societal norms and culture in their choices. n=134 29.4% people said that their choices were not influenced by societal norms and culture while n=241 52% said their choices were influenced to some extent whereas, n=105 23.0% said their choices are influenced by societal norms and culture. participants were asked if they ever had pre-marital relationship, n=320 70.2% denied having one and n=46 10.1% people didn’t want to disclose it while n=90 19.7% people had pre-marital relationship. according to the sample n=228 50.0% people told that they would not marry a person who had pre-marital relationship. while n=50.0 50.0% people said that they would marry a person who had premarital relationship. out of the sample n=5 1.1 % wanted others to choose their spouse. n=25 5.5% wanted their parents and others to choose their spouse asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 307-312 310 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group whereas, n=291 63.8% wanted to choose their spouse with their parents and only n=135 29.6% want to choose their spouse themselves. according to the sample n=5 11.2% people wanted to know their partners for 2 years before marriage. n=113 24.8% people wanted to know their partners for 12 years before marriage while most of the participants n=151 33.1% wanted to know their partners for 1-6 months before marriage. n=121 26.5% people want to know their partners for 6-12 months before marriage and n=4 0.9% people had no preferences whereas, n=16 3.5% people had other preferences. participants were asked about the four most important personality traits that they expect in their spouse when considering a marriage proposal. there were mixed views about maturity with n=231 50.7% not stating it as an essential trait and n=225 49.3% preferring it. regarding loyalty n=111 24.3% did not mention it as a significant trait and n=345 75.7% said it was needed. moreover, n=244 53.5% did not pick honesty as a preferred trait whereas n= 212 46.5% did. their opinion was taken regarding an affectionate personality being preferred with n=305 66.9% not listing it as a preference and n= 151 33.1% wanting this quality in their spouse. furthermore, sense of humor was not a famous personality trait with n=318 69.7% not listing it as a preference whereas, n=138 30.3% wanted it in their potential spouse. for intelligence n=329 72.1% did not choose it as an expectation and n=127 27.9% wanted it. n=394 86.4% were not keen on having an adventurous spouse, whereas, n=62 13.6% wanted their spouse to be adventurous. moreover, n=170 37.3% did not list being respectful as one of the four most important qualities but majority of the participants n=286 62.7% mentioned it as one of the most important traits. majority of the participants did not list understanding n=256 56.1% as one of the four traits it whereas n=200 43.9% did. n=74 16.2% expected their spouse to be compromising whereas, n=382 83.8% did not prefer list it among the significant characteristics. 4. discussion a previous research conducted in india revealed that males were more likely than females to state a preference for skin color in their prospective brides (jha & adelman, 2008). this is in contrast to our research where the majority of the sample 64% said they don’t have a preference regarding skin color possibly due to increased awareness regarding colorism and racism worldwide leading to a change in opinion and mindset. 59.0% of the sample said they would prefer their spouse to be taller than them. since our research was female dominant it was expected to get this result as in the asian region females prefer a taller husband as in our society it is assumed that the couple looks better together when the male is taller than the female and is considered odd if the opposite happens, and according to a previous research it has been shown that females are more responsible for maintaining this norm then males (gillis & evis, 1980). previous researches have proven that there is a societal pressure for slimmer brides as it is considered a sign of beauty (hasan et al., 2019). in our research most of the participants 49.8% said that they would consider the body type of their potential spouse, however, our question did not specifically mention over or under weight. most of the participants, 36.8% said they would prefer their partners to be in the building phase of their careers as in our society commonly the age of marriage usually for males is between 25-30 years which is usually a struggling phase particularly for those who are trying to develop an independent career. as according to levinson’s life stage theory the major preoccupation for men in early adulthood years is building a career and family while the career being the first priority (rajadhyaksha & bhatnagar, 2005). a study hypothesized that a woman is more likely to view homeownership as a necessary criterion for her potential partner (ma, 2019). which is similar to our research in which 40% of the respondents preferred their spouse to have a home ownership as this signifies financial security and stability in their future married life. 60.1% sample said they would want an age gap between their potential spouse and them. this is usually due to the cultural preferences, as in many societies including pakistan, a greater age difference is associated with a comparable level of maturity and understanding between the partners and according to a research conducted in asia it was seen that marriages in which the wife would be older are avoided however the acceptability of marriages in which the husband is considerably older is more variable (casterline, williams, & mcdonald, 2010). most of the participants 33.1% wanted to know their partners for 1-6 months before marriage mainly to develop understanding and assess compatibility. majority of the population, 63.8% of the sample wanted to choose their spouse with their parents. this is probably because they want to get their parents’ approval as marriage is an association between two families and not just two individuals. love marriage was the preferred option for majority of the participants that is 42.5% as there is an increased western influence and more decision independence among youngsters. a research conducted in india stated that only 5% in india are inter-caste marriages where the bride and groom belong to different caste groups (rajadesingan et al., 2019). our research had similar results with a significant proportion of the population, 42.2% of the sample preferred marriage within the same sect/caste to avoid religious differences and conflicts. however, the proportion was significantly less than in india. a significant proportion of the sample 63.2% preferred not being related to their spouse at all possibly due to an increased genetic predisposition to congenital illnesses due to expression of deleterious recessive genes is a significant factor in the excess maternal mortality as seen in a research conducted on consanguineous marriages in pakistan (bittles, grant, & shami, 1993). moreover, the family structure was also important to a significant proportion of the population. 44.1% preferred marrying in nuclear family systems as the couples desire more privacy, less intervention from their family and increased independence with regards to managing their home and married life and according to the research (freed & freed, 1982) western experiences, urbanization, and modernization lead inevitably to a transition from the joint family to the nuclear family system in india. in a previously conducted research it was found out that the respondents were ready to compromise on social status, attractiveness, love, and trustworthiness to marry a person who can serve as means of migration/settled (jalil & fischer, 2020). however, this is in contrast with our findings where only 14.3% of the sample preferred asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 307-312 311 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group marrying a person who lived abroad because they do not want to be distant from their families, friends and culture. the participants were asked about their opinion related to dowry, 78.3% of the sample were against it because there is a change in the thought process of today’s generation as they prefer education and other traits over materialism. this is in contrast to a study conducted in rural punjab where it was observed that the dowry amount is significantly associated with enhancement of the wife’s decision making and autonomy and hence preferred. 6 when asked regarding the preference of qualities in their future spouse 68.2% of the sample preferred their spouse to be an ambivert. this is because people prefer their partners to have balanced quality traits and seen in a previously conducted research in which partners were asked to indicate extent of agreement with their spouses 56.7% of ambiverts responded with almost always agree which demonstrates more understanding and compatibility among individuals with this personality type (sayehmiri, kareem, abdi, dalvand, & gheshlagh, 2020). the participants were asked about their preference regarding marrying a widowed or divorced individual, 52.8% of the people said they could consider it depending on the situation. this could be because people overlook if the person is divorced or widowed and prefer other qualities in most cases. however, they are still hesitant if the reason of divorce raises any red flags. participants were asked if they ever had a pre-marital relationship, 70.2% denied having one. in our opinion this is because most people are hesitant to disclose their premarital relationships and are not comfortable with revealing matters of their personal lives. moreover, the cultural boundaries in countries like pakistan, do not approve of the idea of being in a relationship prior to some sort of marriage commitment. as according to a research conducted in pakistan nearly one-third reported having had non-marital sex in their lifetime (mir, wajid, pearson, khan, & masood, 2013). due to the dislike towards pre-marital affairs, 50.0% people stated that they would not marry a person who had a pre-marital relationship because it is considered as a measure of loyalty. about the influence of societal norms and culture in their choices, 52% said their choices were influenced to some extent. the reason for this could be because in our society, these norms have been ingrained in us since the very beginning and conflicting opinions or decisions are not appreciated by the family, and as seen in a research parental attitudes and beliefs are a key influence on their children’s behavior (jennings, axinn, & ghimire, 2012). 5. conclusion according to the findings of this study there is a gradual change in the expectations for a spouse as there is more emphasis on personality, shared responsibility and career building rather than just physical traits and materialism. also with increased education and awareness there is a rise in preference for love marriage and more independence in decision making amongst the youth but with the involvement of their parents while remaining in line with the conventions set by the society. therefore it is important to consider an individual's expectation before marriage to avoid future problems which become cumbersome for both the individuals and their respective families. references ackerson, l., & subramanian, s. v. 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(2015). communication in intercultural marriages: managing cultural differences and conflicts. southern communication journal, 80(3), 189-210.available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/1041794x.2015.1023826. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 114 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 2, 114-123, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.114.123 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group hrm and its impact on employee happiness: an empirical study on sri lankan employees h.h.d.p.j. opatha1 k.i. uresha2 ( corresponding author) 1,2department of human resource management, university of sri jayewardenepura, sri lanka. abstract a systematic empirical study was carried out with regard to human resource management (hrm) and employee happiness owing to little research done, contextual gap and intellectual curiosity of authors. objectives of the study were (1) to find the degree of happiness of sri lankan employees under study; (2) to find the degree of hrm practices in the organizations where employees are working under study; and (3) to investigate whether there is any positive and significant impact from hrm on employee happiness. the nature of this study was analytical; time horizon was cross sectional; and the unit of analysis was individual. a theoretical framework was formulated based on some empirical evidences in literature review and logical beliefs of the authors. two different instruments were developed by the authors to measure the employees‟ happiness and hrm practice level of their organizations. reliability and validity of the instruments are assured. survey method was utilized and 110 employees responded to the authors developed questionnaire through the sampling technique of convenient sampling technique. the empirical findings revealed that employees‟ happiness and hrm practices of their organizations are in a high degree and hrm has a significant and positive impact on happiness of sri lankan employees under study. keywords: hrm, happiness, employee, organization, survey, sri lanka. jel classification: c12 hypothesis testing: general. citation | h.h.d.p.j. opatha; k.i. uresha (2020). hrm and its impact on employee happiness: an empirical study on sri lankan employees. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(2): 114-123. history: received: 10 february 2020 revised: 24 march 2020 accepted: 27 april 2020 published: 21 may 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 115 2. research questions and objectives ........................................................................................................................................... 115 3. conceptualization of the constructs.......................................................................................................................................... 115 4. theoretical framework ................................................................................................................................................................ 116 5. operationalization of the constructs ........................................................................................................................................ 117 6. method ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 119 7. findings ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 120 8. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 122 9. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 122 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 122 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.114.123&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1648 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5243-0868 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0532-355x https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1648 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5243-0868 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0532-355x https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1648 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5243-0868 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0532-355x https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1648 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5243-0868 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0532-355x asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 114-123 115 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study adds empirical evidence in sri lankan context to confirm that human resource management (hrm) has a significant positive impact on employee happiness. 1. introduction in the present turbulent business environment people are spending a busier life where many work family conflicts occur which directly affect in happiness level of people. if work family conflicts occur employees will not give their best performance in the workplace due to high stress they possess. therefore, to gain full commitment from employees towards work, employee happiness is a major factor which human resource practitioners must concentrate in the present context. human resource professionals have clearly identified through past research that happier employees are willing to give their best commitment towards achieving organizational objectives. therefore, with the evolution of human resource function human resource professionals tend to concentrate on employee happiness with the purpose of developing a satisfied and committed workforce. employee happiness has taken the lime light in the context of managing human resources as literature discloses that effective functioning of human resource function may have an impact on employee happiness which will result in achieving satisfied labour force and satisfied labour force can be considered as a key feature of generating competitive edge. little research has been done with regard to the impact of hrm on employee happiness in the world and no research has been done so far to test this impact of hrm on employee happiness in sri lankan context. hence, a contextual gap exists in sri lanka regarding to the findings of degree of happiness of sri lankan employees and hrm practice level of organizations in sri lanka, and the impact of hrm on employee happiness. furthermore, an intellectual curiosity exists to know about the impact of hrm on employee happiness and the importance of hrm practices in deciding employee happiness. hence this study aims at filling the contextual gap on studying employee happiness with related to hrm functions. 2. research questions and objectives following questions were formulated as the research questions in this study to be answered through a systematic attempt: 1. what is the degree of happiness of sri lankan employees under study? 2. what is the degree of hrm practices in the organizations where employees are working under study? 3. does hrm have a significant positive impact on employee happiness? following objectives of the study were established by being consistent with the above mentioned research questions: 1. to find the degree of happiness of sri lankan employees under study. 2. to find the degree of hrm practices in the organizations where employees are working under study. 3. to investigate whether there is any positive and significant impact from hrm on employee happiness. 3. conceptualization of the constructs 3.1. employee happiness happiness relates to how people experience and appraise their lives in total (bataineh, 2019). happiness is an umbrella term for all that is good which contributes to the 'wellbeing' or 'quality of life' of both individuals and society (veenhoven, 2012). kaczmarek (2017) defined happiness as: “happiness in psychology has two references. first, happiness is an umbrella term for several theories of well-being. these theories cover intrinsically rewarding and valued experience, positive beliefs about self and the world, or positive psychological functioning. second, happiness has been considered a basic emotion by most theorists within the psychology of emotions”. opatha (2019) has defined happiness as a feeling of pleasure, satisfaction, or becoming pleased. according to opatha (2019) happiness has two meanings: (1) a sense of pleasure, and (2) a profound sense of a life well lived. overall happiness is the degree to which an individual evaluates the overall quality of his/her own life-as-a-whole positively or how much one prefers the life one lives (veenhoven, 2017). it is found that the people, or human capital, can provide companies with the competitive advantage through their creativeness and innovativeness (kowalskia & lorettob, 2017). supporting to enhance employee subjective and objective well-being of the employee is one of the major hr strategies in the twenty-first century (kowalskia & lorettob, 2017). 3.2. types of happiness happiness is basically two types i.e. hedonic happiness and eudaimonic happiness. hedonic happiness is defined as subjective wellbeing and according to huta, pelletier, baxter, and thompson (2012) there are two components for swb which are affective component and cognitive component. according to opatha (2019) affective hedonic happiness refers to the degree to which people can enhance pleasure over pain in their lives while cognitive hedonic happiness refers to the degree to which people are satisfied with their overall life (global life satisfaction) and degree to which people have positive feelings about various domains (work, family, social, educational, religious etc.) of their lives (dimensional life satisfaction). eudaimonic happiness derives from one‟s living according to virtues and self-fulfilment (opatha, 2019). according to veenhoven (2012) components of happiness are referred to as 'hedonic level of affect' and 'contentment'. hedonic level of affect is the degree to which someone experiences various moods and emotions which are pleasant in character while contentment is the degree to which an individual perceives his/her aspirations are met (veenhoven, 2012). following working definition which is also labeled as nominal definition was developed for the construct, i.e. happiness: “happiness is the sense of joyfulness and meaningfulness relating to various aspects (eg; work, family, social, educational, religious etc.) of an individual‟s life.” asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 114-123 116 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3.3. hrm human resource management (hrm) has become one of the most critical functional fields in an organization as it mainly focuses on the most unique resource; human beings. hrm contributes towards business development (arachchige & robertson, 2015). marescaux, winne, and forrier (2018) state that, sound hrm gives a signal to the employees implying that organization value and care about their wellbeing, development and contribution. opatha (2009) provides an overall definition about hrm with related to the strategic perspective of the organization. he defines hrm as; “effective and efficient utilization of human resources to achieve goals of an organization”. one of the most used definition to have a comprehensive idea on hrm is armstrong‟s definition. armstrong‟s definition is explained in eneh and awara (2016) as; “a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organization’s most valued assets-the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of its objectives”. wilton (2016) provides a definition on hrm from industrial perspective as; hrm refers to the context of management of principals, strategies and activities that occur between employer and employees. hrm is a distinctive perspective of employment management aims at achieving competitive advantage using cultural, personal and structural approaches through strategic utilization of fully dedicated and competent workforce (storey, 2007). 3.4. human resource functions human resource management can be viewed as an approach to precisely handle the labor force (guest, 1987). human resource management considered as a critical function among other organizational functions due to its unique nature as it focusses on managing an exclusive resource which is completely different than other resources. therefore, it is important to have a comprehensive idea on human resource management functions. human resource management functions are sub areas or practices conducted under human resource management. opatha (2009) has stated 18 extensive human resource management functions namely; job design, job analysis, human resource planning, recruitment, selection, hiring, induction, performance evaluation, training and development, career management, pay management, welfare management, management of incentives, employee movements, health and safety management, discipline management, grievance handling and labour relations. many other authors have stated about these functions having various perspectives. according to ahammad (2017) human resource management aims at; learning and development, recruitment and selection, professional development, performance appraisal, benefits and compensation, ensure legal compliance, equality and diversity and strategic hr. human resourcing, managing performance appraisal, personal training and development, compensation/ reward management, personnel relations and other administrative functions such as health and safety, pensions, personal information systems are identified as hrm functions by itika (2011). tubey, rotich, and kurgat (2015) state that, hr department basically responsible for functioning number of activities including main activities such as; recruitment, training and development, performance appraisal, rewarding and industrial relations. moreover, obedgiu (2017) lists down functions of hrm as aligning human resource and business strategy, listening and responding to employees, re-engineering organization process and managing transformation and change. he further states that in practice hrm mainly involves in attracting and selecting right employees through recruitment process, hiring employees, providing them with training and development during their time period of occupation, evaluating employee talent through performance appraisal and rewarding employees based on their talent. anthonia and omotayo (2012) found out that, recruitment, selection, training and development are some main activities done under hrm and organizations tend to outsource these hrm functions in the present business context. hrm consists with distinctive broad functions namely; personal resourcing, managing performance, managing rewards, human resource development and employment relations as well as supportive functions such as health and safety, employee wellbeing, equality and diversity management (wilton, 2016). finally, these hrm functions play a primary role in enhancing organizational performance through uplifting human capital to reach pre-determined organizational goals. following working definition or nominal definition was developed for the construct, i.e. hrm: “hrm is about managing employees in a way that achieving the organizational goals and employees‟ goals productively.” 4. theoretical framework it is said that a happy employee will become a productive employee (joo & lee, 2017). hrm has to play a significant role in terms of maintaining the satisfaction of employees as it ultimately affects to the customer satisfaction. employee satisfaction is a distinct measurement which relates to the way an organization develops their culture, pay systems, employee services, jobs and duties etc. sankar (2019). relevant employee, relevant manager and relevant hr department are mainly responsible for the happiness of employees (opatha, 2019). there are some researches that have been done on hrm practices and its relationship with employee work happiness. providing happiness education, providing happiness counselling, promoting job satisfaction, generating and enhancing job involvement and organizational citizenship behavior, promoting personal character, adopting maslow‟s theory of motivation and promoting appropriate personality traits are some major strategies available for hr departments to maintain and enhance employee happiness (opatha, 2019). shen (2010) has identified that the levels of employees‟ satisfaction with performance appraisals, staffing and pay were between high and moderate, level of satisfaction regarding to training and development was low and employees‟ satisfaction levels with hrm vary according to personal characteristics such as gender, age, education, position, working years, and registration status. zamanana et al. (2020) found that hrm practices and employees‟ satisfaction have negative effects on intension to leave and employees‟ satisfaction partially mediates the relationship between hrm practices and intension to leave. perera (2019) found that job satisfaction of employees significantly mediates the relationship between occupational health and safety practices and job performance which are some functions of hrm. strategic hrm is an extended part of human resource management where more concern has been given to the consistency between hrm strategies and organizational goals and objectives. the strategic human resource asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 114-123 117 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group management (shrm) mainly focuses on achieving competitive advantage by developing core competencies of the firm‟s human resources and integrating the hrm strategies with firm‟s strategies in order to pursuit of growth, profit and sustainability (blackman, o'flynn, & mishra, 2010). blackman et al. (2010) has identified the role of strategic human resources management (shrm) in the development of „gross national happiness‟ (gnh) in bhutan. work-life balance has been viewed as a crucial factor for both organizations and people, because it is found that work life balance greatly contributes on improving productivity of employees which in turn contributes to enhance the performance of organizations from a considerable degree (guthrie, 2012). when work-life balance of people is in a high state it is a major reason for them to spend their lives in a more positive, happy, healthy and successful way (bataineh, 2019). sustainable hrm mainly concerned with planet related matters (green hrm), society related matters (social hrm) and profit related matters (economic hrm) and work life balance is a component coming under social hrm (opatha, 2019). thus, it can be identified that well management of human resources for sustainability contributes to improve work-life balance of employees and ultimately this increases the happiness of employees. one of the major functions of hrm is compensation management which is consisted of pay management, incentive management and welfare management (opatha, 2009). according to a longitudinal research done by maleka, swarts, and mmako (2018) have found that participants have rated the positive emotions negatively, and they have rated the job-related wellbeing, affective commitment, employee engagement and distributive justice items positively. the dimensions of happiness index of which they have used are positive emotions, job-related wellbeing, affective commitment, employee engagement and distributive justice. the reason for the respondents to rate positive emotions as negative are that they were dissatisfied with their remuneration. the implication of this study for hr policymakers is that they must review their remuneration policy and practices and need to implement compensation management effectively and efficiently (maleka et al., 2018). this implication ultimately implies that sound hrm in which compensation management is a major function leads employees to possess with positive emotions. in hedonic tradition, psychologists have concentrated on the assessment of “subjective well-being”, which consists of three elements: (i) life satisfaction; (ii) the presence of positive mood; and (iii) the absence of negative mood and all this together is summarized as happiness as in zižek, potočnik, and vaner (2012). in human resource management, there are series of functional strategies for each hrm function that consistency with the firm‟s goals. execution of these strategies leads the organizations to create competitive advantage while increasing motivation, improving employees‟ health, better interacting relationships, better teamwork, and also make a positive impact on the performance of the organization, individuals‟ subjective and objective well-being and happiness (zižek et al., 2012). thus, based on the above empirical evidences and logical beliefs of the researchers, it is possible to formulate an alternative hypothesis which is stated below. relevant null hypothesis follows the alternative hypothesis. alternative hypothesis: there is a significant positive impact from hrm on employee happiness. null hypothesis: there is no significant positive impact from hrm on employee happiness. theoretical framework is depicted in figure 1. figure-1. theoretical framework. 5. operationalization of the constructs 5.1. employee happiness according to veenhoven (2017) there are three kinds of happiness: 1) overall happiness, also called „lifesatisfaction, 2) affective component called „hedonic level of affect‟ and 3) cognitive component called „contentment‟ and all these kinds of happiness can be measured using single direct questions, such as the examples below. • overall happiness: "how do you feel about your life as a whole...?" • affective happiness component: "how is your mood these days...?" • cognitive happiness component: "how do you feel about what you have accomplished in your life...?" opatha (2019) has identified two types of happiness: 1) hedonic happiness and 2) eudaimonic happiness. these are explained under the conceptualization of constructs. further he has mentioned that hedonic happiness is represented by pleasant life (devoted to pursuit of positive emotions) while eudaimonic happiness is represented by good life (devoted to pursuit of engagement) and meaningful life (devoted to pursuit of service to others). as per seligman (2011) there are three elements for happiness under the original theory of authentic happiness: 1) positive asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 114-123 118 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group emotions, 2) engagement and, 3) meaning and under the well being theory there are five elements: 1) positive emotions, 2) engagement, 3) relationships, 4) meaning and purpose and, 5) accomplishment. considering the above dimensions of happiness and happiness questionnaires developed by lyubomirsky and lepper (1999); hills and argyle (2002) (oxford happiness questionnaire), opatha (2019) authors developed statements for the questionnaire to measure happiness under the following dimensions and indicators in table 1. table-1. statements for each dimension and indicator for measuring employee happiness. dimension indicator statement hedonic happiness (pleasant life) affective hedonic happiness i often feel joy, contented and fortunate in my life rather feeling sadness, disgust and anger. i often experience cheerful and good moods. i feel that life is very rewarding to me. i feel pleased with the way i am. i often wake up with a fresh mood. cognitive hedonic happiness  global life satisfaction i am well satisfied about everything in my life.  dimensional life satisfaction i am highly satisfied with my job. my marriage/personal life makes me happy honestly. i do exercises and i am very healthy. i am a good follower of my religion. eudaimonic happiness (good life and meaningful life) engagement and accomplishment (good life) i have a sense of direction in my life. i am fully engaged with my works. i feel good when making ethical decisions. i feel sense of improvement or expansion over time. there is a gap between what i would like to do and what i have done. relationships and meaning and purpose (meaningful life) i have very warm feelings towards almost everyone. i do have fun with other people. i do have a particular sense of meaning and purpose in my life. i have a sense of feeling that i have served more to the society. i am very happy with what i have done. the level of the instrument was interval and the summated rating received on a 20-item, 5-point likert scale of happiness was the relevant operational definition. with regard to each of the statement mentioned above, respondents were asked to rate on a 5-point likert scale, and the act of transforming into a different variable (with new values from 1 to 5) was done after calculating the composite indexing. the transforming was done by using the following points scale: points 20 – 36 very low level of happiness 37 – 52 low level of happiness 53 – 68 moderate level of happiness 69 – 84 high level of happiness 85 – 100 very high level of happiness 5.2. hrm human resource management plays a critical role in determining the level of happiness possessed by an individual. therefore, measuring human resource practices are important in determining the way to happiness. as mentioned by kottawatta (2015) according to literature, number of measures are being considered in measuring human resource practices and most importantly those variables are different from one to another. different authors have identified various dimensions and indicators to measure human resource management. considering opatha (2009) and kottawatta (2015) table 2 shows the indicators, dimensions and statement for each indicator for measuring hrm. above mentioned statements are authors developed statements referring to few studies such as; demo, neiva, nunes, and rozzett (2012); mabaso (2012); hirschi, freund, and herrmann (2013); chaubey and rawat (2016); itang (2015); biggs, swailes, and baker (2016) and gomathi (2014). the level of the instrument was interval and the summated rating received on a 18-item, 5-point likert scale of hrm was the relevant operational definition. with regard to each of the statement mentioned above, respondents were asked to rate on a 5-point likert scale, and the act of transforming into a different variable (with new values from 1 to 5) was done after calculating the composite indexing. the transforming was done by using the following points scale: points 18 – 32.4 very low level of hrm practices. 32.5 46.8 low level of hrm practices. 46.9 – 61.2 moderate level of hrm practices. 61.3 – 75.6 high level of hrm practices. 75.7 – 90 very high level of hrm practices. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 114-123 119 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-2. statements for each dimension and indicator for measuring hrm. dimension indicator statement employment planning job design my job is highly enriched (i have the ability to plan, do, and control my job). job analysis i know clearly what duties need to be performed by myself. hrp hr department of my organization analyzes future employee demand and supply yearly. staffing recruitment the organization i work for widely disseminates information about both external and internal recruitment processes. selection the organization i work for uses various selection instruments (e.g. interviews, tests, etc). hiring appointment letter given by my organization when hiring an employee contains all the necessary information in a detailed way. induction induction training programs in my organization provide an excellent opportunity for newcomers to learn comprehensively about the company, job and people in the organization. human resource development performance evaluation the organization i work for periodically conducts competency-based performance appraisals and disseminates results to its employees. training and development the organization i work for invests in my development and education, promoting my personal and professional growth in a broad manner. career management hr department of my organization provides career counselling and career education for its employees to develop their future career plans and goals. rewards management pay management the organization i work for offers me a fair salary that is compatible with my skills, training, and education. incentive management in the organization where i work, i get incentives such as promotions, commissioned functions, awards, bonuses, etc. welfare management the organization i work for provides various welfare facilities like medical facilities, transportation facilities, feeding facilities, loan facilities etc. employee & labor relations employee movements employee movements such as promotions, transfers etc. are not encouraged by personal biasness and favoritism but by performance of employees in my organization. health and safety management the organization i work for has programs or processes that help employees to cope up with hazardous incidents and prevent workplace accidents. discipline management hr department implements preventive and corrective disciplinary procedures to maintain the discipline of employees. grievance handling in my organization, there are methods to identify the root causes of the grievances of employees and provides suitable solutions. labour relations a culture of harmonious working relationships is encouraged in my organization. 5.3. validity and reliability of the instruments 5.3.1. reliability the inter item reliability of the two instruments was examined with cronbach‟s alpha test. the results of the cronbach‟s alpha test are depicted below in table 3. cronbach‟s alpha coefficient of each instrument is greater than 0.7 which means that internal reliability of each instrument is good. table-3. results of cronbach's alpha. instrument cronbach’s alpha employee happiness .899 hrm .929 as per the above results we can say that the consistencies of respondents‟ responses to all the items in the measure are assured. 5.3.2. validity a major type of validity which is a property of an instrument is content validity that is an essential type of validity which is the extent to which the instrument measures what it intends to measure (opatha & opatha, 2020). content validity of the instrument was ensured by the conceptualization and operationalization of the variables in literature and indirectly by the high internal consistency reliability of the instruments as denoted by alphas. as there were 20 items to test the employee happiness which is the dependent variable and 18 items to test the hrm practices which is the independent variable covering all the dimensions and indicators, it ensures that the measures include an adequate and representative set of items that would tap the concepts. 6. method in order to find answers for the three research questions a systematic survey was carried out. the survey was composed of a self-administered questionnaire that contained the two instruments developed by the authors to measure the two constructs, i.e. employee happiness and hrm. data collection of this study carried out through a google form where 110 responses were received around the country. data was collected from both executive and non-executive employees in different industries categorized under manufacturing, service and other. majority of the respondents represent nonexecutive category and when asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 114-123 120 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group consider the industry larger proportion depicts service industry and then manufacturing and other industries respectively. further, respondents around the country participated for this study where respondents around 8 districts have participated in data collection but the majority represents the colombo district. 7. findings under the findings of the study the derived results from the univariate and bivariate analyses are present below. descriptive statistics were carried out under univariate analysis while linear regression analysis was carried out under bivariate analysis. 7.1. employee happiness according to the collected data from 110 sri lankan employees, table 4 presents descriptive statistics of the dependent variable of the study, i.e. employee happiness. table-4. descriptive statistics of employee happiness. central tendency and dispersion measures value mean 3.8545 median 4.0000 mode 4.00 standard deviation .78794 variance .621 minimum 2 maximum 5 range 3 according to the table 4 that gives the relevant measure of central tendency, i.e the mean, it is 3.8545 which means that majority of sri lankan employees under the study are individuals with high level of happiness as the mean value is nearly 4 (in this study data were coded as, 1= very low degree, 2= low degree, 3= moderate degree, 4= high degree and 5= very high degree). the standard deviation is .78 which is less than 1. hence the data is not dispersed from the mean value very much and most of the employees are centered around the mean value. table 5 provides the frequencies of employee happiness. table-5. frequencies of employee happiness. value frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid 2 3 2.7 2.7 2.7 3 24 30.9 30.9 33.6 4 49 44.5 44.5 78.2 5 24 21.8 21.8 100.0 total 110 100.0 100.0 table 5 presents mainly four rows: the first row that is for the composite response low employee happiness (coded in the data with the value 2), the second row that is for the composite response moderate employee happiness (coded in the data with the value 3), the third row for the composite response high employee happiness (coded with the value 4), and the fourth row for the composite response very high employee happiness (coded with the value 5). there are 24 employees who possess moderate employee happiness and the percentage of such employees is 30.9. 49 employees possess high happiness and as a percentage it is 44.5 which is the highest frequency while 24 employees possess very high degree of happiness. only 3 employees are in low happiness level and there are no employees who have very low level of happiness. as an overview we can say that more than a half of sri lankan employees (66.3%) under study are happy or very happy individuals. the relevant histogram for the above results is depicted below in figure 2. above analysis results answered the first research question of the study is: what is the degree of sri lankan employees’ happiness under study? figure-2. histogram of employee happiness. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 114-123 121 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 7.2. human resource management according to the collected data from 110 sri lankan employees, table 6 presents descriptive statistics of the independent variable of the study, i.e. human resource management. table-6. descriptive statistics of hrm. central tendency and dispersion measures value mean 4.1818 median 4.0000 mode 4.00 standard deviation .74417 variance .554 minimum 2 maximum 5 range 3 according to the table 6 that gives the relevant measure of central tendency, i.e the mean, it is 4.1818 which means that majority of sri lankan employees under the study mentioned that practice of hrm in their organizations are in a high level. the standard deviation is .74 which is less than 1. hence the data dispersion from the mean value is not very much. table 7 provides frequencies of hrm. table-7. frequencies of hrm. value frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid 2 1 .9 .9 .9 3 19 17.3 17.3 18.2 4 49 44.5 44.5 62.7 5 41 37.3 37.3 100.0 total 110 100.0 100.0 table 7 presents mainly four rows: the first row that is for the composite response low level of hrm practices (coded in the data with the value 2), the second row that is for the composite response moderate level of hrm practices (coded in the data with the value 3), the third row for the composite response high level of hrm practices (coded with the value 4), and the fourth row for the composite response very high level of hrm practices (coded with the value 5). there are 19 employees who perceive that their organizations‟ hrm practices are in a moderate level and the percentage of such employees is 17.3. 49 employees have accepted that high degree of hrm practices being implemented by their organizations and as a percentage it is 44.5 which is the highest frequency while 41 employees have rated that the degree of hrm practice level is very high. only 1 employee said that there is „low level of hrm practices‟ and there are no employees who have mentioned that there is very low level of hrm practices in their organizations. as an overview we can say that more than half of sri lankan employees (81.8%) consider that the hrm practice level of their organizations are in a high or very high level. the relevant histogram for the above results is depicted below in figure 3. above analysis results answered the second research question of the study is: what is the degree of hrm level as per the perception of employees under study? figure-3. histogram for hrm. 7.3. impact of hrm on employee happiness the third research question of the study is: does hrm impact on employee happiness? based on the empirical evidences in literature review and the researchers‟ logical beliefs an alternative hypothesis was formulated and it was: “there is a significant positive impact from hrm on employee happiness”. further, a theoretical framework was formulated based on the above hypothesis and literature review. in order to text the validity of the alternative hypothesis and the theoretical framework the linear regression analysis was carried out. table 8, 9, and 10 present the results of the linear regression analysis. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 114-123 122 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-8. model summary. model r r square adjuster r square std. error of the estimate 1 .675 .456 .451 8.74729 table-9. anova table. model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 6918.082 1 6918.082 90.415 .000 residual 8263.636 108 76.515 total 15181.718 109 table-10. coefficients table. model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 19.397 5.821 1 hrm .772 .081 .675 according to the above analysis r square is .456 which means that 45.6 percent of variance in employee happiness is explained by human resource management. this positive impact is highly significant as sig. value is .000 and this value is less than .01. thus, it is possible to accept the alternative hypothesis: “there is a significant positive impact from hrm on employee happiness”. therefore, there is statistical evidence to claim that hrm practices of an organization positively and significantly impact its employees‟ happiness. the relevant regression equation is, employee happiness = 19.397 + .772*hrm. 8. discussion under descriptive statistics, it was found that majority of sri lankan employees under study had a high level of happiness. furthermore, majority of sri lankan employees under study considered that the hrm practice level of their organizations is in a high level. this provides a positive sign that many organizations in sri lanka in which majority of employees under study are working, practice hrm functions in a way that keeps employees happy. however, there is still room for them to improve their hrm practices like welfare management, job design, induction and selection as many employees have rated those functions as moderate. it was further identified that employee satisfaction is affected positively by hrm and this impact is highly significant. the major reason for this might be that many dimensions of happiness i.e. hedonic and eudaimonic are affected by hrm practices in the organization. for an example when the labor management relationships in the organization are very sound and when there are proper implementations of work life balance initiatives, this cause employees to maintain work life and family life happiness which are coming under dimensional life satisfaction of hedonic happiness. another example is that hrm functions like training and development and performance evaluation ensures that employees are able to do something and they have done something meaningful through evaluations. this may also make employees happy under the dimension of eudaimonic. as an overall, hrm is contributing to employees‟ happiness through grievances handling. grievance means any discontent or dissatisfaction arising from a feeling or a belief of injustice felt by an employee or a group of employees in connection with the work environment (opatha, 1994). as concern for productivity is vital (akuratiyagamage & opatha, 2004) contented or happy employees are integral to achieve high productivity for the organization. 9. conclusion two important variables, i.e. hrm and employee happiness were considered in this study. happiness of majority of sri lankan employees under the study and hrm practice level of those employees‟ organizations are high. it is statistically proved that hrm positively and significantly impact on employee happiness. thus, it is recommended that any organization that wishes to enhance the happiness of employees, needs to properly execute their hrm functions with right policies and procedures. references ahammad, t. 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(2012). employees well-being based on integrative and innovative model of hrm. annals of the alexandru ioan cuza university-economics, 59(2), 231-250.available at: https://doi.org/10.2478/v10316-012-0044-3. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/learn/wellbeing asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 4, no. 2, 88-93, 2017 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2017.42.88.93 88 happiness: cultural meaning of the concept in elderly people without social security maría de los ángeles aguilera-velasco1  martín acosta-fernández2 sergio adalberto franco-chávez3 blanca elizabeth pozos-radillo4 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3,4universidad de guadalajara. calle sierra mojada puerta edificio n planta alta, colonia independencia. guadalajara jalisco, méxico abstract the goal of this investigation is to describe cultural meanings of the concept of happiness in the elderly without social security retirement benefits. information was gathered by using the free listing technique. the analysis applied the cultural dominance model. the concept of happiness was defined by the word children in a mutual help relationship. the main component of happiness was health. happiness practices were joy and love. the relevant attribute was being content. satisfactions associated with happiness were achieving aspirations, peace, laughter, home, faith and god. worries about happiness were seen in heaven, counting, siblings, lack of money and lack of medicine. it reached the conclusion that children are indispensable for the happiness of the elderly without social security retirement benefits. we propose designing and carrying out educational awareness programs so their children may become aware of the major role they play in the life of their elderly parents. keywords: happiness, elderly, social security, cultural meanings. citation | maría de los ángeles aguilera-velasco; martín acostafernández; sergio adalberto franco-chávez; blanca elizabeth pozos-radillo (2017). happiness: cultural meaning of the concept in elderly people without social security. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 4(2): 88-93. history: received: 4 may 2017 revised: 14 june 2017 accepted: 12 july 2017 published: 26 july 2017 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group contribution/acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 89 2. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 90 3. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 90 4. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 91 5. conclusions ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 91 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 92 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maría de los ángeles aguilera-velasco https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=martín acosta-fernández https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sergio adalberto franco-chávez https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=blanca elizabeth pozos-radillo https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maría de los ángeles aguilera-velasco https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=martín acosta-fernández https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sergio adalberto franco-chávez https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=blanca elizabeth pozos-radillo https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maría de los ángeles aguilera-velasco https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=martín acosta-fernández https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sergio adalberto franco-chávez https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=blanca elizabeth pozos-radillo https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maría de los ángeles aguilera-velasco https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=martín acosta-fernández https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sergio adalberto franco-chávez https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=blanca elizabeth pozos-radillo https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=maría de los ángeles aguilera-velasco https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=martín acosta-fernández https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=sergio adalberto franco-chávez https://orcid.org/orcid-search/quick-search?searchquery=blanca elizabeth pozos-radillo asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 88-93 89 1. introduction the elderly population is fragile at retirement age on the medical as well as the social front. they are exposed to mistreatment and neuropsychiatric and metal disorders (organización mundial de la salud, 2015) asthma, brain attacks, arthritis, eye disease, memory loss, cancer, depression, hearing loss and blood pressure problems among other illnesses requiring great care (instituto nacional sobre el envejecimiento, 2016). besides the foregoing, there are chronic degenerative diseases, transmittable diseases and malnutrition in developing countries (instituto nacional de salud pública, 2016). women live longer and therefore experience greater disabilities, limitations, lower educational level, scant participation on economic activities, lack of a couple relationships during their old age, economic losses and no institutional protection. women in traditional roles report high blood pressure, diabetes, abuse, violence and threats from their children, grandchildren and parents. men are exposed to greater physical and mental pressure leading to alcohol, smoking, drugs, working overtime, speeding, not seeing doctors and neglecting their diet. they report cardiovascular problems, occupational and traffic accidents, cancer, emphysema, liver problems, depression, anxiety and anguish (salgado de snyder and wong, 2006). the elderly in developing countries suffer the negative consequences of the world’s aging population given that they live in poverty, with inequality regarding social development and income, violations of their human rights, discrimination based on gender, age, ethnic background and/or sexual preference, with limited access to medical attention and decent housing (diario oficial de la federación, 2013). in addition to the above situation, the 10.9 million elderlies in mexico (instituto nacional de geografía y estadística, 2010) are largely illiterate and sick (montes de oca, 2001) since 43% live in multidimensional poverty (consejo nacional de evaluación de la política de desarrollo social, 2012) and 45% of women over 60 have suffered spousal violence at least once (inegi, 2015). a negative environment and the lack of a social safety net have historically represented a situation of vulnerability for almost all of them (montes de oca, 2001). poverty prevails (garcía-ramírez and vélez-álvarez, 2013) and it can be predicted that their future will be the same of worse (horbath and gracia, 2010). in an attempt to overcome this alarming situation, the mexican federal government through the ministry of social development (sedesol) has offered an “elderly adult pension program” over the past few years designed for those over 65 years old who do not have a pension or economic help for retirement; they are given economic aid in the amount of $1,160.00 mexican pesos currency on a bi-monthly basis. the elderly excluded from social security retirement benefits, who are unemployed more than retired, and most of the time do not have the required aged yet, are those who apply for the benefits of this program. in the face of this overview, one might suppose that it is difficult for elderly mexicans to feel happy. nevertheless, three world happiness reports indicate that mexico holds a high place. the first world happiness report established that women are happier than men in developed countries while the results are mixed in poorer countries. not only wealth creates happiness; one must also have good physical and mental health, hold a job and be part of a stable family. unemployment was recognized as one of the main causes of unhappiness and in poor countries, a minimal increase of a family’s income can mark the difference for improved food quality, education, health, housing and in general, people’s future (helliwell et al., 2012). mexico held the 16th place of 150 countries in the second world happiness report. six variables were identified that affect the variations of happiness in countries over time: the real per capita gross domestic product (gdp), hope of a healthy life, the social network, perceived freedom to make decisions affecting one’s life, the perception of corruption and generosity. the one factor most affecting happiness was mental health (helliwell et al., 2013). in the third world happiness report, mexico was in 14th place among 158 countries (helliwell et al., 2015). both poverty and perceived happiness increased simultaneously between 2012 and 2015. the united nations organization (un) passed a resolution that the pursuit of happiness is a basic human objective. happiness is identified as a constitutional right in japan, south korea and brazil. it is increasingly understood that social, economic and environmental development are inseparable and when taken together they define happiness. it has been proposed that governments take these factors into account when designing public policies (helliwell et al., 2012). there are important studies showing how to increase the happiness of retirees or people at retirement age. it has been discovered that the elderly living as a couple are happier (binder and broekel, 2012) as well as those that manage to cope with the initial and transitory stage of sexual tension (trudel et al., 2010) those who strengthen family ties (chiang et al., 2013) those who prefer quality over quantity of their relationships (plys and bliwise, 2013) those who get along exclusively with people treating them properly (gerritsen et al., 2010) those who visit their friends (requena, 2010) those who meet in exclusive clubs with others of their same gender (gleibs et al., 2011) those going to parties for retirees (aguilera and torres, 2008) those creating new friendships with neighbors, enjoying watching television or listening to the radio, attending free events, those helping the disadvantaged in acts of solidarity (rodríguez, 2006) those participating actively in their community (alpass et al., 2007) those performing altruistic activities (bazo, 2000; haski-leventhal, 2009) and when applicable those who talk to fellow exiles (chang et al., 2010). it was also found that the sources of happiness are different for men and women. men are more vulnerable to suffering from depression because they tend to limit their social participation after retirement (kubicek et al., 2011). on the other hand, it was found that large support networks favor greater happiness, good health and wellbeing among young adults. in this case god is considered the greatest social support followed by oneself, friends, mother and siblings (gonzález-quiñones and restrepo-chavarriaga, 2010). cultural groups are also distinguished, among other factors, by the language they use to communicate amongst themselves because it discloses knowledge and needs through a construction of meanings and concepts. looking into the meanings making up the language of the more vulnerable elderly groups creates useful knowledge for solving social (hernández, 2012) as well as public health problems (torres-lópez et al., 2015). the theoretical basis for studying cultural groups is cognitive anthropology that explains how people from different cultures acquire information about the world, process it, adopt decisions and act on such information in a way that other members of their culture consider appropriate. its objective is to combine and integrate the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 88-93 90 explicatory power of the cognitive and social sciences, making it possible to research thought characteristics and scientific practices empirically (trajtelová, 2013). cognitive anthropologists study cultural domains, defining them as an organized set of words and phrases referring to a specific conceptual sphere at different cognitive levels (bernard, 1995) for any term that may be listed by informants. the most common technique for studying cultural domains is free-listing (weller and romney, 1988). some studies of cultural groups show that elderly retirees with sufficient income define health as wellbeing (aguilera et al., 2010). by way of contrast, adults over 65 years old with no social security retirement benefits define retirement from work as a stage of their life wrought with disease and tiredness. furthermore, the word wellbeing is not used in their language (aguilera et al., 2012). in another group of elderly people of both genders, old age meant happiness, a close-knit family and a life experience but it also meant disease, loneliness and sadness (meneses et al., 2013). in the interest of providing useful information and recommendations to design and improve interventions, programs and policies contributing to lessen the vulnerability of the elderly, we considered it was important to make a study whose general purpose was to describe the cultural meanings of the concept of happiness in the elderly without social security retirement benefits. 2. methodology an exploratory descriptive study with qualitative interpretation was carried out by applying cognitive anthropology (d’andrade, 2003) and the cultural domain model (chevalier, 2006) in guadalajara, jalisco, mexico. the sample size was based on an assumption for a study of cultural patterns. the assumption suggests that sample size in cultural description studies should not be large due to the fact that average correlation among informants tends to be high (0.5 or more). a minimum size of 17 informants is indicated for rating 95% of the questions correctly (weller and romney, 1988). seventeen people over 60 years old having no social security retirement benefits were included to meet the information sufficiency and saturation criteria. they were interviewed while waiting in line to sign up for the above-mentioned government aid program. a description of the participants is shown in table 1. the free-listing technique was used during this procedure (chevalier, 2006) and served to create lists and learn the lexemes of the happiness domain. the technique consisted of asking the informants for a written list of the first five words that popped into their minds about the term happiness and later they were asked to explain their answers. the procedure lasted about five minutes. the results served to learn the cultural meaning of the concept of happiness. the data were analyzed according to the cultural domain model where the objective is to obtain the terms individuals use to describe some field of knowledge or cultural domain and to try to discover the meanings of said terms and their similarities and differences. it was based on three assumptions: a) some domain terms stand out more, are better known, important or familiar than others, and when people make free listings, they tend to mention them first; b) individuals possessing better knowledge of the domain will list more than those less knowledgeable; and c) the most mentioned terms indicate the elements that stand out most in the topic (chevalier, 2006). operationally, the analysis of the free listings consisted of tabulating the words on the 17 lists and processing them with visual anthropac 1.0 free lists software. based on these data, the words were put in order in two tables, one for the most outstanding (frequent) elements and another for pertinent elements (important for the informants). words were ranked as central, intermediate or peripheral elements according to how frequently they were mentioned and then the most outstanding elements were arranged in order. the product obtained from rating each element according to its average position in the lists was used to put the pertinent lexemes in order, where 1 was the final range or the highest pertinence (chevalier, 2006). an analysis of the pertinent elements allowed us to detect new points of view that had not been observed when organized by frequency of mention, especially when some elements were placed at the beginning or end of the lists. the results obtained were interpreted in an attempt to search for the cultural meaning of the concept of happiness based on the definitions, practices, components and attributes mentioned by informants. the current version of ethical standards of the human research committee of the declaration of helsinki was met as well as the regulations of the general law on health for research matters in the united mexican states and the code of ethics of the university center for health sciences pertaining to the university of guadalajara. the informants were aware of the objectives of this study and gave their oral informed consent. they were guaranteed confidentiality and anonymity of information and all questions were answered about the procedure, risks and benefits as well as any other matter associated with the study and with their personal information. they were also told they could drop out of the study at any time. 3. results 3.1. cultural meaning of the domain of happiness the 46 words mentioned by the participants are found in tables 2 and 3. the main element according to how frequently it was mentioned, was the word children. the participants explained: “happiness is my children, what i love the most. they are company and support, they help with medicine and the doctor. if they need help with their problems, you help them if you can. it’s a pleasure to give to them if they are suffering from some deprivation so they can have whatever they need, they can have what they need for their home and expenses”. see table 2. 3.2. components, practices and attributes of the happiness domain the elements health, peace-of-mind, happy and family were the components of the concept of happiness. people explained that happiness includes your health first of all (“i don’t want to be sick”), peace of mind (“living without economic worries and having their children nearby”) and being happy (“see the beauty in this world everywhere to be able to keep going”), with their family (“have a house, with expenses to pay and grandchildren”). they believed that the money asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 88-93 91 from the government aid would be an important help to get by. their happiness would increase if they could live in peace and have enough to cover expenses. the practices of happiness were expressed with the elements joy and love. elderly adults expressed joy (“because they would no longer have to work with the aid”) as well as love for their children (“that motivated them to help them and receive help from them”). the elements money, home, close-knit family, pleasure, life and content were the lexemes attributed to happiness. they said they did not have enough money to maintain a household and wanted a close-knit family (“wife and children”) that would lend them support, even though that was difficult to achieve. they felt pleasure at being alive, wanted wellbeing (“health, medicine and doctors to be able to help others”). they were happy to have a job (“because pension amounts are low and because they are happy it helps them get through the day, because sad people have a worse time”). with the government aid (“a reward for having worked”) they will have economic stability and the means to buy things they need at home (“pay the light and water bills and for food”). 3.3. needs and worries in the happiness domain the elements with peripheral frequency list the needs and worries concerning happiness. the people in this study wanted to have what they need (“food and clothing”), to achieve their aspirations (“because thanks to having worked for so many years, they had the possibility of their deprivations being rewarded”). they counted on support from the virgen mary and their loved ones. helping others brought them peace. laughter was necessary for happiness. obedience enabled them to talk calmly, coexist with others and be accompanied. they reiterated that they had a home (“with expenses to pay”), a profound faith in god (“you can’t do anything without faith, you’re not alive; faith in god will never be betrayed”) and indifference towards material goods (“spirituality is preferable because if i am filled with god, it will be easier to get ahead”). they liked a wife that waited on them and a husband who paid for medicine and the electricity, water and phone bills. one wish that stood out in their worries is that nothing should be lacking at home, or not having enough to buy medicine and being sick. they believed that these problems could be avoided in pensions were more complete. they wanted to live comfortably (“to get by”) and least have understanding (“when they don’t have money to pay for household expenses, because without money you are denied everything”). they would like to share (“because they have personally experienced lack of support when someone is sick at home”) and to be able to rest (“from the physical effort of so many years at work”). they aspire to go to heaven (“by trying to be a better person”), to have monetary support (“to stay out of predicaments and to help their less fortunate siblings”), because they need it and they want to feel well. their greatest need is lack of medicine (“because they can’t find employment or help, because they don’t receive complete social security benefits”). they want to be with their children (“but are impeded by a lack of money and time as well as distance”). 3.4. relevant elements of the happiness domain the element children were the most relevant lexeme despite being in the 2.78 place on an average in the lists. this is due to the high frequency of mentions. the second most relevant was the lexeme health that occupied the 2.71 place in the lists (it was named in the lists ahead of the word children) but was mentioned less frequently. third place in relevance included elements that were named in first place in the lists (despite their peripheral mentions) such as laughter, heaven, home, siblings, lack of money and faith). they expressed vital needs for happiness (laughter, home and faith) as well spiritual, social and material concerns (heaven, siblings and lack of money). the terms named in second place on average in the lists and that occupied sixth and eighth place in relevance were content, achieve your aspirations, peace, count, lack of medicine and god. they indicated the greatest attribute of happiness (content), emotional and spiritual needs (achieve your aspirations, feel peaceful and believe in god) and the greatest concerns towards achieving happiness (“having monetary support and the lack of medicine”). see table 3. 4. discussion these findings dissent from the results of other studies that discovered how to increase the happiness of the elderly at retirement age (rodríguez, 2006; alpass et al., 2007; aguilera and torres, 2008; gonzález-quiñones and restrepo-chavarriaga, 2010; requena, 2010; gleibs et al., 2011; binder and broekel, 2012; chiang et al., 2013; plys and bliwise, 2013). they agree that focusing the source of happiness solely on children increases the risk of vulnerability as mentioned by other authors (salgado de snyder and wong, 2006) or on the desire to perform altruistic acts of solidarity (bazo, 2000; rodríguez, 2006; haski-leventhal, 2009). there are similarities with regards to health as reported by international (nih, 2016) and domestic (insp, 2016) institutions. the discrepancies with this study lie in the differences found in the gender function (salgado de snyder and wong, 2006) and in the study that reports health as wellbeing (aguilera et al., 2010). on the other hand, our results agree with the studies of the meaning of wellbeing (aguilera et al., 2012) and of old age (meneses et al., 2013) and with the results of the world happiness reports (helliwell et al., 2012; helliwell et al., 2013; helliwell et al., 2015). 5. conclusions the objective of describing cultural meanings of the concept of happiness held by the elderly without social security retirement benefits was accomplished. the elderly did not find happiness through their friends, traveling, fun, parties, culture, art, sports, wellbeing, quality of life, personal development, active community participation or leisure. their only refuge for avoiding despair is their children and their faith in god and the virgin mary. the “elderly adult pension program” offers an opportunity for them to get by, to cover all household expenses, to buy medicine and lend support to siblings in worse shape than they are. in light of the foregoing, we recommend designing programs and interventions for the children of the elderly living in poverty for the purpose of sensitizing and making them aware of the primary role they play in the lives and happiness of their parents. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 88-93 92 this study contributes the cultural character of the word happiness and offers the knowledge that meaning systems grant access to the knowledge, experiences and needs of vulnerable cultural groups. we recommend the theoretical and methodological principles of this study for future research with other cultural groups, with the same concept or different concepts, for its theoretical and practical effectiveness. one of the limitations of this study includes not approaching it from a gender standpoint (that would require a minimum of 17 males and 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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=welfare%20systems,%20support%20networks%20and%20subjective%20well-being%20among%20retired%20persons http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-010-9596-5 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=concepciones%20culturales%20del%20concepto%20bienestar%20de%20personas%20con%20enfermedades%20crónicas%20y%20profesionales%20de%20la%20salud http://dx.doi.org/10.17151/hpsal.2015.20.1.7 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2017, 4(2): 88-93 93 table-1. description of the participants. age gender education level marital status number of children diseases they have occupation years in this occupation 62 female none married 2 high blood pressure merchant 40 63 4th grade elementary married 2 back problems, sciatica and arthritis homemaker 40 65 elementary school single 0 back and joint problems janitor 27 66 none married 12 back homemaker 50 68 none widowed 9 arthritis and colitis homemaker 50 68 elementary school married 8 diabetes and high blood pressure homemaker 50 77 none widowed 1 none homemaker 60 78 normal widowed 8 asthma and osteoporosis homemaker 50 78 elementary school widowed 3 osteoporosis and ulcer merchant 10 80 elementary school nun 8 back and eye problems, and kidney failure homemaker 75 68 male elementary school married 3 diabetes self-employed television repairman 55 73 elementary school married 6 none paper bag printer at a factory 33 74 4th grade married 8 none merchant 50 78 elementary school married 8 diabetes carpenter 30 82 none married 8 infarcts steel mill mechanic 18 84 elementary school widowed 7 heart homemaker 60 85 none widowed 2 eyesight and knees proofreader 60 source: direct. table-2. elements that stand out due to how frequently they are mentioned in the domain of happiness by the elderly with no social security retirement benefits. element frequency of mention meanings rating children. 52.9 definition central element health. 41.2 components intermediate elements peace-of-mind, happy. 35.3 family. 23.5 joy, love. 17.6 practices money, home, close-knit family, pleasure, living, wellbeing, life, content. 11.8 attributes accompanied, home, family life, god, spiritually, wife, husband, faith, the virgin mary, obedience, peace, laughter, loved ones, having the basics, work. 5.9 requirements met peripheral elements heaven, sharing, understanding, counting, feeling well, being with them, rest, lack of money, lack of medicine, siblings, medication, not sick, no problems, have everything i need, live comfortably. 5.9 expectations of government aid source: direct. table-3. relevant elements in the happiness domain of the elderly without social security retirement benefits. element frequency of mention ranking average position in the lists relevance children. 52.9 1 2.78 2.78 health. 41.2 2 2.71 5.42 laughter, heaven, home, siblings, lack of money, faith. 5.9 7 1 7 happy. 35.3 3 2.5 7.5 peace of mind. 35.3 3 3.17 9.51 content. 11.8 6 2 12 family. 23.5 4 3.25 13 achieve your aspirations, peace, count, lack of medicine, god. 5.9 7 2 14 joy. 17.6 5 3 15 money. 11.8 6 2.5 15 close-knit family, pleasure, wellbeing, life. 11.8 6 3 18 love. 17.6 5 3.67 18.35 work, the virgin mary, no problems, live comfortably, being with them, wife, husband. 5.9 7 3 21 home, living. 11.8 6 4 24 have the basics, loved ones, medications, not sick, obedience, coexistence, feeling well. 5.9 7 4 28 have everything i need, understanding, sharing, rest, accompanied, spiritually. 5.9 7 5 35 source: direct. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 58 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 1, 58-61, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.58.61 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group effects of the medium of instruction in comprehending mathematical word problems jasmin m. sumipo mater dei college, tubigon, bohol, philippines. abstract this study aimed to determine the effects of the medium of instruction (moi) used in teaching to the learners‟ ability to comprehend mathematical word problems. additionally, the study aimed to find out whether there is a significant difference in the mathematical performance of public school learners who were taught using cebuano as moi compared with private school learners who were taught using english as moi. anchored on common underlying proficiency theory of cummins, meaningful verbal learning theory of ausubel and other related studies, this research sough to know how the language affects mathematics learning. the design used is a causal comparative between two elementary schools, one private and another public. purposive sampling was used to get the top twenty learners from each class who were chosen as research participants. using arithmetic mean, standard deviation, t-test and z-test formula, data were statistically treated. the findings revealed that the level of mathematics achievement of the learners of both private and public schools were higher using english rather than their mother tongue, cebuano. findings also revealed a significant difference in the performance of both groups of learners in the two types of questionnaires. furthermore, no significant difference was found between the performance of private school learners compared to the public school learners. thus, it can be concluded that the medium of instruction affects the comprehension of the learners in mathematical problem. keywords: comprehension, language and learning, mathematics, medium of instruction, word problems. jel classification: c02, i28. citation | jasmin m. sumipo (2020). effects of the medium of instruction in comprehending mathematical word problems. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(1): 58-61. history: received: 17 january 2020 revised: 26 february 2020 accepted: 30 march 2020 published: 16 april 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 59 2. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 59 3. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 59 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 61 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.58.61&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1517 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1474-8733 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1517 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1474-8733 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1517 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1474-8733 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 58-61 59 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this research sought to find out the effects of medium of instruction to learners‟ comprehension of mathematical world problems. since the philippine department of education issued deped order number 16, series of 2012, the government implemented the mother tongue-based-multilingual education (mtb-mle) in all public schools. this mandated the use of the mother tongue as medium of instruction in all subjects of learners from grades 1-3. private schools, however, may opt to use english as medium of instruction, and only have mtb-mle as a subject. this research proves that learners of both public and private schools got better scores in mathematical test using english than the same test in cebuano. 1. introduction cummins theory explains that by using the first language as the medium of instruction, bilinguals can easily learn and acquire academic skills. it also emphasized the purpose of language proficiency assessment in bilingual education which is the placement of learners to classes taught through the language which will best promote learning. this theory supports the idea that with the use of instructional medium that learners could easily learn, there is a high possibility that the learners could understand better, thus resulting to high performance of the learners. cummins (1984) suggests the common underlying proficiency theory which states that linguistics resources from learners first language(l1) helps in learning second language (l2). in other words, the set of skills learned in the l1 can be transferred to learners in acquiring the l2. these skills include the knowledge of language, literacy, and concepts learned in the first language can be drawn upon in the second language. in the same token, ausubel‟s theory of meaningful verbal learning explains that effective instruction occurs when new information is associated with prior learning at every step in the process. the moi is important to effective mathematics instruction. in concurrence to this, weinburgh, silva, smith, groulx, and nettles (2014) said that the wording used by both students and instructors in mathematics discourse influences the learning of mathematical principles. similarly, vukovic and lesaux (2013) noted that language affects how students interpret mathematical ideas. it is therefore imperative to evaluate the effect of language factors on students‟ achievement in mathematics through measurement of language-related variables in test items and relating these measures to student performance (toll & van luit, 2014). mathematics vocabulary includes words that are specific to mathematics, such as divisor, denominator, quotient, and coefficient (barwell, 2001). these words like many others have no equivalent in cebuano dialect. thus, teachers and students oftentimes resort to borrowing of the english terms or through “transliteration” wherein english words are phonetically translated into the cebuano dialect. this has been the most common and convenient way of creating equivalent words from english. according to barwell (2001) without a personally constructed knowledge base of mathematics vocabulary, the task of reading a mathematics textbook, interpreting a teachers‟ instructional commentary, solving a word problem, or communicating one‟s own knowledge about mathematics to others becomes extremely difficult for students. hence, it is primarily important that learners be taught in medium of instruction that feel comfortable to use. boulet (2007) is of the opinion that in the field of mathematics education there is a clear awareness for the need to account for connections between language and mathematics. boulet also states that in order for teachers to reveal the reasons behind mathematical procedures, it is imperative for them to make use of clear language. mathematical discourse includes specialist syntax, particularly in relation to the expression of logical relationships. thus the use of and, of, or, a, if and then to define mathematical relationships are all significant. such words, are, however, easy to overlook. strategies to support the development of syntax could include the use of writing frames or partly structured sentences (e.g. matching a set of „if‟ clauses with a set of „then‟ clauses). 2. methodology this study used causal-comparative research design where data is taken from the scores of two groups of top twenty grade 3 learners in two types of mathematical word tests (one in english and one in cebuano). the participants of this study were the top twenty grade 3 math achievers in of one public school and one private school of tubigon, bohol, philippines. moreover, this research sought to answer the following null hypotheses, 1.) there is no significant difference in the level of mathematics achievement in the two different mediums of instruction; and 2.) there is no significant difference in the mean achievement of learners in the private and public schools. to answer the pertinent problems in the study, the researcher used a mathematics achievement test in two different languages as the main tool. since grades 1, 2 and 3 learners of public schools are taught mathematics using the mother tongue, in this case the cebuano dialect, they were given the questionnaire in cebuano first before the test questionnaire in english. while the grade 3 learners of private school who are taught using english were given the questionnaire in english first before the one in cebuano. statistical treatments used to analyze and interpret data included arithmetic mean, standard deviation, t test and z test. 3. results and discussion 3.1. levels of achievement in mathematics of both groups the level of mathematics achievement of both groups of participants in both the mathematical test in english and in cebuano are presented in the first table. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 58-61 60 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-1. level of mathematics achievement. participants medium of instruction mean standard deviation description private school learners english 10.15 1.6311 high cebuano 7.9 1.9167 average public school learners english 10.3 1.5252 high cebuano 8.3 1.5594 average based on table 1, the data revealed that both groups of learners had higher scores in mathematical questionnaires using the english language. both private school and public school learners had a description of high in english and both also had an average description in cebuano. this finding implies that learners can comprehend better if mathematical word problems are given in english than in cebuano which is contrary to the expectation that learners performed better in their first language than in their second language. a possible explanation to this finding is that these learners are exposed to english even at a young age. according to (barwell, 2001) mathematics have terms exclusive to the field. when this happens, teachers usually resort to borrowing of terms or transliteration. this process sometimes makes it more difficult for learners to comprehend mathematical word problems in cebuano than in english. moreover, math textbooks and other learning materials are mostly written in english than in cebuano. hence, it is not unusual for the research participants to have better achievement in mathematical word problems in english than in cebuano. 3.2. comparison between mean scores of the two school between the two mediums of instruction the scores of each group in the mathematical test were added to come up with the mean scores of the two groups of participants in mathematical problems given in both english and cebuano. table-2. comparison between mean scores of the two schools between the two mediums of instruction. school mean n=40 known variance critical z α= 0.05 computed z decision on null hypothesis difference private 10. 225 2.435256 ±1.959964 5.756587903 reject significant public 8.10 3.015385 in table 2, the total mean score of the groups of participants in the mathematical test using english was 10.225 with a known variance of 2.435256 while in the test using cebuano, the mean score was 8.10 with known variance of 3. 015385. since it is two-tailed at 0.05 level of significance, the critical value was ±1.959964. the computed z is 5.756587903 which is in the critical region. thus, the decision is to reject the null hypothesis. the computation showed that there is a significant difference in the mean achievement of the two groups of learners using two different languages, the mother tongue cebuano and the second language english. thus, it can be concluded that the medium of instruction used in the mathematical tests affects the ability of learners to comprehend mathematical problems given that the same items were used in the questionnaires. 3.3. comparison between two groups of samples the role of language in comprehending mathematical has been established in many research studies. the language used by both teachers and students in learning significantly influences the learning of mathematical concepts (vukovic & lesaux, 2013; weinburgh et al., 2014). the findings of the present study implicates that the language used in mathematical assessment had a great impact on participants‟ scores. though the result ran contrary to the idea that students learn better if math is taught in their first language (cummins, 1984) the findings proved that indeed there is a connection between language and mathematics (boulet, 2007). comparison between the total mean scores of the two groups of participants the mean scores of both participants were compared in table 3 to find out whether there is a significant difference between mathematical performance of public school leaners who were taught math using cebuano as moi and private school learners who were taught math using english as moi. table-3. comparison between the two groups of samples. school mean standard deviation critical t α= 0.05 computed t decision on null hypothesis difference private 18.05 2.892367 ±2.02619 -0.64102 accept insignificant public 18.60 2.521487 table 3 showed the overall mean scores of both groups of participants in the two sets of questionnaires. the private school has a mean score of 18.05 with the standard deviation of 2.892367 while the public school has a mean score of 18.60 with a standard deviation of 2.521487. since the test is two-tailed at 0.05 level of significance, the critical value is ±2.02619. using the t test formula for independent samples, the computed t is -0.64102 which falls in noncritical region. hence, the null hypothesis is accepted. this implied that there is no significant difference between the mean scores of the two groups of participants. both public and private school learners have the same level of mathematical achievements in the test questionnaires using english and cebuano. worthy to note is the fact that while public school students were taught mathematics using cebuano dialect while private school students were taught math using english, both groups of learners had better performance when mathematical word test was written in english than when it was written in cebuano. language variables such as learners exposure to a specific language, non-translatable math terms, and learners‟ preference may have played a significant impact on the results of this research study. finally, other learning factors such as mastery of teachers and availability of materials which play a great role in mathematics teaching and learning also have to be taken into future research studies. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 58-61 61 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group references barwell, r. (2001). learning from listening: talk in a multilingual mathematics classroom. naldic occasional paper 14. watford: naldic publications group. boulet, g. (2007). how does language impact the learning of mathematics? let me count the ways. journal of teaching and learning, 5(1), 112. cummins, j. (1984). wanted: a theoretical framework for relating language proficiency to academic achievement among bilingual students. language proficiency and academic achievement, 10, 2-19. toll, s. w., & van luit, j. e. (2014). the developmental relationship between language and low early numeracy skills throughout kindergarten. exceptional children, 81(1), 64-78.available at: 10.1177/0014402914532233. vukovic, r. k., & lesaux, n. k. (2013). investigating the ways language counts for children‟s mathematical development. journal of experimental child psychology, 115, 227244.available at: 1016/j.jecp.2013.02.002. weinburgh, m., silva, c., smith, k. h., groulx, j., & nettles, j. (2014). the intersection of inquiry-based science and language: preparing teachers for ell classrooms. journal of science teacher education, 25(5), 519-541.available at: 10.1007/s10972-0149389-9. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 271 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 4, 271-279, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.271.279 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group influence of occupational stress (occupational role stress) on organizational commitment: evidence from the banking sector of karachi tooba atif1 shameel ahmed zubairi2 sheeba farhan3 ( corresponding author) 1phd scholar department of public administration university of karachi, pakistan. 2assistant professor at karachi business school (kubs) university of karachi, pakistan. 3assistant professor at department of psychology bahria university, pakistan. abstract it is frequently observed that stress has appeared to be one of those influential factors that have critical impacts on human life; especially, the performance of a person, which is the key aspect of human life, is impacted by stress. the purpose of this research was to extend the existing body of knowledge on the relationship between occupational stress and employees’ organizational commitment into the context of banking sector of pakistan. this qualitative study is comprise of 303 respondents the statistical techniques that were used were exploratory factor analysis (efa), confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) and structural equation modeling (sem). employees were analyzed for their affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitments. results shows that there is a positive or significant relationship between occupational role stress and affective commitments of employees, which implied that higher score on occupational role stress prompted lower score on affective occupational commitment of the bank representatives. it was likewise discovered that the way of association additionally influenced the relationship between occupational role stress and other two types of organizational commitments i.e. continuance and normative commitments of employees. the level of significance for employees working in banking sectors of pakistan was found to be insignificant for continuance and for normative commitment. these results approved that there is an opposite relationship between occupational role stress and normative and continuance commitment as compared to affective job responsibility of employees. keywords: occupational stress, occupational role stress, organizational commitment, cfa, efa, sem. jel classification: mental health, banking, stress, organizational commetment. citation | tooba atif; shameel ahmed zubairi; sheeba farhan (2020). influence of occupational stress (occupational role stress) on organizational commitment: evidence from the banking sector of karachi. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(4): 271-279. history: received: 6 august 2020 revised: 15 september 2020 accepted: 30 september 2020 published: 13 october 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 272 2. literature review and hypothesis ............................................................................................................................................. 272 3. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 273 4. analysis and results ...................................................................................................................................................................... 276 5. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 277 6. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 277 7. managerial implication ................................................................................................................................................................ 278 8. limitations and area of further study ..................................................................................................................................... 278 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 278 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.271.279&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2243 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8826-5684 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6732-0362 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 271-279 272 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper discusses influence of occupational stress (occupational role stress) on organizational commitment among bankers of city karachi. as bankers have too much responsibilities on their shoulders that ultimately makes the job more stressful. the occupational role stress is one of the factor that effects organizational commitment of bankers. hence the study indirectly highlights the importance of organizational commitment and it will also fill the gap in the literature that can help the bankers in making strategies and further decisions. 1. introduction this research analyzes the influence of occupational stress on organizational commitment in the banking sector in pakistan. occupational role stress is one of the components of occupational stress. banking industry is usually the most important industry of any country. like many other countries, pakistan is also grappling with several issues, changes, developments, challenges and problems in the banking industry. in the history of banking, there have been significant changes in policies, management and organization during last decades. work place commitment among the employees is decreasing day by day. psychological factors are contributing a lot in creating disturbance and restlessness among workers. among the different psychological issues, most distracting and off-putting phenomenon is stress at work, which is often called occupational stress. cartwright and cooper (1997) presumed that occupational stress is a solid indicator of organizational commitment. kobasa and antrosrusky (1998) have additionally affirmed the huge relationship between occupational stress and occupational commitment. according to hashmi and naqvi (2012) turnover of banks in the earlier years was at its peak but it is the low organizational commitment that banking sectors had to face that drove down the profits. in response to the lack of empirical literature investigating occupational stress (occupational role stress) and organizational commitment, the goals of this study is to explore the relationship between organizational commitment and the occupational stress (occupational role stress). firstly, an exploratory study was undertaken, based on the links established in study, the influence of occupational stress (occupational role stress) on the overall commitment towards organization will be determined. studies on stress at work and the commitment of the organization have been largely conducted by researchers of the past, mainly in western countries. this study is conducted keeping in mind the fact that there is lack of studies addressing the issue of stress at work employees of banking sector and organizational commitment in pakistan. this study is important because of the insights and contributions it offers for the workers in banking sector in pakistan. 2. literature review and hypothesis in this section, occupational stress, occupational roles stress and organizational commitment has been discussed in depth followed with relevant theories, models and researches. this chapter would give an insight of concepts of occupational stress particularly occupational role stress and organizational commitment and its components like continuance commitment, normative commitment and affective commitment. occupational stress basically revolves around the concept that physical and mental levels of an employee are affected when discrepancies arise between what is expected from an individual and what he actually delivers (stănescu, vasiliu, & stoicescu, 2012). being more specific, it is a condition that arises when employees go through high pressure during their work life that does not match their capabilities (malik, 2011). according to batool (2013) job stress is one of the types of stress where an employee, lacking confidence goes through strenuous situation of hard work and pressure. bashir and ramay (2010) has analyzed that stress adversely affects an employee’s job satisfaction. anum (2013) suggests pressure at job only builds up when managers pursue multiple goals at a time, those goals that are not even interlinked with each other. anum (2013) further goes on saying that according to a study in malaysia, managers suffering through high depression levels were the ones going through intense work load, working condition and relationship. relationship and poor working condition have also been claimed as being one of the five major causes of occupational stress (beheshtifar & nazarian, 2013). responsibility for people is also known to be one of the eleven forces that lead to stress according to researchers (ahmed & ramzan, 2013). another well known model of effort rewards imbalance discusses the issues associated with work related stress (siegrist, 2012). the model claims that lack of rewards despite the hard work by an employee contributes to higher stress level and poor health. one of the most popular models known for organization commitment is mayer and allen’s three component model of organizational commitment. jaros (2007) describes the model as three simultaneous mindsets that encompasses affective, normative and continuance organizational commitment. affective commitment occurs when employees develop thorough ties that get developed with the organization. mcmahon (2007) argues that affective commitment comes from positive behaviors at work. rhoades, eisenberger, and armeli (2001) is of the view, company’s revenues are strongly linked with affective commitment. there is a strong association between affective commitment, absenteeism and performance. roxenhall and andrésen (2012) explains normative commitment as a commitment shown by an employee when he feels a responsibility towards the organization, a responsibility to continue. those with normative commitment stay in the organization for moral or duty related reasons. manetje and martins (2009) argues that organizational commitment that arises due to the individual’s assessment on economic benefits gained should be regarded as instrumental attachment towards the organization. continuance commitment, also known as calculative commitment occurs when the employee has no other option than to stay. roxenhall and andrésen (2012) explains that continuance commitment consists of two different dimensions, negative and positive. in the negative dimension, the committed person who has made investment in time, effort and energy would realize that it may get lost. from duarte et al. (2013) perception and hypothetical study, it was found that managers in public sector banks had strong affective, normative and continuance commitment. duarte, used personal variables to assess employee’s organizational commitment. age was found to be one of the important variables as both are interlinked. gender is another factor associated with asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 271-279 273 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group organizational commitment. in case of women, organizational commitment level is limited to a certain stage after which they consider their family as a main source of their identity and fulfillment. marital status has been reported to be another predictor of organizational commitment. both married and unmarried employee portrays commitment of different levels. education is one of the essential predictors of organizational commitment. it has a negative relationship with organization commitment because people possessed with low level of education tend to remain in organizational. thus their commitment levels are seen to be lower than employees who are less educated (duarte et al., 2013). 2.1. occupational role stress model according to boles and babin (1994) occupational role stress is known to be one of the most commonly researched constructs in organizational behavior. there are around hundred published studies on the topic in the last two decades. boles and babin (1994) basically defines role stress having three various aspects known as role ambiguity, role conflict and role overload. role stress model discusses effects of role stressors on a working individual. a role stressor is basically the pressure a working person goes through due to various organizational and job related factors that come in the form of demands and constraints (idris, 2011). role stress theory explains that organizational factors produce role expectations among employees that then generates role pressure. an individual experiencing prolonged pressure would end up suffering from ill health and depression. an employee’s performance is heavily affected when they are not clear about the role’s authority, responsibility and status. this may lead to stress, dissatisfaction and poor performance. when goals and performance criteria outline to employees are unclear and ambiguous, employees get a perception that their interests are being threatened and this ultimately leads to stress (idris, 2011). in literature, one can find relationships between role stressors and feeling of strain. the main cause of strain is the pressure that one suffers from the struggle towards achieving a set of given demands. as previously mentioned, role stressors comprise of three major components known as role overload, role ambiguity and role conflict. role overload occurs when the expectation from a given position is more than what an individual can actually perform and deliver. role ambiguity refers to a condition where individuals are uncertain and unclear of what is required from them and how they are to perform the assigned tasks. role conflict is a state where there are incompatibilities with respect to expectations and demands associated with the role (idris, 2011). according to butt (2009) literature on occupational stress has revealed wide range of reasons of occupational stress and strain that is affected by organizational and individual factors. the following hypothesis was formulated for this study. hypothesis 1: occupational role stress has significant impact on affective commitment. hypothesis 2: occupational role stress has significant impact on continuance commitment. hypothesis 3: occupational role stress has significant impact on normative commitment. 3. methodology this research pursues the process of deduction, which is also called “top-down” approach. in this cram, the unit of study is bank employees of pakistan. their employment encompasses a variety of services at a time. working environment of banking sector is very hectic and the job responsibilities are very crucial. the burden of responsibilities and working conditions together contributes to different psychological disturbances. one of the major and common factors that disturbs is occupational stress particularly occupational role stress. 3.1. sample and data the facet of analysis was banking industry of pakistan particularly karachi was the study where study was conducted. karachi is the city where banking sector is at its growing stage. there is different classification in banking sector as follows: • conventional banking. • islamic banking. the research sample was taken from both the classification of banking industry. it included employees working in both the conventional banking system as well as employees working in islamic banking system. the reason of focussing in both areas was to come up with more precise and better picture to add to the importance of the study. the sample size of the participants was 303.the data were collected through random sampling. simple random sampling is the basic selection process of sampling and is easiest to understand (frerichs, 2008). 3.2. measures the organizational commitment questionnaire was used to measure the dependent variable organizational commitment. organizational commitment questionnaireocq is based on the three-component model of meyer, allen, and smith (1993) including affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. the other instrument used was on organizational commitment. that included three main parts of organization commitment are normative commitment that included eight items, continuance commitment that included eight items and affective commitment that included eight items. the occupational stress inventory revised editionosi-r developed by osipow (1998) was used to measure occupational stress. the decision to use the osi-r was largely because of its numerous applications as an instrument and availability of reliability information. the osi-r is a self-report inventory consisting of three questionnaires casing all three dimensions of occupational stress. each of the three is composed of five-point likert scale items. the first questionnaire on occupational stress inventory revised (osi-r) included three main parts.1.occupational role stress that included six items.2.personal strain that included six items.3.personal resource that included six items. overall there were eighteen items in occupational stress questionnaire.the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 271-279 274 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group respondents were asked to rate each of the 18 items in osi-r and ocq on the following 5-point likert scale: 1. strongly disagree, 2. disagree, 3. undecided, 4. agree, 5. strongly agree. 3.3. statistical technique first of all pilot testing was done on 40 respondents. the statistical package for social sciences (spss-18 edition) was used to study and analyze the collected data. it was used for the purpose of exploratory analysis. since this analysis are suitable to test the reliability, factor analysis and relationship between different variables. another software amos, was used for the purpose of confirmatory analysis. in amos different techniques like confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling was performed. 3.4. composition of data after univariate and multi variate outlier’s analysis. none of univariate outlier was detected and whereas there were 18 multivariate outliers. therefore sample size was reduced to 285 respondents. table 1 explains that reliability analysis was performed on spss -18. table-1. reliability analysis after removing 18 outliers. no. of items variables cranach’s coefficient alpha i.v os 6 occupational role stress alpha of 18 items= 0.66 0.72 (42 items) 6 personal strain 6 personal resource d.v oc 8 affective commitment alpha of 24 items= 0.62 8 continuance commitment 8 normative commitment 3.5. exploratory factor analysis table-2. kmo and bartlett’s test. kmo and bartlett's test kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy. .671 bartlett's test of sphericity approx. chi-square 3614.537 df 861 sig. .000 table 2 explains that the value of kaiser –meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy is 0.671 which clearly reflects that there are not sufficient items for each component. a minimum value of 0.70 is suggested by leech, barrett, and morgan (2005). by performing efa, there were 14 factors that were loaded. after the analysis it was restricted to 6 factors only. we restrict the factor by “extract” for fixing the number of factors. table-3. kmo and bartlett’s test (for 6 outcome variables). kmo and bartlett's test kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy. .688 bartlett's test of sphericity approx. chi-square 1696.690 df 253 sig. .000 table 3 explains that the value of kmo measure of sampling adequacy is now 0.688 which has been improved from 0.671. varimax orthogonal rotation with kaiser normalization extracted “uncorrelated” components. the initial solution was rotated in order to increase the readability of the factor loadings. after rotation six requested components explained approximately 56% of total variance however, contribution of each component is shown below: table-4. total variance explained (six variables). total variance explained component rotation sums of squared loadings total % of variance cumulative % 1 2.877 12.510 12.510 2 2.870 12.477 24.987 3 2.128 9.254 34.241 4 1.828 7.948 42.190 5 1.767 7.683 49.872 6 1.484 6.452 56.324 table 4 explains that the pca extracted four components as requested. the research instrument included 42 items. all the 42 items were reduced six components reflecting six measures. in the table 5 it is seen that out of 6 items there were 5 items that were loaded in the first component of occupational role. in the second component continuance commitment out of 8 items, there were 6 items loaded. in the third component of personal resource out of 6 items there were 3 items loaded. in the fourth component out of 8 there were 3 items loaded in affective commitment. in the fifth component of personal strain, out of 6 there were 4 items were loaded. in the sixth last component there were 2 items loaded that is of normative commitment out of 8. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 271-279 275 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-5. rotated component matrix (outcome variables). component 1 2 3 4 5 6 alpha 0.792 0.77 0.74 0.62 0.46 0.49 n 285 285 285 285 285 285 no. of items 5 6 3 3 4 2 occprole4 .826 occprole5 .796 occprole3 .781 occprole6 .763 occprole2 .519 contcom15 .734 contcom13 .728 contcom14 .697 contcom11 .691 contcom16 .637 contcom10 .603 perresource17 .828 perresource18 .799 perresource16 .765 affcom2 .767 affcom1 .730 affcom3 .696 perstress11 .690 perstress10 .597 perstress8 .530 perstress9 .502 norncom19_r .790 norncom18_r .659 table-6. instrument reliability and validity. latent constructs indicators items standardized loading reliability (alpha,scr,ave) occupational role occprole6 if i make a mistake in my work, the consequences for others can be pretty bad. .655 alpha=0.792 scr=0.82 ave=0.54 occprole3 my supervisors have conflicting ideas about what i should be doing. .714 occprole5 my job requires me to make important decisions. .801 occprole4 i have on the job responsibility for the activities of other. .777 continuance commitment contcom10 it would be very hard for me to leave my organization right now, even if i wanted to. .507 alpha=0.77 scr=0.80 ave=0.38 contcom16 one of the major reasons i continue to work for this organization is that leaving would require considerable sacrifice. another organization may not match the overall benefit i have here. .513 contcom11 too much in my life would be disrupted if i decided i wanted to leave my organization now. .591 contcom14 i feel i have too few options to consider leaving this organization. .764 contcom13 right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity as much as desire. .648 contcom15 one of the few serious consequences of leaving this organization would be the scarcity of available alternatives. .646 personal resources perresource16 if i need help at work, i know who to approach. .612 alpha=0.74 scr=0.75 ave=0.50 perresource18 i can establish and stick to my priorities for the use of my time. .681 perresource17 when faced with a problem i use a systematic approach. .822 affective commitment affcom3 i really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own. .611 alpha=0.62 scr=0.628 ave=0.360 affcom1 i would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization. .557 affcom2 i enjoy discussing my organization with people outside it. .632 personal strain perstress10 i find myself complaining about little things. .515 alpha=0.46 scr=0.47 ave=0.29 perstress11 i quarrel (dispute, hostile feelings) with my family members including spouse. .575 normative commitment norncom18_ r i do not believe that a person must always be loyal to his or her organization. 6.493 alpha=0.49 scr= 16.08 ave=21.07 norncom19_ r jumping from organization to organization does not seem at all unethical to me. .051 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 271-279 276 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3.6. confirmatory factor analysis brown, harris, o'quin, and lane (2017) explains confirmatory factor analysis as simplifying of complexities and tests those constraints. it basically studies how a set of variables are interlinked with latent variables. multivariate regression model is one of the measurement models that come under confirmatory factor analysis. in this model, there are two variant known as observed dependent variable and continuous latent variable. the relationship is thus described through set of linear regression equations that work for continuous factor indicators and regression equations are suitable for censored factor indicators. according to chau and hu (2001) as cited by lee and lucey (2010) that scale composite reliability formula is “(square of the summation of the factor loadings) / {(square of the summation of the factor loadings þ (summation of error variances)). according to molina, lloréns-montes, and ruiz-moreno (2007) the proposed minimum acceptable value is 0.70. to complete the analysis, the average variance extracted (ave) is calculated, in which the suggested minimum acceptable value is 0.5. table 6 indicates that the scales are within the acceptable limits and the composite reliability of all latent constructs like occupational role, continuance commitment and personal resource exceeded the benchmark of 0.7, as recommended by nunnally (1978). this implies that the measurement is good. table 1 shows the results of convergent validity and internal reliability of constructs. table-7. latent constructs correlations. sem correlations variable occprole contcom perresourc affcom perstress norncom occprole 1.00 contcom 0.054 1.00 perresourc 0.149 0.052 1.00 affcom 0.183 0.08 0.16 1.000 perstress -0.135 0.267 -0.256 0.032 1.00 norncom 0.007 -0.029 0.036 0.003 -0.039 1.00 hair, joseph, ralph, ronald, and william (1995) the r-value between every pair of independent variables in the correlation should not exceed the 0.9 criterion. if, in any case, the r-value exceeds 0.90, it is assumed that there is multicollinearity problem. as indicated in table 7, the highest value of coefficient, namely the occupational role and continuance commitment and personal resource, shows that there is multicollinearity problem among the various constructs in the measurement model (lin & lee, 2004). table-8. latent construct for independent variables only. variable occprole perresourc per strain occprole 1.00 perresourc 0.149 1.00 per strain -0.143 -0.264 1.00 table-9. measures of model fit. goodness of fit measures cmin/df gfi agfi cfi tli rmsea recommended value <3.0 >0.9 >0.90 > 0.85 >0.85 <0.08 cfa model 1.92 0.909 0.875 0.894 0.869 0.057 structural model 1.915 0.908 0.876 0.893 0.869 0.057 to measure the goodness of fit of the measurement model, six common measures were used. according to lin and lee (2004) the common measures are, using the ratio of x2 statistics to the degree of freedom (df), comparative fit index (cfi), goodness-of-fit index (gfi), adjusted goodness-of-fit index (agfi), normed fit index (nfi) and root mean square error of approximation (rmsea). as indicated in table 9, the observed normed x2 for this model was 1.92, which is smaller than 3 as recommended by bagozzi and yi (1988). other fit indices such as gfi exceeded the suggested cut-off level of 0.9, whereas here gfi value = 0.909. associated to the gfi is the agfi which adjusts the gfi based upon degrees of freedom, with more saturated models reducing fit (tabachnick, fidell, & ullman, 2007). agfi be likely to increase with sample size. as with the gfi, values for the agfi also range between 0 and 1 and it is commonly accepted that values of 0.90 or greater indicate well-fitting models. here agfi value =0.875. on the other hand, for cfi and tli it is >0.85 appears to be below the cut-off level of 0.08 as recommended by browne and cudeck (1993). the combination of these results suggests that the measurement model appears to represent a very good fit with the data collected. rmsea; appears to be below the cut-off level of 0.08 as recommended by browne and cudeck (1993) here rmsea= 0.057.the combination of these results suggests that the measurement model appears to represent a very good fit with the data collected. as shown in table 9, the structural model has a good fit, determined by the chi-square index: all the model-fit indices exceeded their respective common acceptable levels, suggesting that the structural model portrays an acceptable fit to the data (browne & cudeck, 1993). 4. analysis and results table-10. showing influence of occupational role stress on affective, continuance and normative commitment. hypothesis path path coeff icient st. error critical ratio p-value remarks h1 aff_commtocc_role 0.175 0.07 2.043 0.041* supported h2 con_commtocc_role 0.089 0.05 1.175 0.24 not supported h3 nor_commtocc_role 0.002 0.08 -0.253 0.8 not supported asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 271-279 277 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group to determine the validity of the hypothesized paths, the statistical significance of all the structural parameter values were examined. hypothesis testing was done through structural equation modeling. table 10 shows the results from the analysis implied that occupational role has significant effect on affective commitment with (path coefficient= 0.175). occupational role has insignificant effect on continuance commitment with (path coefficient= 0.089),occupational role has insignificant effect on normative commitment with (path coefficient= -0.002),personal resource has significant effect on affective commitment with (path coefficient= 0.164),personal resource has insignificant effect on continuance commitment with (path coefficient=0.135),personal resource has significant effect on normative commitment with (path coefficient =0.021),personal strain has insignificant effect on affective commitment with (path coefficient= 0.114),personal strain has significant effect on continuance commitment with (path coefficient=0.383),personal strain has significant effect on normative commitment with (path coefficient= 0.037). 5. discussion in light of the observational aftereffects of this study, after are the explanations for the examination questions: 1. relationship between occupational role stress and affective commitment. 2. relationship between occupational role stress and continuance commitment. 3. relationship between occupational role stress and normative commitment. to answer the first research question it was conjectured that there was a strong relationship between occupational role stress and job responsibility. to break down this relationship, three sub-divisions of organizational commitment have been tested. employees were analyzed for their affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitments. results of regression analysis shows that there is a positive or significant relationship between occupational role stress and affective commitments of employees with path coefficient = 0.175, which implied that higher score on occupational role stress prompted lower score on affective occupational commitment of the bank representatives. it was likewise discovered that the way of association additionally influenced the relationship between occupational role stress and other two types of occupational commitments i.e. continuance and normative commitments of employees. the level of significance for employees working in banking sectors of pakistan was found to be insignificant i.e. 0.089 for continuance and -0.002 for normative commitment, which implied that representatives working in administration conveyance associations have lower occupational role stress and resultantly have higher normative and continuance responsibility. these results approved that there is an opposite relationship between occupational role stress and normative and continuance commitment as compared to affective job responsibility of employees. these results are steady with the aftereffects of various studies referred to by bishop, scott, and burroughs (2000) who suggested that there is a negative relationship between occupational role stress and normative and continuance occupational commitment. they completed a study on the relationship of identity attributes with occupational role stress and employees’ commitment towards organization among the college instructors in pakistan. a huge negative correspondence was found between occupational role stress and these two types of occupational commitment. like job role of employees, other demographic variables of age, sexual orientation, conjugal status, capability, pay, sort of livelihood, encounter, and working additional hours critical corresponded with identity, stress and authoritative responsibility and helped fundamentally to push and duty. these findings are in agreement with michael, court, and petal (2009) research who proved that job role stress negatively influences the affective commitment. accordingly, during stressful periods, employee at management positions put their emotions aside and focuses on the tasks they need to perform. conversely, when the stress level decreases, affective commitment tends to increase. our results support as well browne and cudeck (1993) findings that there is a strong inverse relationship between commitment and intention to leave. consequently, high levels of role conflict and role ambiguity (work stressors) make the employees perceive the company as unsupportive, thus their affective commitment decreases. our findings are in agreement as well with yousef (2002); irving and coleman (2003) and meyer, stanley, herscovitch, and topolnytsky (2002) a negative relationship exists between affective commitment and role conflict and role ambiguity. fineman and payne (1981) did a study on law requirement and social insurance experts on occupational commitment and occupational role stress. they discovered a huge relationship between occupational role stress and occupational commitment. people who have just started their career and who did not have sufficient training or instruction to perform their employments were less dedicated to their occupation. people, who had issues with work quality, had poor demeanor towards work or demonstrated lower employees’ commitment towards organization. people who accomplished an abnormal state of part clash and equivocalness likewise diminished their level of occupational commitment. the conceivable purpose behind the substantial turnover of workers in banks in pakistan could be the consequence of the profoundly distressing nature's turf, which puts strain on the representatives heading subsequently to lower occupational commitment and high turnover. hence, the study results make that there is a converse relationship between occupational role stress and employees’ commitment towards organization in the bank division in pakistan. 6. conclusion it was hypothesized in this research work that occupational role stress has significant impact on affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. the hypotheses of research are accepted; however, the primary data analysis rejects the hypothesis that says occupational role stress has significant effects on continuance and normative commitment. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 271-279 278 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 7. managerial implication this study could help the management to use the research results to develop appropriate strategies to address formulate the stress-related problems of their employees. researching in banking sector of pakistan will be a unique combination to the study. 8. limitations and area of further study the research methodology adopted for this research has certain limitations which should be taken into consideration if any generalizations or conclusions are to be drawn from the research findings. the data was collected through survey questionnaires using the quantitative approach. this approach has some limitations including the fact that standardized questionnaires impose restrictions on the depth of data, which can be collected about the phenomenon under investigation. moreover, standardized questionnaires reflect the opinions and perceptions of only those who choose to respond. the results from this study have created possibilities for future research. for future organizational commitment and occupation role stress would need to be studied in depth. more demographic, psychological and social variables like age, experience and pay would need to be linked with occupational stress and organizational commitment. many researchers are of the view that longitudinal studies are required as it provide a more in depth insight to the outcomes of these factors on different forms of occupational stress and organizational commitment. khan, ramzan, and butt (2013) further suggests that close examination needs to be carried out on different occupational groups as all are not same. differences are found that have an impact on the result of the study. for instance level of occupational stress found in employees working in the service sector is different than of those working in an office environment. different have not just been found in organizational group but has also been found in gender. for instance level of organizational commitment levels vary among males and females. here additional research needs to be carried out in work environment, culture, employment terms, occupational advancement and benefits among both genders to get a better insight of the consequences that occupational stress and organizational commitment. qualititative studies here play an important part because of the varying culture and working environment. a qualitative study can provide a better idea on the level of occupational stress and organizational commitment employees have towards the organization. references ahmed, a., & ramzan, m. 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(2002). job satisfaction as a mediator of the relationship between role stressors and organizational commitment: a study from an arabic cultural perspective. journal of managerial psychology, 17(4), 250-266. available at: https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940210428074. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 219 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 3, 219-228, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.219.228 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group worthy programme, unworthy implementation: a case of ghana’s livelihood empowerment against poverty desmond tweneboah-koduah department of political science, university of ghana, accra, ghana. abstract many well thought poverty reduction programmes implemented in ghana have failed to deliver on their intended goals due to political interference. the main purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which the beneficiaries of ghana‟s livelihood empowerment against poverty have come from the ranks of the poor and the vulnerable. thus how strictly the programme‟s eligibility criteria has been enforced at the implementation level. concurrent mixed methods approach was employed to collect and analyse data from the field. quantitative data was obtained from 360 beneficiaries of leap and 12 officials selected from government institutions and civil society organizations associated with leap implementation provided the qualitative data. the study area covers 8 selected metropolitan/municipal/district assemblies from greater accra and the northern region of ghana. the findings indicated that the mandated eligibility criteria for the selection of the beneficiaries were observed more in breach than in compliance. the study also found that political clientelism has been a key feature of leap implementation, and that the provision of leap benefits has become contingent on the individuals‟ political support for the party of the ruling government. the study therefore recommends an active involvement of the media and civil society organisations in the implementation to enable them to expose most of the abuses carried out by politicians. keywords: implementation, political clientelism, poverty reduction, livelihood empowerment against poverty (leap). jel classification: code: i38: welfare, well being, and poverty: government programmes: provision & effects of welfare programmes leap). citation | desmond tweneboah-koduah (2020). worthy programme, unworthy implementation: a case of ghana‟s livelihood empowerment against poverty. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(3): 219-228. history: received: 5 may 2020 revised: 8 june 2020 accepted: 3 july 2020 published: 14 july 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 220 2. theoretical framework ................................................................................................................................................................ 220 3. literature review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 220 4. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 222 5. presentation and discussion of findings .................................................................................................................................. 224 6. conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................. 227 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 227 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.219.228&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1883 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0961-1150 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1883 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0961-1150 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1883 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0961-1150 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 219-228 220 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature : the previous studies have acknowledged the presence of clientelism in ghanaian politics; this study has highlighted the nature, the extent and effects of political clientelism on ghana‟s leap implementation. it has uncovered active involvement of political parties in the selection process. the findings from the study have also confirmed the findings of other studies which give validity, and further provides a reliable basis for developing policy measures. 1. introduction ghana has been recognised as the beacon of democracy in africa. however, the trust that the country can represent africa‟s best chance to grow out of widespread poverty appears to have become far-fetched (devereux & white, 2010). since independence in 1957, ghana has implemented various strategies aimed at poverty reduction to improve the living condition of the poor and vulnerable, however, the expected target is yet to be achieved. as a result, the search for the appropriate poverty reduction strategy is still on with knowledge transfer from previous strategies and programmes as a guide. on return to constitutional rule in 1992, the 1992 republican constitution in article 36(1) enjoins the state to take all necessary measures to provide adequate means of livelihood to all citizens and public assistance to the needy (republic of ghana, 1992). to achieve these ends, several policies and programmes have been implemented since 1992. these include ghana vision 2020 (the first step 1996-2000), ghana poverty reduction strategy 2003-2005 (gprs i), growth and poverty reduction strategy 2006-2009 (gprs ii) among others (national development planning commission. 2013). although the implementation of these programmes yielded some positive outcomes, there were considerable number of challenges that affected their level of success. key among these challenges included: unrealistic implementation strategies, inadequate financing, patron-client relations and patronage (ayee, 2007) the problem of misalignment of resource allocation and poor donor support (national development planning commission. 2015). in the midst of the preponderance of poverty, the new patriotic party (npp) government led by j.a. kuffour introduced the livelihood empowerment against poverty (leap) programme in 2008 as a strategy to address extreme poverty. as a measure to limit the leakage of benefits beyond the targeted groups, the leap policy document adequately provided for unambiguous criteria for the selection of eligible beneficiaries. the selection criteria among other things included: extremely poor household, orphaned and vulnerable children (ovc), persons with severe disability and without any productive capacity, the elderly persons who are 65 years and above, and the very poor pregnant and infants below the age of one year (debrah, 2013a). the introduction of the leap programme engendered an optimism among ghanaians not only because the programme was well-designed but also with the expectation that the political class had the benefit of learning from the past mistakes such as the preferential inclusion of some groups and the exclusion of others. under a typical democratic dispensation like ghana, the use of meritocracy as a criterion for accessing state-funded poverty alleviation programme should be the norm, not an exception. while some critics of leap have made claims about fraudulent participation, pointing to cases of registered beneficiaries who do not appear to satisfy the eligibility criteria (agbaam & dinbabo, 2014) others have argued that the programme has been successful in reducing poverty (handa et al., 2013). though substantial research has been done on the impact of leap on ghana‟s poverty reduction effort, very little work has been done on how the employing programme‟s eligibility criteria has been enforced. this article sought to fill the vacuum by using mixed method approach to provide empirical evidence to illustrate how a worthy programme like leap could be made to become unworthy in its delivery. in particular, the study sought to examine the role played by political clientelism in the implementation process. in this regard, the research questions which guided this study were as follows: (a) what have been the processes involved in the selection of leap beneficiaries in practice? (b) to what extent has leap programme been characterised by clientelistic politics in its implementation? the article is presented in six sections. after the above introductory section, the section two is devoted to the theoretical framework. section three, reviews the relevant literature to the study. the fourth section deals with the methodology of the study. the fifth section presents and discusses the findings of the study, section six ends with the conclusion and recommendations. 2. theoretical framework this study was located within the rational choice theory (rct) framework propounded by james buchanan (anderson, 2011). as a theoretical tool, it was used to evaluate the actions of both the public officials and beneficiaries involved in the implementation of leap. rational choice theory explains what motivates the political actors to do what they do. besides, the theory has been used extensively by researchers over the years to provide useful insight into the actions of politicians, voters and lobbyists (ibid). the adopted framework therefore provided a broad theoretical lens for a comprehensive understanding as to why a satisfactorily well-crafted leap implementation guidelines would be sacrificed on the altar of clientelistic politics. in the words of stokes (2009), political clientelism is „the proffering of material goods in return for electoral support, where the criterion of distribution that the patron uses is simply: did you (will you) support me?‟ the framework therefore becomes relevant on the grounds that the extent of clientelistic politics in the leap implementation has a direct consequence on the rate at which the goals of the programme could be translated into reality. 3. literature review a number of studies have gone into public policy implementation, poverty reduction strategies and social protection policies across the globe and ghana in particular. to put this article into proper context, the brief review of the literature focused on policy implementation in general, poverty reduction in ghana and studies on ghana‟s leap. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 219-228 221 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3.1. studies on public policy implementation governments all over the world use one public policy or the other as a tool to solve problems that confront their people. there appears to be a general agreement in the implementation literature that policy goals can best be translated into reality through effective implementation. implementation is the process of fulfilling a given task to address a specific problem. for ibrahim, yulianto, zuchri, and hiola (2017) if a public policy is not properly implemented, it can best be described as a good plan that is neatly stored in archive. it can therefore be argued that the act of implementing a poverty reduction programme is ostensibly meant to be a matter of carrying out that which has been decided upon already (grindle & thomas, 1991). on the contrary, this exercise which tezera (2019) describes as the most critical aspect of the policy making process continues to be a challenging puzzle for most governments in developing democracies. scholars have alluded to implementation hiccups as the reasons for the failure of most public policies. for instance, iyanda and bello (2016) hold the view that the failure of the governments to realise public policy goals have turned implementation to be the graveyard of the policy process. ayee (1994) on his part has observed that many public policies made in developing countries are mostly not implemented at all, and in few situations where implementation is carried out, the process often deviates from the intentions of the policy-makers.(obadan, 2001) in assessing why various poverty reduction programmes have failed in nigeria came to a conclusion that lack of accountability and transparency in programme implementation have turned the programmes to become conduit pipes for draining national resources. echoing similar view, makinde (2005) enumerated politicization, corruption, lack of continuity in government policies and inadequate material resources among others as the key factors responsible for the implementation gaps in developing nations. on the conditions for successful policy implementation, frank, gerald, and mara (2007) enumerated clarity of policy objectives, strong commitment of the implementing official toward the policy goal, adequate structuring of the implementation process, significant support from both interest groups and the political class, and absence of detrimental changes in the existing socioeconomic framework as factors that must be at play for implementation success. flowing from the above narratives, it is safe to state that in as much as policy implementation may be a challenging task, the implementation literature have provided crucial guidelines and clear action plan for governments to follow in order to translate the goals of public policies into reality. 3.2. poverty reduction in ghana poverty reduction activity is not new in ghana, and several studies have reported on the country‟s efforts so far. for the purpose of this study a few would be reviewed. although a lot of the studies have espoused that the attempts by governments to tackle poverty has been on-going since independence in 1957, they have however conceded that the effort increased quite dramatically after the promulgation of the 1992 constitution. for instance, gagakuma (1998) and leitre et al. (2000) have intimated that ghana‟s vision 2020 framework aimed at consolidating the gains made over the past decades, and to lay strong foundation for accelerated growth for the future. however, armah (2008) and the institute of economic affairs (2002) contended that while the policy framework made considerable progress in restoring macroeconomic stability, it could not achieve its intended objectives due to inadequate funding. the implementation of ghana‟s vision 2020 got truncated after the change in government in 2000, and the new government introduced ghana poverty reduction strategy (gprs 1) as a tool to fight poverty. it is important to note that the gprs 1 was not only introduced to address the challenges of the vision 2020 framework but also initiated as a condition for development assistance under the imf and world bank supported heavily indebted poor countries (hipc) debt relieve programme in 2002 (aryeetey & kanbur, 2006; national development planning commission, 2010). for aryeetey and baah-boateng (2007) the gprs 1 failed to make the anticipated reduction in poverty due to its apparent over-concentration on achieving macroeconomic stability to the neglect of structural problems. in discussing the weaknesses of the gprs 1 amoako-tuffour (2008) added that poor programme design, weak institutional coordination and poor targeting contributed significantly to the inability of the framework to deliver on its poverty reduction goal. to consolidate the gains made through the implementation of gprs i, another mediumterm development policy framework namely growth and poverty reduction strategy 2006-2009 (gprs ii) was implemented. the available evidence indicates that the mainstreaming of the millennium development goals (mdgs) into both the gprs i and gprs ii helped ghana to achieve the mdg 1, thus the target of halving the proportion of people living in extreme poverty in 2006 ahead of time (national development planning commission. 2015). despite the impressive growth performance ghana achieved under gprs i &ii, a review by carr (2008) revealed that the gprs ii in particular did not live up to the ideals for which it was created. he argued that the document which sought to address poverty from all sectors of the economy failed to develop an integrated implementation plan to ensure a coordinated action. the latest major poverty reduction strategy documents ghana has implemented include the ghana shared growth and development agenda (gsgda i), 2010-2013 and the ghana shared growth and development agenda (gsgda ii), 2014-2017). the overall goal of these two poverty reduction strategies was to accelerate the growth of ghanaian economy with the view to ensure sustainable poverty reduction (national development planning commission. 2013). after years of implementing these growth driven programmes, the reported gains from the economic growth did not have any significant impact on the country‟s incidence of poverty (cook, hague, & mckay, 2016). providing explanation as to why ghana has experimented with several poverty reduction strategies yet poverty remained endemic (debrah, 2013; ninsin, 2016) and ayee (2007) have all intimated that the partisan nature of politics played in the country makes it difficult for the selection process of the programmes to operate on the merit principle. they have argued that factors such as political affiliation and ethnic considerations have always been given greater weight. allah-mensah (2006) on her part postulated that whenever programmes instituted to reduce poverty are not beneficiary-centred, such programmes cannot make any significant impact on the poor. it can also be gleaned from the above review that ghana‟s poverty effort has been driven by the assumption that economic growth would lead to automatic reduction in poverty everywhere. however, the evidence from the literature has proven that such belief has been less likely than many had anticipated. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 219-228 222 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3.3. implementation of ghana’s livelihood empowerment against poverty since the inception of the implementation of the leap programme, a considerable amount of ink has been poured on the subject matter. while scholars such as park, handa, osei, and osei-akoto (2012) have highlighted the unique nature of leap by pointing out how the beneficiaries are made to benefit from free health insurance scheme in addition to the cash transfers, others have focused on the impact it has made on poverty reduction in ghana. for instance, korboe, dogbe, and marshall (2011); handa et al. (2013); thome, taylor, davis, and darko (2013); groot et al. (2015) and davis et al. (2014) have all come to a unanimous conclusion that the programme has largely impacted positively on the beneficiary households particularly in the areas such as the well-being of the people, improvement in the beneficiary‟s children education in terms of school enrolment, grade repetition, absenteeism and frequency of utilization of healthcare facilities among others. other studies conducted by agbaam and dinbabo (2014) and abbey, odonkor, and boateng (2014) highlighted the key challenges facing the programme which include irregular payment, weak linkage of the programme to other pro-poor interventions, inadequate staff with limited operational capacity and low coverage of poor family. similarly, jaha and sika-bright (2015) identified perceived political manipulations and political interferences as other major challenges confronting the smooth implementation of the programme. according to the world bank (2011), the leap like any other social intervention programmes has always been bedeviled with the issue of improper targeting and that various attempts have been made to improve the targeting procedures. debrah (2013b) has indicated that the success of leap is dependent on the implementers‟ ability to get the targeting right. martei (2015) supported (debrah, 2013) and further added that the absence of definite indicators for measuring success in the leap implementation guidelines has led to a situation where the key measure of progress is a ballooning number of the beneficiaries. in their study to assess how the leap programme has empowered the beneficiaries to manage risk and re-engage with informal social networks, daidone et al. (2015) found that the inability of the government to disburse the benefits promptly has negatively affected the realization of leap stated objectives. as part of the eligibility criteria, leap has a number of conditionalities which include children enrolment and retention in schools, registration of births, elimination of child trafficking and children engaged in worst form of child labour among others (gbedemah, jones, & pereznieto, 2010). meanwhile a study by park et al. (2012), on leap beneficiaries‟ adherence to these conditionalities revealed as many as 83 percent of the beneficiary households did not comply with any conditionality before they received their cash payments. this implies that even the conditionalities which were instituted to ensure that the beneficiary households were held in constant checks suffered weak enforcement. in short, the review of the relevant literature have focused on public policy implementation, poverty reduction strategies in ghana and studies on the implementation of leap. whereas these earlier studies are important because they have highlighted important aspects of the implementation of poverty reduction programmes such leap, little work has been done to establish whether the beneficiaries of leap solely come from the ranks of the poor and the vulnerable this study is designed not only to fill the lacuna in the literature but also to examine how leap‟s eligibility criteria has been enforced, and to indicate an important direction for future research. 4. methodology 4.1. research design the study employed concurrent mixed methods design. the method involves the collection of both quantitative data and qualitative data simultaneously. it is also underpinned by the pragmatist principle which argues that looking at a phenomenon from different perspectives provide richer and comprehensive understanding than by looking at it from a single perspective (neuman, 2011). the data collected from both the quantitative and qualitative sources were therefore compared to determine if there were corroborations or differences in the findings. more importantly, the selection was influenced by the complex task of providing an explanation to the question of why a well-designed programme could fail to achieve its intended goals when implementation guidelines were clearly provided. 4.2. purpose of research type the study was primarily an explanatory research which sought to explain the behaviour of political actors in the implementation of leap programme. it was to support or refute the predictions or principles of rational choice theory through the utilization of multiple sources of evidence. as explained by neuman (2011) explanatory researcher is usually interested in learning why things or events occur, and link the issues to the general principles of a theory. in this particular case, the study did not only seek to explain the actions of both the politicians and the beneficiaries associated with the process of leap implementation, but also took interest in understanding why poverty reduction programmes fail, through the utilization of the key assumptions of rational choice theory. 4.3. method of study 4:3.1. sources of data the study was based on both primary and secondary sources of data. the information which was collected from respondents of the study constituted the primary data. on the other hand, all the information gathered from the previously documented materials on the topic of study formed secondary data (dawson, 2006). these secondary sources of data provided a useful background understanding of the subject matter and also provided insight into the analysis and interpretation of the findings obtained from the field. within the context of this study, the data from the primary source was used to validate the findings obtained from the secondary sources. 4.4. selection of study areas and respondents 4.4.1. study areas selection procedure the beneficiaries of the leap programme are geographically spread across ghana. thus, they are found in all the then ten administrative regions and the then 216 metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies (mmdas) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 219-228 223 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group of the country. within the regions and the mmdas, the number of beneficiaries differs from one area to another. besides, 56 percent of the beneficiaries were women while 44 percent were men (ministry of gender children and social protection, 2017). in order to overcome some of the disadvantages inherent in both probability and purposive samples, a mixture of sampling techniques has been used in the study. the study therefore employed cluster probability sampling method/multistage random area sampling (ethridge, 1994). with this technique, the entire country was divided into two major clusters, namely the northern zone and the southern zone. the northern zone included the northern, upper east, upper west, brong ahafo and ashanti regions. while the southern zone consisted of greater accra, eastern, volta, western and central regions. from the two clusters, the northern and the greater accra regions were purposively selected to represent the north and the south divide respectively. within these two regions, four mmdas were also purposively chosen from each region using the incidence of poverty and mmda‟s (constituency‟s) loyalty to either new patriotic party (npp) or national democratic congress (ndc), the two major political parties as criteria. as intimated by silverman (2006) purposive sampling technique becomes more appropriate when an area exhibits some features of interest relevant to the phenomenon under study. the eight mmdas which fully fulfilled the two criteria included shai-osudoku and la dade kotopon representing the poorest and the least poor mmdas in greater accra respectively (ghana statistical service. 2015) the ga east and ga west municipalities represented the electoral strongholds for the npp and ndc political parties respectively (electoral commission of ghana, 2016). the mmdas selected from the northern region included east gonja and tamale metropolis being the poorest and least poor mmdas respectively in the region (ghana statistical service, 2015) the yendi and the kumbungu districts on the other hand served as the electoral strongholds for the npp and ndc political parties respectively in the region (electoral commission of ghana, 2016). 4.5. justification for the study areas generally, the purpose of choosing the above two regions among others was to make sure that the findings from the study reasonably reflect geographical differences in the leap implementation process. besides, greater accra and northern regions possess some unique features worth investigating. for instance, available statistics indicated that greater accra has experienced the highest reduction in poverty level since the beginning of leap and also it holds the least number of poor people in ghana. thus, 241,166 peoples (cook et al., 2016)(ghana statistical service, 2015). on the other hand, the northern region has experienced the least reduction in the level of poverty since 2008, it holds the highest number of poor people in ghana (1.3 million people) (cook et al., 2016)(ghana statistical service, 2015). the northern region also hosts the east gonja which is the poorest in all the then 216 mmdas in ghana and it is a rural district making it an interesting case for investigation (ghana statistical service, 2014). again, both greater accra and the northern regions have the least and highest number of leap beneficiaries respectively in the country and they provide unique cases for comparison in terms of selection of the beneficiaries (ministry of gender, children and social protection, 2017). additionally, the world bank (2011) has stressed that ghana‟s poverty reduction success story has always been the success story of its southern sector. therefore, until efforts are made to do away with the historical north-south divide in the standard of living, poverty would continue to persist in the country. on the basis of this concern, the study sought to investigate how the leap has been implemented within this historical north and south divide over the years as well. the table 1 below indicates the four selected mmdas from the two regions based on their levels of poverty as presented in the 2015 ghana poverty mapping report by ghana statistical service. see the table for details: table-1. selected regions and mmda‟s for the study based on poverty level selected regions poorest district selected from the region. least poor district in the region greater accra shai osu doku la dade kotopon northern east gonja tamale metropolis again, some politicians usually adopt different strategies to ensure that they are able to convert the distribution of poverty reduction benefits into political support and loyalty. magaloni (2006) suggests that the politicians can use the distribution of the material benefits in various ways possible. they can use such poverty reduction benefits to consolidate political support or reward supporters in their strongholds. in addition, the material benefits can be used in the area considered to be the stronghold of their rival parties in order to dilute their opponents support. on the basis of this information, other two mmda‟s each were purposively selected from the two regions to investigate for evidence of political manipulations in leap implementation. thus ga east and yendi mmdas, which have proved to be electoral strongholds for npp and ga west and kumbungu district too have proved to be electoral strongholds for ndc parties respectively electoral commission of ghana (2017). 4.6. selection of survey respondents the total population of the beneficiary households in these eight selected mmdas as at july 2018, stood at 7162, with the current gender ratio composition of 56:44 for females and males respectively (ministry of gender, children and social protection, 2017). to achieve meaningful representative sample for such a study, the ideal sampling approach for the survey should have been to employ a simple random sample of the entire beneficiary households throughout the selected mmda‟s. however, this strategy was practically impossible for the study due to its implications on the travel cost and time. for this reason, a list made up of 7162 leap beneficiary households was obtained from all the eight district social welfare officers from the selected mmdas. this compiled list served as the sample frame for the survey. for the study being a mixed method in nature, a sample size of five (5) percent of the study population was representative (webb, 1989). the five percent of 7162 households constituted 360 beneficiary households. the study therefore settled on 360 beneficiary households across the selected mmdas for the survey. a quota of five (5) percent was selected from the total number of beneficiaries in each mmda with a gender ratio of 56:44. the sampling objective was to ensure that the number of respondents randomly selected from each mmda was proportional to the number of beneficiary households in the area. the next stage of the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 219-228 224 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group sampling process involved the random selection of a leap beneficiary from the sampled households from each selected mmda to represent their respective households. generally, the mathematical formulae for the selection of respondents from each district was: n= n × 5% ×360 (56:44 gender ratio). where n is the number of respondents in an mmda and “n” is the total number of beneficiary households in an mmda. 4.7. selection of interviewees for the qualitative study the participants for the qualitative research came from diverse segments of the population from both state and non-state actors. they were purposively selected because of their involvement and deep knowledge in poverty reduction activities and leap implementation in ghana. they included the leap programme manager, eight (8) mmda social welfare officers representing the eight (8) selected mmdas, one (1) official each from ghana centre for democratic development (cdd), imani center for policy and education-ghana and institute for democratic governance (ideg) representing the civil society organizations involved in poverty reduction activities and leap in ghana. in all 12 key respondents were purposively selected and interviewed. 4.8. data collection instruments and procedure for a better understanding of the problem under investigation, various data collection instruments were used to collect both the quantitative and the qualitative data. with regard to the survey data, first the consent of all the respondents of the survey were sought before the questionnaires were administered. the data were gathered through an interviewer-administered questionnaires which contained a combination of open-and closed-ended questions. the reason for interviewer-administered questionnaires was that the educational levels of most of the leap beneficiaries who were the key respondents of the study were low. where the respondents did not understand english or the language used by the researcher, the services of trained local language interpreters were hired for them to translate the questions for such respondents. this was to ensure that the respondents understood the questions adequately before they responded to the questions. on the other hand, the interviews with the 12 officials were all scheduled days ahead before they were conducted. permission was sought from each official before the interviews could be recorded. the qualitative data were collected through semi-structured face-to face interviews with an interview guide to provide direction. 4.9. data analysis procedure the analysis of the data simply focused on the search for patterns in the data in order to interpret the identified patterns within the context of rational choice theory. this involved critical examination of the raw data, sorting, categorization, evaluation and the synthetization among others (neuman, 2011). the exercise also to a large extent helped in explaining how the raw data relate to the research questions for the study. the interpretation of the data from both the quantitative and qualitative data sources were done side-by-side to determine whether there was a convergence or differences in the findings from each method of study (morgan, 1998). the quantitative data which was gathered from the survey was first coded and subsequently entered into ibm spss version 20 for descriptive and inferential analysis. pearson chi-square test was carried out to establish whether there has been a relationship between political clientelism and areas where the beneficiaries of leap were selected from. thus person chisquare is a statistical tool used to test whether there exist any relationship between two categorical variables. specifically, in this study the test was interested in finding out whether the beneficiaries‟ electoral constituency (mmdas) be it npp stronghold, ndc stronghold or politically neutral constituency has any significant relationship with other interested variables such as beneficiaries association with the two major political parties. in the analysis for the chi-square, all the tests were performed at 5% level of significance. thus in all the analysis an alpha of 0.05 was used as the cut-off for the level of significance. for the qualitative data, the analyses were done thematically using nvivo 12 (pro version). the thematic analysis began with the used of microsoft word office to transcribe the audio-recordings from the interviews into texts. the transcribed data was then imported into the nvivo software for further analysis. with the help of the software, the data were coded for the process of categorization and sub-categorizations to be carried out. 5. presentation and discussion of findings 5.1. assessment of the processes involve in the selection of leap beneficiaries the issue of weak targeting associated with the leap programme as a result of political interference has been a source of major concern to many stakeholders (jaha & sika-bright, 2015). the study sought to establish the views of the social welfare officers who have been directly involved in the leap implementation whether the selection process is rule-based. all the nine officials who were interviewed emphatically stated that the selection of the beneficiaries is based strictly on eligibility criteria, which cannot be compromised. they were then asked to describe the stages involve in the selection process. they explained that it is the selection of the communities which has seen major changes over the years. the following sums-up how they explained the selection process: “the ministry of gender, children and social protection has over the years used two methods in the selection, and the difference between the two is who selects the community. previously the communities in the mmdas were selected using the ghana poverty mapping reports by the ghana statistical service while with the current process the respective district’s leap implementation committees (dlics) select the community. after the community selection, the district social welfare officer and his outfit go to the community to sensitize the people in the community on all what leap is about. the officials from a non-government organization by name esoko, with the support of a community focal person visits the selected communities to collect data on the prospective beneficiaries and the data is sent to the leap secretariat to be processed. the leap secretariat receives the data directly from esoko for the assessment of poverty status of the families/households and the preparation of the list of selected beneficiaries follows. the prepared list of the selected beneficiaries is therefore sent to the mmdas for us to invite and prepare them for payment to commence” asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 219-228 225 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 5.2. extent of political interference in the selection process on paper, there is a clearly stated eligibility criteria for the selection of leap beneficiaries. the study sought to gauge the views of the respondents on whether the process is interfered by politicians or other influential people. in stark contrast to their previous responses that the selection is rule-based, eight out of the nine social welfare officers who are directly in-charge of the programme at the mmdas admitted that political interference is a regular feature in the selection process. the following statement captures the sentiments expressed by all the officials interviewed: “as for political manipulations and interference they are common, even in 2016 when we were doing leap 1000 enrolment, a party chairman and the women organizer insisted that we have to finish registering their prepared list before we can register “outsiders” which i obliged. additionally between october and november in the same year, there was an emergency expansion which enrolled 2585 people unto the programme in this district before the election. meanwhile the entire existing beneficiaries were 1,095” (officer d3). findings from the survey corroborated the high political interference in the selection process which was established in the qualitative study. for instance, more than half (53%) of the respondents admitted that they were selected for the leap through the assistance of their assembly member. the most revealing part of this result is that during the data collection at the field, it was observed that almost all the assembly members who were playing the role as leap community focal persons were bold to indicate their political party affiliations which gives an indication that there has been a partisan element in the selection process. again, as shown in table 2 below, whereas the majority of respondents in npp strongholds benefited from leap through the assistance of government officials (66%), majority of those in ndc strongholds (73%) and mmdas considered to be politically neutral (55%) benefited from leap through the assistance of their assembly member. these data imply that the selection process is influenced by other influential people in spite of the clear-cut eligibility criteria. table-2. source of assistance towards leap selection. source of assistance for selection beneficiaries’ electoral constituency p npp ndc neutral all a friend 2% 1% 1% 1.% 48.53 0.00* party member 2% 5.% 7.% 6% government official 66.% 14% 33.% 35.% church/mosque member 2% 3% 1% 2% assemblyman/woman 25% 73% 55.% 53.% other 3% 4% 3% 3% total 100 100 100 100 note: * is significant at p< 0.05. from the study, it was found that on paper the selection of the beneficiaries is based strictly on clearly stated eligibility criteria. however, in practice, widespread political interference has rendered the strict application of the stated eligibility criteria ineffective. the above findings suggest that even though there are unambiguous guidelines which regulate the selection of leap beneficiary communities and individuals, politicians are able to circumvent the rules to enable them to influence the selection process. these findings validate the assumption of rational choice theory which contends that the actions of politicians are guided by the pursuit of their own selfinterest rather than by an altruistic commitment. it explains that politicians in their desperate quest to pursue their self-interest can easily manipulate laid down rules in order to achieve their preferred outcome (anderson, 2011). in the case of leap, attempts by politicians at both national and local levels to interfere with the process of selecting the beneficiaries is inconsistent with the standard operating procedures stated in the leap policy document (ekobor-ackah, darko-osei, & osei-akoto, 2014). again, within the existing literature, the findings corroborate studies by jaha and sika-bright (2015), and abane (2017). this finding also reinforces (whitfield, 2011) that many poverty alleviation initiatives in ghana have failed to achieve their intended objectives because of excessive political interference in the targeting process. clearly, this attempt by the political elite to side-step the eligibility criteria in the selection of leap beneficiaries as the study reveals points to the fact that the beneficiaries of the programme do not solely come from the ranks of the poor and the vulnerable. 5.3. political clientelism as a feature of leap implementation suspicion of political clientelism being an integral part of leap implementation is rife in ghana and the study sought to investigate. in this regard, both the district social welfare officers and officials from civil society organizations operating in the study areas were interviewed. the study revealed that politicians have always used the leap as a political tool to reward their party supporters. they do this by first influencing the selection of the communities where they know their supporters are concentrated before they subsequently influence the selection of individual beneficiaries. the political parties operate through the mmdas which are headed by chief executives who are political appointees and represent the interest of the appointing authorities. this view ran through all the responses from almost all the district social welfare officer. according to one of the officers labelled officer d6, “on paper it does not serve any political interest because the objective of the programme is to help alleviate poverty. however, on the ground the politicians have always used it as a political tool to reward their supports. if any of us as professionals make any attempt to resist the politicians, you are likely to be transferred and wherever you are sent to, you are going to work under another district chief executive who would have already been provided with information about you before you get there. as you may be aware they have a platform that they discuss issues about the happenings in their districts.” (officer d6). similar sentiments were expressed by all the officials from the civil society organizations who were interviewed. for example, lamenting about this situation based on personal observation, an officer from the cso‟s has this to say: “i do have a serious problem with the selection of the communities to benefit from the programme, i see it to be discriminatory and politically motivated. from my own hometown in the ahanta district in the western region, two asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 219-228 226 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group communities with equal level of poverty, and because one community was a stronghold of a party in government it was quickly selected for leap, and the one perceived to be for the opposition party was ignored and as soon as the opposition won power, the other community which happened to be her stronghold benefited. the influence of the politicians on the selection process is widespread” the results from the survey also revealed that three in five (59%) respondents claimed that political party leaders at the mmdas influence the selection of leap beneficiaries, about 22% of them disagreed. the rest (19%) had no opinion about the influence of politicians in the selection process. the results from the chi-square test also revealed a strong relation between the influence of political party officials and selection of the beneficiaries from all the electoral constituencies ( 2x  23.02, p<0.05). also as shown in table 3 below, though majority of respondents in npp strongholds, ndc strongholds and mmdas considered to be politically neutral were all of the opinion that politicians influence the selection of leap beneficiaries, the percentage of respondents who hold this view in ndc strongholds (76%) is significantly higher than those in npp strongholds (50%) and mmdas considered to be politically neutral (56%). table-3. do political party leaders influence selection of leap beneficiaries?. influence from party officials beneficiaries’ electoral constituency p npp ndc neutral all yes 50 % 76 % 56 % 59 % 23.02 0.00* no 38 % 7 % 22 % 22 % don't know 12 % 17 % 22 % 19 % total 100 100 100 100 note: * is significant at p< 0.05 5.3.1. regime that selected respondents to benefit from leap respondents were asked to indicate the regime within which they were selected. as high as forty eight percent (48%) of the respondents indicated that they started benefiting from leap during the mahama‟s regime (ndc, 2012-2016). two in five (38%) respondents cited mills‟ regime (ndc, 2009-2012). another 13% of the beneficiaries mentioned kuffour‟s regime (npp, 2008-2009) and those selected under akuffo addo‟s regime formed 1% (npp, 2017+). significantly, all the respondents (100%) in the ndc strongholds benefited from leap during mills‟ or mahama‟s regime (ndc regimes). the majority of respondents in the npp strongholds benefited from leap during kuffour‟s regime (38%) (2008). however, no beneficiary was selected from the ndc stronghold which raises a question about how fair the selection process has been. also, majority (58%) of the respondents in the mmdas considered to be politically neutral started benefiting from the leap during mahama‟s regime. the outcome of the chi-square test indicates that there is a significant relationship between where the beneficiaries got their selection and the regime which selected them. these findings are interesting not only for the pattern they revealed with regard to how the regimes did their selection but also clear to indicate that selection for the leap beneficiaries is characterized by partisan considerations. see table 4 for details. table-4. regime under which respondents benefitted from leap. regime of selection beneficiaries’ electoral constituency p npp ndc neutral all kuffour 38% 0.0% 9 % 13% 77.41 0.00* mills 35 % 63 % 32% 38 % mahama 27 % 37 % 58% 48 % akufo-addo 0.0% 0.0% 1% 1% total 100 100 100 100 note: * is significant at p< 0.05. 5.3.2. respondents and political parties they follow most in the media a follow-up question was asked to find out from the beneficiaries the political parties in ghana they follow their activities most in the media. judging from the responses to this question see table 5, it is clear that majority of them are sympathizers of one or the other major political parties and follow their activities in the media. for example, fifty-nine percent (59 %) of the respondents indicated that they follow ndc activities through the media very often. another 35% of them cited npp activities whereas the rest (6%) mentioned the minor political parties. also, whereas majority of the respondents in ndc strongholds (75%) follow ndc activities through the news, a significant portion of those in npp strongholds (59%) follow npp activities most often in the news. the results from the chi-square test also support the assertion that there is a significant relationship between their electoral constituencies and the political party they follow her activity most in the news ( 2x  30.28, p<0.05). see table 5 for details. table-5. beneficiaries and political party they follow most in the media. political party media following beneficiaries’ electoral constituency p npp ndc neutral all ndc 37 % 75 % 60% 59 % 30.28 0.00* npp 59 % 20 % 32% 35% cpp 3% 3% 3% 3% pnc 0.0% 0.0% 3% 2% ppp 1% 1% 1% 1% other 0.0% 1% 1% 0.0% total 100 100 100 100 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 219-228 227 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group in summary, the above segment of the study was to examine the role played by political clientelism in leap implementation. the above empirical evidences gathered from both qualitative and the quantitative data amply demonstrate that political clientelism plays a central role in deciding who is to benefit from leap. the findings from the study confirm the perception that the selection of both leap beneficiary communities and individuals has not been based on merit. rather it has been based on loyalty and past political support for the ruling party as defined by stokes (2009). in the case of leap the motivation for politicians to concentrate on their party supporters for the distribution of the benefits might be due to the fact that they do not want to waste resources on people whom they are not sure the benefits can win their political support. this finding however contradicts the widely held belief in the literature that essentially politicians use such poverty alleviation programmes to recruit new supporters for electoral gains, particularly the swing voters (bardhan & mookherjee, 2016; magaloni, 2006; schady, 2000). further to this, the results from the study confirm the conclusions of the past local studies carried out by ninsin (2016) and ayee (2007). the scholars have intimated that ghana‟s inability to implement most poverty reduction interventions successfully is partly attributed to patron-client relations and political patronage. according to them such actions have always resulted in the preferential inclusion of ruling party supporters and the exclusion of the supporters of the opposition political parties from the poverty reduction benefits. within the context of rational choice theory, the behavior of politicians in the implementation of leap is consistent with the principle of human rationality. it argues that because politicians are rational beings they would always base their decisions on cost-benefit calculations, and therefore would not invest in a programme that will not provide them with the highest political dividends (wittek, 2013). the evidence from the study lends support to the view that the political class sees leap as a convenient tool for the consolidation of their support base. 6. conclusion and recommendations the study sought to examine the extent to which the leap benefits reach the poor and the vulnerable in ghana. this question lies at the heart of the attempt to answer why most worthy programmes designed to fight poverty have failed to deliver their goals. to achieve this task the study adopted concurrent mixed methods approach to examine whether the leap selection process in practice is in consonance with the eligibility criteria on paper. the findings indicate that the selection of beneficiaries and the overall implementation of the cash transfer programme have become contingent on the individuals‟ political support for the party in government. this implies that like the previous poverty reduction interventions, leap has suffered political manipulation in its implementation. the ruling government‟s inability to insulate the programme from political interest has rendered leap‟s stated eligibility criteria a mere rhetoric. this practice has not only become the bane of the country‟s poverty reduction interventions but also explained why leap is not delivering its poverty reduction goal effectively. there cannot be a shortcut to poverty reduction. countries that have succeeded in their poverty reduction effort paid particular attention to political accountability, transparency, proper targeting and strong political will from the political class and ghana cannot be an exception. to overcome the pervasive political clientelism associated with the programme, the study recommends an active involvement of the media and civil society organizations in the implementation process could serve as a check on the politicians. thus regular and effective monitoring of the programme by these institutions will expose most of the abuses and manipulations carried out by political authority. besides, the eligibility criteria and the selection process of leap must widely be publicized in the media. it is also recommended that in order to promote transparency in the selection of leap beneficiaries, regular auditing should be carried out by credible and independent auditing firms to ensure that individuals who did not use the approved route to benefit from the programme are not only removed but also the officials who assisted them are made to refund all the cash transfers received illegally. this is also one of the surest ways to counter political clientelism in the selection of the leap beneficiaries. finally, because the findings of the study covered eight (8) mmdas out of the then two hundred sixteen (216) in the country, generalization of the results is limited. there is also the need for further study across the other mmdas excluded from this study to check the veracity of the outcomes. references abane, h. 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(2011). republic of ghana: tackling poverty in northern ghana. report no. 53991-gh march 1,2011 prem 4/aftar africa region. world bank, accra. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.ec.gov.gh/elections-results/6-16 1 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 8, no. 1, 1-6, 2021 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2021.81.1.6 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group joint family or nuclear family: the youth’s perspective afifa khalid1 aqsa painda khan2 sadia mangan3 sateesh kumar4 shivam golani5 kashaf aqeel zaidi6 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3,4,5 ziauddin university karachi, pakistan. 6lecturer, ziauddin university karachi, pakistan. abstract to identify the youth’s perspective regarding joint and nuclear family systems and the factors contributing to it. a cross-sectional study conducted in 2020 in karachi. the target population was between 18 and 45 years of age with a sample size of 523. an online questionnaire was circulated through convenience sampling technique. data was imported and analyzed in spss version 20. the sample population included 523 participants with n=441(84.3%) between 18-24 years and a female predominance n=333(63.7%). n= 454 (86.8%) participants were single. more than half n=298(57%) live in a nuclear family system, whereas, 194(37.1%) live in a joint family system. majority n=321 (61.3%) believed there is greater expectation to agree with the opinion of the head of the family in a joint family system and lesser freedom. mixed views were reflected regarding an increased emotional and financial stability in a joint family system with 42.8% and 59.5%, respectively. the global drift from joint family systems towards nuclear family systems was also evident in our study. the younger generation prefers nuclear family systems as they feel it respects their privacy and freedom. moreover, it also dissociates them from any family disputes and undue stress associated with it. keywords: family systems, joint family, nuclear family. citation | afifa khalid; aqsa painda khan; sadia mangan; sateesh kumar; shivam golani; kashaf aqeel zaidi (2021). joint family or nuclear family: the youth’s perspective. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 8(1): 1-6. history: received: 3 november 2020 revised: 6 january 2021 accepted: 1 february 2021 published: 25 february 2021 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 2. materials and methods ...................................................................................................................................................................... 2 3. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 4. discussion ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4 5. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 5 references ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2021.81.1.6&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2690 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3934-0665 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9009-3199 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4699-9927 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9719-1936 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2751-0273 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8421-2809 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 1-6 2 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study identifies the youth’s perspective regarding joint and nuclear family systems and the factors contributing to it. 1. introduction a family is defined as a group of people who generally live under one roof, eat food cooked on one hearth, and have property in common (thomas, 1995). a nuclear family is a household consisting of two married heterosexual parents and their legal children (bansal, dixit, shivram, pandey, & saroshe, 2014). whereas, joint family systems are connected economically, physically, socially, and ritually (säävälä, 1998). in this system, the unit is not limited to the husband, wife, and children, but depends on various family relationships (chandrasekhar, 1943). in a joint household, family members pool their earnings together to fulfill the needs of all members (säävälä, 1998). the incidence of joint family households is highest among the higher socio-income population. there is often an inherent conflict within joint families, over personal ties and obligations generated within separate nuclear units and those holding the entire household together (wheaton, 1975). the increasing economic rationality is causing disintegration of the joint family system and an increase in percentage of nuclear families (owens, 1971). therefore, nuclear family system is currently the most common residential form (conklin, 1969). joint family systems have some major benefits; they guarantee a time for all members to come together including family meals which are a central ritual and the most frequent activity in this system (garmienė, žemaitienė, & zaborskis, 2006). moreover, joint family systems offer greater support as compared to nuclear families in reducing stress and mental health problems (wheaton, 1975). however, one major drawback of the joint family system is the lack of privacy, and hindrance to individual expression (desai & shah, 1983). therefore, cultural associations have a significant impact on aversion to joint families such as in americans (kertzer, 1989). the partitioning of a joint family depends on three factors; including economic condition, the size of living space, and the control of an elderly person in the family (khuda-e-barkat, 1985). one of the qualities of a joint family is generally said to be stability involving finances and social support (madan, 1962). in some ethnicities, the disintegration of joint family systems was claimed to be an inevitable result of their country’s path to modernity (denault, 2009). the drawback of nuclear families is that they lack support networks so their rise is dependent on the growth of the state and of individual dedication (denault, 2009) the nuclear family a primary and direct relationship exists between the two generations living together while the joint family setup has an indirect and secondary sort of relationship with its members (bilal, tariq, aleem, shabbir, & parveen, 2013). previous studies have shown a significant preference for nuclear family systems including the 2011 census of india with nuclear families comprising of 70% of the population (khuda-e-barkat, 1985). however, amongst the rural settlements, more than 50% of the households are living in joint family systems (khuda-e-barkat, 1985). moreover, with a higher likelihood of having individuals of similar age groups in a joint family system, children and adolescents were less likely to have organized leisure-time activities (olta) resulting in more time spent watching television and playing video games (badura et al., 2017). average time spent with family particularly during meal times, was on the decline, especially on working days. employed women spent less time on family meals than unemployed women (minna, 1998). furthermore, elderly people living in extended households were found to have better living conditions (manfredini & breschi, 2013). a study conducted identified disputes over financial and property matters resulting in disintegration of a joint family in 79% of the population (owens, 1971). even though 61% of the population was found to be against the idea of separation of brothers after the death of the father, only 37% continued living in the joint family system (owens, 1971). a study conducted in west bengal revealed that 2% of families experienced disintegration before the death of the father and only 10% continued to live in a joint family system after his death (orenstein & micklin, 1967) and the level of satisfaction was found to be higher among people living in the joint family system ie, 87.5% v/s 81%(< 0.001) compared to the nuclear family system (lodhi et al., 2019). moreover 52 % adolescents reported difficulty in talking with new people. majority of participants from joint family reported good social adjustment (38%) and high resilience (17%) as compared to those in nuclear family (21%, 13%) (sahar & muzaffar, 2017). there has been a significant drift in the family systems in the recent years, with more individuals preferring nuclear family systems but very little research has been done in our country regarding this. the objective of our study is to determine the common perspective and identify advantages and disadvantages that play a role in forming the perspective. moreover, the study will be focused on identifying the differences in mentality with respect to gender, socioeconomic status, urban or rural settlement and ethnicities. it is important to identify these differences as they contribute to the emotional and mental well-being of an individual. 2. materials and methods this was a cross-sectional study conducted in 2020, data was collected between april and july in karachi, pakistan. the sample size calculated was n=384 which was calculated based on a proportion of 50%, bound of error was 5% and confidence level was taken as 95%. an online questionnaire developed on google forms was circulated via social media, various websites and social forums through convenience sampling technique. it was an online survey as data was collected during the covid pandemic. the target population was young people between 18 and 45 years of age. an informed consent was taken at the beginning of the survey and those who did not wish to continue were allowed to leave the survey. the questionnaire was developed through literature review and researches conducted on similar topics. (1,9) demographic profile variables included age, gender, ethnicity, and socio-income status. the questions related to joint family acquired opinions regarding joint and nuclear families. data entry was done on microsoft excel via google forms which was imported to spss version 20. descriptive analysis for numerical data was done through mean and standard deviation and for categorical data through frequencies and percentages. chi square test was applied to identify associations between demographic factors and opinion about joint and nuclear families. a p-value of less than 0.05 was taken as significant. institutional ethical approval was taken from the institute prior to the initiation of the study. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 1-6 3 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. results the sample population consisted of 523 participants with majority n=441(84.3%) were aged between 18-24 years, n= 52(9.9%) were between 25-30 years, n=23(4.4%) between 35-44 years, n= 7(1.3%) were above the age of 45 years. the sample was predominantly female n=333(63.7%) and n=190(36.3%) were males. the reported marital status was predominantly single n= 454 (86.8%) whereas, n= 42 (8.0%) were married, n= 25 (4.8%) were engaged and n= 2 (0.4%) were separated. our study revealed that n=298(57%) were living in a nuclear family system, whereas, 194(37.1%) were living in a joint family system, and a small proportion of the sample n=31(5.9%) were living alone and away from their family. upon enquiring if females preferred joining a joint family system after marriage, n=132(25.2%) strongly disagreed and n= 218(41.7%) disagreed, reflecting the majority. however, n= 18(3.4%) strongly agreed, n= 39(7.5%) agreed and n= 116(22.2%) neither agreed nor disagreed. the participants were asked if newly married woman find it easier to adapt to the rules and expectations of a joint family, most of the people disagreed. majority of the population either strongly disagreed or disagreed with n=178(34%) and n=195(37.5%) respectively. only n=22(4.2%) strongly agreed, n= 55 (10.7%) agreed and n= 71(13.6%) neither agreed nor disagreed. our study revealed that people think it is more likely for joint family members to develop dispute/difference of opinion /conflicts as compared to nuclear family system. n=33(23.7%) strongly agreed and n=71(33.1%) agreed. whereas, n=131 (13.4%) strongly disagreed, n=170 (10.9%) disagreed and n=118(18.9%) remained neutral. majority of our participants believed that the idea of more personal space and freedom in a joint family is incorrect as n=199(38.0%) strongly disagreed, n= 174(33.3%) disagreed as opposed to n=71 (13.6%) agreed and n= 79(15.1%) neither agreed nor disagreed. in our study we enquired if joint family system offered greater support and stability to individual members than nuclear families; majority of the people strongly agreed and agreed with n= 80(15.3%) and n= 144(27.5%), respectively. whereas, a large proportion also strongly disagreed and disagreed, with n=91(17.4%) strongly disagreed and n= 85(18.3%) disagreed. moreover, n= 123(23.5%) had a neutral stance regarding this. participants were asked if joint family systems have greater expectation from a couple to have children then nuclear family, majority of the population either agreed or strongly agreed with n=266 (50.9%). however, n=137 (26.2%) disagreed or strongly disagreed and n= 120 (22.9%) neither agreed nor disagreed. upon enquiring if greater importance is given to opinions of individual joint family system, n=131(25.0%) strongly disagreed and n=170(32.5%) disagreed, reflecting the majority. however, n= 33 (6.3%) strongly agreed, n= 71(13.6%) agreed and n= 118(22.6%) neither agreed nor disagreed. our study revealed that people believe that male family members are given more importance over female members in joint family systems. n=129(24.7%) strongly agreed and n=171(32.7%) agreed. whereas, n=66 (11.9%) strongly disagreed, n=62 (12.6%) disagreed and n=95 (18.2%) remained neutral. the participants were asked if female family members are given more importance over those of male family members in the joint family system, majority of the people disagreed. majority of the population either strongly disagreed or disagreed with n=115 (22.0%) and n=192 (36.7%) respectively. only n=20(3.8%) strongly agreed, n= 54 (10.3%) agreed and n= 142(27.2%) neither agreed nor disagreed. participants were asked if children face more competition and comparison with peers of the same age in a joint family system. majority of the population, n=172 (32.9%) strongly agreed, n=153 (29.3%) agreed, n=42 (8.0%) disagreed and n=77 (14.7) strongly disagreed. whereas, n=79 (15.1%) neither agreed nor disagreed. in our study we enquired if there is greater expectation to agree with the opinion of the head of family in joint family system as compared to nuclear family system. majority of the individuals either agreed or strongly agreed with n=321 (61.3%), as opposed to n=46 (8.8%) who disagreed, n =81 (15.5%) neither agreed nor disagreed and n=75 (14.3%) strongly disagreed. our study determined that majority of the people disagreed with the prevalence of gender equality in joint family systems with n=257 (50%). whereas, n=173 (19.3%) agreed and n=165 (31.5%) neither agreed nor disagreed. during our survey we asked individuals about their opinion about people having a greater sense of emotional and mental stability in joint family. mixed opinions were seen where n=94(18%) agreed, n=60 (11.5%) strongly agreed, n=121 (23.1%) disagreed, n=100 (19.1%) strongly disagreed and n =148 (28.3%) neither agreed nor disagreed. our study revealed that people have mixed views regarding a decreased financial burden and problems in a joint family system as opposed to nuclear family. n=73(14.0%) strongly agreed and n=139(26.6%) agreed. whereas, n=82 (15.7%) strongly disagreed, n=89 (17.0%) disagreed and n=140(26.8%) remained neutral. upon enquiring if greater respect is given to elders in joint family systems, n=74(14.1%) strongly disagreed and n=62(11.9%) disagreed, reflecting the minority. however, n= 123 (23.5%) strongly agreed, n= 147(28.1%) agreed and n= 117(22.4%) neither agreed nor disagreed. people were found to have mixed views regarding the existence of deeper emotional relationship between family members as compared to nuclear family. n=85(16.3%) strongly agreed, n=133(25.4%) agreed, n=91(17.4%) disagreed, n=92(17.6%) strongly disagreed and n=122(23.3%) neither agreed nor disagreed. most of the individuals agreed that joint family systems give preference to arranged marriages over love marriages with n=251 (47.8). whereas, n=135 (25.8%) disagreed and n=137(26.2%) neither agreed nor disagreed. moreover, our study determined that people believe individuals brought up in joint families tend to find it easier to adapt and adjust to their changes in their surroundings and lifestyles as compared to those brought up in nuclear family systems. n= 68(13.0%) strongly agreed, n=134 (25.6%) agreed, n=152(29.1%) neither agreed nor disagreed, n=101(19.3%) disagreed and n=68(13.0%) strongly disagreed. the participants were asked about whether the amount of care for the elderly is given more importance in joint family system than nuclear family systems. majority of the sample either strongly agreed or agreed with n= 107(20.5%) and n=151(28.9%), respectively. whereas, n=144(27.1%) disagreed and n=121(23.1%) neither agreed nor disagreed. property related disputes amongst legal heirs are more prevalent in joint family systems than in nuclear family systems. majority of the population agreed with this statement, n=118(22.6%) strongly agreed, n=144(27.5%) agreed, n=58(11.1%) disagreed, n=135(25.8%) neither agree nor disagree and n=68(13.0%) strongly disagreed. participants were asked if in their opinion joint family systems offered a greater level of the personal happiness than nuclear family systems. majority of the population either strongly disagreed or disagreed with n=111(21.2%) and n=121 (23.1%), respectively. however, n=90(17.2%) agreed, n=159(30.4%) neither agreed nor disagreed and n=42(8.0%) strongly agreed. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 1-6 4 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4. discussion previous studies suggest the changes occurring in traditional joint family systems can be attributed to adaptive processes. our study established that it is difficult to adjust in a joint family system for most people particularly for the newly married individuals (thomas, 1995). in accordance with previous studies, the population believed that males in nuclear families have to work harder than males living in joint families due to the distribution of work in the latter. moreover, females living in joint families have a higher work load than those living in nuclear families possibly due to a higher number of family members. the study sample believed that females in joint families have lesser freedom as compared to those living in nuclear families, however, according to previous study it is just a misbelief. in our study females preferred nuclear family more as compared to males, which was also established in previous studies (bansal et al., 2014). our study showed that joint households almost always dissolve at a certain point, death of the head of the family was identified as the most probable cause followed by disputes over family matters (säävälä, 1998). in accordance with a previous study, joint family systems were found to have a relatively conservative and reactionary attitude towards women, and to their position in the family which was reinforced by the lack of gender equality as reflected by our participants. a previously conducted study suggests that joint family systems often deny the sympathy, understanding, affection and love from a husband for the young bride across the artificial wall of the female group (chandrasekhar, 1943). this is a possible cause of women finding it difficult to adjust in joint family household and therefore, avoiding getting married in them, as per our study. previous study shows that in joint family household there is an inherent conflict between the personal ties and obligations generated within separate nuclear units and those which hold the entire household together and in our study 33.1% agree on it because sometimes it is not easy for women to obey all the commands of mother in law and father-in-law so dispute and hatred take place and sometimes their own sons want independent life with his wife. the main reason of fights in joint family system is no one want to compromise neither parents nor newly married couples (wheaton, 1975). according to previous study there is no significant relationship at the .05 level shown between family types and opinions about children but 32.9% people in our study believe that children and family system have relation. children face more competition and comparison in a joint family system. in joint family system all the members who are living together are responsible for the behavior, habit band nature of child but in the nuclear family parents are totally responsible (conklin, 1969). in according to previous studies that were conducted which identified high savings rates for earning members in the nuclear family system as opposed to the joint family system, but estates are likely to accumulate for longer time periods in joint families as compared to our data in which 26.6%people agree that joint family provides financial support to individuals members as they have their parents heirloom which is inherited to their children and is used in their business and betterment of their living. while in nuclear family consist of less people, so less people to spend money on and they save a lot of money on their own than in joint family (khuda-e-barkat, 1985). in previous studies it was identified that stability is quality of joint families, which may be in the form of economical support, work load compared to joint family. with sufficient role differentiation within the family, individual’s authority among the generations, and longevity of members of the family. while in our study, 27.5% agree on that joint families provide emotional and mental stability along with economical support. whereas, in nuclear family there is not much support from family, there is pooling of work, lesser economic stability possibly due to limited earning members, often only one, increasing the mental stress (bansal et al., 2014). as compared to previous data which says that joint families offer greater support than nuclear families in reducing stress and mental health problems, only 17.2% agree on this because now people often rely on friends, social circles and immediate family members to discuss emotions to achieve mental and psychological satisfaction. (kertzer, 1989). previous studies have shown a significant preference for nuclear family systems including the 2011 census of india with nuclear families comprising of 70% of the population (minna, 1998). however, amongst the rural settlements, more than 50% of the households are living in joint family systems. but now time has changed, nuclear family has been given more importance than joint family system. about 90% of the population now prefer living in a nuclear family (manfredini & breschi, 2013). while family models have been relatively stable in india during the past few decades preserving the joint family system and its values (orenstein & micklin, 1967). there is a significant drift in the family models in pakistan, as stated by our study also. previously there is no empirical evidence to show that a joint family could not provide a good adaptive vehicle for solving the problems and 27.5% people accept that joint family system give us support and help us because a woman living alone and faced with the crisis of a sick baby might very well be consoled to be living with an experienced mother who could offer advice on what to do next (conklin., 1973). although we find a significant association between living arrangements and psychological complaints, the living arrangements only explain a small share of children’s psychological health. this is because of lack of communication and love in nuclear family systems as compared to joint families where there are more people to share one’s feelings with (fransson, turunen, hjern, östberg, & bergström, 2016). in joint families, three generations live together and the head of the household bears the cost of maintaining his parents as well as his children. by the same token, he need not save for his retirement as he is assured of being looked after by his children. in accordance with previous studies conducted, income and wealth distribution have been increasingly brought into public attention in recent years. the overwhelming bulk of both theoretical and empirical research in this area has been concerned with nuclear families. when we inquired our population that individual more likely to feel a greater sense of emotional and mental stability in joint family as compared to nuclear family, 42% disagreed with the statement. in many families, the joint legacy continues till the head is holding the family together and after head dies many issues like inequality of wealth distribution or property occur. therefore, many people have changed their thoughts regarding this and usually end up distributing wealth during their lifetime. this distribution of rights and properties is also a probable cause of the increase in number of nuclear families recently. (desai & shah, 1983) according to previous studies good family time in joint family has greater impact on children specifically in adolescent life like their education, their behavior, health and wellbeing. however, our research revealed that 29.3% of the participants believed that children face more competition and comparison with peers at same age regarding education and behavior because joint family includes 2 or more families with their children of their own which causing unhealthy competition between the children. this often evolves into family fights as parents tend to compete and develop a superiority or asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 1-6 5 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group inferiority complex depending on their child’s performance in school and otherwise. for instance if a child is better at academics and other activities, then his or her opinion will hold more weightage to the elders of that family as opposed to those children are may not be as good (sweeting, west, & richards, 1998). some studies have shown that many of the nuclear families in urban centers are very closely linked to joint families in rural areas or to other urban families by property ties, mutual aid, visiting, and others. therefore, the projected disappearance of the joint family under the impact of urbanization and industrialization is more hypothetical than real. there will undoubtedly be changes wrought in this institution but its disappearance is anything but imminent. certain aspects of urbanization may even strengthen the joint family. with increased resources available to previously economically depressed caste groups, members of these castes may be in a position to emulate higher caste groups by combining into joint family units (eames, 1967). in accordance to previous studies which identifies a strong preference for sons over daughters in the indian society allows us the use of a novel instrumental variable, namely whether the first child is a girl, to test the q-q trade-off. when we inquired our population that gender equality is more prevalent in joint family system than nuclear family system majority population field of vision was unsatisfied with statement only 14% agree and majority 30% disagree. in our opinion the concept of gender discrimination has changed now but in rural areas or in areas with low literature rate parents still prefer male child to be their first and expect male will give support to the family and female will settle with her husband.it could be the reason the gender equality couldn’t be maintained yet female rights have been compromised as compare to male. we find that family size has a significant negative causal impact on educational outcomes of children. after controlling for potential endogeneity, an additional child in the family reduces the likelihood of ever having been enrolled and of currently being enrolled in school as well as years of schooling (kugler & kumar, 2017). we found that time spent with both partner and children declined seriously in joint family system and previous study also shows the same result (mestdag & vandeweyer, 2005). our study conclude that joint family system supports its members and according to previous study which says that joint family type provides social & financial support to its members because living with each other build more love and emotions, they help each other (sahar & muzaffar, 2017). in both nuclear and joint both family systems the role of parents is more influential than any other member of the family. the students get encouragement and confidence through the involvement of the parents. the involvement and attention of the parents are the significant factors that affect the academic performance of the students. as compared to our studies children face more competition and comparison with peers of the same age in a joint family system as compared to nuclear family as there is lack of attention can cause loss of interest in their studies with lack of confidence in their personality as compared more with their friends (bilal et al., 2013). 5. conclusion this research presents the youth’s perspective regarding joint and nuclear family systems. the younger generation prefers nuclear family systems as they feel it respects their privacy and freedom. moreover, the youth does not want to get involved in problems associated with joint family systems including disputes over property and other issues after the death of the head of the family. thus, the compromise in emotional and personal liberty is the most probable reason for the drift in youth’s preferences from joint family systems towards nuclear family systems. references badura, p., geckova, a. m., sigmundova, d., sigmund, e., van dijk, j. p., & reijneveld, s. a. (2017). do family environment factors play a role in adolescents' involvement in organized activities? journal of adolescence, 59(2017), 59-66.available at: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.05.017. bansal, s., dixit, s., shivram, g., pandey, d., & saroshe, s. (2014). a study to compare various aspects of members of joint and nuclear family. journal of evolution of medical and dental sciences, 1(3), 641-648. bilal, h. a., tariq, a. r., aleem, u., shabbir, s. i., & parveen, m. (2013). the effect of nuclear and joint family systems on academic achievements of students. academic research international, 4(5), 543-549. chandrasekhar, s. (1943). the hindu joint family. oxford university press,social forces, 21(3), 327-333.available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/2570671. conklin, g. h. (1969). social change and the joint family: the causes of research biases. economic and political weekly, 4(36), 1445-1448. conklin., g. h. 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(2016). psychological complaints among children in joint physical custody and other family types: considering parental factors. scandinavian journal of public health, 44(2), 177-183.available at: 10.1177/1403494815614463. garmienė, a., žemaitienė, n., & zaborskis, a. (2006). family time, parental behaviour model and the initiation of smoking and alcohol use by ten-year-old children: an epidemiological study in kaunas, lithuania. bmc public health, 6(1), 1-9.available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-6-287. kertzer, d. i. (1989). the joint family household revisited: demographic constraints and household complexity in the european past. journal of family history, 14(1), 1-15.available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/036319908901400101. khuda-e-barkat. (1985). the nuclearization of joint family households in a rural area of bangladesh. journal of comparative family studies, 16(3), 387-400.available at: https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.16.3.387. kugler, a. d., & kumar, s. (2017). preference for boys, family size, and educational attainment in india. demography, 54(3), 835-859.available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-017-0575-1. lodhi, f. s., khan, a. a., raza, o., zaman, t. u., farooq, u., & holakouie-naieni, k. (2019). level of satisfaction and its predictors among joint and nuclear family systems in district abbottabad, pakistan. medical journal of the islamic republic of iran, 33(1), 358-363. madan, t. n. (1962). the joint family: a terminological clarification. international journal of comparative sociology, 3(1), 7-16.available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/002071526200300104. manfredini, m., & breschi, m. (2013). living arrangements and the elderly: an analysis of old-age mortality by household structure in casalguidi, 1819–1859. demography, 50(5), 1593-1613.available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-013-0218-0. mestdag, i., & vandeweyer, j. (2005). where has family time gone? in search of joint family activities and the role of the family meal in 1966 and 1999. journal of family history, 30(3), 304-323.available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0363199005275794. minna, s. (1998). the'hindu joint family': past and present. studia orientalia electronica, 84, 61-74. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 1-6 6 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group orenstein, h., & micklin, m. (1967). the hindu joint family: the norms and the numbers. university of british columbia, pacific affairs, 39(3), 314-325.available at: 10.2307/275427. owens, r. (1971). industrialization and the indian joint family. ethnology, 10(2), 223-250.available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3773012. säävälä, m. (1998). the'hindu joint family': past and present. studia orientalia electronica, 84, 61-74. sahar, n. u., & muzaffar, n. (2017). role of family system, positive emotions and resilience in social adjustment among pakistani adolescents. journal of educational, health and community psychology, 6(2), 47-58.available at: https://doi.org/10.12928/jehcp.v6i2.6944. sweeting, h., west, p., & richards, m. (1998). teenage family life, lifestyles and life chances: associations with family structure, conflict with parents and joint family activity. international journal of law, policy and the family, 12(1), 15-46.available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/lawfam/12.1.15. thomas, t. m. (1995). modernity and the hindu joint family system. international journal on world peace, 12(1), 3-9. wheaton, r. (1975). family and kinship in western europe: the problem of the joint family household. the journal of interdisciplinary history, 5(4), 601-628.available at: 10.2307/202861. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3773012 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3773012 18 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 9, no. 1, 18-24, 2022 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v9i1.3703 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group a study on the impact of rural electrification on the agricultural productivity in mimaropa-region 4b, philippines jennylyn frances e. dugasan1 jennifer jane s. napallatan1 fei dhania v. nip1 ronaldo r. cabauatan1,2,3,4 ( corresponding author) 1college of commerce of business administration, university of santo tomas, manila, philippines. 2research center for social sciences and education, university of santo tomas, manila, philippines. 3the graduate school, university of santo tomas, manila, philippines. 4social sciences division, national research council of the philippines. 1email: jennylynfrances.dugasan.comm@ust.edu.ph tel: 09218332216 1email: janenapallatan@gmail.com tel: 09676149711 1email: dhaniafeidvn@gmail.com tel: 09663989559 1,2,3,4email: rrcabauatan@ust.edu.ph abstract this study examines the effect of rural electrification to agricultural productivity in the mimaropa-region 4b, philippines. rural electrification is said to have a significant benefit particularly in agricultural productivity. there are several challenges among the implementation of rural electrification. low rural incomes can make it difficult to afford and long distances mean more power losses, as well as costly customer service and equipment maintenance. this research proves that rural electrification positively affects agricultural productivity. a multiple regression analysis will be used to evaluate the data to be obtained and determine the relationship between the regressors and the dependent variable. for this study, the independent variables are the percentage of rural electrification (re), cost of electricity (ce), and the period of democracy (pd). meanwhile, the dependent variable is agricultural productivity (ap). the data will be sourced from various government agencies in the philippines including energy regulatory commission, department of agriculture mimaropa, and philippine statistics authority mimaropa. keywords: rural electrification, agriculture, agricultural productivity, cost of electricity, period of democracy, labor productivity. jel classification: o18, q10, o40, d24, a10, j24. citation | jennylyn frances e. dugasan; jennifer jane s. napallatan; fei dhania v. nip; ronaldo r. cabauatan (2022). a study on the impact of rural electrification on the agricultural productivity in mimaropa-region 4b, philippines. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 9(1): 18-24. history: received: 22 december 2021 revised: 24 january 2022 accepted: 7 february 2022 published: 16 february 2022 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 19 2. review of related literature ........................................................................................................................................................ 20 3. method ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 21 4. results and discussions .................................................................................................................................................................. 22 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 23 mailto:jennylynfrances.dugasan.comm@ust.edu.ph mailto:janenapallatan@gmail.com mailto:dhaniafeidvn@gmail.com mailto:rrcabauatan@ust.edu.ph http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v9i1.3703 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6829-416x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9112-5081 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2305-1551 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2203-8643 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 18-24 19 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to the small range of rural electrification literature in the agricultural sector of the philippines. it focuses on the positive and negative effects of inaccessible and scarce resources of electricity in certain far-flung areas in the country where households mostly engage in agricultural activities. 1. introduction in the philippines, agriculture is the way of living and means of support for most rural communities; for decades it was proven that agriculture is still one of the most reliable sources of income for the filipinos. a simple supply of light from one electric bulb can alter the community’s way of living, interactions within the neighborhood, and this conclusively entails that their quality-of-life increases. the type of source used in the agricultural production process is very significant and most rural farmers include their families, as well as some members of their community as their own laborers where they frequently use traditional farming tools rather than electric machines used for agriculture. as rural electrification programs progressed in the philippines for many years, it was constantly assumed that mere provision of electricity supply in rural areas can efficiently increase their incomes. this is attributed to many factors, and one of these is that electricity is seen as an energy modem which is important for growth. in most regions of the country, electricity-free zones are much less advanced than access areas. electricity serves many purposes in rural areas such that it will increase efficiency for businesses and farmers, reduce the cost of household work and offer rural families more effective lighting. electricity can theoretically change living conditions and enhance economic growth. providing access to these rural farmers undoubtedly improves their living conditions, develops their farming techniques in the most efficient way, and adequate electricity supply is seen to create more opportunities for these small-time farmers. looking at the rural households that are engaged in agricultural activities that often require electricity to operate the farmers’ modern farm machinery and irrigation systems. without an adequate and reliable electricity supply, rural households that are inclined with agricultural jobs are at disadvantage and may be subjected to low productivity, hence, low income as well. in the absence of adequate and reliable sources of electricity, these rural households that are into agriculture are on the side of disadvantage from reduced labor costs, new farming technologies, more sustainable strategy, and means to alleviate poverty. indirectly, access to electricity impacts agricultural productivity such that electricity plays a crucial role in increasing the value added captured by farmers by being able to store their crops and products sustainably and in obtaining information on market conditions that affects the decision making of the farmers through information communication technology (ict) (sovacool, 2012). in the means of reducing and alleviating poverty in the philippines, several government agencies have launched several rural electrification programs all over the country. recently, the national electrification administration (nea) have extended over p123 million in april 2021 that is purposely for the improvement of rural electrification infrastructure of electric cooperatives with the country. with this being said, the provision and implementation of rural electrification programs and infrastructures in the country shows how vital electricity supply is to these rural households that are engaged in agriculture in rural areas most specifically in mimaropa-region 4b in the philippines that are seen to have one of the lowest numbers of electrified rural areas. the philippine department of energy stated that mimaropa is still one region with the largest number of un-electrified barangays. as a result, the doe has increased the generation of renewable energy in the region, especially in mindoro and palawan, which are two off-grid islands. consequently, according to national electrification administration philippines, there are only four (4) electric cooperatives that are mainly serving and providing electricity supply to mindoro and palawan which are 1) lubang electric cooperative (lubelco) and 2) occidental electric cooperative omeco), both are supplying electricity to mindoro. in addition to that the two electric cooperatives that are serving palawan are 1) busuanga island electric cooperative (biselco) and 2) palawan electric cooperative (paleco). to advance the goal of the country’s total electrification, several philippine government agencies such as department of energy (doe), energy regulatory commission (erc), and national electrification administration (nea) crafts and designs policies and programs in order to intensify the provision of supplying adequate and reliable source of electricity via powering through use of renewable energy mini-grids to the two off-grids islands which is mindoro and palawan. the programs related to rural electrification are implemented on the widely held belief that having access to electricity would improve household well-being and increase rural productivity. only in the last decade or so has a growing body of impact assessment studies begun to quantify such impacts. in developing countries, rural electrification is often the chosen program for fostering equity and economic growth. electricity is regarded as a modern source of energy in most parts of the world, and areas without it are far less developed than those who have it. despite improvements in access to electricity, the philippines still suffers from energy shortages. to meet the country's rising demand for electricity, the country is heavily reliant on coal power and large-scale transmission lines; although the country aims to supply electricity to towns, rural areas are falling behind. this strategy has resulted in higher energy prices, disparities in electricity delivery between urban and rural areas, and a significant environmental effect, all while putting the system's efficiency at risk (jimenez, 2017). considering the objective of rural electrification programs and that is to provide adequate, reliable, and affordable electricity services in the country, generating and prioritizing provisions that upholds this objective leads to socio-economic development and accelerates the growth of the economy. in the philippines, rural electrification acts as the driving force behind sustainability in terms of income, health, and education, that benefits rural agricultural production, and this has been shown to have positive impacts on communities. advancing electricity lines in rural areas have been synonymous with supplying the facilities needed for rural areas to develop rapidly. in general, the rise in agricultural productivity is seen as the effect of technical changes, including the development of new farming practices. this chapter will review the role and relation of rural electrification to agricultural productivity particularly in the rural areas in mimaropa-region 4b, philippines, in which the mostly agricultural economy was affected by electrification, the increased employment rate, and rural farm population. rural electrification carries a lot of beneficial factors that are known to improve the quality of life. it greatly impacts the agricultural sector, as well as the households, and it also comprehensively asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 18-24 20 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group stimulates socio-economic development. with this being said, there is a need to look at the impacts of rural electrification. theoretically, this study would further enhance the understanding of impacts on rural electrification, the factors affecting it, and how it also affects rural productivity. the purpose of this paper is to whether rural electrification positively or negatively impacts the agricultural productivity of the mimaropa-region 4b with the objectives of (1) to collect significant data that shows if rural electrification can help agricultural productivity positively or negatively, (2) to explore the underlying factors of rural electrification throughout the years and know how it affects the agricultural productivity in mimaroparegion 4b, (3) to assess effects of rural electrification to agricultural productivity of the mimaropa-region 4b, and (4) to propose recommendations to policymakers that would greatly affect the agricultural productivity of the mimaropa-region 4b, philippines. this study intends to contribute to a growing socio-political and socio-economic literature with regards to rural electrification in developing countries. the findings of this study and recommendations are practically useful for the following: (1) in developing evidence that are based on policies, (2) for the policy makers who are responsible in defining objectives for energy and rural electrification programs, and (3) to strengthen systematic institutional frameworks that is critically essential in optimal planning of rural development. additionally, the assessments conducted, and the results of this study should be taken into consideration when it comes to designing short-run and long-term policies that will be used for rural development, as well as for the progress of the agricultural sector in the philippines; these can be used to project and stimulate future alternative plans for the sector. consequently, these projections can be utilized for the evaluation of what the agricultural sector can play in the future development of the philippine economy. 2. review of related literature empirical studies over the years that have assessed whether hypothesized effects of rural electrification are perceived in actuality. in recent years there have been multiple attempts to present these studies in a larger manner to be able to draw wider conclusions regarding the impacts of electrification (litzow, pattanayak, & thinley, 2019). the philippines is highly dependent on coal power and large-scale transmission lines to meet its growing demand for electricity, while aiming to supply electricity to the cities, and rural areas. various actions under the united nations development program have improved the electrification rate in rural areas (taniguchi, 2019). access to electricity in rural areas is likely to encourage agricultural farmers to adopt practices and strategies that can enhance agricultural productivity and can increase profits (chindarkar, chen, & sathe, 2020). according to litzow et al. (2019), rural electrification (re) programs were implemented with the intention to improve agriculture, education, health, and employment outcomes in rural areas. from a consumer’s perspective, the country has seen remarkable progress. because of the government’s ambitious goals and strenuous efforts, the electricity access rate has improved dramatically over the past decades. the philippines is one of the more advanced countries in the southeast asian region in terms of household electrification (doe philippines, 2016b). over the past few years, there are comparatively several studies to assess the role of rural electrification to rural development as it was considered as an expense and of limited effectiveness in rural areas. the predominant aspect that most studies focused on is on how lack of access to electrification in rural areas may affect the quality of life specifically on agricultural productivity, education, households, and employment. brandon, dadhi, and matías (2016); litzow et al. (2019). the validity of correlation between rural electrification and welfare outcomes is seen as one of the important objectives of the existing studies (khandker, barnes, & samad, 2013). additionally, the relationship between rural electrification programs and growth has become one the most recognized study that relates to the country’s level of development and the most evident direct outcome is through the productivity effect of the country (cook, 2011). according to the missionary electrification plan 2012, the small power utilities group (spug) will no longer be operating in new locations within 5 years after its release. however, only missionary regions classed as small a areas are being provided with generating services. the role of the future spug shall be reduced to the universal charge applicant and disburser for electrification mission and system manager on huge islands and isolated networks such as permitted pursuant to the philippine small grid guidelines, palawan and mindoro may. many general studies in this field that have been conducted are mainly concentrated on the relation between rural electrification and development yet, there are still few studies that are rigorously focused on the causal relationship of rural electrification and agricultural productivity. most of the existing evidence is typically examined and measured through the impact of rural electrification programs by comparing several households with or without electricity in particular rural areas. such evaluations generally have not measured the extent and nature of the accrued benefits of these said programs (khandker et al., 2013). furthermore, a set of studies assess the outcomes of (re) programs through community-level effects of electrification such as schools and farms that have access to electricity. in relation to this, recent studies suggest that electrification can trigger significant changes in the economy (chakravorty, emerick, & ravago, 2016). majority of the current studies focus on the long-term impacts of rural electrification on household consumption and air quality, manufacturing firms and agricultural production and nearly all previous studies center on estimating and measuring the benefits that rural electrification brings to different sectors. in this chapter, the researchers review the literature that are mainly focused on the role and relation of rural infrastructure and rural electrification programs to the economy’s growth and development. the agricultural sector, as well as its energy inputs, are the subject of this section. to examine both the energy needs for agriculture and the requirements for rural energy services in the philippines, as well as some islands with mini grids such as mindoro, catanduanes and sibuyan islands in the last decade. the main islands of palawan and mindoro were already being served by the spug with continuous electricity (electric power industry reform act). it is useful to consider three entry levels for interventions. the "energy ladder" method encompasses these three stages. the three-stage evolution of agriculture can be summarized as follows: (1) the use of animal work to provide various energy inputs, (2) simple human work for crop rotation, harvesting, and processing, as well as rainfed irrigation, none of which require an external fuel source, and (3) the use of renewable energy technology such as wind pumps, solar dryers, and water wheels in conjunction with modern renewable and fossil fuel-based technologies for motive and stationary power applications, as well as for agricultural product processing. the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 18-24 21 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group needs of poor people in rural areas can be thought of on three levels when it comes to energy: (1) traditional biomass fuels are used for basic survival in cooking, illumination, and space heating, (2) as people progress beyond subsistence, alternative biomass fuels such as kerosene and lpg are used in these applications, and (3) enhanced electricity systems in rural areas using modern renewable energy and fossil fuels, such as supplying energy for small electrical appliances (such as lighting and radio) and community facilities (e.g. street lighting, water pumping, power for health centers and schools). in the philippines, rural communities have a greater ratio of low-income households who suffer from high cost of electricity and upfront capital costs needed for energy efficiency improvements. cost of electricity can influence agricultural production (sands & westcott, 2011). electricity is a crucial input in agriculture. agriculture uses energy directly on the farm in the form of fuel or electricity to run machinery and equipment, heat or cool houses, and light, as well as indirectly in the fertilizers and chemicals generated off the farm. the cost of electricity, as a result, has an effect on agricultural production in mimaropa-4b due to the rise in electricity prices would decrease agricultural productivity as rural communities could not afford high pricing and which would affect the usage of equipment needed, increase agricultural product prices, and decrease farm income (department of energy). it is commonly believed that democracy influences public service provisions, and this includes policies that are proposed and implemented in rural areas. trotter (2016) suggested that democracy is strongly associated with rural electrification increases and it shows that inequality between rural and urban electrification decreases. in general, providing electricity is highly capital intensive (trotter, 2016). with the implementation of provisions solely based in accordance with the public’s interest which includes rural electrification might increase agricultural productivity (trotter, 2016). it is evident that in democracies, higher political incentives provide an extension of electricity infrastructure in rural areas that are previously unserved rather than just developing the existing electricity grid infrastructure to improve reliability (trotter, 2016). the overall empirical findings of the review of literature shows a close correlation between rural infrastructure and agricultural productivity. agriculture efficiency is affected by factors such as electricity and roads. since paved roads, village irrigation, and microcredit participation are all binary variables in our study, households either received or did not receive these policies, as opposed to the difference in household benefits from percentage increases in village electrification and production prices. we discover that electricity has little effect on employment, meaning that an increase in labor force participation is not the relevant mechanism. the effect of rural electrification on agriculture productivity is positive. this concludes that agricultural productivity is increasing, and the local economy is expected to be affected by potential channels. (1) a rise in agricultural productivity and (2) developments in rural housing quality. any impact would improve a country, driving upland, and property values (haanyika, 2006). hornbeck and keskin (2015) believed that a temporary improvement of rural electrification's agricultural output will also promote broad local growth through the local agglomeration forces as well as spillover productivity. for example, an expansion in the agricultural sector could increase demand for non-traded goods supplied by the local industrial sector. similarly, an increase in local infrastructure may also have a spillover effect on non-agricultural sectors. if electricity increases production, governments and policymakers must concentrate on further investment to increase the sector such that when the communities receiv electricity, productivity will not drop. it is expected that land, labor, capital, electrification, and institutional quality would increase agricultural output (khandker, samad, ali, & barnes, 2012). 3. method this study used a quantitative research approach within different phases of the research to collect and analyze data. quantitative data will be collected as an offset approach of research method strategy (bryman, 2008) to analyze, converge, and validate findings from data depending on the nature of the research questions in a complementary manner. the main outcome variables of this study are rural electrification (the percentage of electrified rural areas), cost of electricity, and the period of democracy as the dummy variable. moreover, this study will be using regression analysis to quantify the variables used in this study. this statistical method can provide a better understanding and analysis of the underlying impact of rural electrification in the agricultural productivity of region 4b-mimaropa based on panel data of rural areas monthly from the years 2015-2017 sourced from various government agencies in the philippines including energy regulatory commission, department of agriculture mimaropa, and philippine statistics authority mimaropa. a multiple regression analysis used to evaluate the data and determine the relationship between the regressors and the dependent variable. for this study, the independent variables are the percentage of rural electrification (re), cost of electricity (ce), and the period of democracy (pd). meanwhile, the dependent variable is agricultural productivity (ap). this will be the equation model: 𝐴𝑃 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1𝑅𝐸𝑖 − 𝛽2𝐶𝐸1 + 𝛽3𝑃𝐷𝑖 + 𝑒 3.1. augmented dickey-fuller (adf) most economic time series data have unit roots which show that their means and variances are not timeinvariant. if this is the case, a univariate series is said to be non-stationarity and cannot be used for regression with other non-stationary univariate series because of the risk that their results maybe spurious. the only exception to this rule is when the time series data of all variables have identical unit roots. the widely used unit root test is the so-called augmented dickey-fuller (adf) test. the basic equation for testing the stationarity of a time series is given by the following: δx = αo + α1t + βxt-i + σφδxt-i + εt where the first difference of the series, δxt, is regressed against lagged of its original level series, time, and lagged values of itself. if the estimated value of β is more negative than mackinnon critical values, the series is said to be stationary. otherwise, it is non-stationary and therefore has a unit root. the augmented portion of the test is to correct for any serial correlation in the variable. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 18-24 22 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3.2. structural stability test structural stability test refers to the stability of the coefficients of a regression model between different time periods. in this study, such test will be performed using chow breakpoint test. a structural change could mean a change in the intercept, a change in the slope coefficients, or a change in both the intercept and slope coefficients. either way, the results would imply structural instability and the model therefore cannot be used for policy analysis and forecasting. the formula for testing the structural stability of the regression parameter involving time series data is as follows: ( ) ( )knnrss krssrss f ur urr 2/ / 21 −+ − = where k is the number of regressors including intercept, n is the number of observations, rssr is the regression sum of squares restricted, and rssur is the regression sum of squares unrestricted. if the computed fstatistic exceeds critical value, there is structural instability. otherwise, the model is said to be structurally stable. 3.3. test for heteroskedastic disturbances if the variance of the regression residuals of the model is time varying, the parameters and their standard errors are said to be biased and inefficient. this condition is known as heteroskedasticity and if uncorrected could lead to wrong conclusions and decisions on the part of the investigator. to detect the presence of heteroskedastic disturbances in the residuals, the white heteroskedasticity test will be used. u2 = αo + α1 x1 + α2 x2 + α3x3 + α4 x1 2 + α5x2 2 + x3 2 + α6x1x2 + α7x1x3 + α8x2x3 + vt where u2 is the squared regression residuals regressed against the explanatory variables, their squares, and cross products. 3.4. specification error test the ramsey regression equation specification error test (reset) will be used to test whether non-linear combinations of independent variables help in explaining the dependent variable. this will also help determine if there is no misspecification error in the data used in the study. a specification error test is associated with the specification of the model regarding the inclusion of an irrelevant variable, the exclusion of relevant variable, or the functional form of the model. a specification error creates biased or inconsistent regression estimators, and the inconsistency can still be there even when the sample observation increases. to determine the specification of the model, this study used the equation: �̂�𝑖 = �̂�1 + �̂�2𝑋2𝑖 + �̂�3𝑋3𝑖 + 𝛾�̂�𝑖 2 4. results and discussions for this study, a multiple regression analysis was used to evaluate the data to be obtained and determine whether rural electrification positively or negatively impacts the agricultural productivity of the mimaroparegion 4b. the independent variables are the percentage of rural electrification (re), cost of electricity (ce), and the period of democracy (pd). meanwhile, the dependent variable is agricultural productivity (ap). the equation model used was: 𝐴𝑃 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1𝑅𝐸𝑖 − 𝛽2𝐶𝐸1 + 𝛽3𝑃𝐷𝑖 + 𝑒. this study is a regional study and was solely conducted in region 4b-mimaropa, philippines. this study used the first difference of agricultural productivity and the log first difference of rural electrification upon testing the data. table 1. ordinary least squares (ols) model. dependent variable: d(agricultural productivity) regression statistics coefficient std. error t-ratio p-value significant level constant 2.78 1.05 2.64 0.01 ** dlog(rural electrification) 866 581 1.49 0.14 cost of electricity −459 173 −2.65 0.01 ** r-squared 0.20 adjusted r-squared 0.15 f(2, 28) 3.67 p-value(f) 0.03 f(3, 25) 0.22 durbin-watson 2.05 p(chi-square(5) > 0.571692) 0.98 p(f(2,26) > 0.00515687) 0.99 note: (1) d = first difference; dlog = first difference of log. (2) the coefficients with ** statistically significant at the 5% level, respectively, when the test is applicable. table 1 presents the relationship and significance of agricultural productivity and a set of independent variables namely rural electrification and cost of electricity. the cost of electricity is significant at 5% alpha. however, the log first difference of rural electrification is insignificant. for rural electrification, an increase in the percentage of electrified rural areas doesn’t affect the agricultural productivity in region 4b-mimaropa. on the other hand, when cost of electricity increases, agricultural productivity in region 4b-mimaropa decreases. the cost of electricity, as a result, would decrease agricultural productivity as rural communities could not afford high pricing and which would affect the usage of equipment needed, increase agricultural product prices, and decrease farm income. in addition, it is seen as significant as the p-value of f-test which is equal to 0.0000 that satisfies the condition wherein the p-value must be less than or equal to the level of significance of 0.05. the p-value 0.2275 denotes that there is no structural break error. accept null hypothesis as the calculated f-critical values. the p-value in white’s test for heteroskedasticity is 0.98926. it is greater than the default level of significance which is 0.05. this means that there is no heteroskedasticity error. the specification error test or also known as the reset specification test is used to assess the adequacy or acceptability of the functional form. this means that the functional form should be adequate for it to be the null hypothesis and that the alternative is not. this test includes running several asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 18-24 23 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group regressions and computing of the f-statistic. the p-value in reset specification test for is 0.995. it is greater than the default level of significance which is 0.05. this means that there is no misspecification error. table 2. augmented dickey-fuller (adf) test. variables level with constant level with constant and trend first difference with constant first difference with constant and trend second difference with constant second difference with constant and trend agricultural productivity 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 cost of electricity 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 rural electrification 0.29 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 table 2 displays the standard errors of the variables, monitored over a specific amount of time, that are nonconstant. the unit test root for the dependent variable which is the agricultural productivity has an asymptotic pvalue of 0.0005755 with test statistic of -4.73157. moving to the independent variables, first is the cost of electricity that shows its unit test root that has an asymptotic p-value of 1.332e-007 with test statistic of -8.10129. on the next variable, it shows the unit test root of independent variable rural electrification with asymptotic pvalue of 0.3885 with test statistic of -2.36727. these results shows that the researchers reject the null hypothesis that there is a unit root with an alpha of 0.05. moreover, the test statistics of the dependent variable and the independent variables appears to be all negative which provides stronger evidence for rejecting the null hypothesis of a unit root. 5. conclusion the study obtained that indeed, rural electrification positively affects the agricultural productivity of region 4b-mimaropa philippines. access to low-cost electricity will provide rural households in the said region with feasible options for production, processing, marketing, and distribution. thus, it will help create the conditions for improved agricultural productivity. the philippines’ power rates are much higher than those of neighboring asean countries and this situation has constrained the competitiveness of local and foreign firms operating in the country. a joint asian development bank (2005) survey found that electricity (33%) was considered by businessmen as the most critical constraint compared with transport (18%) and telecommunications (10%). losses owing to power failure amounted, on average, to 8% of production. power outages hurt small and medium-size firms most, costing them an equivalent of about 8% and 11% of production, respectively, compared with 6% for large firms. the philippines is one of the more advanced countries in the southeast asian region in terms of household electrification (doe philippines, 2016b) and based on the data acquired by the researchers, it was in fact true that the country has seen a remarkable progress because of the government’s ambitious goals and continuous efforts to implement electrifying programs to rural areas in the country. also, the electricity access rate has improved over the past decades. thus, this paper supports the existing studies of litzow et al. (2019), wherein it was stated that rural electrification (re) programs were implemented with the intention to improve agriculture, education, health, and employment outcomes in rural areas and that electrification can trigger significant changes in the economy (chakravorty et al., 2016). the researchers also proved that the percentage of rural households with electricity and the period of democracy positively and directly impacts the agricultural productivity of the sector through similar studies from khandker et al. (2012) that it is expected that land, labor, capital, electrification, and institutional quality would increase agricultural output and from trotter (2016) that with the implementation of provisions solely based in accordance with the public’s interest which includes rural electrification might increase agricultural productivity, respectively. on the other hand, the researchers also acquired evidence statements from the department of energy (doe) philippines (2016a) that the cost of electricity has an effect on agricultural production due to the rise in electricity prices would decrease agricultural productivity as rural communities could not afford high pricing that can decrease their income. the study recommends that results suggest that rural areas with limited electricity availability and sourcing electricity exhibit low agricultural production, while some rural areas that have access and sourcing electricity from cleaner energy resources tend to show higher agricultural production growth. electrification in in region 4bmimaropa is a crucial element in achieving agricultural production growth. providing electricity access to the rural communities is seen to support economic growth and development. policymakers should focus on the sustained implementation of the policy reform program, which includes as key elements the privatization of the national power corporation (npc), an efficient regulation of the electricity market, and the creation of an attractive environment for private investors in the generation segment of the market. the effectiveness of several electrification projects for rural areas in mimaropa region-4b has been a challenge due to a number of factors, including the issues on affordability, capacity, and reliability. references asian development bank. (2005). assessing the impact of transport and energy infrastructure on poverty reduction. adb report. brandon, a. b., dadhi, a., & matías, f. (2016). electricity, income, and quality of life. the social science journal, 53(1), 33-39.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2014.12.009. bryman, a. (2008). social research methods (3rd ed.). new york: oxford university press. chakravorty, u., emerick, k., & ravago, m. l. (2016). lighting up the last mile: the benefits and costs of extending electricity to the rural poor. resources for the future discussion paper, no.16-22. chindarkar, n., chen, y. j., & sathe, s. (2020). link between farm electricity supply management, farm investments, and farm incomesevidence from india. energy policy, 141, 111407.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111407. cook, p. (2011). infrastructure, rural electrification and development. energy for sustainable development, 15(3), 304-313.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2011.07.008. department of energy (doe) philippines. (2016a). philippine energy plan 2016-2030. republic of the philippines department of energy. retrieved from https://www.doe.gov.ph/pep/philippine-energy-plan-2016-2030. http://www.doe.gov.ph/pep/philippine-energy-plan-2016-2030 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(1): 18-24 24 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group doe philippines. (2016b). 2016 philippine power situation report. republic of the philippines department of energy. retrieved from: https://www.doe.gov.ph/electric-power/2016-philippine-power-situation-report. haanyika, c. m. (2006). rural electrification policy and institutional linkages. energy policy, 34(17), 2977-2993. hornbeck, r., & keskin, p. (2015). does agriculture generate local economic spillovers? short-run and long-run evidence from the ogallala aquifer. american economic journal: economic policy, 7(2), 192-213. jimenez, r. (2017). development effects of rural electrification. inter-american development bank. khandker, s., barnes, d., & samad, h. (2013). welfare impacts of rural electrification: a panel data analysis from vietnam. economic development and cultural change, 61(3), 659-692.available at: https://doi.org/10.1086/669262. khandker, s., samad, h., ali, r., & barnes, d. (2012). who benefits most from rural electrification? evidence in india. the energy journal, 35, 1-40.available at: https://doi.org/10.5547/01956574.35.2.4. litzow, e. l., pattanayak, s. k., & thinley, t. (2019). returns to rural electrification: evidence from bhutan. world development, 121, 7596.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.04.002. sands, r., & westcott, p. (2011). impacts of higher energy prices on agriculture and rural economies. united states department of agriculture: economic research report no. 123. sovacool, b. k. (2012). design principles for renewable energy programs in developing countries. energy & environmental science, 5(11), 9157-9162. taniguchi, s. (2019). securing access to electricity with variable renewable energy in the philippines: learning from the nordic model: adbi working paper series (no. 1009). trotter, p. (2016). rural electrification, electrification inequality and democratic institutions in sub-saharan africa. energy for sustainable development, 34, 111-129.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2016.07.008. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.doe.gov.ph/electric-power/2016-philippine-power-situation-report 80 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 2, 80-88, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.80.88 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the two nation theory and the creation of pakistan mehreen hassan ma in political science and international relations, institute of social sciences, istanbul aydin university, turkey. abstract creation of pakistan and its historical importance is not very well known to the world particularly the we see very limited role of religion in state affairs in the west and this is the reason we call it a” secular state”. this very example depicts that how religion can change our perspectives. the main motive of this research article would highlight the role of the two nation theory in creating pakistan. this research writing picks from the present literature, scholarships on the narrative on two nation theory and the creation of pakistan while finding the importance of the role “identity” played in the indo-subcontinent partition. there is not enough research and writings done on the role of identity in case particular to the indo-subcontinent divide. this is the reason i made a very small effort that might add to the existing partition of 1947 scholarship. the article would be bringing two variables namely the two nation theory and identity aligned to find out the reasons for the birth of pakistan and india. the term “identity” has been defined, redefined and interpreted by different scholars in their case of study and domain. they have defined and questioned identity in various perspectives of study but what was lacking was a future interpretation of identity in case particular to the creation of pakistan. keywords: british, hindus, identity, muslims, nation, pakistan, two nation theory. citation | mehreen hassan (2020). the two nation theory and the creation of pakistan. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(2): 80-88. history: received: 27 january 2020 revised: 9 march 2020 accepted: 13 april 2020 published: 4 may 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 81 2. background to the study ................................................................................................................................................................ 81 3. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 86 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 87 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.80.88&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1568 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8209-5194 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1568 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8209-5194 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1568 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8209-5194 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 80-88 81 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the main objective of this research article would highlight the role of the two nation theory in creating pakistan. 1. introduction in this article, question on; if pakistan was created on the two nation theory would be answered. the article will shed light on the hideous indian subcontinent history followed by role of key personalities; sir syed ahmed khan, allama iqbal and muhammad ali jinnah in creation of pakistan and then will be concluded with remarks that who or what events actually led to the creation of pakistan. significant importance has been given to pakistan lately by the world but unfortunately not on historical event like the partition but on the ongoing “war on terrorism”. any terrorist attack in the world and pakistan is accused of it before even investigating the case to the fullest. this habit of accusing pakistan of terrorism came right after the self-proclaimed “taliban”; one who made the world shook was osama bin laden who was responsible for the 9/11 terrorist attack in the united states. osama bin laden had a house in a small town called abbottabad in pakistan and therefore it has become a norm to charge pakistan of any terrorist attack in the world. it is observed that pakistan has been accepted as a muslim country and muslim neighbor country to arab world for all the terrorist blames (wynbrandt & gerges, 2009). pakistan is also fighting politics war between democracy and dictatorship. this juggling act has not enabled pakistan to have a stable political regime as well as be economically secure. this ongoing war: has not let pakistan progress but has slowed down the growth in terms of politics, economy and social structure. one could also accuse the state structure of pakistan which to date is in state of confusion and has not been able to establish itself as a secular state (wynbrandt & gerges, 2009). to carefully think on pakistan’s future, there are a lot of questions to start with which start from the history of creation to pakistan’s existence. the questions seem easy but when one tries to find out answers; there are no easy answers but different narratives to pick and choose from. no solid historical narrative can fully convince you on the reasons for the creation of pakistan (qasmi, 2018). for the historians and academic scholars study of 1947 partition is very colorful in nature. 1947 signifies to be an important year in the history of south asia as well as the world as it depicts the end of the british rule in the indian subcontinent which also created pakistan. partition of 1947 was the territorial divide where muslims got their separate homeland. the divide is set to be because both the communities did not reach on any compromise on sharing the power in india after british leaving. muslims in india feared the hindu domination. why the study of 1947 partition is important is because this partition made a history by securing first position in the world for a very short time struggle where they threw the colonial power (the british in india). this event of 1947 partition somewhere is also defining identities particularly the muslim and the hindu identity. the indian subcontinent history itself is questioning its history which is widely told by the textbooks which are taught in pakistan. there history textbooks in a way are also contributing in our pakistani identity and how we perceive it to be (qasmi, 2018). before the indo-pakistan partition the muslims and the hindus were one nation being called as indians. to explore the reasons which was the two nation theory for the creation of pakistan it is quintessential to look at the muslim and hindus history and past where they lived as one nation in the indian subcontinent. if we go back to the undivided india; there were three major communities residing in the indian subcontinent (muslims, hindus and sikhs. it is unfortunate that pakistanis are still fighting for their identity as there are just too many interpretations of identity within pakistan may be because in pakistan there are multi languages spoken as well as many ethnic groups. one cannot actually blame one factor for it (snellinger, 2019). the british colonial rule over the indian subcontinent was for almost 200 years. all this time the indians thought it was all right for british to rule over india. the realization of imperialism came much later that it was not a blessing rather a curse as the british were using indian material resources as well using indians for their own political motives. the meaning of colonialism was understood later by the indians when they had lost control of their material resources and territory in the hands of british white men. the struggle for pakistan was one example for the freedom movement which meant enlightenment about colonialism and how it is controlling everything making people body and mind slaves (keen, 2018). one cannot miss mentioning the work and contributions of sir syed ahmed khan, allama iqbal and muhammad ali jinnah when talking about the indian subcontinent partition history. sir syed ahmed khan was the pioneer of the “two nation theory” and allama iqbal imagined a muslim homeland which muhammad ali jinnah achieved. if we read the historical accounts on the indian subcontinent history we would get to know all of these above mentioned political figures were never in favor of a separate homeland for the muslims rather were for a united india and were actually contesting for the minority rights and separate electorates for muslims but there were some historical events like the “hindu urdu controversy” and “congress ministries” that they had to change their mind and had to make a very important decision to secure the future of muslims who were accounting on them (ikram, 2005). 2. background to the study pakistan appeared on the world map on 14th of august 1947 making a history of being the very first state created on the religion islam. pakistan posed itself to be an ideological state which was created on the idea of a free and secure homeland for the muslims who were under threat in undivided india. the tragedy to date is the partition of bangladesh from pakistan in 1971; it was a crack down when the east wing of pakistan separated from the west wing of pakistan. east wing is now independent bangladesh. critic of the two nation theory and the partition of 1947 indian prime minister indira gandhi called the bangladesh independence as the death of the two nation theory. she thinks that there was no point of diving india, to her it asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 80-88 82 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group made no sense and since then the narrative of indo pakistan history is chased to find out what was it that the partition of 1947 became so inevitable (rumi, 2011). the case of bangladesh independence apparently raised a lot of questions among which one was of the national identity of pakistan. that bangladeshi was muslims too but why then they asked for independence from pakistan when they shared same religion islam. this notion chased the two nation theory and what it depicted. this was the time when sub ideologies started to appear within the islamic ideology making another intriguing subject for scholars to explore respectively (rumi, 2011). the basic question boils down that if pakistan was really required and its existence. there is an ongoing debate on these subjects within academic scholars and historians. the most talked about argument is that if pakistan was created for muslims who were under threat of hindu domination, why a population of muslims decided to stay back in india? this has raised eyebrows to which no convincing answer has been given. 2.1. the historical narrative the narrated history of pakistan suggests that the two nation theory put the foundation for pakistan. the two nation theory proposed the idea for a separate homeland for muslims. this theory stands on the notion that muslims and hindus are two distinctive nations having separate religion, culture and tradition from each other which causes the conflict between them living peacefully together in the indian subcontinent (qasmi, 2018). pakistan was created because their religious, cultural and social practices unmatched with the hindus. the british was of the view that among two majority political parties namely the muslim league and the congress, the successful political party which wins the government would rule india but what happened was that after the british left, india got partitioned and pakistan came into being claiming to be a separate homeland for the muslims and the minorities to protect their rights (shahid, 1999). to muslims their religion islam and their muslim identity was number one for which they were fighting their case in the undivided india. they wanted to preserve their muslim identity and wanted to have a secure future in india (ikram, 2005). the historical narrative that pakistanis are acquainted with is that pakistan got into existence so that the muslims could feel secure and spend their lives according to the islamic teachings without any threat or fear. 2.2. the reasons for the partition of indian subcontinent the central argument for the demand for pakistan was that it was created so that muslims would be free from any threat from the hindu domination. hindu domination meant hindus trying to impose their religion/faith, culture, traditions on muslims as well as ruling over them. the “congress ministries” in 1937-1939 showed exactly what hindu rule would mean to muslims. this argument is more like a political argument than what critics of pakistan creation narrate or question (ikram, 2005). pakistan was created to establish a new nation state that protected the religious identity and political interests of muslims in south asia. the master narrative also says that the “two nation theory|” was the funding principle of pakistan movement. this was also interpreted as pakistan being an islamic ideology where religion was defining nationality of indian muslims. the muslims all india muslim league political party was created in 1906. the party claimed to be representing the muslims in the indian subcontinent. the main reason for its creation was to create good relationship with the british who were ruling over the indian subcontinent. muslims also wanted to improve their relationship with the british and prove their loyalty to them. all india muslim league gave a platform to muslims to get united under one umbrella to put forward their demands (religious, political and social). this political party was later joined by muhammad ali jinnah who then also led it as a leader till pakistan was created. the goal of this party was to fight for the right of separate electorates for the muslims which later changed into the demand for a separate homeland. the demand of separate homeland was completely based on the two nation theory. this demand for separate homeland was preaching sir syed ahmed khans ideas and poet allama iqbal philosophy which was precisely that muslims and hindus could not live together peacefully in the future. this made the demand for separate homeland politically correct. muhammad ali jinnah played a role of a spokesman for the indian muslims representing them at all indian level and was the one who forwarded the demand for separate homeland which he also later achieved (ikram, 2005). the elections of 1937 have said to changed views and thoughts of many muslims in the sub-continent. before these elections the muslims of india still hope to be together with the hindus compromising on their interests to live in a peaceful manner like they did in the past. coalition government of the congress and the all india muslim, league was an opportunity before these 1937 elections. but when the elections were won by the congress they became so egoistic and proud that they were not willing to compromise with the muslims. the congress started their nationalist movements to the extent where they started torturing muslims and challenging their belief. this attitude of congress even made the moderate muslims upset who were with the congress but after seeing congress cruel doing they changed the sides to be with the all india muslim league (ikram, 2005). the period of congress ministries in the indian subcontinent which were formed in 1937-1939 proved the true intention of the congress and the hindus. they were not behaving in a secular manner the way they were enforcing their religion hinduism on muslims. at this point of time they only wanted to put muslim down on their knees and wanted them to obey them like a slave. this period showed the utmost hostility congress had for the muslims. the congress nationalist activities included the “wardha scheme” which became part of educational curriculum in which hindu teachers were teaching in hindi language and bowing down in front of gandhi’s photo to impose hindu power and control over muslims (ikram, 2005). it also included hoisting the congress flag over all official buildings in india and muslims were forced to sing “bande mataram” which hurt muslim sentiments the most. muslims were treated in a cruel manner by the congress showing that since what hindu raj or rule would mean. the congress ministries did nothing good to the muslims of the indian subcontinent but they united all muslims together under the platform of all india muslim asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 80-88 83 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group league where they were clear that there was only one road to follow and that was of independence from the hindu domination and getting rid of the british from indian subcontinent (ikram, 2005). the cabinet mission plan which was a plan brought by the british in 1946 was of united india comprising of three provinces and hindu congress leader asked all india muslim league to reject this plan and saying that once british would leave they would change the plan according to their wish which made muslim disturbed and insecure about their future for which reason they started to fight for pakistan (wynbrandt & gerges, 2009). the historical narrative on creation of pakistan can be divided into two parts. one group states that the two nation theory was the reason for the partition of the indian subcontinent whilst the other group rejects this notion and states other reason for the creation of pakistan. first group have names like ishtiaq hussain qureshi, muhammad ikram rabbani and stephen wolpert. the second group is a critique of the two nation theory and the creation of pakistan like the ayesha jalal and yasmin khan. one of the most prominent and accepted historians is ishtiaq hussain qureshi. he sees the two nation theory as an ideology defined by the all india muslim league. his writing is majorly drawn by the islamic ideology which comes from islam. he is given the title of being a “nationalist historian”; the reason why he is given this title is because he firmly holds belief in the two nation theory and that it was the reason for the creation of pakistan in 1947. the historical narrative claims that differences in religion is what muslims got united to fight for a separate homeland which was also guided by the two nation theory comes from ishtiaq hussain qureshi. the central argument of his is that islamic identity is the identity of muslims and became the sole reason for which muslims adapted the two nation theory proposition for a separate homeland for muslims and later achieved it through muhammad ali jinnah’s leadership and determination. his argument can be seen as a triangle which connects islam, muslim identity and partition with each other. he sees everything from the religious perspective. in all his writings, one can see religion islam being the major concern to him it means muslim existence or call it identity and all of the struggle movement for pakistan was made to secure the muslim identity (qasmi, 2018). he has further elaborated on islam that islam is not only one religion but is a social system and social order because it influences human beings in all manner. he writes on the muslim feeling of insecurity which had two forms one was being a minority in india and second learning about the hindu societies. he clearly blames the mughal emperor akbar for the decline of the mughal dynasty and calls emperor aurangzeb a good ruler because he made islam way of life and this actually stopped the mughal empire from declining. on the idea of a separate homeland ishtiaq hussain qureshi says that it was always present in the minds of the muslims. he believed the congress to be a political party for the hindus only which was only promoting the hindu religion and culture and hindu nationalist movements who only aimed to rule india unilaterally. he saw congress friends of the british as the british were biased and unfair with the muslims as compared to the hindus. on struggle for pakistan he is quoted to say “pakistan came into existence as the result of the successful struggle of the muslims of the subcontinent against two imperialisms, british, and hindu” and that “the pakistanis did not receive pakistan on a silver platter”. as previously mentioned to him muslim identity was at danger and of course precious for muslims became the central reason for struggling for a separate homeland which would commit the protection of muslim identity to the muslims. he opposes the british in his writings because for him british exploited the muslims and had sided with the hindus. in summary his argument can be articulated as that the pakistan movement and the all india muslim league the political party of muslims who got united and determined for a separate homeland led to the creation of pakistan. he writes good words for all the muslims who fought against the british rule and the opposing hindu party. to him pakistan did not come easy but was a fruit for all the good and the hard work muslims had done to achieve it under the leadership of muhammad ali jinnah. pakistan is a result of indian muslims sweat. i.h. qureshi is acknowledged for creating the basic historical narrative of pakistan in which all india muslim league role and two nation theory has a huge contribution in making pakistan (qasmi, 2018). ayesha jalal a south asian historian wrote on indo pakistan history saying that pakistan needs to progress and in order to do that pakistanis must unlearn, learn and relearn some new facts on the creation of pakistan. she completely rejects the argument that creation of pakistan had become inevitable and was not something one could avoid and argues in her book struggle for pakistan that it was not the partition that was inevitable but was a political decision taken by the key leaders of aiml and muhammad ali jinnah was leading them. she calls it a conscious decision of choice. she also insists that a lot more scholarship on this topic must be done also its quintessential that we study what the key leading figures of pakistan did in pakistan’s creation in order to have an opinion. ayesha jalal looks at the partition of 1947 as a tragedy as well as challenges the national narrative of pakistan. she blames the scholars who do not look at partition from different angles other than religion, she explains that they are blind folded and must explore the real facts and stories. she says that pakistanis have settled easily for the told truth (national narrative) and that they do not bother themselves to come out of the comfort zone and find logical conclusion to their intuitive questioning. she also states that the academic scholars must not ignore the external factors which were also contributing to the creation of pakistan for instance america, russia and afghanistan. for her critical reasoning is important to reach a solid argument for the creation of pakistan (jalal, 2017). ayesha jalal has widely contested against the curriculum taught in pakistan which is teaching the same nationalistic narrative. the nationalistic narrative of pakistan starts from the two nation theory and ends at the creation of pakistan. she also adds that the textbooks which are being taught in pakistan is producing robots who have stopped thinking and analyzing but it is more like the information downloading only. the history textbooks are all about the islamic ideology, each and every topic of history taught in textbook revolves around the islamic ideology and it causes discomfort to ayesha jalal. she also writes that the confusion in which pakistan is in today and the problems it is facing is primarily because of the basic wrong decisions taken when pakistan was created. she has all her respect for religion but draws a line between religion and state/political affairs. to her religion is personal faith. she observes that pakistan is still confused which political system to choose between the authoritative and the democratic system. she recommends the democratic political system though (jalal, 2017). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 80-88 84 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group another scholar who has a book to her credit is yasmin khan; she does acknowledge the significance of the two nation theory in the indo pakistan divide called the partition. she explains her argument saying that there was huge responsibility on the shoulders of muslim political leaders at that particular time and this decision of partition was sure not an easy one but had to be taken which came with a lot of compromise and sacrifice unfortunately. furthermore, she also claims that it is true that at that time no one could guess what would come out of this decision until partition really happened which was mostly violence and conflict. like ayesha jalal she does not call partition inevitable but says that partition was dependent on how things turned out to be. she adds that oral stories of eye witnesses shall not be taken for granted as those were the people who saw and felt what it actually was, to her while exploring truth on 1947 partition, opinion of such eye witnesses should be a must and should be taken into account. concluding she sums up her argument by saying that after partition results both the side the muslims and the hindus were guilty of it, hence calls it a double-sided story. she also notes that it was the british empire who fought the world war two not the britain in essence (ram, 2017). ayesha jalal wrote mantos biography very confidently. she questions and counterattacks the previous scholarship on partition of the indian subcontinent on basis of religious difference and develops a case in which we are exposed to stories and narratives of individuals, families and communities who survived this partition and makes us pity partition and not make it a success story and celebrate it (jalal, 2013). what scholars negate in the two nation theory is the historical fact when two different nations were living when muslims were ruling india. second, if the two nation theory was to be mobilized, muslims who left behind in india is a big question mark. the foundation on which pakistan was created is the two nation theory. this theory has played its part in making muslims identity although still it’s in liquid form. scholars argue that what was meant by the two nation theory and how meanings have been added to it later is different (ahmed, 2017). 2.3. the two nation theory the two nation theory dates to when islam was introduced in the indian subcontinent; it was the time when muslims and hindus were two nations who were trying to match their religious, political and social interest. this two nation theory as a theory came into the picture after the war of independence of 1857. sir syed ahmed khan is the pioneer of this concept which he argued after experiencing the event of “hindi urdu controversy”. to sir syed ahmed khan theory, allama iqbal gave it a further philosophical interpretation which was put in practice by muhammad ali jinnah to achieve pakistan (chattha, 2019). the two nation theory was preaching that both the two major communities in india namely the muslims and the hindus wanted their own territorial boundaries which they could rule. the reason it was proposed was because both the communities had unmatched religion, social, political and cultural beliefs. the core belief on which pakistan was created is said to be on the two nation theory. it is widely accepted historical narrative that pakistan was created because muslims and hindus were two different nations and could not be united peacefully. the two nation theory primarily means two different nations and to protect the right of both the nations. in the indian subcontinent there were two nations namely the muslims and the hindus. both of these two nations had different religion and culture. the difference of these two religiously, politically and socially different minds gave attestation to the two nation theory which later gave push to start the pakistan movement resulting in pakistan. the definition of the two nation theory seems easy, but it has been subject to misunderstanding of it. muhammad ali jinnah had always stood for hindu muslim unity despite their differences and find a solution to cooperate with each other so they could govern the mother india together. however, his thought and belief changed when in the lahore resolution of 1940 he claimed that muslims and hindus could not be united as singular nation or mutually govern the india on compromises (ali, 2001). the prime definition of two nation theory can be told as a concept where the differences particularly the religious deserved to have a geographical boundary of its own. it can be described as a right of birth of differences. pakistan was first country to build on religion basis. the event of 1971 when east and west pakistan was divided questioned the two nation theory and was explained as that the two nation theory created more differences then uniting the muslims. the two nation theory said to promote religious differences only which was in real creating hatred and intolerance in muslims which made muslims weak and became pitiful. the two nation theory is also said to be providing shelter to muslim elite as they did not want to lose the perks that they were getting from the british. this two nation theory made life vulnerable for billions of muslims who were trying to survive basic food and shelter (ali, 2001). the two nation theory was basically to protect and safeguard muslims identity in the indian subcontinent where they feared hindu domination and wanted to follow their religion freely without any hindrance. so, the demand for pakistan was put forward. ayesha jalal also negated the two nation theory created pakistan narrative by giving example of east and west pakistan divide, she argues that religion could be one reason but was not the only reason for the partition of 1947 to happen (jalal, 2017). according to manto, both the muslims and the hindus suffered the most from this partition event because they both experienced in real the sufferings and called them slaves of partition. he went on explaining what he meant by slaves was that muslims and hindus had become slave of religious passions and slaves of animal instincts and cruelty (jalal, 2013). 2.4. identity the simple definition to understand identity is individuals and communities being recognized by the ethnicity, religion and gender. identity is something to celebrate the culture religion and gender that they belong to. it can be also explained as the minority being different from the majority community. the minorities hold their own history, literature, language, race, ethnicity, religion and gender to create identity. the definition of identity is very basic but very difficult to comprehend in the indian subcontinent history and in creation of pakistan. identity is an accumulation of ethnicity, religion and gender in any community or society. identity gives a right to be different asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 80-88 85 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group from the majority community. the minority community is buying their identity from their history, literature, language, race, ethnicity, religion and gender (kamran, 2018). dr bhimrao ramji ambedkar on identity says that it is not possible for a man to forget his roots and identity in the society where he learns in. ian talbot writes that pakistan has been in search of its identity since long now and still able to define it clearly as one (kamran, 2018). 2.5. the two nation theory and identity analysis history cannot be changed however the future can likely be changed for good. the two nation theory called pakistan a religious state and its identity based on religion islam. however, muslims political leader muhammad ali jinnah emphasized in many occasions that he did not want to have a non secular state or an islamist state. the reason for him to create pakistan was to lift the position of muslims in the indian subcontinent but he never preached muslims growing hostility towards the hindus. the two nation theory has said to define the identity of the muslims. there are some academic scholars who accuse this two nation theory because they think that this idea generates from the top class aristocrats who were representing poor muslim community in india. further, after pakistan being made this very notion was again followed by the military elites, civil, bureaucrats to attain their selfish political interests of gaining power and authority (ahmed, 2017). pakistan is said to have taken a road to religious extremism willingly or unwillingly. what scholars have to say on this is that unfortunately to date pakistan has not been successful in defining national identity in pakistan. there is no government policy to date which defines or dictates it. the most common reason that scholars accuse the government is that, pakistani government has still not drawn a line between where religion ends, and state affairs start. religion has been made the center spectrum and everything is seen from a religious lens (ahmed, 2017). 2.6. sir syed ahmed khan sir syed ahmed khan was a nineteenth century educationist and a reformer. he was the personality who summed up the idea that there were two distinctive communities in india who unmatched in aspects of religion and culture. sir syed ahmed khan was the first person who saw hindu domination when the hindi urdu controversy came in india. this particular event made sir syed ahmed khan guess easily that how hindus had become closer to the british and how easily they convinced the governor of united provinces mr. anthony macdonnel to replace urdu language to hindi as the new official language of british india. this event shook him to the point where he put forward his clear ideas as now we call it the two nation theory .sir syed ahmed khan intelligent thinking and wisdom is what took this two nation theory forward. after the hindi urdu controversy he was convinced that if the british were to quit india the hindus would definitely rule over the muslims and he did not want that considering how glorious muslim past has been (chattha, 2019). sir syed ahmed khan therefore is called the father of the two nation theory. his idea of muslims having a state with their own identity contained became the foundation for the struggle for pakistan and through this idea as a goal for all india muslim league to achieve pakistan became a reality (ikram, 2005). 2.7. allama iqbal allama iqbal was a muslim poet, philosopher and a politician. the time when allama iqbal was born was the time when the mughal period was declining and the british through the east india company had made its way to the indian subcontinent and was establishing a colony. allama iqbal’s interpretation of muslims as one different nation was “nations are based with religion: not with territories. so, we are separate nation because we have our own ideology” which meant that religion defined nation not the geographical boundary and that muslims were a separate nation because they had their own religion and an ideology which was defining the muslim identity which was precious to them more than anything (khurshid, 2017). allama iqbal is called the intellectual marrow of pakistan as his thought that religion could only unite nations. to allama iqbal clearly muslim identity was islam. the slogan which got famous during the pakistan movement was “pakistan ka matlab kya la illahaillalah” which translated his idea of muslims and them being different from the hindus. this slogan meant that that there was no god except for allah and his last prophet who was muhammad (peace be upon him).what allama iqbal wanted was that muslims should have muslim nationalism based on islam without any intolerance and discrimination on history, culture, traditions and ethnicity. common religion islam to him was the gelling agent for muslims to protect their distinctive identity. he wanted muslims to rise and be at power again just like in the past he wanted muslims to gain political power as to regain uniqueness of muslims. what motivation allama iqbal wanted to give to muslims was of pakistan, a separate homeland. he did not stop motivating muslims to be aware of their rights and interests in the indian subcontinent. his educational reforms will be long remembered as this muslim awakening became the beginning of an islamic ideology which was defining the muslim identity (khurshid, 2017). allama iqbal was acknowledged as a politician in his allahabad address in 1930 which is also famously known as the presidential address which put forward the idea of pakistan in which he highlighted the reasons of muslim identity which contrasted with the hindus which could be summarized majorly as religious and cultural differences (khurshid, 2017). 2.8. muhammad ali jinnah muhammad ali jinnah is a well now personality in context of indian subcontinent history. he was an important personality as he led the pakistan movement and achieved pakistan in august 1947 giving muslims a land where they were free to practice their own religion without any fear as well as it gave them sense of pride and security. he was first a party member in the congress but left it after he understood that it was not recognizing muslims as part of india but not even an important subject in politics as well as was more focused in hindu nationalist activities. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 80-88 86 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group muhammad ali jinnah and his politics were considered as a very just one. the reason why his politics was called a very fair one was because he truly did not believe in any kind of prejudice in contrast to hindu leader gandhi who was one of leading leaders of congress political party. gandhi was a staunch hindu nationalist and just because of his proposed hindu policies muhammad ali jinnah quit the congress in 1921 because he thought that his policies were making two communities namely the muslims and hindus away from each other and muhammad ali jinnah did not want that but wanted both the communities to unite. muhammad ali jinnah has said to dislike gandhi’s civil disobedience policies and his support for the khilafat movement which turned off muhammad ali jinnah and made him convince to join the all india muslim league (jalal, 2010). the one quarter of population in the indian subcontinent was of muslims and hindu population being a majority was a threat for muslims as they feared hindu domination. hindu domination clearly meant hindu enforcing their religion, culture, hindi language, traditions and social aspects on muslims. muslims knew that if hindus were to rule they would treat muslims in a bad way. muhammad ali jinnah was a sincere and a very honest advocate for hindu muslim unity but after he witnessed events like the congress ministries, he had to rethink about his ideas and thoughts. later, when mohammad ali jinnah was convinced about the fact that hindus and muslims cannot be united peacefully, mohammad ali jinnah made the two nation theory an agenda for the all india muslim league to achieve which he did (ikram, 2005). even when muhammad ali jinnah was in the all india muslim league he did not leave the idea of hindu muslim unity. he believed that the cooperation between hindu and muslims was a possibility in a peaceful manner. his political dreams were shaken when nehru a leading congress political party member proposed a report which happened to be called the nehru report i which e rejected muslims and minority rights as if muslims did not exist in the indian subcontinent (ikram, 2005). in response to the nehru report muhammad ali jinnah did not sit quietly but put forward his fourteen points which is seen as an important document in light of partition of 1947. his fourteen points had no mention about pakistan or a separate homeland for muslims but displaced hope for hindu muslim unity living peacefully. but, his fourteen points are still acknowledged as it marked a strong case for the indian muslims which led to important future concerns and decisions (ikram, 2005). muhammad ali jinnah and his role in partition is mostly written by two books namely “the sole spokesman” and “jinnah of pakistan” which helps reach to the origins of muslim identity in british india. what muhammad ali jinnah has reported to say about the newly born state pakistan that pakistanis could choice themselves how they would want pakistan to become? if we analyze this from what ayesha jalal wrote in her book the sole spokesperson we can see that in indian subcontinent history there is a lot which muhammad ali jinnah made but there is not much context that made muhammad ali jinnah. she also adds that it operated within the context of muslims in british india while muslims were not very organized and united. muhammad ali jinnah prime goal was to only give protection to the minority from the authority of muslim majority province (jalal, 2010). ayesha jalal also clarifies that muhammad ali jinnah did not want pakistan to be an islamic state however it is true that pakistan was created for indian muslims. on two nation theory she says that this theory was misused by the islamists as an ideological weapon to show that pakistan was an islamic state. another critique of this two nation theory was indian prime minister indhira gandhi who declared the two nation theory dead when east and west pakistan parted in 1971 (jalal, 2010). muhammad ali jinnah was recognized as an undisputed leader by the all india muslim league and the congress in 1939, throughout his political career he has been against muslim separate state because he thought living under one federation would be more advantageous for the muslims but his speech on 1940 depicted his change of mind in which he promised to himself and the muslims for a separate muslim homeland. this idea of making of pakistan was then discussed with gandhi in the famous gandhi jinnah talks (wynbrandt & gerges, 2009). what muhammad ali jinnah had imagined was not india and pakistan being enemy state of each other; he achieved pakistan so that he can give indian muslims political and economic independence from hindu domination which was growing day by day before the partition in 1947. muhammad ali jinnah was fair and just to an extent because the muslims who chose to stay back in india during the partitioned; he advised them to be loyal to their state where they would be living as a muslim community. muhammad ali jinnah in stanley wolpert words "few individuals significantly alter the course of history. fewer still modify the map of the world. hardly anyone can be credited with creating a nation-state. mohammad ali jinnah did all three. hailed as "great leader" (quaid-i-azam) of pakistan and its first governor-general, muhammad ali jinnah virtually conjured that country into state hood by force of his indomitable will." in his book he describes muhammad ali jinnah by calling him the champion of hindu muslim unity as by using best of his abilities and energy he was able to get pakistan. the greatest achievement is being recognized not by muslims but the hindus and earned the title of “ambassador of hindu muslim unity” but this was the time when the circumstances started changing in india where muhammad ali jinnah had to rethink about his politics which was essentially to protect and give security to the rights of the minorities. he in the beginning wanted united bengal which shows that he never wanted partition (wolpert, 2017). 3. conclusion in this research article the focus is placed looking at various historical narratives on indo pakistan partition of 1947. the claimed argument which was explored in the research was that the reason for the creation of pakistan was the two nation theory. what can be concluded in this article is that that two nation theory did have an important role to play in the creation of pakistan but it does not deserve all credit nor sir syed ahmed khan, allama iqbal and muhammad ali jinnah deserves it but was an accumulation of series of events and decisions that were taken by the muslim leaders in undivided india. everything had a part in creating pakistan; it cannot be linked and connected with one figure or a historical event only. i do acknowledge the role of the two nation theory, sir syed ahmed khan, allama iqbal and muhammad ali muhammad ali jinnah in the creation of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 80-88 87 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group pakistan. it is true that all these personalities have been the driving force behind the two nation theory and pakistan’s creation. talking about the differences between the two communities the muslims and the hindus were of religion, the muslims followed a monolithic abrahmic religion of islam worshipping one god, whereas hindus worshipped many deities. the rule of mughal of india spanning a few centuries, created an undercurrent of muslim hindu bias. however it took stronger roots under the tyranny of british east india company’s rule of the subcontinent, which had an inherent bias towards hindus favoring them over muslims based on religious prejudice. when the british came with their east india company, they brought the concept of majority and minority in the indian subcontinent. decline of the mughal empire is also linked with the two nation theory. sir syed ahmed khan has a huge and a significant role in awakening the muslims of the indian sub-continent. he keeps the title of the father of two nation theory because he gave indian muslims direction to follow after realizing the muslim hindu unity was not possible. the most convincing event that he experienced was the hindi urdu controversy which made him decide this and thought that hindus will only grow their hostility towards the muslims. allama iqbal 1930 allahabad address became so famous and significant in the history of indian subcontinent. he saw clear differences between the muslims and the hindus and took ahead sir syed ahmed khans two nation theory and made it the base for the pakistan movement which resulted in pakistan. his allahabad famous address is also known as the presidential address in which he proposed punjab, n.w.f.p, sindh and baluchistan as one state for muslims. he saw the future of india without the british and his short term and long-term solutions both were considered in deciding indian muslims future. allama iqbal detested the fact that how present and future india would be looking like because to him united india (muslims and hindus together in india was poetic) (ikram, 2005). muhammad ali jinnah much later accepted the fact that muslim hindu unity in future india would not be possible and therefore had to come to terms with the proposed and much debated two nation theory among muslim literates and leaders alike. he fought this case of winning a separate homeland from the british who were quitting india as well as the hindus. mohammad ali jinnah claims that muslims were fundamentally different from hindus in every aspect of life. like many nation states who got independence from european imperial and colonial powers of the 20th century, pakistan's struggle is equally mired in various contributing factors, from a unison concept of a muslim homeland, envisaged by its forefathers, sir syed ahmad and allama iqbal and muhammad ali jinnah a fervent ardent believer for independence fought the case of pakistan with its colonial masters and nemesis alike. it is important to highlight that perhaps, a single major narrative of two nation theory was so potent a factor in uniting the entire muslim population of indian subcontinent to demand a separate homeland, of course simultaneously there were many other factors at play, e.g. british exhaustion from world war 2 and post war resurgence of national and ethnic struggles across south and south east asia. from the outset it is fair to acknowledge that muslims of india were truly led by three dynamic leaders sir syed, allama iqbal and muhammad ali jinnah, who contributed to the struggle of independence within their circle of competence. sir syed by giving a stark reminder of social inequality due to lack of education among muslims and allama iqbal by envisaging a separate state for muslims and muhammad ali jinnah by being an ardent chief architect of arguing, negotiating, and safely navigating a creation of a new state from its old masters. pakistan thrives for national identity is a serious concern. pakistan needs to unite pakistanis depicting one identity. some people say that pakistan identity was created when pakistan came into being and some say that pakistan identity was created before pakistan came into being. some scholars have accused muhammad ali jinnah for identity cause because muhammad ali muhammad ali jinnah in his speeches always spoke about pakistan being a secular state. this had divided view amongst people who are living in pakistan. lastly, the article on the two nation theory and creation of pakistan claims that the contours of pakistan cannot be credited to one person or event in fact it is much more complexed. the research shows that there was not only two nation theory involved in creation of pakistan but multiple factors and changing circumstances and political decisions which led to pakistan’s birth. identity definition is not conformed because it is constantly changing to time. identity is always being re defined with changing time and events. to me, the word identity is more like celebration of differences where differences are respected and honored and not made a subject to detest or create hostility for it. ayesha jalal quoted to have said “either you’re giving a pakistani line or you’re giving an indian line, which i think is very problematic in an academic environment” which is so relevant to my context of research study. then in my last few lines i would quote jane elliot who said “we don’t need a melting pot in this country, folks. we need a salad bowl. in a salad bowl, you put in the different things. you want the vegetables – the lettuce, the cucumbers, the onions, the green peppers – to maintain their identity. you appreciate differences.” this is how i would want to end my article. different colors make a rainbow not just one color. the beauty of color is enhanced when it is mixed up with different colors; it produces different shades of color. references ahmed, z. s. (2017). national identity formation in pakistan: analysis of the anti-secular narrative. journal of citizenship and globalisation studies, 1(1), 63-73. available at: https://doi.org/10.1515/jcgs-2017-0006. ali, m. (2001). pakistan in search of identity. delhi: aakar books. chattha, m. k. (2019). the journey of the two-nation theory: from a rights demand to an exclusivist narrative naya daur. retrieved from: https://nayadaur.tv/2019/04/the-journey-of-the-two-nation-theory-from-a-rights-demand-to-an-exclusivist-narrative/. jalal, a. (2017). struggle for pakistan a muslim homeland and global politics: harvard university press. jalal, a. (2013). the pity of partition : manto’s life, times, and work across the india-pakistan divide. princeton, n.j; woodstock, oxfordshire: princeton university press, cop. jalal, a. (2010). the sole spokesman : jinnah, the muslim league, and the demand for pakistan. cambridge cambridgeshire ; lahore: sang-e meel publications. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 80-88 88 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group kamran, t. (2018). why accepting different 'identity groups’ within pakistan is important. [online] herald magazine. retrieved from: https://herald.dawn.com/news/1398642 [accessed 25 mar. 2020]. keen, s. (2018). partition of india – postcolonial studies. [online] emory.edu. retrieved from: https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/postcolonialstudies/2014/06/21/partition-of-india/ [accessed 25 mar. 2020]. khurshid, o. (2017). pakistan ’s identity crisis. stratagem. retrieved from: https://stratagem.pk/diagnosis/pakistans-identity-crisis/. [accessed 25 mar. 2020. m ikram, r. (2005). a comprehensive book of pakistan studies. lahore, pakistan: the caravan book house. qasmi, a. u. (2018). a master narrative for the history of pakistan: tracing the origins of an ideological agenda. modern asian studies, 53(04), 1–40. ram, v. (2017). real stories make situations much less abstract: yasmin khan. the hindu. retrieved from: https://www.thehindu.com/specials/independence-day-india-at-70/real-stories-make-situations-much-less-abstractyasminkhan/article19491694.ece [accessed 25 mar. 2020]. rumi, r. (2011). erasing memory to deal with loss. the hindu. retrieved from: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/erasingmemory-to-deal-with-loss/article2721164.ece [accessed 26 mar. 2020]. shahid, j. b. (1999). pakistan : fifty years of nationhood. boulder, co: westview press. snellinger, a. (2019). pakistan: a political history. asia society. retrieved from: https://asiasociety.org/education/pakistan-politicalhistory [accessed 25 mar. 2020]. wolpert, s. a. (2017). jinnah of pakistan. karachi: oxford university press. wynbrandt, j., & gerges, f. a. (2009). a brief history of pakistan. new york: checkmark books. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.thehindu.com/specials/independence-day-india-at-70/real-stories-make-situations-much-less-abstract-yasminkhan/article19491694.ece http://www.thehindu.com/specials/independence-day-india-at-70/real-stories-make-situations-much-less-abstract-yasminkhan/article19491694.ece http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/erasing-memory-to-deal-with-loss/article2721164.ece http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/erasing-memory-to-deal-with-loss/article2721164.ece 89 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 2, 89-98, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.89.98 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group socio-economic, cultural and family factors causing juvenile delinquency and its consequences in bangladesh: a look for way out md. manjur hossain patoari assistant professor department of law international islamic university chittagong, bangladesh. abstract one of the most severe problems irritating current societies in different countries of the world is juvenile delinquency. juvenile delinquency is a social disease for any country and the problem is more horrendous in bangladesh. it is very much alarming for any country as it ruin the life of the youth generation of a country. as a poor and densely populated country of the third world it is very disastrous for bangladesh as it has direct effects not only on the victim of the crime but also on their family, society and country. like many other countries of the world the trend of juvenile delinquency is rapidly increasing in bangladesh. due to various socio-economic, cultural and family factors both boys and girls of teenagers in bangladesh are getting involved in different types of anti-social activities like drug addiction, drug trafficking, eve-teasing, sexual offences, extortion, swipe, smuggling, criminalized politics and sometimes even involved in murder and several others felonious actions. the main object of this study is to explore the different socioeconomic, cultural and family factors that cause juvenile delinquency in bangladesh and its impacts on the family, society and country and also to provide an avenue to eliminate juvenile delinquency in bangladesh. this study is basically qualitative in nature where data have been collected from secondary source only. for collecting data various national and international journals, books, news paper writing etc. are analyzed. keywords: juvenile delinquency, socio-economic factors, cultural factors, family factors, juvenile justice. jel classification: i25, i28, i30, j12, j13, k14. citation | md. manjur hossain patoari (2020). socio-economic, cultural and family factors causing juvenile delinquency and its consequences in bangladesh: a look for way out. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(2): 89-98. history: received: 30 january 2020 revised: 11 march 2020 accepted: 15 april 2020 published: 8 may 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 90 2. meaning of juvenile delinquency ................................................................................................................................................ 90 3. socio-economic, cultural and family factors causing juvenile delinquency in bangladesh ........................................ 91 4. consequences of juvenile delinquency in bangladesh ............................................................................................................ 94 5. juvenile delinquency and laws of bangladesh.......................................................................................................................... 95 6. way out ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 96 7. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 97 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 97 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.89.98&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1607 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5227-4845 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1607 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5227-4845 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1607 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5227-4845 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 89-98 90 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper makes a unique contribution to the literature of juvenile delinquency in bangladesh. it traces out various factors causing juvenile delinquency in bangladesh and also provides an avenue to eradicate juvenile delinquency in bangladesh. 1. introduction today‘s children are the future leader of a nation. the future development, progress and prosperity of a nation depend on her children. to achieve future goal, a nation must be concern about the life of her youth generation. one of the most important objects of a country is her children who will lead the nation in future. if a nation cannot convert her children into human resources in true sense by proper care, guidance, education and proper technical training, the real development of that nation in future in any sector is quite impossible. juvenility is an important transitional period of development from infancy to majority as during this period biological as well as emotional changes take place in the life of a child. to involve juvenile in the formation of the nation the first condition is that juvenile must be free from crime. to build the life of a child family is the first and primary institution which has tremendous ascendency on child. by proper care, guidance and teaching family especially the parents can play a vital role in the physical, mental, social, cultural, ethical and spiritual development of a child. due to rapid revolutionary biological as well as emotional changes the period of juvenility is full of anxieties, worries, variances and complications and as their mental faculties are not mature enough cannot take the right decision in life and frequently involve in anti-social activities and become delinquent. ―a delinquent young person is disobedient and wayward, runs away from home and school, cannot be controlled by parents and teachers, is not amenable to any kind of discipline, is self-willed and habitually acts in a manner injurious to the welfare and happiness of others and himself‖ (rathinabalan & naaraayan, 2017). as parent‘s life style, practices and teaching has direct impact on the life of the children (hoeve et al., 2009) proper education, teaching, guidance and care of the family can play an exigent role in the physical and mental development of a children. beside these, socio-economic, cultural, political situation, environment, law and order situation of the country has impact on the nature and behaviors of the people of the country especially on teenagers. naturally with increasing the age the mental faculties of the juveniles mature gradually and acquire decision making ability regarding various issues relating to their life like social, economical, educational, cultural and political but difficulties arise when they involve in any kind of antisocial activity due to various reasons. crime and age are closely connected as rate of criminality is high among the juveniles and falls with increasing age (ahmad, 2017). one of the major disasters of society occurs when adolescents involve in social disorderliness in any ways other than social norms and values (mehtab, 2008). due to variation of social, economical, cultural, educational, religious teaching, family conflict, law and order situation of the country, environment and political situation the rate of juvenile delinquency is different from state to state. bangladesh as one of the densely populated countries of the world, juvenile delinquency rate is normally higher than many countries. day by day women are being involved in economic activities more and most of the time of the day they have to stay outside of the house as a result a mother being the primary and best teacher of her children cannot play remarkable role in the physical and mental development of the children. moreover, due to urbanization and industrialization day by day the rate of juvenile delinquency is increasing rapidly in the country (mehtab, 2008) which deviate the attention of the youth generation of the country from their main task i.e. education, healthcare, sports, cultural activities, religious teaching, social and humanitarian activities. delinquent juveniles involves themselves more in antisocial activities than positive actions which destroy their prospective career and that have pushed them into darkness in there exists (alamgir, rahim, & ali, 2018). juveniles are the most sensitive section of a country and their response towards any antisocial activities is very fast and sometimes due to more pressure and try to extra control the juveniles lead them to get involved themselves in culpable actions (chowdhury, khan, & uddin, 2012). as one of the root causes of adult criminality is juvenile delinquency, it is a matter of great concern for bangladesh because at present approximately 40 million children in bangladesh age 5 to 17 years and among them almost 550,000 are drug addicted (noman, 2018) and some of them are involved in picketing, drug trafficking, arms trafficking, human trafficking, eve-teasing and other petty criminal activities. some of them are involve more heinous offences like sexual violence, political violence, extortion, robbery, kidnapping, acid throwing and murder. children from poor families as well as rich and aristocratic families are involved in criminal activities (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). according to the constitution of the peoples‘ republic of bangladesh it is the duty of the state to adopt appropriate measures for the protection of the women, children and backward section of the country. the government of bangladesh especially through the ministry of social welfare performing various functions to ensure adequate protection of the juveniles and also to refrains from doing antisocial activities. to fulfill the mandate of the constitution and the united nations convention on the rights of the children, 1989 and also to fulfill the directions of the apex court given in the cases of the state vs the secretary, ministry of law, justice and parliamentary affairs 59 dlr 72 (2007) and the state vs the secretary, ministry of law, justice and parliamentary affairs 29 bld 3 (2016) the government has enacted the children act, 2013 (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). but due to lack of proper identifying measures, counseling and planning to rehabilitate the delinquent juveniles all efforts has failed (ferdousi, 2013). to ensure the future development of the country by protecting the youth generation from delinquency, juvenile delinquencies have to be control through proper initiatives. 2. meaning of juvenile delinquency the term ‗juvenile delinquency‘ is composed of the words juvenile and delinquency. juvenile means a child who has not attained the age of majority according to the law to which he or she is a subject or the child who has not attained an age at which he or she like a major under the law can be held liable for his or her felonious activities or the person who is not measured as sufficient matured both physically and mentally to understand the nature and consequences of his or her own activities. delinquency means antisocial activities or those activities which do not permit by the existing laws of the country or not obeying the rules and regulations of the country or involve in criminal activities. ―the term delinquency has been derived from the latin world ‗delinquer’ meaning to ‗omit‘. the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 89-98 91 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group roman used the term to refer the failure of a person in case of performing assigned duty or task. it was in 1484 when william coxton used the term ‗delinquent‘ to describe a person found guilty of customary offence. the word also found place in the famous shakespearean play ‗macbeth‘ in the year 1605. indeed, in ordinary sense, delinquency is a form of behavior or rather misbehavior or deviation from the commonly accepted norms or conduct in the society‖ (chingtham, 2015). it refers those behaviors of children and adolescents which do not approve the country and for which there is a provision of punishment for public interest. it also covers antagonistic and disobedient behavior of adolescents and their malignant attitude towards society. when any criminal activity is committed by an adolescent i.e. who has not attained the age of eighteen years is treated as juvenile delinquency. simply, participating in any illegal behavior or committing any act forbidden by the law of the country by an adolescent is called juvenile delinquency and the adolescent is called delinquent. sometime some non-criminal activities of adolescents are also treated as juvenile delinquency which will not be treated as crime if committed by an adult like leave home without permission of the parents, smoking (phogat, 2017). ―a child can be considered as delinquent only when it becomes necessary to take legal steps for the tendency of his antisocial behavior. according to the definition of criminologist ferdinand ‗the failure of the children to show expected behavior to the society is called juvenile delinquency‖ (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). delinquent children belong to that category of exceptional children who show considerable digression in terms of their social adjustment and are consequently also labeled as socially deviant. they violate social norms and values which are threat for the maintenance of peace in the society and which if not control properly in time may turn into potential offenders. figure-1. conceptual framework of juvenile delinquency in bangladesh. figure 1 shows various factors of causing juvenile delinquency in bangladesh and its consequences. 3. socio-economic, cultural and family factors causing juvenile delinquency in bangladesh the trend of juvenile delinquency exists from the very beginning of human civilization. its rate is not same in countries of the world. it may be different from state to state or form society to society due to the difference of socio-economic condition, culture, environment and family pattern. in bangladesh juvenile delinquency exists from the very beginning of the establishment of the country but currently it has reached in such a level that it is a matter of great concern for the country. the different socio-economic, cultural and family factors causing juvenile delinquency in bangladesh are discussed below: 3.1. social factors society is that institution for a child which has significant role for the physical, mental and moral development of a child. it can also prevent a child from deviant. a child get first and primary teaching from the family and secondly from the society. ―the social forces in the form of the social norms and values affect significantly the behavior of the child. moral degradation, social deviance, immoral practices, others negative values and norms prevalent in the society are the negative impact on the attitude of the adolescents thereby contributing them to become delinquent‖ (chingtham, 2015). when a child born with antisocial personality disorder normally he or she will be grow up in an abnormal environment which lead the child to deviate from social norms and values. a minor who is not intelligence enough or who is not mature enough cannot j udge what is good or bad for him and is influenced more by the prevailing bad practices or customs of the society and is in the high risk to involve in the delinquent activities. various social factors contributing in the juvenile delinquency in bangladesh are: i. lack of opportunity of education: education and criminality has a connection i.e. where the rate of education is high criminality rate is low there and where the education rate is low criminality rate is high. lack of opportunity of education is one of the leading factors causing juvenile delinquency in any asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 89-98 92 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group society. the result of lack of opportunity of education may be extreme anxiety, frustration and idleness among children which encourage the teenager to involve in antisocial activities (mwangangi, 2019). lack of opportunity of education includes high cost of education, insufficient school or long distance from school, insufficient materials, abuse in the school, low quality of teaching and absent of teachers etc. though the government of bangladesh has declared free and compulsory education for all children but still a considerable portion of the children (street children, vagabond children, children staying in railway station, bus terminal and launch ferries, guardian less children) are out of this program. this portion of the children is a threat for the society and most of them are involved in various antisocial activities. ii. drug abuse and availability of drug: drug abuse is one of the major contributing factors of causing juvenile delinquency in bangladesh. it has negative impacts on children which causes deviation of children from social norms and values. drug addiction give birth criminality in the society as the behavior of an drug addicted child is very desperate, he do not have common sense like intoxicated person and he is out of control of the family and to arrange money to buy drugs sometimes he physically torture the family members and involve in various criminal activities like theft, robbery and extortion etc. drug addiction reduces cognitive ability of children, diminish their thinking capacity and limit their capacity for compromise and for rational dialogue (mwangangi, 2019). availability of drugs is also liable for increasing juvenile delinquency in the country. when drug is easily available soft minded innocent children without understanding the consequences addicted into drugs and sometimes some corrupted person involves in drug trafficking use the innocent children which ultimately causes juvenile delinquency. in bangladesh still drug is available though the law enforcing agencies are trying their level best to abolish drug trafficking and illegal drug business from the country. iii. child abuse and cruelty towards children: ―child abuse is the deliberate attack on a child by a parent or other care givers which results into physical, psychological and emotional injuries‖ (ojo, 2012). cruelty towards the children makes them deviators, reckless and the neglected and abused children are at high risk to become delinquent at adolescence and become criminal adult (ojo, 2012). iv. environment: environment i.e. healthy and hygienic environment is one of the essential elements for the physical as well as mental development of a child. a considerable portion of children grow up in slum which is not healthy and hygienic and such living environment is not at all suitable for the physical development and mental growth of a child. due to the shortage of land of the country sometimes people have to live in industrial area which is not good for health. environment of industrial areas and slum of bangladesh can never brings good lesson for juveniles and influence them to involve in criminal activities. due to dirty, unhygienic and nasty environment in the slum and industrial areas of bangladesh male as well as female delinquents are increasing rapidly which is an alarming for the country (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). if the residential area is healthy and hygienic, free from racket and crime and effective for the physical development and mental progress of the children, the rate of juvenile delinquency will be reduced dramatically. v. influence by sibling and friends: younger siblings always influence by the older siblings and try to follow them. older siblings who are involved in antisocial activities may easily draw their younger siblings into same kind of activities (ojo, 2012). school is an institution where children from various family backgrounds meet, interact and influence one another. sometimes due to mischief some children fails to acquire proper knowledge from school to build up their moral development and to increase their educational qualities and may eventually become delinquents due to the interaction of naughty children. siblings‘ and friends‘ violence is an encouraging factor of juvenile delinquency in bangladesh. 3.2. economic factors economic conditions play a vital role to increase juvenile delinquency in the society. economic problem is still a big challenge for bangladesh. bangladesh is a developing country of the world which facing various problems but economic problem is the main problem in fact number one problem of the country. when a child does not get basic necessities from the family he become depressed, bored and frustrated which leads him to pick wrong way and involve in criminal activities (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). ―if a child feels that he has no food to eat, and his ego is about to be tainted in the society, and his neighborhood is charming, so strong as compare to his family set up, here the teenage can feel the idea to get wealthy, so most of the time he chooses the wrong way because of an individual, it is impossible to be wealthy in a short time. in this condition, the person joins the gang group and become delinquent‖ (alamgir et al., 2018). various social factors contributing in the juvenile delinquency in bangladesh are: i. poverty: poverty is the root cause of social problems in bangladesh. poverty and delinquency is intimately connected. an area where poverty rate is high delinquency rate is also high there (mwangangi, 2019). inability of family to provide certain basic needs such as food, clothing, health and education has signification contribution in the juvenile delinquency (birckhead, 2012). due to extreme poverty many children in bangladesh cannot complete even primary education and have to work to contribute financially in family. it increases child labor in the country. child labor is one of the major factors that drive juvenile delinquency in bangladesh (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). most of the cases juvenile delinquents work hard (islam, 2015) to lead their life and some of them are involve in heinous crime like robbery, extortion, hijacking, pick pocketing, smuggling and even commit murder (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). ii. unemployment: another major problem in bangladesh is unemployment. when active persons search for work but do not get due to shortage of employment problem in the country then they suffer from mental depression and frustration which creates social chaos and criminality in the society and the children of the family involve in criminal activities. when the parents especially father cannot fulfill the demand of the family and children then he cannot distinguish right and wrong rather he try to earn asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 89-98 93 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group money in any way as a result sometimes he involve in illegal drug business and engage his family and children (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). many families live in slum, near railway line as floating and industrial areas in bangladesh involve in illegal activities especially drug trafficking and selling to earn their livelihood and engage their innocent children. of course sometimes people having other opportunities involve in illegal activities and engage their family and children which not only create criminality in the society but also increase juvenile delinquency. iii. natural disasters: almost every year bangladesh especially coastal areas have to face natural disasters which destroy many human lives, cattle, animals, crops and natural resources. every year natural disasters like cyclone (sidr, aila etc.), river erosion and collapse of mountains pauperize many families and getting no other ways people migrant from rural areas to urban areas to survive. due to natural disaster people losing homeland and all wealth of the life become mendicant and to earn livelihood involve any activities without considering legal or illegal and also engage their teenage children which increase juvenile delinquency in bangladesh. moreover, children of these families are sometimes abused by some corrupt politicians. 3.3. cultural factors culture covers social behavior and norms of society as well as knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities and habits of the individuals live in the society. culture of a society has influence on the children. if the culture of a society is good children achieve good things and if the culture is not good children cannot achieve good thing from that society. due to industrialization, urbanization, change of family pattern, influence of social media like facebook, whatsapp, instagram, imo and indian tv channel many joint families of bangladesh has broken and people want to live isolate as a result people leaving own culture follow some unjust foreign culture which has direct negative impact on children. due to diminish of own culture and the impact of foreign bad culture many children in bangladesh are getting involve in various criminal activities such as smoking, drug trafficking, drug business, snatching, extortion, robbery and massacre (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). beside these, due to the influence of cinema and some bad movies and tv serials sometime many children try to practice antisocial activities which ultimately increase juvenile delinquency in the country. illiteracy is another factor causing juvenile delinquency in bangladesh. a considerable portion of the people of the country is illiterate and the illiterate people cannot realize the necessities of education in human life and most of the cases they are not serious rather incurious regarding education of their children as a result many children cannot continue their education more and dropped out of school. most of the cases family cannot control these children and involve in antisocial activities which eventually increase criminality in the society. 3.4. family factors family is the first and best institution from where children learn their basic learning. for the physical, mental and moral development of a child the role of family is most important. parents are not only the best teacher for their children but also an influential component to protect them from rising malfeasance (miles, kulesza, ewing, shih, & tucker, 2015). ―families serve several important functions within society, including socialization, economic support, nurturing, protection of vulnerable members and perpetuating the family grouping‖ (patterson, 2002) and also provide physical and emotional security to the children along with their all other basic necessities (mwangangi, 2019). family protection is a recipe for the development of skills and talents, physical growth and cognitive and emotional development of children. the role of family is very significant to engraft norms and values within children (mwenda, 2012) as if the attitude and behavior of the parents is antisocial their children hearten such behavior and attitudes to keep on into adulthood (chaffin et al., 2004). due to lack of proper family teaching, control and guidance juvenile delinquency is increasing in bangladesh. various family factors contributing in the juvenile delinquency in bangladesh are: i. broken family: family broken is one of the major problems of bangladesh. recently it has increased in such a level that it is a matter of great concern for bangladesh. bridegroom, bride and offspring all are affected by family broken. it has many adverse effects on family, society, bride, bride groom and mainly on the offspring (patoari, 2020). when a family is broken the women and her children become more vulnerable and they are not respected in society and even parental family of the women and the neglected children are inspired more in criminal activities. family broken is linked with juvenile delinquency as children from broken families involve in juvenile delinquency more than the children from non broken families (nourollah, fatemeh, & farhad, 2015). when there is a stable marriage between parents children are able to enjoy the best preparation and advantages for the success and happiness of the life (wardle, 2004). parental divorce places the children at the high risk of criminality. the rate of unemployment, drop out of school and sexual violence and other antisocial activities is more among the children of broken families or one-parent families than non broken or two-parent families (weijer, thornberry, bijleveld, & blokland, 2015). in bangladesh when a family is broken then most of the cases the children live with mother who has to face various problems including financial problem and when she got second marriage the children grow up under guidance of maternal or paternal relatives like grandmother, grandfather etc. and most cases due to proper care and guidance prospective career of the children destroy and they involve various antisocial activities like smoking, escape from school, drug addiction etc. which eventually increasing juvenile delinquency in the country. recently in bangladesh the rate of family broken has reached in extreme level and sometimes on flimsy ground many families are broken which creates various problem in the society like child labour, child trafficking, drug addiction, sexual violence which ultimately liable for increasing juvenile delinquency in the country. ii. lack of parents supervision: parents are the best supervisors and guide of the children. to build a child as a successful man in life by proper education the monitoring, guidance, love, care, control and rule of parents are unlimited. family is the primary enculturation agent for the children to develop asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 89-98 94 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group their moral values and ethical standards (kemme, hanslmaier, & pfeiffer, 2014) and if the family cannot play proper role they may be deviated. day by day in bangladesh women are being educated and with men they are involving in economic activities more(patoari., 2020) especially in garments sector as a result they have to stay most of the time of the day out of the house and cannot look after their children properly and due to lack of proper monitor and supervision children of these families involve various antisocial activities which ultimately increasing juvenile delinquency in the country. iii. parents conflict: parents conflict is another family factor increasing juvenile delinquency in bangladesh. conflict between husband and wife not only lead to nuptial breakdown but also parents‘ loss of love, care and affection and emotional avoidance of their children (alnasir & al-falaji, 2016). children from the families having conflict between their parent are more troublesome and delinquent and more than ninety percent of the delinquents from unhappy families (ojo, 2012). due to various social, economic and cultural reasons day by day tolerance level between husband and wife in bangladesh is decreasing which is one the key factors of family conflict in bangladesh. if there is a conflict between parents children suffer from depression, frustration and become uncontrolled and due to frustration they involve in immoral activities which increasing juvenile delinquency in the country day by day. iv. cruelty towards children: mind of the children is very soft and they easily imitate anything. family member especially parents are the best friends of a child. family environment and behavior of the parents have impact on children. to develop healthy personality of children love, care, affection, good behavior and positive family environment is pre requisite and in the absence of which they may be acrimonious, fretful and may revolt against parents, escape from family and as a result involve in various criminal activities (mwangangi, 2019). children having experience of mistreatment, neglect, rejection and abuse by the parents and family members are at high risk of involving delinquency (ryan, williams, & courtney, 2013).many parents in bangladesh are illiterate and incognizant do not know how to treat the children. due to rude behave and cruelty many children in bangladesh deviate from social norms and rules. 4. consequences of juvenile delinquency in bangladesh juvenile delinquency is one of the major problems in bangladesh. it has various negative impacts on the delinquents, family of the delinquents, society and country. almost 550,000 children in the country are drug addicted (noman, 2018) and about thirty percent (30%) of them are involved in various criminal activities to manage money to buy drugs (khan & tipu, 2016). the juvenile delinquency in bangladesh in such a level that it has already become a matter of great concern of the country and if it is not control by proper initiatives the country have to pay high price for it. ―around 44% of the street children in the country are involved in drug peddling, 35% are involved in picketing, 12% in mugging, 11% in human trafficking and 21% in other criminal activities‖ (khan & tipu, 2016). the consequences of juvenile delinquency in bangladesh are: 4.1. drop out of school and destroy prospective career of children the first sufferer of juvenile delinquency is the delinquent himself. when a child involve in juvenile delinquency it causes mental distortion of the child and he cannot continue his study more as a result he drops out of school which ultimately destroy the prospective career of the child and also destroy the dream, hopes and aspiration of the family regarding him. due to juvenile delinquency, hard labor of many parents going in vain and the children do not become asset rather become burden of the family and society. 4.2. destroy the peace of the family: when a child becomes delinquent he does not follow the rules, regulations and guidance of the family. he leads unsystematic life and family or society cannot control him. due to his promiscuous life delinquent child creates various problems in the family and sometimes physically torture family members and even parents which not only destroy the peace of the family but also destroy the reputation of the family and people belittle the family members. 4.3. increase criminality juvenile delinquency is the root of adult criminality. due to juvenile delinquency children at their adult age become heinous offender. juvenile delinquency in bangladesh is increasing various criminal activities in the country and sometimes children are committing heinous crimes like ―oishee rahman, a 17 year old girl who killed her parents, police inspector mahfuzurrahman and swapnarahman on 18th august 2013, when her parents had taken her mobile phone‖ (patoari, 2020) and for this murder trial court sentenced to death penalty to oishee rahman but the high court division of bangladesh supreme court commuted her sentence to life imprisonment (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). another one is tasfia murder case. tasfia, a student of class ix of sunshine grammar school and college, chittagong, age 16 years who went on a date with her boyfriend adnan mirza, a student of class ix of bangladesh elementary school on may 01, 2018 and on may 02, 2018 her dead body was found at the naval road area, chattogram (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). father of the victim filed a case against six accused including main accused her boyfriend adnan mirza. the victim and her boyfriend introduced each other through social media. in chattogram metropolitan area many gangs of juvenile involved in various criminal activities (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). 4.4. increase drug addiction and drug trafficking drug addiction, drug trafficking and illegal business of drug is a problem in bangladesh. though the government is zero tolerance in this regard and the law enforcing agencies are frequently performing successful operation to eradicate illegal drug business and drug trafficking still it is available which is destroying the youth generation of the country. delinquent juveniles of the country are mostly involved in drug addiction and drug trafficking. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 89-98 95 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.5. slow overall development of the country juvenile delinquency is an obstacle in the development of the country. when the youth generation of a country is involved in antisocial activities they cannot play proper role for the social progress and economic, cultural and educational development of the country. delinquent children cannot become human resources rather becomes a burden of the country and involve in various antisocial activities. if the young generation of a country cannot become successful men in life by acquiring proper knowledge and education they never can give good thing to the country which ultimately slow overall development of the country. 4.6. destroy the culture juvenile delinquency also destroys the culture of a country. delinquent juveniles do not follow rules, regulation, social norms and customs of the country. as they are disobedient they do not religious direction and they lead their life as they like. by avoiding the existing customs, culture, social norms they practice outlandish customs and culture which ultimately destroy the culture of the country. they also do not follow the religious directions. 5. juvenile delinquency and laws of bangladesh to govern the juvenile justice system in bangladesh there is no separate law (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). beside the constitution of bangladesh, parliament enacted a law immediately after the independence of the country known as the children act, 1974 which was the fundamental law to deal with children. in 2013 bangladesh enacted a new law known the shishu ain 2013 (the children act, 2013) to implement the united nations convention on the rights of children and the new law repeal the children act, 1974. this new law is the fundamental law in bangladesh ―dealing with children rights, delinquent children, their correction mechanism and separate justice system from adult offenders‖ (chowdhury. & fahim, 2019). 5.1. constitution of the people’s republic of bangladesh constitution as the supreme law of the country protected all citizen form any kinds of discrimination, injustice and cruelty. article 15 of the constitution imposed duty on state to take appropriate measures to ensure social security of the citizens and article 17 imposed duty on the state to adopt effective measures to ensure free and compulsory education for all citizen. all are equal before law, equal opportunity for all and right to protection of law has ensured under article 27, 19 and 31. article 28 has given authority to the state to adopt special provision in favor of women, children and backward section of citizens. fundamental rights have guaranteed under part-iii i.e. from article 26 to 47a. article 44 has given right to the citizens to enforce their fundamental rights through article 102 of the constitution when their fundamental rights are violated. 5.2. the children act, 2013 the children act, 2013 section 4 define that all persons who has not attained 18 (eighteen) years shall be treated as children. the government shall appoint in every district, upazilla and metropolitan area one or more probation officers who shall (where applicable) meet with children and shall provide assurance of all sorts of facilitation if a child is brought to the police station and shall identify the reason of bringing of police station and finds out the parents or other guardian of the children. the government shall establish children welfare board at national, district and upazill level under the supervision of the ministry of social welfare and children affairs desk shall be set up in all police stations to maintain separate registration of children case and to inform the probation officer, parents or other guardian of the children and also to take necessary steps for all basic needs including medical assistance if necessary. there shall be at least one or more children‘s court in every district headquarter which shall composed of by an additional district judge to try the offences committed by any child and the court shall have same power and perform same jurisdiction like session court and if there is no children‘s court in any district, district and session judge shall discharge the duties of children‘s court in addition to his normal duties. the room or building of the children‘s court shall be separate and at the time of trial of a child no lawyer, police or court staffs can wear their official uniform and the court shall consider the age, character, socio-cultural and family background of the children. any child below 9 (nine) years can never be arrested or detained. when a child is arrested, the police officer executing the arrest shall immediately inform the children affairs police officer the causes and place of arrest, the allegation brought against the child and shall record in file the age of the child and after arrest no child shall be hand-cuffed or tied up with rope or cord around the waist. the concern officer shall inform immediately to the parents or other legal guardian of the child, the probation officer and the nearest board (in case of necessity) regarding the arrest. in case of any investigation under this act the provision of the code of criminal procedure, 1898 shall be applicable so far as possible. the parents or legal guardian of the children and the probation officer or the social worker shall remain present during the record of the statement of the children by the children affairs police. for the better interest of the children or to settle the dispute, after arrest or detention of a child, diversion may be undertaken at any stage of the proceeding instead of formal trial. whatever stated in any other law for the time being enforce or the code of criminal procedure, 1898 or other section of this act, after the arrest of any child if it is not possible to release the child or send him to diversion or produce before the court, the children affairs police may release him on bail with or without surety to the custody of the parents or other legal guardian of the child or the probation officer and in this regard it will not be considered whether the offence is bailable or non-bailable. when a child is produce before children‘s court, the court may release him on bail or order to detain in safe home or children development centre. without legal representation on behalf of the child, no children‘s court shall try any case to which a child is connected and in every hearing the lawyer of the child mandatorily shall remain present and if the lawyer is unable to conduct the case, the proceeding of the case shall remain postpone until new lawyer is appointed. the government shall establish and maintain required number of children development centers, based gender disaggregation for accommodation, correction and development of the children ordered to be detained in judicial proceedings and for asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 89-98 96 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the children under trial. the act also contained provision of punishment for special offences in respect of children which may be up to 5 (five) years or fine up to 1 (one) lac taka or both. 5.3. the code of criminal procedure, 1898 the code of criminal procedure, 1898 creates an obstruction in the way of joint trial of juvenile and adult offenders (noman, 2018). section 29b states all offences other than offence punishable with death or imprisonment for life is committed by any person who has not attained 15 (fifteen) years may be tried by chief judicial magistrate or chief metropolitan magistrate or any magistrate specially by the government. according to section 392 in case of infliction of whipping on a person who has not attained 16 (sixteen) years the instruments, mode of infliction and the part of the body of that person for infliction shall be determined by the government. section 399 if any criminal court sentenced imprisonment for any offence to a person who has not attained 15 (fifteen) years, the court may order to confine the offender in reformatory centre instead of being imprisoned in criminal jail. section 497 empowered the court that in case of non-bailable offence, the court may grant bail if the accused is under 16 (sixteen) years to a woman or sick or infirm person. 5.4. the penal code, 1860 according to section 82 whatever done by a child who has not attained 9 (nine) years, is not an offence and section 83 states ―nothing is an offence which is done by a child above nine years of age and under twelve, who has not attained sufficient maturity of understanding to judge of the nature and consequences of his conduct on that occasion‖. 6. way out the future development of a nation is completely depends on it children. if the children are deviated ultimately it destroys the whole nation. a considerable portion of total population of bangladesh is children and day by day juvenile delinquency is becoming an alarming issue of the country. as the juvenile delinquency is the root of adult criminality, so if the juvenile delinquency is not prevented in bangladesh timely by proper initiatives it will destroy the youth generation of the country. the juvenile delinquency in bangladesh can be prevented by taking the following measures: i. free and compulsory education: though the government of bangladesh has declared free and compulsory primary education for all children and working very hard to success this program but still a considerable portion of the children especially the street children are out of this program. government is supplying free text book up to secondary level and giving various stipend. but it is not sufficient to ensure education of all children of the country. the educational materials are very expensive which poor people cannot afford. the government should increase allocation in national budget in education sector and have to give subsidy in educational materials. to include all the children of the country in free and compulsory education program government should give stipend especially to the children of the poor family and street children and have to create awareness among them and monitor properly so that not a single child is deprive from education. if the government can ensure free and compulsory education for all children of the country up to higher secondary level, juvenile delinquency will be reduced dramatically in the country. ii. control of drug abuse and drug trafficking: control of drug abuse and drug trafficking is a big challenge for bangladesh. to eliminate juvenile delinquency form the country there is no alternative of control of drug abuse and drug trafficking. street children, orphan, children from poor family and children from broken family are mostly involve in juvenile delinquency and in the long run become habitual offender. to control drug abuse and drug trafficking government should implement the existing laws rigidly and have to create massive awareness among the people and in this regard beside the government ngos, print and electronic media can play a vital role. iii. elimination of poverty: poverty is linked with juvenile delinquency and to control juvenile delinquency in bangladesh poverty should be eliminated by proper initiatives. to eliminate the poverty government should encourage small and medium entrepreneurs and for this reason loan should be given to the young and energetic people on easy term and low rate of interest and should give special allocation for the people living under poverty line and there must have proper management of the allocation. to remove unemployment problem new job opportunity should be created and the government should encourage the people on work-oriented education. training should be given to the educated young and energetic people on various practical matters and after completion of training they should be given loan on easy term and low rate of interest. iv. avoid family conflict: as family conflict is directly liable for juvenile delinquency to reduce juvenile delinquency parents should avoid family conflict. due to various reasons family conflict has increased in bangladesh which directly increasing juvenile delinquency in the country. before involving family conflict or taking any decision like divorce or separation parents should think regarding the future of their children. both the parents have to avoid their ego problem and have to increase their tolerance level and should sacrifice many things only considering the vulnerability of the life of their children. v. increase family supervision: lack of supervision of the family is liable for juvenile delinquency in bangladesh in many cases. parents especially illiterate and unconscious and where both of the parents are working cannot supervise their children properly. parents have to care and supervise their children properly especially they have to take care where their children are going, when they are coming home, where and with whom they are passing their time and who are the friends of their children. vi. proper natural disaster management: there must have sufficient allocation in national budget for the people affected by the natural disaster especially to resettle the people who become pauper by losing all wealth of the life due to natural disaster like cyclone (sidr, aila etc.). there must have effective national disaster management which shall be composed of efficient and expert people. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 89-98 97 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group vii. avoidance of foreign culture: foreign culture especially indian tv channel and various social media are also liable to increase family conflict and juvenile delinquency in bangladesh. government should control strictly foreign tv channel and the parents must care so that their children are not addicted in social media. viii. proper implementation of the children act, 2013: though the government enacted the children act, 2013 by abolishing the old law i.e. the children act, 1974 but still it is not completely implemented. government must fulfill the requirements of the act i.e. must be established ―children affairs desk‖ in all the police station of the country headed by a child affairs police officer, appoint the probation officer, sufficient number of juvenile court, safe home, children development centre. ix. social awareness: social awareness program must be introduced among the children and illiterate and unconscious parents regarding the negative impacts of juvenile delinquency as well as drug addiction, addiction of social media and foreign culture. moreover, parents and other family members, society and the country have to be more conscious and concerned about the teenagers. 7. conclusion juvenile delinquency is a common phenomenon in many countries of the world. but due to variation of social, economic, cultural, educational, religious teaching, family conflict, law and order situation of the country, environment and political situation the rate of juvenile delinquency is different from state to state. in a developing country like bangladesh which is one of the densely populated countries of the world, juvenile delinquency rate is normally higher than many countries. due to poverty, illiteracy, lack of awareness, drug trafficking and availability of drug, unemployment, natural disaster, high rate of family conflict and divorce, lack of supervision of parents, cruelty towards children, avoidance of religious direction, effect of foreign culture and social media, the rate of juvenile delinquency in bangladesh has reached in such a level that it has become a matter of great concern. moreover, due to urbanization and industrialization day by day the rate of juvenile delinquency is increasing rapidly in the country which deviate the attention of the youth generation of the country from their main task i.e. education, healthcare, sports, cultural activities, religious teaching, social and humanitarian activities. as there is rapid revolutionary biological as well as emotional changes, the period of juvenility is full of anxieties, worries, variances and complications and as their mental faculties are not mature enough cannot take the right decision in life and frequently involve in anti-social activities and become delinquent. as one of the root causes of adult criminality is juvenile delinquency, it is a matter of great concern for bangladesh because at present a considerable portion of total children are involve in various criminal activities like drug addiction, drug trafficking, picketing, arms trafficking, human trafficking, eve-teasing and other petty criminal activities. some of them are involve more heinous offences like sexual violence, political violence, extortion, robbery, kidnapping, acid throwing and murder. juvenile delinquency has various negative impacts on the delinquents, family, society and country. it destroys the prospective career of a child, destroys family peace, increases drug addiction, drug trafficking and other criminal activities in the society, destroys overall development of the country and creates unrest in the family and society. in bangladesh children from poor families as well as rich and aristocratic families are involved in criminal activities. to get relief from this anathema and to protect the young generation of the country the above mentioned measures should be taken immediately and in this regard beside the government ngos, civil societies, print and electronic media, educational and religious institutions can play a vital role. references ahmad, r. 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(2004). children and the future of marriage. regent university law review, 17(2), 279—310. weijer, s. g. a., thornberry, t., bijleveld, c. c. j. h., & blokland, a. a. j. (2015). the effects of parental divorce on the intergenerational transmission of crime. societies, 5(1), 89—108.available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/soc5010089. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 39 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 1, 39-52, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.39.52 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group factors influencing the uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality, meru county in kenya dominic m. ndeke1 stephen w. luketero2 chandi j. rugendo3 ( corresponding author) 1,3department of extra mural studies, university of nairobi, nairobi, kenya. 2school of mathematics, university of nairobi, kenya. abstract the main objective of the study was to investigate the factors influencing the uptake of internet connectivity among meru municipality residents. this study, therefore, examined the following factors affecting the uptake of internet connectivity: bandwidth speed, cost of internet, advertisement, and literacy levels. data was analyzed using spss. one of the key findings was the high price of internet subscriptions was one of the most hindrance factors to internet accessibility by a majority of youths and even adults. the advertisement found as the second influencing factor, with the majority of respondents feeling much has to be done by internet providers to reach potential customers. considering the population sample had 98 percent o level of education, and 98% knew english or kiswahili, literacy levels discovered as the third influencing factor. lastly, connection speed was the least factor. hence, the study concluded that the high cost of the internet is one of the hindrance factors to internet penetration in meru municipality. thus, an investigation should be initiated by internet service providers to determine the actual cost of internet provision across different towns as per the prevailing socio-economic climate in the area. finally, the findings will be useful to the ministry of information and technology, county governments, internet service providers, and other stakeholders who are aspiring to turn kenya into a regional ict hub and achieving kenyans long term development plan of vision 2030. keywords: cost, literacy, bandwidth, connectivity, data, internet, router, optical fiber, advertisement. citation | dominic m. ndeke; stephen w. luketero; chandi j. rugendo (2020). factors influencing the uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality, meru county in kenya. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(1): 39-52. history: received: 7 january 2020 revised: 19 february 2020 accepted: 23 march 2020 published: 9 april 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. background to the study ................................................................................................................................................................ 40 2. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................... 42 3. data analysis, presentation and interpretation ........................................................................................................................ 44 4. summary of findings, discussions, conclusions and recommendations ............................................................................ 50 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 52 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.39.52&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1490 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1490 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 40 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to existing literature by investigating the factors influencing the uptake of internet connectivity among meru municipality residents. 1. background to the study today the world has become a global village; people can communicate miles away each day through internet connectivity. the internet is increasingly making its presence felt, not only playing an essential role in research and education but also serving as a catalyst to a country's socio-economic, cultural, and political development. it is therefore not a surprise that the internet has become a development of the highest significance. various connections are available across continents by different service providers (titah & barki, 2006). as of 2010, the world average internet penetration rate (ipr) was about 28.8 percent. the united states had an ipr of about 77 percent. other countries that had iprs of less than 1 percent included burkina faso and cambodia, each with an ipr of 0.5 percent. afghanistan, benin, mauritania, and turkmenistan also had very low iprs of 1.5 percent,1.8 percent, 1.0 percent, and 1.4 percent, respectively. cuban official documents say that the country has an ipr of about 16 percent, but it's thought that the country's true ipr is closer to 1 to 3 percent. the countries that have the highest ipr include the falkland islands, iceland, and norway, with iprs of 100 percent, 93.2 percent, and 90.9 percent, respectively. other countries in africa that had lots of internet users as of 2011 included south africa, with 6.8 million; algeria, with about 4.7 million; and sudan, with about 4.2 million. algeria and south africa had iprs of almost 14 percent, and sudan's was 9.3 percent. about 65 percent of africa's internet users in 2011 were from nigeria, egypt, or morocco. egypt had more facebook users than morocco and nigeria, combined with about 9.4 million users. in 2007, less than 1 percent of africans had access to broadband internet (simenda, 2009b). countries that have the lowest internet access rates include myanmar and east timor, where 0.1 percent of the population has internet access. sierra leone, where about 0.2 percent of the population does, and bangladesh, the central african republic, niger and the democratic republic of the congo, where the internet access rate is about 0.3 percent. more than 120 countries have an internet penetration rate of less than 23.8 percent (scott, 2006). as of 2011, the african country with the highest internet penetration rate (ipr), the percentage of a country's population that has internet access was morocco, with 41.3 percent of the people, or about 13.2 million people, having access to the internet. nigeria had the most internet users, about 44 million, and an ipr of 28.3 percent. internet users in nigeria accounted for about 37 percent of all internet users in africa. egypt was second in terms of internet users, with about 20 million, and had an ipr of about 24.5 percent. egypt's internet users accounted for about 16.9 percent of the total for africa (simenda, 2009a). according to government of kenya (2012) there are 22 million mobile subscribers in kenya. prepaid accounts for 99% of the total mobile subscriptions, the number of internet users was estimated at 8.69 million, the number of internet/data subscriptions is 3.2 million, broadband subscriptions increased from 18,626 subscribers in the previous quarter to 84,726. a whopping 99% of the internet traffic in kenya is done via mobile operators, meaning 3g, edge or gprs. an estimate for those with internet access in kenya is closing in on 9 million users, and at over 22% of the population (gok, 2012). the 2nd cck quarter report of 2011/2012 indicates the number of internet users grew to 17.38 million as of december last year compared to 8.89 million users in the previous year, compared with the previous quarter, represents a growth of 21.55 percent. gok statistics indicated 14.3 million internet users in the previous quarter. gok attributes the increase to intensified promotions on social media by mobile operators. the use of the internet has been on a rising trend, with the figure showing that 44.12 percent of the population has access to the internet, with the majority accessing the internet through mobile phones. according to the report, with the steady growth in mobile subscriptions, the increase in internet usage is likely to continue as operators seek to leverage on new and emerging technologies to offer attractive packages aimed at garnering more subscribers to use this service. kenya has a high penetration of mobile phones, standing at 71.3 percent, with 28.08 million mobile subscriptions in the country up from 26.49 million subscriptions recorded during the year 2010/2011. the report, however, shows the bandwidths in kenya are underutilized. according to the gok (2012), available international bandwidth has increased more than 25-fold, from 202,720.02 mbps from december 2010 to 5,261,919mbps in december 2011. the usage levels remain low, with only 1.01 percent under-utilization. the period saw the number of internet subscriptions rise to 6,152,687 internet subscriptions from 5,422,009 during the previous period, representing a 13.48 percent increase. broadband subscriptions increased to 131,829 from 126,589 recorded during the previous period. mobile data/internet subscriptions on gprs/edge and 3g recorded the highest portion of the total internet/data subscriptions of 6.07 million subscriptions compared to 5.37 million subscriptions recorded during the previous period. fixed fiber subscriptions recorded an upward trend with a growth of 66.97 percent during the period. compared to the same period of the past year, an increase of 337.43 percent was recorded, which shows that the service is rapidly gaining ground and possibly consuming subscriptions from satellite service that have been on a declining trend. additionally, satellite subscriptions declined from 774 subscriptions in the previous period to 669 during the quarter under review. a reduction of 13.57 percent was recorded during the period as well as a 27.36 percent decline compared to the same period of the previous year (gok, 2012). in kenya, more towns are getting connected to the recently launched fibre optical inclusive of the meru, which is in tandem with kenya’s vision 2030 objective of improving the quality of life for the citizens of kenya. this will transform employment markets, enhancing social infrastructure, securing good governance, and making kenya an ict hub in africa. table 1 provides a summary of internet subscriptions per operator in kenya by communication commission of kenya in 2012. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 41 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-1. internet subscriptions per operator in kenya by gok (2012). no name of the operator subscriptions market share 1 safaricom 2,977,584 92.18 2 airtel kenya ltd 149,053 4.61 3 telkom orange 77,668 2.40 4 access kenya 7,512 0.23 5 wananchi telkom ltd 7,500 0.23 6 kenya data networks 7,451 0.17 7 africa online 1,608 0.05 8 flexible bandwidth 1,198 0.04 9 swift global 1,133 0.03 10 callkey network ltd 800 0.02 11 others 516 0.01 12 total 3,232,023 100 source: g0k (2012). 1.1. statement of the problem meru is one of the towns in kenya where internet subscriptions are low compared to other cities like nakuru, eldoret, kisumu, with each having over 15,000 internet broadband subscriptions among other cities despite the availability of high-speed internet connections. data available from orange telkom meru branch indicates a connection of 363 units with 200 router connections and 163 live box connections, meru safaricom retail shop data bank (2013). safaricom has over 2,200 internet connections in meru municipality, according to meru safaricom retail shop data bank (2013). individuals, businesses, residential places, banks, government offices, hospitals, learning institutions, and other private entities have been connected to the internet, but the uptake has taken a low turn. hence the researcher sought to investigate the factors influencing this slow uptake of internet connectivity by meru municipality residents as compared to other towns. 1.2. purpose of the study the purpose of the study was to investigate factors influencing the uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality. 1.3. objectives of the study the researcher’s objectives of the study were: i. to establish the influence of bandwidth speed on the uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality. ii. to assess the impact of advertisement on the uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality. iii. to determine the influence of the cost of the internet on the uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality. iv. to examine the influence of literacy levels on the uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality. 1.4. research questions the research study was guided by the following research questions: i. how does bandwidth speed influence the uptake internet connectivity in meru municipality? ii. how does advertisement influence the uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality? iii. how does cost of internet influence the uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality? iv. how does literacy level influence the uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality? 1.5. significance of the study the study would be relevant to the policymakers, especially the ministry of information and technology, in assessing our steps toward achieving kenya vision 2030, which is our country's long-term development objective of making our country an ict hub in africa. it will also be necessary for measuring our achievements towards meeting the millennium development goals. much of the information would also be vital to future academics, whereby the findings of this study will be used as a foundation base for further research. 1.6. delimitation of the study the study covered meru municipality areas of township, gakoromone, and kaaga. the researcher involved selected individuals connected to the internet. the findings of this study can also be generalized to larger populated towns like kisumu or nakuru, with a higher population of over 100,000 persons. 1.7. limitations of the study the study was limited to several challenges; time to exhaustively cover all the municipality area, also through the interview some of the respondents were unwilling to give some information for security reasons or answers they felt were too personal or difficult. the questionnaire design might have some inadequacy such that some information from the respondents might have been inaccurate. 1.8. assumptions of the study the researcher assumed that majority of the meru municipality residents had a concrete idea of what internet connectivity entails. the researcher assumed that the connected customers targeted as respondents participated fully in the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 42 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group research, and their responses were honest. 2. research methodology 2.1. introduction the chapter dealt with the procedures through which the research data was collected. to be more specific, the research design, the target population, sampling methods (procedures), and methods of data collection are keys areas that the researcher studied. 2.2. research design a research design is a program to guide the researcher in the collection, analyzing, and interpreting observable facts (kothari, 2003). the research study was undertaken by the use of a descriptive survey. a descriptive survey is a method of collecting information by interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals. this type of research attempts to describe such things as possible behavior, attitudes, and characteristics. descriptive studies are not only restricted to fact-finding but may often result in the formulation of critical knowledge and solutions to significant problems (kothari, 2003). 2.3. target population the study covered meru municipality administrative area namely township, kaaga and gakoromone areas with total households of 8,159 and a population of 27,303 persons covering an area of 8.7 sq. km. sampling was done from a total population of 363 orange internet connected units and 2,200 safaricom connected individuals while the actual sample was got from individual connected persons among the connected population. the researcher therefore got the necessary information from them. 2.4. sampling procedure time and resources available to a researcher, the researcher should take a big sample as possible (kothari, 2003). however, the sample size depends on other factors such as the number of variables in the study, type of the design, method of data analysis, and the size of the accessible population. for descriptive studies, 10% of the target population is enough (kothari, 2003). hence on this basis, the researcher used 20 connected units from a population of 200 units connected through routers and a sample of 16 connected units through live boxes (10% of the 200 and 163 units respectively). an example of 100 individuals was used as respondents from safaricom (from a population of 2,200 wi-fi routers connected individuals) to be distributed across the three administrative units of gakoromone, township and kaaga areas (kothari, 2003). the sample was distributed as follows, if pi represents proportion of population in stratum i, and n represents the total sample size, the number of element selected from stratum i, is n.pi, (kothari, 2003). this was calculated as follows; sample size (n) = 100 to be drawn from a population size (n)= 27,303 divided into three strata sizes. the actual respondents from the sample was determined by getting the list of all numbered connected units from telkom orange and safaricom data banks and randomly picking the twenty-second connected individual in the list as per table 2. table-2. sample size. area formula sample size township (n1) 4,156/ 27,303 * 100 15 kaaga (n2) 11,689/ 27,303 * 100 43 gakoromone (n3) 11, 458/27,303 * 100 42 total 100 source: ndeke (2013). 2.5. methods of data collection both primary and secondary data were used for this research study. primary data was collected through the administration of questionnaires. the questions were both open and closed. some of the questionnaires were selfadministered but the researcher was also available to clarify any items that will be unclear to the respondents. besides, some of the questionnaires were left to the respondents to fill later if they were unavailable to be collected on agreed date. questionnaires were appropriate in gathering much information from respondents on the uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality. 2.6. piloting piloting of the research document was carried out to determine the validity and reliability of the research instrument. 2.6.1. validity of the research instrument validity is the degree to which a tool measures what it purports to measure. validity is concerned with whether the findings are really what they appear to be about. the instrument validity was ensured through the continuous expert advice of my supervisors who are well versed in research. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 43 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-3. operation definition of variables. objectives. type of variable indicator measurement data collection method level of scale types of analysis level of analysis to investigate influence of bandwidth speed internet connectivity. independent variable/ bandwidth speed type of activity/ no of customers using bandwidth band(5 to 9 mbps, 10 to 15 mbps) type of activity like file sharing, internet, web/data, video calling etc numbers questionnaire/ questionnaire nominal ratio nominal quantitative quantitative descriptive descriptive to find out influence of advertisement on internet connectivity independent variable advertisement medium target pop timing tvs, posters, radio, road shows audiences time of advertisement. questionnaire nominal quantitative /qualitative descriptive to examine influence of internet cost on internet connectivity independent variable cost of internet duration megabytes provided per k.sh days, months, number questionnaire nominal nominal quantitative /qualitative qualitative/ quantitative descriptive descriptive to establish influence of literacy levels on uptake of internet connectivity independent variable literacy level of education languages known levels numbers questionnaire questionnaire nominal nominal qualitative/ quantitative quantitative / qualitative descriptive descriptive source : ndeke (2013). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 44 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.6.2. reliability reliability is a measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results on data after repeated trials. a reliable tool is one that produces consistent results when used more than once to collect data from the sample randomly drawn from the sample population. in the research study, a pilot study was carried out by administering the questionnaire to selected few individuals to determine the reliability of the tool. to test the reliability of the instrument, the researcher used spilt-half technique. the research instrument was split into two subtests, one consisting of odd-numbered items/questions and the other made of all even-numbered items. the score of all odd-numbered and evennumbered items of the responses in the pilot study was computed separately. the odd-numbered scores for all items were correlated with the even-numbered scores using the pearson product correlation coefficient. the results of the pearson product correlation co-efficient turned out to be above 0.75, and hence the instrument was highly reliable. 2.7. operation definition of variables factors influencing the uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality definition of variables as shown in table 3. 3. data analysis, presentation and interpretation 3.1. introduction this chapter deals with data analysis, presentation, and interpretation of the study findings, the findings were based on all data collected, including primary as well as secondary data collected from the field. the main objective was to investigate the factors influencing the uptake of internet connectivity among meru municipality residents. the research objectives covered included advertisement, cost of internet, literacy levels, and bandwidth speed. data were analyzed using spss. the findings were then presented in tables, frequencies, and percentages. 3.2. questionnaire return rate a total of one hundred and thirty-six (136) questionnaires were distributed to the respondents across three administrative units of township, kaaga, and gakoromone. table 4 below represents the questionnaire return rate by meru municipality residents. table-4. questionnaire return rate by meru municipality residents (2013). questionnaire return rate no. total questionnaire given 136 questionnaire returned 105 percentage 76% source: ndeke (2013). out of this, a total of 105 questionnaires were returned, representing a 76 percent return rate, which was adequate for analysis. 3.3. descriptive analysis on the uptake of internet connectivity by meru municipality residents the study sought to determine the demographic characteristics of the respondents based on gender, educational level and language spoken and the findings are as presented in table 5. table-5. demographic characteristics of meru municipality residents by gender distribution (2013). sex frequency percent male 46 43.8 female 59 56.2 total 105 100 source: ndeke (2013). majority of the respondents 59 (56.2%) were female with while male was 46(43.8%); hence the respondents gender no wide variance. the study sought to investigate the respondent’s level of education as shown in table 6. table-6. education level of meru municipality resident’s (2013). education level frequency percent primary level 3 2.9 secondary level 31 29.5 diploma level 41 39.0 university level 30 28.6 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013). of the respondents sampled, the majority (41) had a diploma level in education with 39.0 percent, while the primary level of education had the lowest respondents with (3) 2.9 percent. the secondary level had (31)29.5 percent while the university level had (30) 28.6 percent, indicating that the majority of the respondents were literate enough to know what internet connectivity entails. the study sought to determine languages spoken by respondents, as shown in table 7. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 45 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-7. languages spoken by meru municipality residents (2013). language frequency percent english or kiswahili 103 98.1 foreign languages 2 1.9 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013). (103) 98.1 percent of the respondents were either familiar with english or kiswahili, while only two respondents were familiar with foreign languages, mainly french, as table 7 indicates. the study sought to determine devices used by the respondent to access the internet, as shown in table 8. table-8. devices used to access the internet by meru municipality residents (2013). type of device frequency percent computer 6 5.7 mobile phone 40 38.1 both (computer & mobile) 59 56.2 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013). a majority of the respondents used both computers and their mobile phones to connect to the internet with (59) 56.2 percent while (40) 38.1 percent used mobile phones while the rest (6) 5.7 percent used computers to surf hence the majority of respondents used both computers and mobile phones to access the internet as table 8. indicates. the study sought to determine megabytes subscribed and their cost by the respondents, as shown in table 9. table-9. megabytes cost (subscriptions) of internet among meru municipality residents. megabytes prices frequency percent 0-49mb for less than kes 100 44 41.9 50-99mb for kes 100150 36 34.3 100-499mb for kes 150-500 19 18.1 500-1000mb for kes 500-1000 6 5.7 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013). a majority of the respondents utilized a lower denomination megabytes of less than kes 100 with a (44) 41.9 percent, (36) 34.3 percent subscribed to mb of between kes 100-150, (19)18.1 percent subscribed to cost of between 150-500 k.sh while (6) 5.7 % subscribed to the cost of between k.sh 500 and k.sh 1000 indicating that lower denomination subscriptions were in great use as shown in table 9. the study sought to find out the respondent’s access to the internet, as shown in table 10. table -10. access to internet by meru municipality residents (2013). frequency of access frequency percent once a month 3 2.9 once a week 17 16.2 several times a week 40 38.1 everyday 34 32.4 several times a day 11 10.5 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013). a majority of residents accessed internet several times per week with (40) 38.1 percent, (34) 32.4 percent accessed every day, (17)16.2 accessed once per week, (11)10.5 percent accessed several times a day while (3)2.9 percent accessed once a month clearly showing that majority of residents accessed the internet every day and several times a week as shown in table 10.the study sought to find out respondent opinion on the cost of internet as shown in table 11. table-11. respondent opinion on the cost of internet by meru municipality residents (2013). cost level number percentage low cost 4 3.8 medium cost 58 55.2 high cost 43 41.0 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013) the majority of the respondent viewed the cost of internet cost as medium with (58) 55.2 percent, (43) 41.0 percent regarded the price as high while (4) 3.8 percent viewed the cost as low as shown by table 11. the study sought to investigate hours spent online by the respondent, as shown in table 12. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 46 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-12. hours spent online by meru municipality residents (2013). hours spent frequency percent less than five hours 40 38.1 six to fifteen hours 41 38.0 over fifteen hours 24 22.9 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013) the majority of the respondents spent zero to fifteen hours, representing an (81) 76 percent. the rest (24)22.9 percent spent over fifteen hours, clearly showing heavy use of the internet was minimal, as shown in table 12. table-13. meru municipality resident’s connection speed opinion provided by internet service providers (2013). speed level frequency percent very low 5 4.8 low 5 4.8 medium 53 50.5 high 31 29.5 very high 11 10.5 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013) the study sought the respondent's opinion on speed provided by the internet service provider, as shown in table 13. majority of the respondents viewed the speed provided by their internet providers at medium level with (53) 50.5 percent, (31) 29.5 percent viewed the rate as high, (11)10.5 percent viewed the speed as very high while (5) 4.8 percent viewed the speed as low and very as shown in table 13. the research study sought to assess respondent’s opinion on speed satisfaction level as shown in table 14. table-14. respondent opinion on speed satisfaction levels by meru municipality residents (2013). opinion frequency percent yes 70 66.7 no 35 33.3 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013) (70 )66.7 percent of the respondents were satisfied with the speed. in comparison with (35), 33.3 percent viewed the rate as not satisfactory, clearly illustrating that majority of meru residents were happy with the speed, as shown in table 14. the study sought to determine respondent use of the internet, as shown in table 15. table-15. meru municipality residents use of internet (2013). use of internet frequency percent own entertainments 53 50.5 school or work purposes 52 49.5 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013) almost an equal number used the internet for own entertainment and school or work purposes with (53) 50.5 percent for entertainment while (52)49.5 for school or work purposes. the study sought to determine the respondent’s age distribution, as shown in table 16. table-16. meru municipality residents age distribution (2013). age distribution frequency percent 1018 years 16 15.2 19-25 years 31 29.5 26-30 years 32 30.5 31-35 years 15 14.3 over 35 years 11 10.5 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013) about (32) 30.5 percent of the respondents were in the age bracket of 2630 years, (31) 29.5 percent were in the age bracket of 19-25 years, (16) 15.2 percent were in the age bracket of 10-18 years and (15) 14.3 percent were in the age bracket of 31-35 years while (11)10.5 percent were over 35 years clearly indicating access to the internet was across the different age groups as shown in table 16.the study sought to find out how the respondents learnt about internet connection shown in table 17. table-17. how meru municipality residents learnt about internet connection (2013). medium frequency percent tv advert 57 54.3 posters advert 32 30.5 road show advert 4 3.8 friends 12 11.4 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 47 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the majority of the respondent learned about the internet through tv advert with (57) 54.3 percent, (32) 30.5 percent through posters, (12) 11.4 percent through friends, and (4)3.8 percent through roadshows as shown in table 17. the study sought to know whether the advertisement appealed to the respondent or not, as shown in table 18. table-18. opinion on advertisement appeal by meru municipality residents (2013). residents opinion frequency percent yes 89 84.8 no 16 15.2 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013) of the respondents sampled, (89) 84.8 percent were appealed by the advertisement while (16) 15.2 percent were not attracted by the ad, a clear indication that there was an opportunity for more publicity, as shown in table 18.the study sought to determine respondent opinion on the factors influencing the uptake of internet connectivity as shown in table 19. table-19. opinion on the factors influencing the uptake of internet connectivity by meru municipality residents (2013). residents opinion frequency percent low bandwidth speed 21 20.0 lack of advertisement 18 17.1 high cost 44 41.9 high literacy requirement 22 21.0 total 105 100.0 source: ndeke (2013) of the respondents sampled (44), 41.9 viewed the high cost of the internet as one of the significant factor influencing internet connectivity, (22) 21 percent high literacy requirement, (21) 20 percent low bandwidth speed and (18) 17.1 percent lack of advertisement, a clear indication that cost was one of the significant factor influencing internet connectivity in meru municipality as shown in table 19. 3.4 cross tabulation of tables i. to examine the influence of literacy levels on the uptake of internet connectivity among the meru municipality residents table-20. a cross tabulation of respondent’s education levels versus respondent use of internet. respondent’s use of internet education level own entertainment school or work purposes total primary level count 3 0 3 % within education level 100.0% 0.0% 100.0% secondary level count 26 5 31 % within education level 83.9% 16.1% 100.0% diploma level count 16 25 41 % within education level 39.0% 61.0% 100.0% university level count 8 22 30 % within education level 26.7% 73.3% 100.0% total count 53 52 105 % within education level 50.5% 49.5% 100.0% source: ndeke (2013). education levels affected respondent use of the internet, a (3)100% with a primary level of education utilized the internet for own entertainment like chat rooms, playing computer games, and downloading music or video. (26) 83.9 % with a secondary level of education used the internet for own entertainment while (5) 16.1 % used the internet for school or work purposed like sending or receiving emails, word processing, and research. (16) 39 % with diploma level used internet for own entertainment while (25) 61 % used for school or work purposes. (8) 26.7 % with university-level used internet for entertainment while (22) 73.3 % used it for school or work purposes, as shown in table 20. from this, we conclude that once the education level of respondents rises, much of the internet use is either for work or school purposes. table-21. respondent literacy level * internet use chi-square test. statistic test value df asymp. sig. (2 sided) pearson chi-square 25.728 3 .000 likelihood ratio 28.518 3 .000 total cases 105 source: ndeke (2013). our p-value is 0.00, which is a very low probability making our variables dependent and thus concluding that education levels tie very much with what each respondent does when on the internet, since as one education level advances much of the internet use is either for work or school purposes as shown in table 21. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 48 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-22. a cross tabulation of respondent age versus use of the internet. respondent’s use of internet own entertainment school or work purposes total 10-18 years count 15 1 16 % within respondent age 93.8% 6.3% 100.0% 19-25 years count 16 15 31 % within respondent age 51.6% 48.4% 100.0% 26-30years count 14 18 32 % within respondent age 43.8% 56.3% 100.0% 31-35 years count 5 10 15 % with respondent age 33.3% 66.7% 100.0% over 35 years count 3 8 11 % within respondent age 27.3% 72.7% 100.0% total count 53 52 105 % within respondent age 50.5% 49.5% 100.0% source: ndeke (2013). the majority of the respondents in the age bracket of 10-18 years used the internet for entertainment purposes with (15) 93. 8 % against (1) 6.3 % for school or work purposes. for 1925 age bracket, (16)51.6 % used for entertainment while (15)48.4% used for school or work purposes. for 26-30 age brackets, (14) 43.8 % used the internet for entertainment while (18)56.3% used for school or work purposes, as shown in table 22. for 31-35 age brackets (5), 33.3 % used the internet for entertainment while (10) 66.7 % used for work or school purposes. for those over 35 years, (3)72.7 % used internet for school or work purposes while only (8)27.3 % used the internet for entertainment. therefore, we can conclude that the younger generation used the internet for entertainment purposes, while the older generation utilized the internet for school or work purposes. table-23. respondent age * use of internet chi-square test. statistical test value df asymp. sig. (2 sided) pearson chi-square 16.714 4 .002 likelihood ratio 19.281 4 .001 total cases 105 source: ndeke (2013). our p-value is 0.002, which is a very low probability making our variables dependent and thus concluding that respondent age ties very much with what each respondent does when on the internet as the younger generation uses the internet for entertainment. in comparison, the older generation uses the internet for work or school purposes, as shown in table 23. ii. to assess the influence of advertisement on the uptake of internet connectivity among meru municipality residents. table-24. a cross tabulation of how the respondent learnt versus age of the respondent. age tv advert posters adv. road show adv friends total 10-18 years count 6 7 0 3 16 % within respondent age 37.5% 43.8% 0% 18.8% 100.0% 19-25 years count 21 5 1 4 31 % within respondent age 67.7% 16.1% 3.2% 12.9% 100.0% 26-30 years count 17 12 2 1 32 % within respondent age 53.1% 37.5% 6.3% 3.1% 100.0% 31-35 years count 6 6 1 2 15 % within respondent age 40.0% 40.0% 6.7% 13.3% 100.0% over 35 years count 7 2 0 2 11 % within respondent age 63.6% 18.2% 0.0% 18.2% 100.0% total count 57 32 4 12 105 % within respondent age 54.3% 30.5% 3.8% 11.4% 100.0% source: ndeke (2013). for the 10-18 age bracket category, the majority of the respondents learned about the internet through posters advert at (7) 43.8% followed by tv advert at (6)37.5 %. for 19-25 years bracket, majority of the respondent learned about the internet through tvs advert at (21) 67.7% followed by posters at (5)16.1%. for 26-30 years bracket majority of the respondent learned about the internet through tv advert at (17)53.1% followed by posters at (12) 37.5%. for 31-35 years bracket majority of the respondent learned about the internet through tvs and posters advert tying at (12) 40.0 %, as shown in table 24. those over 35 years discovered through tv advert at (7) 63.6%. we conclude, therefore, the majority of the respondents learned about the internet through tvs and posters advert at (57)54.3% and (32) 30.5% respectively. table-25. how the respondent learnt *age of respondent chi-square test. statistical test value df asymp. sig. (2 sided) pearson chi-square 12.247 12 .426 likelihood ratio 14.149 12 .291 total cases 105 source: ndeke (2013). our p-value is 0.426, which is a very high probability making our variables independent and thus concluding that the respondent age does not tie with how the respondent learned about internet connection, as shown in table 25. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 49 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-26. a cross tabulation of how the respondent learnt versus advertisement appeal. advertisement appeal to respondent how the respondent learnt yes no total tv advert 50 7 57 % within how the respondent learnt 87.7% 12.3% 100.0% posters advert 29 3 32 % within how the respondent learnt 90.6% 9.4% 100.0% road show advert 2 2 4 % within how the respondent learnt 50.0% 50.0% 100.0% friends 8 4 12 % within how the respondent learnt 66.7% 33.3% 100.0% total 89 16 105 % within how the respondent learnt 84.8% no 100.0% source: ndeke (2013). in table 26 above, (50) 87.7 % of the respondents who learned about internet connection through tvs advert were appealed by it, (29) 90.6 % of the respondents who learned about internet connection through posters were appealed by it, and (8) 66.7% of the respondents who learned about internet connection through friends were appealed. we conclude, therefore, that majority of the respondents were attracted by the advertisement to connect to the internet by whatever marketing medium. iii. to determine the influence of cost of internet on the uptake of internet connectivity among meru municipality residents. table-27. a cross tabulation of megabytes cost versus hours spent online. hours spent online megabytes cost less than 5 hrs 6-15 hrs over 15 hrs total 0-49mb for < kes 100 25 17 2 44 % within megabytes cost 56.8% 38.6% 4.5% 100.0% 50-99mb for kes 100-150 count 11 17 8 36 % within megabytes cost 30.6% 47.2% 22.2% 100.0% 100-499 for kes 150-500 2 6 11 19 % within megabytes cost 10.5% 31.6% 57.9% 100.0% 500-1000mb for kes 500-1000 count 2 1 3 6 %within megabytes cost 33.3% 16.7% 50.7% 100% total 40 41 24 105 %within megabytes cost 38.1% 39.0% 22.9% 100.0% source: ndeke (2013). majority of the respondents who subscribed to less than 50mb spent less than five hours online with (25) 56.8%, (17) 47.2 % of the respondents who subscribed for 50-100mb spent six to fifteen hours online,(11) 57.9% of the respondents who subscribed 100-499 mb spent over fifteen hours online and (3) 50.7% of respondents who subscribed for 500-1000mb spent over fifteen hours as shown in table 27. we conclude, therefore, that respondents spent more hours online as the data bundle subscription increased. table-28. megabytes cost * hours spent online chi-square test. statistical test value df asymp. sig. (2 sided) pearson chi-square 28.671 6 .000 likelihood ratio 29.541 6 .000 total cases 105 source: ndeke (2013). our p-value is 0.00, which is a very low probability making our variables dependent and thus concluding that megabytes prices (subscribed) ties very much with hours spent online by the respondents with higher subscriptions respondent spending more time online as shown in table 28. iv. to examine the influence of bandwidth speed on uptake of internet connectivity among meru municipality residents. table-29. a cross tabulation of connection speed versus access to interne. access to internet by respondent speed once a month once a week several times a week everyday several times a day total very low count 0 2 0 2 1 5 % within speed 0% 40.0% 0% 40.0% 20.0% 100.0% low count 2 1 1 0 1 5 % within speed 40.0% 20.0% 20.0% 0 20.0% 100.0% medium count 0 7 19 21 6 53 % within speed 0 13.2% 35.2% 39.6% 11.3% 100.0% high count 0 4 14 10 3 31 % within speed 0% 12.9% 45.2% 32.3% 9.7% 100.0% very high count 1 3 6 1 0 11 % within speed 9.1% 27.3% 54.5% 9.1% 0% 100.0% total count 3 17 40 34 11 105 % within speed 2.9 16.2 38.1 32.4 10.5 100.0% source: ndeke (2013). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 50 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group majority of the respondent who viewed connection speed as average accessed internet several times a week with (19) 35.2% while others who accessed the internet every day with (21) 39.6 %. those who viewed connection speed as high accessed internet several times a week with (14) 45.2 % while others who accessed the internet every day with (10) 32.3%. the majority of the respondents who viewed connection speed as very high accessed the internet several times a week with (6) 54.5 %, as shown in table 29. we conclude then the majority of respondents accessed the internet several times a week and viewed speed connection as medium and high. table-30. connection speed * access to internet chi-square test. statistical test value df asymp. sig. (2 sided) pearson chi-square 41.385 16 .000 likelihood ratio 30.594 16 .015 total cases 105 source: ndeke (2013). our p-value is 0.00, which is a very low probability making our variables dependent and thus concluding that connection speed ties very much with access to the internet by respondents, as shown in table 30. table-31. a cross tabulation of connection speed versus respondent speed satisfaction. respondent speed satisfaction connection speed yes no total very low 3 2 5 % within connection speed 60.0% 40.0% 100.0% low 2 3 5 % within connection speed 40.0% 60.0% 100.0% medium 33 20 53 % within connection speed 62.3% 37.7% 100.0% high 23 8 31 % within connection speed 74.2% 25.4% 100.0% very high 9 2 11 % within connection speed 81.8% 18.2% 100.0% total 70 35 105 % within connection speed 66.7% 33.3% 100.0% source: ndeke (2013). out of the 53 respondents who viewed the speed connection as medium, (33) 62.3% viewed the speed as satisfactory while (20) 37.7 percent viewed the speed on the negative side. out of 31 respondents who viewed the speed as high, 74.2 % that is 23 respondents confirmed the speed to be satisfactory while (8)25.4 % viewed the speed as not adequate, as shown in table 31. we conclude, therefore, that the respondents who saw the connection speed as medium and high were comfortable with it, that is, a total of 56 respondents. 4. summary of findings, discussions, conclusions and recommendations 4.1. summary of findings out of the total of 105 respondents, the majority of the respondents were females with 56.2 percent, while males represented 43.8 percent. to get a picture of literacy levels among the respondents, results on education levels indicated that majority had diploma level in education with 39.0 percent. in comparison, the primary level of education had the lowest respondents, with 2.9 percent. the secondary level had 29.5 percent, while the university level had 28.6 percent. on languages spoken, 98.1 percent of the respondents were either familiar with english or kiswahili, while only two respondents were familiar with foreign languages, mainly french. the results also indicated that a majority of the respondents used both computers and their mobile phones to connect to the internet with 56.2 percent. in comparison, 38.1 percent used mobile phones, while the rest 5.7 percent used machines to access the internet. on the cost of internet and megabytes subscribed by respondents, the results analyzed indicated that a majority of the respondents utilized a lower denomination megabytes of less than kes 100 with a percentage of 41.9 percent, 34.3 percent subscribed to mb of between kes 100-150, 18.1 percent subscribed to cost of between 150-500 k.sh. in contrast, 5.7 subscribed to the cost of between k.sh 500 and k.sh 1000. when asked about their general view on the value of the internet, the majority of the respondent viewed the cost of internet cost as medium with 55.2 percent, 41.0 percent viewed the price as high while 3.8 percent viewed the cost as low. on how often they accessed the internet, a majority of residents accessed the web several times per week, with 38.1 percent. 32.4 percent accessed every day,16.2 accessed once per week, 10.5 percent accessed several times a day while 2.9 percent accessed once a month while the majority of the respondents spent between zero to fifteen hours representing 76 percent. the rest 22.0 percent spent over fifteen hours. on the connection speed available, the majority of the respondents viewed the rate provided by their internet providers at medium level with 50.5 percent, 29.5 percent viewed the pace as high, 10.5 percent viewed the speed as very high. in comparison, 4.8 percent saw the rate as low and very. besides, 66.7 percent of the respondents were satisfied with the speed, while 33.3 percent viewed the speed as not satisfactory. on internet usage by the respondents, results indicate that almost an equal number used the internet for own entertainment and school or work purposes with 50.5 percent for entertainment while 49.5 for school or work purposes. the results investigated the age bracket of the respondent and discovered that about 30.5 percent of the respondents were in the age bracket of 2630 years, 29.5 percent were in the age bracket of 19-25 years,15.2 percent were in the age bracket of 10-18 years, and 14.3 percent were in the age bracket of 14.3 percent while 10.5 percent were over 35 years. on how the respondent learned about their current internet connection, the majority of the respondents asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 51 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group learned about the internet through tv advert with 54.3 percent, 30.5 percent through posters, 11.4 percent through friends, and 3.8 percent through roadshows. besides, of the respondents sampled, 84.8 percent were appealed by the advertisement, while 15.2 percent were not attracted by the ad. when asked about which factor the respondent thought influenced this uptake of the internet,41.9 viewed the high cost of the internet as one of the significant factor affecting internet connectivity, 21 percent high literacy requirement, 20 percent low bandwidth speed, and 17.1 percent lack of advertisement. 4.2. discussions of findings of the respondents sampled, male represented 56.2% while females represented 43.8 % hence no significant variation. therefore, we conclude that gender did not have much effect on internet connectivity and thus depended on individuality. to show the relationship between variables, cross-tabulation and pearson square were calculated. 4.2.1. objective one: literacy levels and internet connectivity education levels were cross-tabulated with the use of the internet; the results indicated that: 100% with a primary level of education utilized the internet for own entertainment like chat rooms, playing computer games, and downloading music or video. 83.9 percent with a secondary level of education used the internet for own entertainment. in comparison, 16.1 percent used the internet for school or work purposed like sending or receiving emails, word processing, and research. 39 % with diploma level used the internet for their own entertainment while 61 % used for school or work purposes. 26.7 % with university-level used internet for entertainment while 73.3 % used it for school or work purposes. from this, we conclude that once the education level of respondents rises, much of the internet use is either for work or school purposes. besides, 98.1 percent were familiar with either english or kiswahili, which is in tandem with what search engines like google offer their contents in. also, a chisquare test revealed a low probability hence concluding that education levels tie very much with what each respondent does when on the internet. this finding goes well with rogers (1995) who noted that the internet has mainly diffused in urban areas among the comparatively wealthy and educated considering meru municipality is a metropolitan area. 4.2.2. objective two: advertisement and internet connectivity. a cross-tabulation between the advertisement medium through which respondents learned about internet connection and age revealed that; for 10-18 years bracket majority of the respondents learned about the internet through posters advert at 43.8% followed by tv advert at 37.5 %. for 19-25 years bracket majority of the respondent learned about the internet through tvs advert at 67.7% followed by posters at 16.1%, in 26-30 years bracket majority of the respondent learned about the internet through tvs advert at 53.1% followed by posters at 37.5%, in 31-35 years bracket majority of the respondent learned about the internet through tvs and posters advert tying at 40.0 %. those over 35 years discovered through tv advert at 63.6%. the majority of the respondents learned about the internet through tvs and posters advert at 54.3% and 30.5% respectively. a chisquare test revealed a high probability and thus concluding that the respondent's age does not tie with how the respondent learned about the internet connection. we can conclude that the purpose of advertising is to create awareness of the advertised product and provide information that will assist the consumer in making a purchase decision. the relevance of advertising as a promotional strategy, therefore, depends on its ability to influence consumers not only to purchase but to continue to repurchase and eventually developbrand loyalty (mittal, 2001). 4.2.3. objective 3: cost of internet connection a cross-tabulation between the number of megabytes subscribed and hours spent online revealed that, majority of the respondents who subscribed to less than 50mb spent less than five hours online with 56.8%, 47.2 % of the respondents who subscribed for 50100mb spent six to fifteen hours online, 57.9% of the respondents who subscribed to 100-499 mb spent over fifteen hours online and 50.7% of respondents who subscribed for 5001000mb spent over fifteen hours. we therefore conclude that respondents spent more hours online as the data bundle subscription increased. the chi-square test also revealed a low probability hence finding that the cost of that megabyte (subscribed) ties very much with hours spent online by the respondents. we also conclude that the majority of lower age brackets accept to lower data bundles mainly for chat room purposes. from these findings, we conclude that the high cost of the internet is a hindrance to internet subscription, which is much shared with gok (2012), which found that 28 % of kenyans cited the cost of internet subscription as a significant hindrance. 4.2.4. objective four: internet speed connection. on internet speed connection, the majority of the respondents viewed the speed provides by their internet providers at medium level with 50.5 percent, 29.5 percent viewed the rate as high, 10.5 percent viewed the speed as very high. in comparison, 4.8 percent saw the speed as low and very low. hence the majority were comfortable with the rate, which can be attributed to the presence of 3g network provided by some of the internet service providers. the presence of high-speed could be attributed to the presence of fiber optic, which provides a more top speed packet. a concept shared by mittal (2001) since fiber optic services starts as high as 10 or 20 megabytes per second, with top-tier packages offering 50 megabytes per second. 4.3. conclusions internet connectivity is affected by many factors, including connection speed available, cost of internet, advertisement provided, and literacy levels in a specific area. according to our research findings, the high price of internet subscriptions was identified as one of the most hindrance factor to internet accessibility by the majority of youths and even adults. the advertisement was found as the second influencing factor, with the majority of respondents feeling much has to be done by internet providers to reach potential customers. considering the population sample had 98 percent o level of education, and 98% knew english or kiswahili, literacy levels was asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 39-52 52 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group found as the third influencing factor. lastly, connection speed was perceived as the least factor which can be attributed to the presence of high-speed packet area around meru municipality. hence it can be authoritatively concluded; that the high cost of the internet is one of the significant hindrance factors to the internet penetration in meru municipality. 4.4. recommendations 1. a study should be initiated by internet service providers to determine the actual cost of internet provision across different towns, which shall be pegged to the prevailing socio-economic climate in the area. 2. various internet providers should re-engineer their advertisement systems to capture many potential customers. 3. new areas should be mapped and included in high packet transmission sites by internet providers. references government of kenya. (2012). communication of kenya industry performance report, nairobi kenya. retrieved from https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0055-7231. kothari, c. r. (2003). research methodology (2nd ed.). new delhi: kk grupta of new age international (p) ltd. meru safaricom retail shop data bank. (2013). retrieved from https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0055-7231. mittal, k. (2001). internet traffic growth, analysis of trends and predictions (pp. 1-16). the haworth political press: new york. ndeke, m. (2013). factors affecting uptake of internet connectivity in meru municipality, meru county kenya. retrieved from https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0055-7231. rogers, e. m. (1995). diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). new york: free press. scott, w. (2006). broadband and unbundling regulations in oecd countries, working paper 06-16, june 2006. washington, d.c: aei brooking joint center for regulatory studies. simenda, k. (2009a). electronic mobile government in africa: progress made and challenges ahead. addis ababa, ethiopia. simenda, k. (2009b). electronic mobile government in africa: progress made and challenges ahead. addis ababa, ethiopia. retrieved from http://www.unpan.org/emgkr_africa. titah, r., & barki, h. (2006). e-government adoption and acceptance: a literature review. international journal of electronic government research, 2(3), 23-57.available at: https://doi.org/10.4018/jegr.2006070102. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.unpan.org/emgkr_africa 25 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 1, 25-33, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401: / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.25.33 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group social capital, endogenous labor supply, and economic development weibin zhang ritsumeikan asia pacific university, beppy city, japan. abstract social capital has been increasingly recognized as an important determinant of economic growth in the literature of economic growth. nevertheless, there are only a few rigorous dynamic growth models which explicitly deal with dynamic interdependence between social capital, physical capital, and economic structure. the purpose of this study is to incorporate social capital in a neoclassical economic growth theory. we propose a dynamic model with interdependence between economic structural change, wealth accumulation, and social capital accumulation. social capital positively affects total factor productivities and is accumulated through investment, leisure activities, and production. we simulate the model. the study focuses on effects of changes in some parameters on the equilibrium and transitional processes of the economic dynamics. we get some insights through including social capital in economic growth modelling. for instance, if society has lower trust (possibly if we interpret social capital as guanxi in chinese societies) which results in a rise in depreciation rate of social capital, the economy suffers from falling social capital, productivities, national capital, and national output; consumers have lower income, wealth, and consumption; they also have to spend more time on investing in social capital. keywords: social capital, physical capital, propensity to save, propensity to accumulate social capital, returns to scale in social capital, economic structure, chinese guanxi, economic growth. jel classification: o41; z13. citation | weibin zhang (2020). social capital, endogenous labor supply, and economic development. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(1): 25-33. history: received: 12 december 2019 revised: 14 january 2020 accepted: 17 february 2020 published: 25 march 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 26 2. the growth model with social capital ...................................................................................................................................... 26 3. the dynamics of the economy ..................................................................................................................................................... 28 4. comparative dynamic analysis .................................................................................................................................................... 29 5. conclusions ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 32 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 32 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.25.33&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1448 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3012-304x https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1448 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3012-304x https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1448 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3012-304x asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 25-33 26 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the paper makes a unique contribution to the literature of economic growth by introducing social capital accumulation to neoclassical growth theory. it shows a dynamic interdependence between social capital, physical capital, and economic structure. 1. introduction the purpose of this study includes endogenous social capital in neoclassical growth theory. many economists consider social capital as an important determinant of economic growth (e.g., (beugelsdijk & van schaik, 2005; bofota, boucekkine, & bala, 2016; iyer, kitson, & toh, 2005; knack & keefer, 1997; putnam, leonardi, & nanetti, 1993)). many models have been developed to study relations between social capital and growth. the concept of social capital, according to knack and keefer (1997) refers to different meanings such as trust, cooperative, and associations within groups. putnam et al. (1993) considers social capital as “those features of social organization, such as trust, norms, and networks, that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating co-ordinated actions.” as far as how to model social capital is modelled, this study is influenced by bofota et al. (2016). different from bofota et al. (2016) who include social capital in growth model by assuming that social capital affects human capital accumulation, this study assumes that social capital directly affects total factor productivities. similar to the approach by bofota et al. (2016) we assume that to accumulate social capital also involves a cost in terms of consumer goods. the economic mechanism of growth is founded on the neoclassical growth theory (burmeister & dobell, 1970; solow, 1956; swan, 1956; zhang, 2005). this paper is specially referred to uzawa’s two-sector growth model (uzawa, 1961). different from the traditional solow one-sector growth model, the uzawa model deals with economic structural change by designing an economy with capital goods sector and consumer goods sector. although this paper is developed within the uzawa framework, we introduce an alternative approach to consumer decision by zhang (2005) to examine behavior of households. we are concerned with dynamic interdependence between economic growth and social capital. as mentioned before, some recent endogenous growth models have emphasized the role of social capital as a determinant of economic growth. the rest paper is organized as follows. section 2 defines the basic model of economic growth with inclusion of social capital. section 3 shows how we can follow the movement of the economic system. section 4 examines effects of changes in some parameters on the economic system over time. section 5 concludes the study. the main results in section 3 are shown in the appendix. 2. the growth model with social capital the basic features of the model are influenced by the growth model of solow (1956) the two-sector growth model of uzawa (1961) some growth models with endogenous social capital, and the approach to household decision by zhang. (1993). similar to the uzawa two-sector model, we consider an economy which is composed of capital goods and consumer goods sectors. we generalize the two-sector growth model by including endogenous social capital. social capital affects productivities of production sectors. social capital is accumulated through working, leisure activities, and individuals’ efforts. we choose the price of capital goods to be unity. economic production is neoclassical. all markets are perfectly competitive. capital and labor are freely mobile between sectors. we introduce the following variables. subscripts and subscripts for the consumer goods sector and capital goods sector; ( ) and ( ) labor force and capital input employed by sector at time ( ) the product level of sector ( ) ̄( ) and ̂( ) the representative household’s time spent on work, leisure, and accumulating social capital; ( ) price of consumer good; ( ) and ( ) wage rate and rate of interest; ( ) the representative household’s social capital; ̄( ) wealth owned by the representative household; ( ) and ( ) consumption of capital goods and consumption of consumer goods; ̄ fixed population; and fixed depreciation rates of physical capital and social capital, respectively. 2.1. total labor supply we use ( ) to stand for the total labor supply, which the total work hour by human capital as follows: ( ) ̄( ) ̅ ( ) where is the fixed level of human capital. 2.2. capital goods sector we take the production function of the capital goods sector on the following form ( ) ( ( )) ( ) ( ) ( ) where and are parameters and ( ( )) is the total factor productivity which is dependent on social capital. we do not specify how social capital affects the total factor productivity. social capital is given for each firm. in perfectly competitive markets, labor and capital inputs are determined by their marginal products. the marginal conditions for the consumer goods sector are: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) where ( ) ( ) 2.3. consumer goods sector the production function of the consumer goods sector is specified as: asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 25-33 27 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group ( ) ( ( )) ( ) ( ) ( ) where and are parameters and ( ( )) is the total factor productivity which is dependent on social capital. the marginal conditions imply: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2.4. disposable income this study the approach proposed by zhang (1993; 2005) to model consumers’ behavior. the current income is ( ) ( ) ̄( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) where ( ) ( ) is the interest payment and ( ) ( ) is the wage payment. the total value of the wealth that the household can sell to purchase goods and to save is ̄( ) the disposable income ̂( ) is the current income and the value of wealth. we have ̂( ) ( ) ̄( ) ( ) 2.5. time distribution and budget denote the (fixed) available time for work, investment in social capital, and leisure by . the time distribution satisfies: ( ) ̄( ) ̂( ) ( ) the household spends the disposable income on consuming goods, accumulating social capital, and saving. we use ( ( )) to measure cost per unit of time in terms of consumer goods in investing social capital. it is assumed that the cost is dependent on the stock of social capital. we don’t specify function form of ( ( )) at this stage of modelling. the household spends ( ( )) ̂( ) on accumulating human social capital and ( ) on saving. the budget constraint is: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( )) ̂( ) ( ) ̂( ) ( ) equation 9 implies that the consumption, investment, and saving use up the consumers’ disposable income. substitute (8) into (9): ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ̄( ) ̄( ) ̂( ) ( ) ̄( ) ( ) where ̄( ) ( ( )) ̄( ) ( ) ̄( ) ( ) ( ( )) ( ) we interpret ̄( ) as the maximum disposable income for given wealth and human capital and ̄( ) as the opportunity cost for accumulating social capital. 2.6. utility function and optimal decision we assume that utility level ( ) of the representative household is dependent on ( ) ( )  ,tt ̂( ) and ( ) as follows: ( ) ( ) ( ) ̄ ( ) ̂ ( ) ( ) in which ,0 ,0 and are the representative household’s elasticity of utility with regard to consumer goods, capital goods, leisure time, time for accumulating social capital, and saving. we call ,0 ,0 and propensities to consume good, to consume capital goods, to use leisure time, to use time for accumulating social capital, and to hold wealth, respectively. maximizing ( ) subject to the budget constraint yields: ( ) ̄( ) ( ) ( ) ̄( ) ̄( ) ̄( ) ( ) ̂( ) ̄( ) ̄( ) ( ) ̄( ) ( ) where 2.7. wealth accumulation the change in wealth is the saving minus the dissaving. according to the definitions of ( ) and ̄( ) wealth changes according to the following accounting equation: ̇̄( ) ( ) ̄( ) ( ) 2.8. full employment of capital and labor the total capital stocks ( ) is fully employed. we have: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2.9. demand of and supply for two goods the equilibrium condition for consumer goods implies: ( ) ̄ ( ( )) ̂( ) ̄ ( ) ( ) we have the equilibrium condition for capital goods as follows: ( ) ̄ ( ) ̄ ( ) ( ) ̄( ) ̄ ( ) 2.10. wealth owned by the households and national output the national wealth is held by the households: ̄( ) ̄ ( ) ( ) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 25-33 28 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the national output ( ) and output per household ( ) are: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ̄ ( ) 2.11. dynamics of social capital this study treats social capital as capital such as physical capital and human capital. solow (1995) thinks that it is difficult to treat social capital because the measurement of its stock seems far away. after reviewing the literature on social capital, chou (2006) argues that social capital has some similarities to physical and human capital with regard to intertemporal dimension and ability to create a stream of future benefits. this study treat social capital as capital social capital is affected by different channels. social capital is accumulated through investment, learning by producing, and leisure activities. this study proposes the following social capital accumulation equation ̇( ) ̂ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ̄ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) where and are parameters. we require and non-negative. signs of are not specified. the term ̂ implies that a rise in hours spent on social capital augments social capital and the accumulation exhibits decreasing (increasing) of return to scales if ( ) the term implies accumulating social capital through producing. a higher per capita output enhances increase social capital accumulation. the term ̄ implies a positive relationship between leisure time and social capital accumulation with decreasing (or increasing) return to scale. we built the dynamic growth model with endogenous social capital. 3. the dynamics of the economy the appendix shows that the movement of the national economy can be described by two differential equations with ( ) and ( ) as the variables, where ( ) ( ) ( ( ) ) the following lemma shows how we follow the movement of all the variables of the dynamic system. 3.1. lemma we can determine the movement of ̄( ) and ( ) is by the following two differential equations ̇( ) ( ( ) ( )) ̇( ) ( ( ) ( )) ( ) where and are functions of ( ) and ( ) defined in the appendix. we have all the other variables as functions of ( ) and ( ) as follows: ( ) and ( ) by (a2) → ( ) by (a3) → ̄( ) by (a13) → ̄( ) by (a4) → ( ) by (16) → ( ) by (a6) → ( ) by (a7) → ( ) by (a8) → ( ) by (a9) → ( ) and ( ) by (a1) → ( ) by (2) → ( ) by (4) → ( ) ( ) ̄( ) and ̂( ) by (11). the lemma shows how to determine movement of all the variables once we determine the movement of the two state variables, ( ) and ( ) we simulate the model by specifying parameter values as follows: ( ) the population is the propensity to save is the propensity to consume consumer goods and to consume capital goods are respectively and the depreciation rates of physical capital and social capital are fixed percent. the social capital accumulation exhibits decreasing returns to scale in leisure, production and investment. human capital is fixed at we specify the total factor productivity functions of the two sectors as follows: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) the relationships between social capital and total factor productivities are plotted in figure 1. for low levels of social capital productivities rise in association with increases in social capital; for high levels of social capital productivities fall as social capital rises. if we interpret social capital as, for instance, chinese guanxi, high complexity of guanxi might not enhance productivities. we specify only a special case about how social capital may affect productivities. figure-1. relationship between social capital and total factor productivities. we specify the cost function as follows: ( ( )) ( ) it implies that cost rises as social capital becomes higher. we choose the initial conditions asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 25-33 29 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group ( ) ( ) we plot the movement of the national economy in figure 2. social capital and physical capital fall. the productivities of the two sectors fall. the wage rate falls, and rate of interest rises. the national labor force rises. the labor input of the consumer goods sector falls and the labor input of the capital goods sector rises. the household spends less hours on social capital. the household’s consumption levels of two goods and wealth fall. figure-2. the motion of the national economy. we calculate the equilibrium values of the variables as follows ̄ ̄ ̂ we calculate eigenvalues to examine stability. the two eigenvalues are respectively and the equilibrium point is stable. 4. comparative dynamic analysis the movement of the variables was plotted in the previous section. it is straightforward to follow the movement of the system as any parameter is changed. this section conducts comparative dynamic analysis with regards different exogenous changes. we introduce a variable, ̄ ( ) to represent for the change rate of the variable ( ) in percentage due to changes in the parameter value. 4.1. negative effects of social capital being strengthened first, we study what happen to the economic system when the total factor productivity functions are changed as follows: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) the negative effects of social capital on the total factor productivities are strengthened. the changes in the movement of the economic system are plotted in figure 3. the stock of social capital and the total factor productivities of the two sectors factor fall. the national output and national capital are all reduced. the total labor supply falls initially and rises slightly in the long term. the household spends less time on social capital accumulation. the price of services is slightly affected. the wage rate is reduced. the per unit of time cost of social accumulation falls. the consumption level and wealth are reduced. as the negative impact of social capital on productivities become more dominant, the economic growth will suffer. figure-3. negative effects of social capital being strengthened. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 25-33 30 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.2. human capital being increased we now study what happen to the economic system when human capital is increased as follows: the result is plotted in figure 4. the stock of social capital is increased. the household spends more hours on accumulating social capital and less hours on leisure and working. the national wealth, national output and total labor supply are enhanced. the total factor productivities are augmented. the two sectors are expanded. all the inputs are increased. the rate of interest falls. the price of consumer goods falls slightly. the wage rate is increased. the per unit time cost of accumulating social cost is increased. the per household wealth and consumption levels are enhanced. figure-4. human capital being increased. 4.3. the propensity to accumulate social capital rises we now allow the propensity to accumulate social capital to be enhanced as follows: we plot the simulation result in figure 5. the stock of social capital is increased. the household spends more hours on accumulating social capital and less hours on leisure. the household works less hours initially and less in the long term. the national wealth and national output fall. the total labor supply falls initially and rises in the long term. the total factor productivities are augmented. the consumer goods sector shrinks and the capital goods sector expands. the service sector’s capital input changes slightly and labor input rise. the two inputs of the capital goods sector are augmented. the wage rate falls. the price of consumer goods and rate of interest rise. the per unit time cost of accumulating social cost is enhanced. the per household wealth and consumption levels of two goods are enhanced. figure-5. the propensity to accumulate social capital rises. 4.4. the cost of social accumulation rises we study the movement of economic system when the cost function of social capital accumulation changes as follows: ( ( )) ( ) ( ) we plot the simulation result in figure 6. for a given level of social capital, it costs more for the household to accumulate social capital. opportunity cost of accumulating human capital rises. the stock of social capital and total factor productivities fall. the household spends less hours on accumulating social capital and more hours on leisure and work. the national output rises. the national capital rises initially and falls in the long term. the wage rate falls. the price of consumer goods and rate of interest rise. the total labor supply rises. the capital goods sector shrinks initially and expands in the long term. the consumer goods sector expands. the consumer (capital) goods sector’s capital input rise (falls). the per household wealth and consumption levels of two goods rise initially and fall in the long term. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 25-33 31 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure-6. the cost of social accumulation rises. 4.5. the depreciation rate of social capital rises we deal with the impact of the following fall in the depreciation rate of social capital we plot the simulation result in figure 7. the stock of social capital and total factor productivities fall. the household spends more hours on accumulating social capital and less hours on work. leisure time is slightly affected. the national output, national capital and national output fall. the wage rate and rate of interest fall. the price of consumer goods slightly changes. the capital goods sector shrinks initially and expands in the long term. the two sectors shrink. the per household wealth and consumption levels of two goods fall. figure-7. the depreciation rate of social capital rises. 4.6. the propensity to accumulate wealth rises we consider the case that the propensity to accumulate wealth rises as follows: we plot the simulation result in figure 8. the household has more wealth and the economy has more capital. the stock of social capital and total factor productivities are enhanced. the household spends less hours on accumulating social capital in the short term and more in the long term. the household works more hours and has less leisure time. the national output and national labor input rise. the consumer goods sector shrinks initially and expands in the long term. the capital goods sector expands. the wage rate is enhanced. the price of consumer goods and rate of interest fall. the per unit time cost of accumulating social cost is enhanced. the consumption levels of two goods fall initially and rise in the long term. figure-8. the propensity to accumulate wealth rises. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 25-33 32 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.7. social capital has lower return to scale in accumulating through producing we study the case that social capital has lower return to scale in accumulating through producing as follows: we plot the simulation result in figure 9. the stock of social capital and total factor productivities fall. the household spends more hours on accumulating social capital and less hours on work. leisure time is slightly affected. the national output, national capital and national output fall. the wage rate and rate of interest fall. the price of consumer goods slightly changes. the two sectors shrink. the per household wealth and consumption levels of two goods fall. figure-9. social capital has lower return to scale in accumulating through producing. 5. conclusions this paper constructed a neoclassical two-sector economic growth model with endogenous social capital in a competitive economy. the model describes nonlinear dynamic interdependence between economic structural change, wealth accumulation, and social capital accumulation under perfectly competitive conditions. this study assumes that social capital positively affects total factor productivities. we simulate the model. the model has a stable unique equilibrium point for the specified parameter values. the study focuses on effects of changes in some parameters on the equilibrium and transitional processes of the economic dynamics. we get some insights into interdependence between social capital and economic growth. for instance, if society has lower trust (possibly like in chinese societies when we interpret social capital as guanxi) which results in a rise in depreciation rate of social capital, the economy suffers from falling social capital, productivities, national capital, and national output; consumers have lower income, wealth, and consumption; they also have to spend more time on investing in social capital. the study can be extended and generalized in different ways. it is straightforward to do more comparative dynamic analysis. there are many models with extensions and generalizations of the solow model and the uzawa two-sector growth model. it is possible to further develop our model on basis of the literature. references beugelsdijk, s., & van schaik, t. (2005). social capital and growth in european regions: an empirical test. european journal of political economy, 21(2), 301-324. available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2004.07.004. bofota, y. b., boucekkine, r., & bala, a. p. (2016). social capital as an engine of growth: multisectoral modeling and implications. macroeconomic dynamics, 20(8), 2093-2122. available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/s1365100515000243. burmeister, e., & dobell, a. r. (1970). mathematical theories of economic growth. london: collier macmillan publishers. chou, y. k. (2006). three simple models of social capital and economic growth. the journal of socio-economics, 35(5), 889-912. available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2005.11.053. iyer, s., kitson, m., & toh, b. (2005). social capital, economic growth and regional development. regional studies, 39(8), 1015-1040. knack, s., & keefer, p. (1997). does social capital have an economic payoff? a cross-country investigation. the quarterly journal of economics, 112(4), 1251-1288. available at: https://doi.org/10.1162/003355300555475. putnam, r. d., leonardi, r., & nanetti, r. (1993). making democracy work: civil traditions in modern italy. princeton, nj: princeton university press. solow, r. m. (1956). a contribution to the theory of economic growth. the quarterly journal of economics, 70(1), 65-94. solow., r. m. (1995). but verify. the new republic, 11(september), 36-39. swan, t. w. (1956). economic growth and capital accumulation. economic record, 32(2), 334-361. uzawa, h. (1961). on a two-sector model of economic growth. review of economic studies, 29(2), 40-47. zhang, w. b. (2005). economic growth theory. london: ashgate. zhang., w.-b. (1993). a woman's labor participation and economic growth: creativity, knowledge utilization and family preference. economics letters, 42(1), 105-110. appendix: proving the lemma we now confirm the lemma in section 3. from (3) and (5), we obtain ̃ ̃ ( ) where we omit time index and ̃ ̃ ̃ insert (2) and (a1) in (3) ̃ ̃ ( ) we express ̄ and ̄ as functions of and ̄ ̄ equations (a1), (4) and (5) imply asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 25-33 33 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group ̃ ( ) we also have ̄ ̄ ( ) where insert (11) in (14) ( ̄ ̄ ̄ ) ̄ ( ) insert (5) in (a5) ̄ ( ) where ( ) ( ̄ ̄ ̄ ) from (8) and (11) we have: ̄ ̄ ̄ insert (a6) in (1) ̄ ̄ ( ) where ( ̄ ̄ ) ̄ equations (13), (a8) and (a6) imply ̄ ( ) ̄ ( ) equations (13) and (16) imply: ̄ ̄ ( ) insert (a1) in (a10) ̄ ̄ ̃ ̃ ( ) insert (a6) and (a9) in (a11) ̄ ̃ ̄ ̄ ( ) where ̄ ̃ ̃ ̃ ̄ insert (a4) in (a12) ̄ ( ) ̃ ̄ ̄ ( ) it is straightforward to check that all the variables can be expressed as functions of and at any point in time as follows: and by (a2) → by (a3) → ̄ by (a13) → ̄ by (a4) → by (16) → by (a6) → by (a7) → by (a8) → by (a9) → and by (a1) → by (2) → by (4) → ̄ and ̂ by (11). from this procedure, (12) and (17) we have: ̇̄ ( ) ̄ ̄ ( ) ̇ ( ) ̂ ̄ ( ) take derivatives of (a13) with respect to time ̇̄ ̄ ̇ ̄ ̇ ( ) insert (a14) and (a15) in (a16) ̇ ( ) ( ̄ )( ̄ ) ( ) we thus proved the lemma. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 17 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 1, 17-24, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401: / issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.17.24 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group recruitment and evaluation practices at the service of project-based organization and competence management: case of tunisian companies mohamed ali hedhili1 sami boudabbous2 ( corresponding author) 1doctor of management, university of sfax, faculty of economics and management, tunisia. 2professor of management university of sfax, faculty of economics and management, tunisia. abstract in recent years, the globalization of markets, the intensity of competition and the evolution of technology have forced companies to rationalize their management practices. two main consequences arise: first, the emergence of new forms of organization, in particular project-based organization (pbo), denouncing the principles of scientific management. second, the emergence of competence management has become an essential factor in the modernization of human resources management. this study aimed to understand how the relationship between pbo and competence management is effectively achieved. to this end, a qualitative research was conducted within tunisian companies operating in different sectors of activity. the results show that recruitment and evaluation are two essential practices at the service of pbo and competence management. the results provide managers with a better understanding of the competence management in the pbos. keywords: project-based organization, competence management, human resource management, recruitment, evaluation, qualitative research. jel classification: m11. citation | mohamed ali hedhili; sami boudabbous (2020). recruitment and evaluation practices at the service of projectbased organization and competence management: case of tunisian companies. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(1): 17-24. history: received: 6 december 2019 revised: 9 january 2020 accepted: 11 february 2020 published: 25 march 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 18 2. theoretical framework .................................................................................................................................................................. 18 3. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................... 19 4. discussion of results ...................................................................................................................................................................... 20 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 22 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 23 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.17.24&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1447 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3481-7874 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7709-2343 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1447 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3481-7874 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7709-2343 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1447 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3481-7874 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7709-2343 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1447 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3481-7874 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7709-2343 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 17-24 18 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study highlights recruitment and evaluation practices that promote the relationship between project-based organization and competence management. the research results enrich the existing literature questioning how to manage competencies in project-based environments. 1. introduction nowadays, researchers and practitioners have become increasingly interested in project-based organization (pbo) and competence management. in addition, human resource management is seen as an essential process for valuing competences in pbo (huemann, keegan, & turner, 2007; zia, pervaiz, & gill, 2014). furthermore, the specific characteristics of the projects (the temporary and unstable nature of the operations and the dynamic nature of the work environment) have fundamental effects on the management of human resources (bredin & söderlund, 2011; söderlund & bredin, 2006; zia et al., 2014). in this context, the configuration of human resources within project-based organization is constantly changing (yang, chen, wu, huang, & cheng, 2015). hence the need for new ways of reformulating the human resource management system to better adapt to the needs of such organizations (bredin, 2008; bredin & söderlund, 2006; huemann et al., 2007; turner, huemann, & keegan, 2008). these organizations require the implementation of competency-based human resources policies (medina & medina, 2014). the company must devote more attention to the link between the development of its competencies and the management of its projects. according to loufrani-fedida (2011) this relationship seems necessary for the survival of the company as it would maintain and strengthen its competencies and increase its capacity to master its projects. however, only very few researches have focused on mechanisms that improve competencies in pbos. some previous works have pointed to the need for more in-depth studies of human resource development in project-based environments (huemann., turner, & keegan, 2004; loufrani-fedida. & saglietto, 2016; söderlund & bredin, 2006; turner et al., 2008). for this reason, our objective was to provide elements of answer to the central question of our research which is formulated as follows: how do recruitment and evaluation practices promote the relationship between project-based organization and competence management? to this end, our research is based on a qualitative approach, centered on a series of semi-structured interviews that were conducted within tunisian companies operating in different sectors of activity. indeed, we preferred to interview project managers because they have a clear vision of the dissemination of competence management practices in their organizations. this article consists of three parts. in the first part, we try to clarify the relationship between project-based organization and competence management. in the second, we present the methodology of our research. the third part discusses the results of the research in relation to the existing literature. 2. theoretical framework the objective of this part is to explain the relationships between project-based organization and competence management by outlining the different definitions of the key concepts of the research. 2.1. definition of project-based organization project-based organization refers to different forms of organizations that involve the creation of temporary systems (hobday, 2000; lundin, arvidsson, brady, ekstedt, & midler, 2015). indeed, it is considered as a rapid and flexible response to the evolution of the main factors of success in an uncertain environment of globalization and competition. the concept of pbo involves a variety of terms and definitions, such as "project-based organization", "projectled organization", "project-based firm", "project-based enterprise "," project-based company ", etc. that have been proposed by researchers, consultants and practitioners (loufrani-fedida. & saglietto, 2016); (miterev, turner, & mancini, 2017). according to afitep-afnor (2000), project-based organization is defined as " an organization that structures its tasks and adapts its operating rules from and around the projects to be carried out ". however, this definition seems restricted, which is why several authors have tried to develop it. hobday (2000) identifies two types of pbos: first, "project-led organization", in which functional units exist, assigns a central role to the project in its activities and projects go beyond functional departments and influence organizational decision-making; however, they remain framed and coordinated under the authority of the hierarchical function. second, the most extreme form of project-based organization is exclusively managed by internal and external project activities, but there is no functional coordination of activities around the project. in both cases, the survival of the organization depends on the success of the project. defillippi and arthur (2002) proposed another more complex term. they define "project-based enterprise" as an organization created around a project that aims to achieve a specific result and disappears once the project is completed, as in the case of sporting events or the production and making of films, etc. lindkvist (2004) presents "project-based firm" as an organization that conducts the majority of its activities in project mode. this type of organization produces complex services and innovative tasks according to the needs of the clientele. this usually requires collaboration between companies (business to business environment) which in turn require the support and coordination of the functional units. in addition, the actors are affiliated with the organization rather than the project. koskinen (2010) used the term "project-based company" to describe organizations in which the majority of products are manufactured according to the specific needs of customers. this type of organization can be either a subsidiary of a large firm or a consortium of organizations. there is a multitude of terms and definitions that revolve around pbo. as for this work, we retain the term project-based organization, which is considered as the most preferred, in an undifferentiated way and we propose to understand it in its most general acceptance. we, therefore, adopt the definition mentioned by several authors, where project-based organizations are defined as organizations that conduct most of their production activities in the form of projects and favor the project approach to the functional approach. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 17-24 19 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.2. definition of competence management along with the emergence of new organizational forms that challenge the principles of scientific management, the new challenges of the economic environment and the development of new technologies have forced companies to rethink their business models towards more autonomy and accountability. this new context imposes the emergence of the "model of competence" (zarifian, 1988). competence management is defined as " a set of activities aiming at optimally exploiting and developing the competencies of individuals and groups with the aim of achieving the company's mission and improving employees’ performance" (van beirendonck, 2006). for defélix & retour (2008) " managing competencies is identifying personal achievements through the identification of all the activities carried out and developed within the different markets ". in addition, boyé and ropert (1995) assign three essential functions to competence management: first, the development of management reflected in the professional development of new knowledge in the company which often refers to training that reduces the gaps between required and acquired competences. this function is necessary for managers since it helps them to accomplish their tasks concretely. then, the valuation of competencies which highlights the knowledge of the employee’s acquired experience and qualification. this managerial approach consists of creating an atmosphere of versatility in which the individual can ensure the sustainability of his employability throughout his career. as a result, the company is expected to leverage and capitalize on the available competencies of its human capital to create a sustainable competitive advantage (hamel & prahalad, 1990). in this sense, valuing competencies " means networking them, organizing synergies between them so as to create added value impossible to obtain otherwise " (delavallée, 2006). finally, the optimization of competence which consists in improving the performance of the company. indeed, changes in the economic environment are pushing organizations to adapt the competencies of their human capital to the new challenges of increased competition to be more flexible (defélix & sanséau, 2017). in this context, the management of the company no longer seeks to reduce the cost of its workforce but to optimize the use of its competences. 2.3. recognition of relationships between competencies and projects with the rapidly changing technological environment, pbos need to manage their competencies to reconfigure and update their internal and external resources to support and leverage business opportunities. the term competence management was first used by hartman (1998) in the project environment. it consists of ensuring the quality of the project's successful completion and the efficacy of its processes and tools. indeed, competence management can be seen as the ability to manage projects efficiently through the application of good practices and methods in the project environment (gareis & huemann, 2000). for his part, hansen (2004) adds that competence management contributes to the development and improvement of the organization through the collaboration, communication and control of employees with processes and procedures of project-based organizations. söderlund. (2005) proposed a model for the development and support of competence management in pbo. this model is defined as " the ability of the organization to efficiently generate/select and implement/execute projects " (söderlund., 2005) and is composed of four interrelated domains:  project generation addresses the ability to undertake pre-tendering, tendering and project selection activities. different organizations use different techniques to take on and manage these activities in order to increase the success of their projects.  project organization consists of identifying the competence required to conduct the project efficiently. according to (söderlund.. & tell, 2009), organizational structures and collaborative arrangements are important for competence acquisition during the project’s lifecycle.  project leadership goes beyond the competencies of a single individual and mobilizes the collective capacities of individuals to support, motivate and coordinate the smooth running of projects.  project teamwork mobilizes the competencies available within the project team; the coordination of the different activities, the synchronization of interdependent processes and the communication between the different stakeholders of the project. according to havila and salmi (2009), söderlund's definition of competence management focuses only on the early stages of project development. these authors propose to add the notion of "project ending competence" which is defined as " the ability and skills of the organization and its employees to terminate the project so that internal and external project stakeholders and company relations incur as little harm as possible ". 3. research methodology in what follows, we present respectively the method of data collection, the description of the sample and the conduct of the interviews. 3.1. the method of data collection: semi-structured interviews to achieve our research objectives, we adopted a qualitative study through a series of investigations with project managers. this study aimed to understand how project managers think, express and perform in relation to a context or situation. it would allow us to better understand the research problem, through a maximum of information collected. we opted for the interview survey technique, which is the most widely used method in qualitative research in management sciences (roussel & wacheux, 2005). in general, it is defined as " a process of scientific inquiry, using a process of verbal communication, to gather information in relation to the goal set " (grawitz, 2001). as part of our research, we chose the technique of semi-structured interviews because it " achieves an often optimal compromise between the respondent's freedom of expression and the structure of the research " (romelaer, 2005). indeed, the interviewee responds as he/she likes, but with " freedom framed " by the researcher on welldefined topics. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 17-24 20 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3.2. sample description the choice of the sample is a crucial step in the qualitative study, it contributes to the wealth of information collected. it is a question of identifying the actors that are in a position to produce answers to the questions asked (blanchet & gotman, 2001). our qualitative study is not about generating representativeness in the statistical sense, i.e. the testing of the research hypotheses; however, it allows enriching the key concepts of the research. in fact, igalens and roussel (1998) state that exploratory research often involves data collection on a convenience sample. therefore, we chose to constitute a sample of reduced size. the selected sample must take into account the relevance criteria that relate to the structure of the project managers population in accordance with the research objective. our choice to focus on project managers only can be justified by two main reasons: first, they are the first responsible for the operation of their projects. second, they are more likely to have relevant information on competence management practices. in addition, we attempted to reconcile a diverse population sample. we diversified the individual characteristics of project managers contacted in terms of experience, age and gender. the number of businesses sectors in which the interviewees exercise their missions was also amplified. according to the recommendations of guba and linoln (1989), this profile diversity of allows reinforcing the relevance of the information collected through the different perceptions and visions of the respondents about the research. all semi-structured interviews were conducted with project managers. the number of interviews was not determined in advance and has been subject to the principle of semantic saturation (glaser & strauss, 2017). in other words, we stopped data collection when additional interviews no longer generate new information to the previous ones. the criterion of semantic saturation allowed us to reach the threshold of 28 semi-structured interviews. however, three more were added to confirm this saturation. as a result, the final sample of our qualitative study consisted of 31 tunisian project managers from different local and foreign companies. we interviewed 5 women (16.13%) and 26 men (83.87%). all those who agreed to participate in the interviews were tunisians. the average age of the sample was 39, ranging from 28 to 53 years. in fact, 11 interviewed people were below 35. interviewees had an average of 7 years of experience as project managers. despite the small size of our sample, it covered different business sectors: automotive, building and public works, oil and energy as well as telecommunications. indeed, the project managers were contacted from our own network of acquaintances: family members and friends. 3.3. the conduct of the interviews in order to successfully conduct the interviews, we followed the recommendations of quivy and van (2011). we conducted 31 face-to-face interviews in the workplaces of project managers interviewed for confidentiality and security reasons. we received a warm welcome and most respondents answered the questions in the interview guide outside working hours. the interviews were conducted during the last five months of 2016. moreover, an appointment was set in advance for each planned interview. the topics of the interview guide were announced without giving details to avoid biasing the interview process thereafter. the duration of these semistructured interviews varied between 1 hour and 1 hour 30 minutes, and this, according to the volume of information generated by the interviewee and his/her availability. besides, each interview was followed by the same protocol. we reassured the interviewed project managers about the anonymity and confidentiality of their statements to soothe them. for example, we mentioned that neither the name of the respondent’s nor his company’s name would be identified in the analysis of the research results. this situation made it possible to create a climate of trust between the interviewer and the interviewee. this seems important for the good quality of the information collected. we then proceeded to state and explain the context and objectives of the research. before starting the interview, we asked the interviewee to introduce himself/herself. we then administered the topics of the interview guide by inviting the interviewee to speak freely about the problems addressed as he/she perceives them. most interviews were conducted by crossing, often, two languages: french and arabic. we noticed that some interviewees were more comfortable expressing themselves in their mother tongue: tunisian arabic. nevertheless, some respondents used french words and phrases excessively. as a result, we made a considerable effort to translate their discourses into english. reformulations of verbatim transcripts were imposed not to lose their meaning. in addition, out of the 31 interviews conducted, 23 were recorded using a dictaphone, after having obtained the explicit agreement of the interviewees. the dictaphone helps keep the perceptions and thoughts declared. we used a few notes to remain focused on the respondents’ discourse. however, the nine other respondents refused to record their discourse for reasons of confidentiality. for example, one respondent states " excuse me, but ... i prefer that you take notes without recording my discourse, ... if you do not mind " (interview 15). as a result, we were compelled to take notes of these nine interviews. the verbal speeches from the interviews were entirely transcribed manually word-by-word on paper, in order to gather as much as possible of the qualitative data in accordance with the recommendations of miles and huberman (2003). we thus retain many pages in order to better understand the research problem. this transcription process was carried out without delay in order to ensure the accuracy of the respondents' statements. in addition, we neglected information that do not relate to our research topic (the social climate and politics of the country, national sporting events, etc.). 4. discussion of results in what follows, we will discuss the results obtained from the qualitative survey. we will compare these results with those found in some previous works in order to deduce the main conclusions from the research. the analysis of our interviews highlights the existence of two essential practices of competence management in project-based organizations: recruitment and evaluation. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 17-24 21 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.1. relationship between project-based organization and recruitment policy selecting a good project manager is a challenge for any pbo and is one of the most important elements of project management. the majority of the interviewees of the qualitative study say that the selection of the wrong person can lead to the failure of a project. " the role of the project manager is the most important in the execution of project tasks because he/she is the first person responsible for the success or failure of the project " (interview 10). it is therefore important to assign the most highly qualified person at the head of the project. a rigorous methodology is needed to recruit project staff, i.e. the development of recruitment methods is vital for selecting the appropriate project staff. in the light of the different discourses of the qualitative study, the hierarchical authority is the main responsible forhiring people with specific competencies related to the project environment. this vision is also shared by some interviewees who emphasize the pertinence of competencies when selecting project managers. " the project manager is someone who must have exceptional qualities: not only technical competencies but also relational and behavioral ones " (interview 17). " listen, a project manager must be chosen with great care, especially when it comes to competencies with all specific case and especially for the management of people " (interview 23). through the analysis of the semi-structured interviews realized, we note that the good selection of the project team members is also essential because these individuals are the driving force of the whole project. indeed, several studies highlight the important role of project staff as active actors in pbos. each project actor must possess particular competencies that differentiate him/her from other people. the selection process should focus on identifying potential employees who are able to work collaboratively. in this sense, the analysis of the qualitative study reveals that hiring a competent person from the beginning of the project is more reassuring than trying to change behaviors through training and supervision. selection criteria for project actors should focus on skills assessment: communication, problem solving, time management, decision-making, interpersonal competencies, initiative, creativity, etc. during the planning phase of the project, senior management must learn about the job requirements and must have an understanding of the project environment (duif & barry, 2011). the results of the qualitative study prove that senior management must ensure that the most suitable people are assigned to the right jobs. it is primarily responsible for preparing the job descriptions and identifying the specific competencies needed for the realization of the project. according to some interviewees, the project manager sometimes participates in selecting the members of his/her team: " yes, the project manager is responsible, he/she must make sure that the right person is in the right place " (interview 4). " the project manager is a decision-maker, so he/she has to participate with others in selecting his team members " (interview 18). " the project manager is the closest person to his collaborators, so he/she needs to know their competencies and abilities " (interview 26). according to the majority of interviewees, the organization needs to find a project manager using a competencies profile. this allows selecting the right candidate for the job. the existence of a competency model facilitates the recruitment process in project-based organizations. it consists of a set of competencies related to the project environment. similarly, the study by keil, lee, and deng (2013) reveals that the specific competencies of project managers must be ranked in the order of their importance. this allows companies to apply competency models to make informed and objective judgments about the selection of project managers who demonstrate great performance in their work. the competency model aligns the competencies required with the overall business strategy; which helps management to recruit the right people. el-sabaa (2001) has also developed a competency profile to improve the selection and performance of effective project managers. similarly, the model developed by patanakul (2011) highlights the competencies of the project manager in the recruitment phase. it helps senior management select the right candidate who will have the best performance in the project. finally, the study by wei, lai, and wei (2013) proposed a model that measures the level of imbalance in the project team which allows the project manager to carefully select the project team members to ensure the success of the project. in the recruitment process, management must evaluate not only the technical competencies but also the interpersonal competencies of the candidate based on a competence profile (lloyd-walker, french, & crawford, 2015). technical competencies refer to the ability to understand and apply various tools and techniques related to the project environment, while interpersonal competencies include decision-making, delegation and teamwork. indeed, several researches highlight these competencies when hiring project actors. the lack of interpersonal competencies is considered a major impediment to the success of the project. fisher (2011) identified that interpersonal competencies are more pertinent to some project industries, namely new technologies and construction. for this author, cultural competencies and behaviors must be an important part of the competency profile. similarly, chipulu, neoh, ojiako, and williams (2013) analyzing the content of several online job postings in eight countries, found that recruiters focus on hiring project managers who demonstrate interpersonal competencies rather than technical competencies. although the choice of project managers can lead to brilliant solutions to the technical requirements of the project, the lack of interpersonal competencies can lead to its failure. in other words, interpersonal competencies must be clearly made known to project staff. turner. and müller (2003) state that project managers must combine technical and interpersonal competencies to effectively conduct project activities. this is in line with the interviews of the qualitative study. the interviewees recognize that companies must necessarily select project managers who balance technical and interpersonal competencies. here are some extracts of the interviews: " normally, the project manager, besides the technical competencies that he/she must have, must lead his subordinate employees, taking into account his human, relational and managerial qualities " (interview 16). " listen, if you are a leader, you still need to have the qualities, and here the interpersonal relationships count a lot in project management " (interview 25). " the project manager is the boss and he/she must be a real team leader " (interview 31). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 17-24 22 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.2. relationship between project-based organization and evaluation policy the main objective of the evaluation process is to optimize the current performance of the project team members. indeed, traditional systems of evaluation have become increasingly ineffective. ahadzie, proverbs, and olomolaiye (2009) state that competencies must be taken into account in the evaluation of employees. the evaluation policy provides an analysis of the current state of the employee's competencies. it allows the project manager to better manage his team by improving the acquisition and exchange of knowledge and to monitor employees’ performance and progress. in this regard, one of the interviewees notes that: " the annual interview promotes dialogue, discussion, exchange and transparency between collaborators and supervisors so that organizational goals are not imposed but shared " (interview 28). the results of the qualitative study revealed that evaluations are very useful for predicting the performance of the employee's job. in addition, the evaluation policy identifies and resolves problems as well as competence gaps in order to keep a high-performance team. according to the interviewees' discourses, evaluation is not only about measuring the competence level of project managers but is more often used as a basis for reward, such as salary increases and bonuses, etc. " in the case of our project, project actors are evaluated on a regular basis not only to identify their strengths and weaknesses but also to establish appropriate training, reward and bonuses for certain employees " (interview 2). the evaluation also offers the opportunity to fill existing gaps in competencies through future training programs. in addition, the purpose of the evaluation process is not only to receive information on past performance results but also to allow the employee to discuss the perspectives of his career path with his evaluator. there are different competence models that can be used to recognize the current competence level of the project actor. in a study by von, wong, kanjanabootra, and taheri (2016) a computerized management model was implemented to facilitate competencies assessment. supervisors evaluate the competencies of a project actor by giving him/her a score from 1 to 10. judrups, zandbergs, and kazakovs (2015) proposed a competency model that addresses problems related to inaccuracy and subjectivity in the process of evaluation. these authors divided competencies into several groups. competence gap is the difference between the desirable and the real competence level. the identification of competencies gaps helps project actors understand their weaknesses which require considerable competencies development. this evaluation model enhances the employee's ability to operate effectively. the study by napier, keil, and tan (2009) developed an assessment tool based on a set of selected competencies. this tool helps to measure the current returns and predict the future performance of project leaders in the new technology sector. in addition, bočková, dohnanská, hilčíková, and vaníčková (2016) developed a model that evaluates project managers from a set of ranked competencies, namely: time, the ability to work in a team, communication skills, technical knowledge, aptitude and flexibility. cheng, dainty, and moore (2005) presented a model that evaluates project managers in the building sector based on 12 core competencies: achievement orientation, initiative, search for information, focus on client’s needs, impact and influence, directiveness, teamwork and cooperation, leadership, analytical thinking, conceptual thinking, self-control and flexibility. it is worth noting that some interviewees believe that self-assessment allows project staff to become aware of their level of competence and to seek opportunities for career advancement. this method consists of collecting and analyzing data on the competencies of the project actor. it provides reports on the current state of the individual’s competence. indeed, the use of self-assessment does not make it possible to directly evaluate the competencies; however, it takes into account the statements that describe behaviors related to the activities of the profession. the tool of self-evaluation is influenced by the individual's own intentions (motivations, experiences and personality). these results are consistent with those of liikamaa (2015) who applied the self-evaluation method to 750 project managers. the results showed that the most important competencies were leadership, initiative and conflict management. respondents in this study also felt the need to develop analytical thinking, stress management and decision-making skills, etc. based on the analysis of the qualitative survey interviews, it can be concluded that the line manager plays a key role in the evaluation of the project team. however, tensions can arise because the line manager does not sufficiently recognize the achievements made by the project team members. he/she cannot directly assess the competencies of the project actor, as he/she is sometimes located far away from the project platform. his role is to collect information from project managers to conduct a performance-based assessment. in addition, interviewees emphasized that project managers are best placed to assess the competencies of their teams. according to some interviewed project managers, the evaluation process contains a subjective dimension, as it is based on the evaluator's personal judgments. this sometimes produces results that are not perfectly reliable. the face-to-face contact between the project actor and his evaluator sometimes activates the negative emotions that provoke conflicts. " we often do an evaluation, but in my opinion, it is not always objective " (interview 1). " the grievances between the supervisor and the subordinate can easily affect the evaluation procedures as the manager may deprive his or her staff of some extra marks in the assessment " (interview 16). " in our project, there are always unclear relationships between the evaluator and the evaluated, nor should we forget the emotions that may affect the evaluation measure " (interview 19). 5. conclusion our research highlights recruitment and evaluation practices that promote the relationship between projectbased organization and competence management. thus, it offers an extension of the existing literature on the relationship between pbo and competence management (bredin, 2008; crawford, 2005; loufrani-fedida. & saglietto, 2016; söderlund & bredin, 2006). it is important to highlight the managerial contributions of this research: this article provides tunisian project managers with a better understanding of the competence management practices which they can use to ensure not only the maintenance but also the development of competencies necessary to meet the project needs. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 17-24 23 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group our research has a number of limitations: the first limitation lies in the choice of certain practices that we have chosen to comprehend the notion of competence in project-based environments. we limited ourselves to two practices: recruitment and evaluation. the second limitation relates to the fact that we did not introduce other socio-professional categories, such as leaders, executives and workers, into our sample. in fact, the information collected is essentially based on an examination of the perceptions of the projects managers. the third limitation refers to the small size of the study sample (31) which is far from being representative of the entire concerned population in tunisia. the limitations and contributions previously discussed open the door to new lines of research that can enrich the conclusions of our study. first, future research should be replicated in other areas of investigation and in different geographic regions in tunisia. this would allow us to enrich and further develop the results obtained. second, it would be interesting to conduct comparative studies between national and foreign companies to grasp the similarities and cultural differences relating to competence management approaches in project-based organizations. finally, the analysis of the results has provided an enriching perspective on the study of the relationship between pbo and competence management. since this research has some limitations, future studies would be necessary to better understand and explain the studied phenomenon. therefore, the completion of our research is not an end in itself but would constitute the opening to new research avenues. references afitep-afnor. 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(2014). correlation of human resource management & project management. international journal of research in business and technology, 4(1), 308-315. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 75 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 3, 75-79, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.4901 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group undergraduate students’ differential performance in introductory course to guidance and counselling at delta state university, abraka ossai, peter agbadobi uloku delta state university, abraka, nigeria. email: agbadobipeter@gmail.com abstract the study examined the differential performance of guidance and counselling and non-guidance and counselling students. the two categories of students received tuition in education 402, an introductory course in guidance and counselling. additionally, guidance and counselling students took other counselling courses in pursuance of their bachelor’s degree. the counterparts from the departments of educational management and foundations as well as library and information science, relied on the knowledge of the introductory course in guidance and counselling. descriptive survey design was employed in the study. a sample size of 121 students (50 from guidance and counselling department, 32 from educational management and foundations, 39 from library and information science) was drawn from the population of final year students (2020/2021 session) faculty of education, delta state university, abraka, a 3-item essay test items was the instrument the students responded to. the statistical tool was the independent samples t-test. the data analysed showed statistical significance in favour of guidance and counselling students. this is attributable to their knowledge of other courses in guidance and counselling. it is hereby recommended that students from other departments should be encouraged to take more courses in counselling to enhance their academic performances. keywords: course, differential, guidance, introductory, items, non-guidance, performance, students, test. citation | uloku, o. p. a. (2023). undergraduate students’ differential performance in introductory course to guidance and counselling at delta state university, abraka. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(3), 75–79. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.4901 history: received: 30 may 2023 revised: 6 july 2023 accepted: 26 july 2023 published: 16 august 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the delta state university, nigeria has granted approval for this study on 5 january 2023 (ref. no. delsu/gac/art/116/025). transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 76 2. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 77 3. data analysis and results .............................................................................................................................................................. 77 4. discussion of findings .................................................................................................................................................................... 78 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 78 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 78 mailto:agbadobipeter@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.4901 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6735-8718 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 75-79 76 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the study contributes to existing literature by examining the differential performance of guidance and counselling and non-guidance and counselling students. 1. introduction one of the characteristics of continuous assessment is that it is guidance-oriented, federal ministry of education (1995). in other words, it is diagnostic (egbule, 2005) since it gradually evaluates learners’ attributes and reveals their academic strength and weakness. apart from academic work, focus is also on non-cognitive learning outcomes such as integrity, punctuality, cleanliness, respect for people and other forms of human behaviour (okorodudu, 2012). ossai (2014) posited that many teachers treat information relating to students’ affective qualities with levity and “this will not help in moulding the character of our youths who are the leaders of tomorrow” (p. 24). it is known that the developmental problems of adolescents in nigerian schools are increasing alarmingly (obi & oji, 2014). according to these authors, counselling becomes very important to arrest the situation. this underscores the fact that guidance and counselling has important objectives in our education system. mishra and chaudhary (2018) summarised the aims of counselling. according to the authors, counselling geared towards bringing about the desired changes in the individual for self-relisation, assisting in problem-solving through intimate personal relationship, helping students in making the adjustments that are necessary for better academic pursuits and social life, and assisting individuals to achieve positive mental health. no doubt these objectives are tailored towards making learners succeed in academics and in general, society. it has been reported, (agi & okirigwe, 2018; bello, yunusa, yawudima, & ishaya, 2014; renuka, devaki, madhavan, & saikumar, 2013; ugoji, 2008) that guidance and counseling services impact on learners academic performances. several studies have also shown that the provision of guidance and counselling services positively influences students’ learning outcomes. tuchili and ndhlovu (2016) studied the effect of guidance and counselling services on students’ interpersonal study, vocational and problem-solving skills in some public universities in zambia. the objective of the study was to investigate whether students who received guidance and counselling services performed better than those who were denied the services. a sample of 105 students was used in the study. interviews, questionnaires and focus group discussions constitute the instrument employed in the study. data analysis showed that there was a statistically significant difference between students who received guidance and counselling services and those who did not. the study also showed that students who enjoyed guidance and counselling services were better developed in the interpersonal study, vocational and problem-solving skills than their counterparts in the control group. also salgong, ngumi, and chege (2016) examined the role of guidance and counselling in enhancing students discipline in secondary schools in koibatek district, kenya. a total of 2624 students, 23 principals, 23 school counsellors and 227 teachers constituted the sample of the study. the descriptive survey design was used in the study which employed questionnaire and interviews as instruments. data analysis revealed that guidance and couselling services improved students’ discipline and academic performance. this finding supports the work of tuchili and ndhlovu (2016). except in the design, the studies used the same instruments (interviews and questionnaire) for data collection. other studies were conducted by eremie and jackson (2019) and ibrahim, bandi, danyaya, sahabi, and abubakar (2021) as well as lubawa, ngirwa, and shavega (2021). eremie and jackson (2019) studied the influence of guidance and counselling services on the academic performance of secondary school students in rivers state, nigeria. a sample size of 664 students was drawn from secondary schools in port harcourt. the survey research design was used in the study. a questionnaire was the instrument employed in the study. mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions. t-test analysis showed that guidance and counselling services improved the academic performance of students. using teachers, principals, counsellors and students as salgong et al. (2016) and ibrahim et al. (2021) examined the impact of guidance and counselling services on the academic performance of students in some selected secondary schools in sokoto state, nigeria. a causal-comparative (ex-post facto) research design was employed in the study with the same size of 200 subjects (5 principals, 25 class teachers, 10 teacher-counsellors and 160 students from the secondary schools). four sets of questionnaires were used in the study. using descriptive and inferential statistics for data analysis, the study showed that 80% of the students said their academic performance changed positively after receiving counselling services; 72% of the teachers’ perceived students’ academic performance as good while 20% perceived students’ performance as very good. however, 8% rated students’ performance as bad. similarly, lubawa et al. (2021) investigated the influence of psychosocial guidance and counselling services on secondary school students’ academic performance, with specific reference to tanga city in tanzania. as did some of the authors in the works reviewed in this study, lubuwa and ngirwa had a sample of 423 subjects (330 students, 26 heads of schools, 33 guidance counsellors, 33 academic teachers and one city educational officer). a correlational research design was used. the instrument used was questionnaire. data analysis at .01 level of significance showed that there is a significant positive relationship between students’ access to psychosocial guidance and counselling services and their academic performance. all the studies reviewed showed the significant role that guidance and counselling services play on the academic performance of learners. the present study by this researcher is similar but the focus in on undergraduate students. the study sought to find out students’ differential performance in an introductory course in guidance and counselling (education 402). this is a core two-unit course taken in the final year (400 level students) at the faculty of education, delta state university, abraka nigeria. the aim of the course is to popularize guidance and couselling, create awareness about its usefulness and its role in the school and non-school settings (oghounu, 2021). students were categorized into those with additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services and those without. the former category of students have taken all the necessary guidance and counselling courses in the 3-year or 4-year teacher-education programme, in addition to the introductory course earlier mentioned. this category of students is in the department of guidance and counselling of the university. on the other hand, the latter comprises students in other departments of the university; these students were exposed to the introductory course only. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 75-79 77 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group 1.1. statement of the problem exposure to principles of guidance and counselling in school setting appears to enhance students’ academic performances. this is clear from literature on the influence of guidance and counselling activities on secondary school students’ academic performances. is this the same at the institutions of higher learning? this study is geared towards finding out the students who perform better in edu402 (introductory course in guidance and counselling). is it students who are in the department of guidance and counselling (who have taken this course in addition to their courses in guidance and counselling) or students who were just taught the introductory course? 1.2. research questions and hypothesis two research questions and one null hypothesis were addressed in the study as follows: research question one: what is the mean performance of students with additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services? research question two: what is the mean performance of students without additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services? hypothesis: mean performance in introductory courses in guidance and counselling services does not differ significantly between students with additional knowledge and those without additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services. 2. methodology the study examined students’ differential performance in an introductory course in guidance and counselling at delta state university, abraka, nigeria. descriptive survey design was employed in the study. the population comprised 1000 400-level (final year) students in the faculty of education. the faculty is made up of ten departments. three departments (department of guidance and counselling, library and information science, department of educational management and foundations) were chosen for the study. through simple random and sampling technique, a sample size of 121 students was selected. this was distributed as follows: guidance and counselling (50), library and information science (39) and educational management and foundations (32). students from guidance and counselling department had additional knowledge of guidance and counselling courses, besides knowledge of the introductory courses in guidance and counselling; the other two departments were simply taught the introductory course in guidance and counselling, that is they had no knowledge of the courses offered in the department of guidance and counselling. a three-item test (see appendix 1) was constructed by the ten lecturers and professors who taught the introductory course. a student had the opportunity of obtaining a maximum score of 100% (hundred percent). this was made up of 30% (pre-examination assessment) and 70% (examination). the significance of the 30% component lies in the fact that it controls discipline in the classroom (ossai, 2013) and it lays emphasis in affective qualities (ossai, 2014). for the purpose of data analysis, the sample was categorized as students with additional knowledge of guidance and counselling and students without additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services. students’ scores in the introductory course (education 402), were analyzed using independent samples t-test. since this study made use of essay test questions, there was no need to apply correction for guessing as done by ossai and enwefa (2020). there was no room for guess work as reported by ossai (2015). 3. data analysis and results the two research questions raised in the study were answered as follows: 3.1. research question one what is the mean performance of students with additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services? 3.2. research question two what is the mean performance of students without additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services? table 1. mean performances of students with additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services and those without the additional knowledge. variable n mean sd md additional knowledge 50 63.76 8.53 12.01 without additional knowledge 71 51.75 7.98 note: n=number, sd=standard deviation, md= mean deviation. table 1 showed that students with additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services had a mean score of 63.76 and a standard deviation of 8.53; their counterparts without additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services obtained a mean score of 51.75 and a standard deviation of 7.98. this shows a mean difference of 12.01 scores in favour of the latter group. 3.3. hypothesis test the only null hypothesis generated in the study was tested as follows: hypothesis: mean performance in introductory course to guidance and counselling services does not differ significantly between students with additional knowledge and those without additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services. table 2. independent samples t-test of analysis of mean performances of students with additional knowledge and those without additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services. variable n mean sd df t sig. result additional knowledge 50 63.76 8.53 119 7.925 0.000 sig. without additional knowledge 71 51.75 7.98 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 75-79 78 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group from table 2, the t-value is 7.925 while the p-value is 0.000; the p-value is less than the alpha level of .05; this prompted the rejection of the null hypothesis at 119 degrees of freedom. this implies that mean performance in introductory course to guidance and counselling services differs significantly between students with additional knowledge and those without additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services. 4. discussion of findings this study was geared towards examining the differential performance of students with additional knowledge and those without additional knowledge of guidance and counselling services. table 1 clearly showed that guidance and counselling students who had additional knowledge of courses in guidance and counseling services did better than their counterparts who just relied on the knowledge acquired from the introductory course to guidance and counselling services. this is amply demonstrated by the huge mean difference of 12.01 points. judging by the university’s grading system of five-point scale, the mean score of guidance and counselling students’ correspondents to 8 grade points while the mean score of students from other departments is equal to 6 points grade. one expects that the performance of the two categories of students would not differ since they were both exposed to the same knowledge of the introductory course to guidance and counselling services. the significant result from the hypothesis test further confirms the superiority of guidance and counselling students over their counterparts from other departments who did not take other courses in guidance and counselling services. the finding from this study is similar to results from earlier studies (eremie & jackson, 2019; lubawa et al., 2021; salgong et al., 2016; tuchili & ndhlovu, 2016) that reported improvement on students’ academic performance as a result of influence of guidance and counselling services. the study is, however, not in full agreement with the works of ibrahim et al. (2021). in the study carried out by ibrahim et al. (2021) 20% of the students studied did not show any positive change in their academic work after receiving counselling services. the study also indicated that 8% of the teachers rated students’ performance as poor after receiving counselling services. 5. conclusion knowledge of other courses in guidance and counselling services must have influenced the superior performance of guidance and counselling students compared to their counterparts who only relied on knowledge of the introductory course. the significant result amply demonstrates this. knowledge of concepts from other courses must have given guidance and counselling an edge over their counterparts from other departments. references agi, w. c., & okirigwe, n. u. (2018). teachers’ perception of counsellors’ role and students academic performance in public secondary schools in rivers state. international journal of innovative education research, 6(4), 79 – 92. bello, a. m., yunusa, a., yawudima, a. b., & ishaya, a. (2014). the need for guidance and counselling in post-primary institutions: a way forward for a sustainable development in nigeria education. international journal of innovations in educational methods, 6(1), 96 – 102. egbule, j. f. (2005). continuous assessment: a comprehensive guide for schools (revised ed.). lagos: functional publishing company. eremie, m., & jackson, s. (2019). influence of guidance and counselling services on academic performance of secondary school students in rivers state. journal of education and practice, 7, 14-21. https://doi.org/10.7176/jep/10-29-13 federal ministry of education. (1995). a handbook on continuous assessment. ibadan: heinemann press. ibrahim, s., bandi, i. i., danyaya, j. a., sahabi, m., & abubakar, i. (2021). impact of guidance and counselling services on academic performance of students in some selected secondary schools in sokoto metropolis. international journal of applied guidance and counseling, 2(2), 22-30. https://doi.org/10.26486/ijagc.v2i2.1926 lubawa, d., ngirwa, c., & shavega, t. (2021). influence of psychosocial guidance and counselling services on secondary school students’ academic performance: a case of tanga city, tanzania. east african journal of education and social sciences, 2(2), 144-156. https://doi.org/10.46606/eajess2021v02i02.0085 mishra, r., & chaudhary, p. (2018). guidance and counselling at secondary school: a review of literature. bpas journal of education, 1(1), 7189. obi, f. c., & oji, j. (2014). counselling for human development and adjustment of secondary school students in delta state: a panacea for proper transition into adulthood. delta journal of guidance & counselling, 2(1), 40 – 51. oghounu, a. e. (2021). unpublished lecture notes in guidance and counselling. abraka, nigeria: delta state university. okorodudu, r. i. (2012). understanding psychological measurement and evaluation. abraka: university printing press. ossai, p. a. u. (2013). using continuous assessment to curb bullying in schools. international journal of advancement in educational methods and management, 3(3), 94-100. ossai, p. a. u. (2014). reporting affective scores in school assessment: implications for counselling. delta journal of guidance & counselling, 2(1), 24 –31. ossai, p. a. u. (2015). gender differences in guessing tendencies in mathematics. british journal of education, 3(8), 78-85. ossai, p. a. u., & enwefa, c. (2020). undergraduate students’ achievement in gst 101 using corrected scores and uncorrected scores. journal of educational and social research, 10(2), 126-133. renuka, d. m. r., devaki, p. r., madhavan, m., & saikumar, p. (2013). the effect of counselling on the academic performance of college students. journal of clinical and diagnostic research, 7(6), 1086 – 1088. https://doi.org/10.7860/jcdr/2013/5247.3054 salgong, v. k., ngumi, o., & chege, k. (2016). the role of guidance and counselling in enhancing student discipline in secondary schools in koibatek district. journal of education and practice, 7(13), 142-151. tuchili, a., & ndhlovu, d. (2016). effects of guidance and counselling services on students interpersonal study, vocational and problem-solving skills in selected public universities in zambia. international journal of humanities, social services and education, 3(12), 14 – 20. https://doi.org/10.20431/2349-0381.0312002 ugoji, f. (2008). the impact of counselling on the academic performance of secondary school students. africa journal for inter disciplinary studies, 8(2), 67-73. appendix appendix 1. delta state university, abraka, faculty of education, department of guidance and counselling first semester examination question for 2020/2021 academic session. course title: introduction to guidance and counselling course code: edu 402 time allowed: 2 hours instruction: answer all questions https://doi.org/10.7176/jep/10-29-13 https://doi.org/10.26486/ijagc.v2i2.1926 https://doi.org/10.46606/eajess2021v02i02.0085 https://doi.org/10.7860/jcdr/2013/5247.3054 https://doi.org/10.20431/2349-0381.0312002 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 75-79 79 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group 1. (a) every profession is guided by its code of ethics and principles. as a counsellor, discuss five ethical issues that will guide you in relating with your clients and five principles which guide guidance and counselling practice in nigeria. (b) explain the functions of the school counsellor and that of any other guidance personnel. (c) write short but meaningful note on either educational services or vocational services. 2. (a) the basic foundations of the theory and practice of guidance and counselling tend to affect the practice of counselling. therefore, the counsellor should be conversant with them. explain the psychological and educational foundations. (b) discuss the advantages and disadvantages of individual and group counselling modes. 3. (a) as a classroom teacher who has done edu 402, you are posted to a school where there is no guidance and counselling unit, explain the steps you will follow in trying to set up one. (b) choose any one theory either from behavioural or trait and factor counselling theories and discuss it under each of the under-listed subheadings. (i) proponents of the theory. (ii) major postulation of the theory. (iii) goals of counselling. (iv) assumptions of human nature/personality. (v) methods and techniques of application. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 43 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 8, no. 2, 43-52, 2021 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2021.82.43.52 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group academic stress, psychological distress, coping and self-efficacy among undergraduate university students during covid 19 asma abid1 sheeba farhan2 tooba atif3 ( corresponding author) 1institute of professional psychology, bahria university, karachi, pakistan. 2assistant professor, institute of professional psychology, bahria university, karachi, pakistan. 3phd scholar, department of public administration, university of karachi, pakistan. abstract academic stress is the most common emotional or mental state that students experience during their studies. stress is a result of a wide range of issues, including test and exam burden, a demanding course, a different educational system, and thinking about future plans upon graduation. the aim of the current study was to investigate the relationship between academic stress, psychological distress, coping and self-efficacy among undergraduate university students during covid 19. the sample of the research was 302 undergraduate students (males=95 and females=207) with the age ranges 18 years to 25 years (m=1.41, sd=0.46), from the city of karachi. purposive convenient sampling technique was used. all the participants were provided with the link of google forms which comprised of the following measures: consent form, demographic form, perception of academic stress scale (bedewy & gabriel, 2015), kessler psychological distress scale (kessler & mroczek, 1992) , coping scale (hamby, grych, & banyard, 2015) and general self-efficacy scale (schwarzer & jerusalem, 1995) were used. for the statistical analysis spss version 22 was used. the analysis revealed that there is a significant predictive relationship of academic stress with psychological distress (r2 = .039, f = 12.18, p<.05), whereas significant negative relationship of academic stress with coping and self-efficacy is found (p<0.01). moreover, significant positive relationship is found between psychological distress and coping and significant negative relationship is found between psychological distress and selfefficacy (p<0.01). also, significant gender difference is found in the scores of academic stress and psychological distress (p<0.05). this study will help researchers, faculty and psychologist to increase their awareness of sources of academic stress among students, their coping and level of psychological distress and to develop an intervention plan to reduce academic stress and psychological distress among students. keywords: academic stress, psychological distress, coping, self-efficacy, covid 19, undergraduate university students. jel classification: i120, a20 citation | asma abid; sheeba farhan; tooba atif (2021). academic stress, psychological distress, coping and self-efficacy among undergraduate university students during covid 19. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 8(2): 43-52. history: received: 3 may 2021 revised: 20 may 2021 accepted: 1 june 2021 published: 14 june 2021 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 44 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 45 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 46 4. analysis and results ........................................................................................................................................................................ 46 5. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 48 6. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 50 reference................................................................................................................................................................................................ 50 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2021.82.43.52&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2993 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1462-1268 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6732-0362 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8826-5684 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 43-52 44 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the study contributes to the existing literature by investigating the relationship between academic stress, psychological distress, coping and self-efficacy among undergraduate university students during covid 19. 1. introduction the mental health of university students signifies an important and growing public health concern (eisenberg, gollust, golberstein, & hefner, 2007). university students are a distinct group of people that are facing a critical transitory period in which they are going from adolescence to adulthood and can be one of the most stressful times in an individual’s life (buchanan, 2012). adjusting in the environment, maintaining good grades, plan for the future often causes anxiety for a lot of students (buchanan, 2012). asian students generally experience high academic burden (lee & larson, 2000), low satisfaction regarding their academic performance, and high expectations from parents and teachers (crystal et al., 1994), and may experience more academic stress (ang & huan, 2006; ang, huan, & braman, 2007) than western countries. stress comes when the burden on an individual exceed to the resources he or she possesses. one model that can help in finding sources of stress among higher education students is the “person-environment model” (misra & mckean, 2000), which proposes that a person can perceive stressful events or situations as challenging. perceiving your academic goals and tasks as a challenge can leads to the stress and this stress sometimes create a sense of competence and improved learning capability of an individual (misra & mckean, 2000). however, perceiving your education goals as a threat or risk leads to that kind of stress which sometimes leads to the hopelessness and a threatening sense of loss, it can also negatively impact the academic achievement. academic stress is one of the most common issues among students. “it arises when academic related demands exceed to those available resources an individual possess”. wilks (2008). moreover, researchers have identified different source of academic stress which include large number of assignments, competition among classmates and fear of failure (fairbrother & warn, 2003), the semester system in the university, and lack of resources to achieve academic goals. students experience stress because of multiple factors which includes difficulty in managing time, financial issues, subjective goals, difficulty in adjusting in academic environment wilks (2008). also, academic stress must not be overlooked as it negatively affects the overall adjustment and mental health of the students (hussain, kumar, & husain, 2008). in pandemic situations when diseases like corona virus has strongly exist in pakistan and appear as one of the factor of stress among university students. covid-19 outbreak was treated as a case of pneumonia with unknown etiology first appeared in the wuhan city of china, at the end of december 2019 (sahin et al., 2020). on february 11, 2020 the world health organization (who) name the pneumonia as coronavirus disease-19 (covid-19) (rodriguez-morales et al., 2020) covid 19 was declared as the sixth public health of emergency services (sphec) by world health organization on january 30, 2020 (bilgin, kurtkulagi, kahveci, duman, & tel, 2020). the 2019-20 coronavirus epidemic has globally impacted all spheres of life (shahbaz, 2020). the lockdown has helped in preventing a larger growth and increase of the virus but its anticipated results are already being realized. education was one of the very first sectors to be affected by this lockdown (shahbaz, 2020). the shift of traditional mode of learning to online mode of learning will predict further stress for the students (grubic, badovinac, & johri, 2020). during this mode of learning students may experience reduced motivation toward studies, increased pressures to learn independently, disruption of daily routines, and potentially higher rates of dropout as direct consequences of these measures (grubic et al., 2020). as it has been reported that 81% of the students are experiencing increase stress due to covid 19 (best colleges, 2020). sudden adaptation to online learning was a challenge for many teachers and students who don’t have access to internet in their areas (khan, niazi, & saif, 2020). moreover, online education comes with procrastination, lack of interest, reduced motivation, and punctuality. one of the drawbacks of online learning is that some teachers and students are not techno savvy (nasir, 2020). other than that, one of the challenge is bad internet connection, and electricity issues in the country. moreover, online education is somewhat stressful for some students as going to school or university was coping mechanism for them, the students who has abusive parents or family, who are going through difficult life at their home, going to university was some kind of relief from that distress (fazel, patel, thomas, & tol, 2014; theodosiou, knightsmith, lavis, & bailey, 2019). facing all these situations during the lock down is highly affecting the mental health of the students. a study showed that 34% of the university students are experiencing anxiety during covid 19 whereas 45% are experiencing depression during pandemic (salman et al., 2020). the factors which can be contribute to this can be; not having proper routine as routine activities are way of coping for many students to deal with their distress (fazel et al., 2014; theodosiou et al., 2019). social distancing is also increasing psychological distress among them as it was source of comfort for students who are having abusive families (singh & adhikari, 2020; van den heuvel et al., 2013). psychological distress is mainly defined as “a state of emotional suffering characterized by symptoms of depression (e.g., lost interest; sadness; hopelessness) and anxiety (e.g., restlessness; feeling tense” (mirowsky & ross, 2002). these symptoms may combine with somatic symptoms like, insomnia, headaches, lack of energy) that are likely to differ across cultures (kirmayer, 1989). one of the researcher has discovered many risk factors that can lead to increase psychological distress among undergraduates, these are academic burden, financial issues and increased use of technology (kruisselbrink, 2013). in addition to this, there are two constructs that can help individual in dealing with their academic stress and psychological distress which are coping and self-efficacy (anand & devi, 2012; ganesan, talwar, fauzan, & oon, 2018; moeini et al., 2008). the coping approach an individual use is correlated with psychological distress either positively or negatively (mahmoud, staten, hall, & lennie, 2012; park & adler, 2003). other than that, if individual has enough belief on their abilities and skills that he can do this and is able to solve his problems, it can help in managing stress and psychological disturbances. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 43-52 45 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group coping is defined as an effort to prevent or diminish threat, harm, and loss, or to reduce the distress that is often associated with those experiences (carver, 2013). whereas coping strategies refer to the specific efforts which includes both behavioral and psychological that people use to tolerate, reduce or minimize stressful events (lazarus & folkman, 1984). there are two mains types of coping strategy one is problem focused (doing something active to reduces the stress) and other is emotions focused which is using your emotions to regulate the emotional consequences of stressful events (folkman & lazarus, 1985). empirical evidence suggests that the use of effective coping strategy plays a significant role in managing stress and helps students in dealing with stressful academic events (struthers, perry, & menec, 2000; wang & miao, 2009). moreover, the ability of students to cope with challenges in life can help to reduce psychological distress, in contrast inability to deal with stressful situation effectively can increase psychological distress among them. (crystal et al., 1994; mahmoud et al., 2012) stated that the use of appropriate and effective coping mechanism may safeguard the effect of stressful situations on physical and mental health of person. some people cope with stressful situation by using unhealthy means for example using drugs, smoking, overcoming which increase the level of distress among them whereas some use healthy means like meditating, listening to music (shaikh et al., 2004). there is another construct which can influence the mental health of individual which is self-efficacy (moeini et al., 2008; tahmassian & moghadam, 2011). the term self-efficacy refers to “individuals’ own beliefs about capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (bandura, 1986). according to bandura, pastorelli, barbaranelli, and caprara (1999) self-efficacy has a significant role in regulation of emotional states, its belief makes people able to interpret potentially threatening situations as manageable significant challenges and help them feel less stressful in such situations. bandura (1997) suggests that high self-efficacy can help in reducing the negative thoughts and concerns of potential threats, which leads to better emotional regulation. 2. literature review globally many studies have reported mental health related issues among undergraduate university students aged between 18 to 25 years. as one of the study was conducted to find the level of psychological distress among 1st year undergraduate university students they completed general health questionnaire, the results revealed that twenty one percent of the students reported clinically significant psychological distress (nerdrum, rustøen, & rønnestad, 2006). depression, anxiety and stress are found to be most common forms of psychological distress among university students (bayram & bilgel, 2008). khan, mahmood, badshah, ali, and jamal (2006) also found high prevalence of anxiety and depression. richlin-klonsky and hoe (2003) found that the level of stress among students can hinder their academic performance, it can also affect the student’s ability to involve or adjust in the environment of campus, and can increase the risk of substance abuse and other disruptive behaviors. in an advanced educational institution such as university where the burden and demands placed on the students is mainly based on time limit assignments and difficulty to stand out in tests or examination, students are at the high risk of experiencing stress (smith, johal, wadsworth, smith, & peters, 2000). kumar and jejurkar (2005); hall, chipperfield, perry, ruthig, and goetz (2006) found that academic stress tends to be high during the most active times of the semester when exams, papers, projects, presentations, etc. are frequent. arënliu and bërxulli (2020) conducted research during covid 19 to find out the level of psychological distress among students of kosovo during covid 19 results revealed that 24.7% students reported mild psychological distress, 13.3% reported moderate psychological distress and 11.4% reported severe psychological distress. the findings also revealed that students who spend more time on social media reported more psychological distress than others who do not (sahu, 2020). brooks et al. (2020) explore the impact of the quarantine on people and they found that it negatively impacts the mental health of people which includes post-traumatic stress symptoms, anger, confusion, infection fear, boredom, financial loss etc. khan et al. (2020) also found that 28.5% of the students is experiencing stress, 33.3% is experiencing anxiety and 46.9% is experiencing depression due to the pandemic situation. researches has been done to identify the factors which impact the academic achievement of the students and it was found that psychological problems, such as depression, anxiety, and stress significantly affect the academic achievement of the students (williamson, birmaher, dahl, & ryan, 2005). anbumalar, dorathy, jaswanti, priya, and reniangelin (2017) found that females are more academically stressed out than males. siddiqui, jahangir, and hassan (2019) conducted a research and found out that male scored high on depression than females and they highlighted the reason that in our society females get more social support and get a better chance for emotional attachment whereas males are more responsible for outdoor house hold tasks. mahmoud et al. (2012) revealed that use of maladaptive coping strategies such as self-blame, substance use, denial can increase level of depression, anxiety and stress among students. moreover, crystal et al. (1994) stated that the use of appropriate and effective coping mechanism may safeguard the effect of stressful situations on physical and mental health of person. a research found that problem focused and emotion focused coping with addition of moderate supports seeking is related to fewer symptoms of psychological distress among them (eisenbarth, 2012). bandura, freeman, and lightsey (1999) conducted a research and found a correlation of high self-efficacy with lower mental stress. 2.1. theoretical framework the proposed theoretical framework of the current study can be described by using transactional model of stress and coping given by lazarus and folkman (1984) and albert bandura theory of self-efficacy. this model will help in understanding relation between stress and coping and how it leads to positive and negative outcomes. the model proposes that when an individual face a stressor, they evaluate the situation in two way either as positive or negative, when a person appraises the situation as negative they feel threat or fear and when they appraise it as positive they feel secure about the situation as (primary appraisal), as well as their ability to change the situation and manage negative emotional reactions (secondary appraisal) (lazarus & folkman, 1984). as in the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 43-52 46 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group student population there are many factors that contributes to the development of academic stress and psychological distress during covid 19, some of them are online classes, increased workload, competition with peer (rawson, bloomer, & kendall, 1994), social distancing (singh & adhikari, 2020; van den heuvel et al., 2013), disturbed routine (fazel et al., 2014; theodosiou et al., 2019). the personal resources an individual possess, which includes coping strategies and self-efficacy can help individual in dealing with stress. coping strategies, a person is using can leads to positive outcomes like improved psychological well-being or negative outcomes like increased psychological distress. the model proposes that individual can overcome stress by changing the perceptions of stressors, finding healthy coping strategies and building belief and confidence in the abilities an individual possess. in addition to this your belief about handling the stressful situations can help in dealing effectively with the stressful situations. as theory of self-efficacy (bandura, 1997) proposed that if an individual perceives a task after it’s cognitive evaluation and according to his experience as difficult or threat one, it will increase the level of stress. moreover, if person has strong sense of self-efficacy it will help in dealing effectively with stressful situations. using lazarus and folkman theory of stress and bandura theory of self-efficacy proposed theoretical framework of the current study is developed which shows that there is one variable which is academic stress and other variable is psychological distress which is mainly the outcome of how an individual perceives a situation like covid -19 whether they perceive it as threat or as challenge. furthermore, the two variables coping and selfefficacy will help an individual in dealing effectively with stressful situations. coping and self-efficacy can help an individual in effectively dealing with stressful situation (lazarus & folkman, 1984). so, the aim of the present study was to find out the relationship between academic stress, psychological distress, coping and self-efficacy among undergraduate university students during covid 19. as this model propose that if an individual have enough belief on their abilities and if they are using healthy and effective coping strategies it can decrease the level of academic stress and psychological distress and will leads to the positive outcomes. so, in the current study relationship of coping and self-efficacy with academic stress and psychological distress was found and also the relationship between academic stress and psychological distress has found. 2.2. research hypothesis on the basis of the above-mentioned theoretical framework, following hypotheses has been framed for the current study. h1: there will be a relationship of coping and self-efficacy with academic stress among undergraduate university students during covid 19. h2: there will be a relationship of coping and self-efficacy with psychological distress among undergraduate university students during covid 19. h3: academic stress will be a predictor of psychological distress among undergraduate university students during covid 19. h4: there will be a gender difference in academic stress and psychological distress among undergraduate university students during covid 19. 3. methodology 3.1. sample and data the present study is based on quantitative correlational research design. the participants were recruited through a purposive convenient sampling, which included 302 undergraduate students of different universities age ranges from 18 to 25 years. those students who are in continuum studies and enrolled in semester and having online classes were included in the study. data was collected through online survey forms. 3.2. measures demographic information form was given to get brief knowledge about their demographic which included name, gender, age, marital status, family structure and year of study etc. the perception of academic stress scale is 18 items self-reported inventory developed by bedewy and gabriel (2015). it measures the level of academic burden or stress among students which is based on 5 points likert scale. the internal consistency of the scale is found to be α =0.7. the k10 is a 10 items self-reported inventory which was developed by kessler and mroczek (1992). the k10 was developed to measure nonspecific psychological stress by separating levels of anxiety and depression in the past 4 weeks (30 days). the k10 consists of 10 items gradually increasing in degree of severity concerning psychosocial and psychological factors targeted at assessing recent psychological distress. internal consistency of the scale found to be α = .93. the coping scale is developed by hamby et al. (2015) which is used to assess behavioral, cognitive and emotional methods of dealing with problems. it consists of 13 items and 4 points likert scale. the internal consistency of the scale is α =0.91. the general self-efficacy scale is a 10-item psychometric scale that is designed to assess positive self-beliefs to cope with a variety of difficult stresses in life. the scale has been originally developed in german. in 1995 english version was developed by schwarzer and jerusalem (1995). it is a 4-points likert scale. the internal consistency of the scale is found to be between α = 0.76 to 0.90. 4. analysis and results the present research has been analyzed by using statistical package for social sciences (spss 22.0). the demographics and their percentages have been shown in table 1. the total sample consisted of 302 participants. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 43-52 47 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-1. descriptive statistics and alpha reliability coefficient, univariate normality of study variable. variable f % n 302 302 gender male 95 31.5 female 207 68.5 birth order first born 95 31.5 middle born 125 41.4 last born 82 27.2 family system nuclear 247 81.8 joint 55 18.2 year of study 1st 66 21.9 2nd 72 23.8 3rd 86 28.5 4th 78 25.8 department engineering 32 10.6 psychology 126 41.7 management sciences 37 12.3 computer science 50 16.6 humanities and social sciences 8 2.6 others 47 15.6 any person with covid 19 in family yes 66 78.1 no 236 21.9 table-2. descriptive statistics and alpha reliability coefficient, univariate normality of study variable. scales no. of items n α m sd skewness k range actual potential academic stress 18 302 0.74 43.13 9.76 0.63 0.33 24-72 18-90 psychological distress 10 302 0.57 33.7 6.51 -0.92 2.62 10-50 10-50 coping 13 302 0.47 33.93 5.85 0.30 0.00 17-50 13-52 self-efficacy 10 302 0.80 24.06 5.43 -0.54 0.49 10-40 10-40 note: n= no of participants, a= coefficient of alpha, m= mean, sd= standard deviation, sk= skewness k= kurtosis. table 2 shows the cronbach alpha reliability coefficient, mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis and the actual and potential ranges of the scales used in the present study. table-3. bivariate correlation table of academic stress, coping and self-efficacy. academic stress coping self-efficacy academic stress pearson correlation 1 -.288** -.298** sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 n 302 302 302 coping pearson correlation -0.288** 1 0.191** sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 n 302 302 302 self-efficacy pearson correlation -0.298** 0.191** 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 n 302 302 302 note: **p<0.01. table 3 shows the relationship between academic stress, coping and self-efficacy. the table denotes a significant weak negative relationship of academic stress, coping and self-efficacy. table-4. bivariate correlation table of psychological distress, coping and self-efficacy. psychological distress coping self-efficacy psychological distress pearson correlation 1 0.206** -0.094 sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.051 n 302 302 302 coping pearson correlation 0.206** 1 0.191** sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 n 302 302 302 self-efficacy pearson correlation -0.094 0.191** 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0.049 0.000 n 302 302 302 note: **p<0.01, *p<0.05. table 4 shows the relationship between psychological distress, coping and self-efficacy. the table denotes a significant weak positive relationship of psychological distress with coping whereas significant strong negative relationship between psychological distress and self-efficacy. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 43-52 48 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-5. linear regression analysis table for academic stress and psychological distress. model b se β t f p 95% ci lb ub (constant) 39.07 1.57 24.77 35.96 42.17 pas -0.124 0.036 -0.198 -3.49 12.18 0.001 -0.19 -0.05 r=.198 r2=.039 ∆r2=.036 *note: p<0.05, ci=confidence interval, ll=lower limit, ul= upper limit. table 5 indicates that the model explained 3.9% of the variance and that the model is significant, (f = 12.18, p=. 001). table-6. mean, standard deviation and t value for gender based on academic stress and psychological distress. m sd t sig. 95% ci ll ul academic stress male 40.43 8.84 -3.31 0.001 -6.28 -1.59 female 44.37 9.93 psychological distress male 35.16 5.76 2.839 0.005 0.65 3.62 female 33.02 6.22 note: p<0.05. n= no of participants, m= mean, sd= standard deviation, ci= confidence interval, lb= lower bound, ub= upper bound. table 6 shows mean difference in the scores of male and female on the variables academic stress and psychological distress. 5. discussion studies have suggested that public health emergencies can affect the mental health of the students which can be expressed in the form of fear, stress, anxiety or depression. the main goal of the present research was to explore the association between academic stress, psychological distress, coping and self-efficacy among undergraduate university students, using self-reported questioners. earlier researches have proven the relationship between the above-mentioned variables which was done in past but this study is been conducted in the covid 19 pandemic where there is shift from traditional to online learning which has impacted the educational sector and the students population most. according to the first hypothesis of current study “coping and self-efficacy will be negatively correlate with academic stress”. previous researches have been shown that coping and self-efficacy has negative relationship with academic stress and it has also revealed from the current study. significant and weak negative relationship has found between coping and academic stress that is (r = -.288, p = .000). coping is the term which is defined as an effort to deal with threatful situations. each undergraduate student experience some form of stress during their academic period and the reasons can be work load, practical work related to the field and expectations of the parents. when an individual use healthy coping strategy he/ she can effectively deal with academic stress. the finding of the current study shows that coping is negatively correlates with academic stress, a study also reveals inverse relationship between coping and strategies and found that the students who are unable to cope with the threatful situation experience greater stress than those who are able to cope (ganesan et al., 2018). when the student use solution focused coping strategies, looks for the possible solutions of the problem, puts mental effort to deal with threatful situations, finds positive out of the situation, it helps the individual in dealing with the stressful situations and also decreases level of academic stress. as one of the findings is also supporting this, (struthers et al., 2000) revealed that undergraduates who are involved in problem focused coping strategies are more motivated towards studies and do better than those who used emotion focused coping strategies. one of the study has shown that most preferred coping strategies by students were problem and emotion focused to deal with the stress (poon, lee, & ong, 2012). in the pandemic situation it is somewhat stressful for the students to take online classes as it is also increasing stress among them but the students who use healthier and solution focused coping strategies can effectively deal with this kind of stress. the correlation between self-efficacy and academic stress has found to be (r = -.298, p =.000) which is significant but weak. self-efficacy is the term which was given by albert bandura and defined as “individual belief about the capabilities she/he possessed and the belief that they can do it”. the main factors found for the increased academic stress among undergraduate students are parent’s expectations, entering into the field of disinterest, high competition with peers, all of these factors lead to the emergence of academic stress among the students and in the current pandemic situation of the country which has affected all the domains of life and when there is shift from traditional learning to online learning which has also proven the main source of stress among students because this is the first time when government had suddenly adapted online mode of learning and no one was mentally prepared for that which has greatly impacted the students and they are also experiencing lack of motivation towards the study and there is increased procrastination among them, which leads to the greater academic stress among them. according to bandura’s self-efficacy theory (bandura, 1997) individual’s own belief is significant predictor of their performance. moreover, self-efficacy is found to be effective in term of coping with stress. one of the research (galla & wood, 2012; muris, 2001) has proved that stress does not affect every student equally, those student who has high self-efficacy may experience less stress. studies shows that people who have high self-efficacy also possess good self-esteem and psychological wellbeing (beri & jain, 2016; dogan, totan, & sapmaz, 2013). according to choi, kluemper, and sauley (2013) self efficacy is effective in dealing with stress and developing life satisfaction. individual with high self-efficacy is more resistant to stressful life events. along with these factors when an individual develops enough belief about themselves, the belief that they can do this and that they have enough capabilities to overcome stressful events, it helps individual overcoming the stress he or she is facing. as one of the study has shown that people who have good emotional regulation are effectively able to deal with stressful asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 43-52 49 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group situations (lazarus & folkman, 1984). the above-mentioned studies are supporting the results of the current study that academic stress is one of the significant problems in university life where competition is tough. finding of the current study represents that high self-efficacy is the tool which can help in reducing the academic stress an individual is experiencing. like in the pandemic situation where online learning is the main source of stress among students but those students who possess high self-efficacy, has enough belief on oneself will be able to deal with it effectively and will find source of joy in it. in educational psychology self-efficacy has proven an important predictor of academic performance of the students (vuong, brown-welty, & tracz, 2010). when an individual has enough capabilities to cope with the stressful situations and they have toolbox which contains healthier coping strategies and there is another factor which impact the use of those coping strategies and that is self-efficacy the belief an individual has on his own capabilities. when coping and self-efficacy combines with each other it helps a person in effectively dealing with the stress he or she is facing. as bandura’s theory of selfefficacy propose that perceived self-efficacy influences the coping initiated to deal with the challenging or stressful situations (bandura et al., 1999). the second hypothesis of the current study was “coping and self-efficacy negatively correlate with psychological distress in undergraduate university students”. significant and weak positive relationship has found between coping and psychological distress that is (r = .206, p = .000). previous researches are also supporting the finding of current study as one of the study has shown that students who are using negative coping strategies like self-blame are more psychologically distress than those who adapts healthier coping strategies (masiran et al., 2018). the relationship between coping and psychological distress is mainly depends on the nature of coping mechanisms individual use, if a person is indulging in unhealthier coping strategies like denial, self-blame it will leads to the higher level of psychological distress. moreover, when an individual use more effective coping strategies like solution focused or problem focused coping strategies it will help them in dealing with stressful situation and when they effectively deal with stress it will increase their psychological wellbeing and reduce the psychological distress. because when any threatful situation occurs it depends on individual that how they perceive it, if they perceive it as threat it will increase level of stress among them which automatically leads to the increased psychological distress and will affect a person negatively. likewise, if person feels secure in this situation and perceive it as challenge, a chance for growth it will reduce the level of stress and leads to the improved psychological wellbeing (lazarus & folkman, 1984). significant and weak negative relationship has found between self-efficacy and psychological distress that is (r = -.094, p = .049) which means that if person has high self-efficacy it will leads to less psychological distress. previous researches are also supporting the finding of the current study. when an individual develops enough belief on their capabilities and has belief that they can overcome with the stressful situation, it can help person in overcoming with that situation and also leads to improved mental health and reduce the risk of psychological distress. as one of the findings revealed negative correlation of self-efficacy with the mental stress (bandura et al., 1999). another study has shown negative relationship between self-efficacy and symptoms of depression and anxiety (lenz & shortridge-baggett, 2002). self-efficacy also affects the way people fell, think, and motivate themselves. when an individual has strong sense of self-efficacy it also enhances human accomplishments and improve personal wellbeing. moreover, also reduce vulnerability to depression and anxiety. the individual who has doubt in their capabilities and fear of stressful situation are more prone for the development of depression and anxiety (lenz & shortridge-baggett, 2002) found out that positive self-efficacy is effective in the treatment of mental distress. third hypothesis of current study was “academic stress will predict psychological distress in undergraduate students’’. results of the current study concluded that academic stress significantly and negatively predict psychological distress (β = -.198, p=.001). one of the reason for negative correlation between academic stress and psychological distress can be as this study is being conducted on the healthy population and on the students, and most of them may be able to cope easily with the stress they are facing by using healthy coping strategies. moreover, this study was conducted during the covid 19, in the lock down situation of country, when there was decreased in socialization, outing, focus of most of the students were shifted towards their studies and this might be the reason for decrease in level of psychological distress among them. although online classes were stressful for them but the use of healthier coping strategies made them able to deal with stress effectively. one of the finding of pakistani research conducted during covid 19 is supporting the finding of the current study, as they found out that most of the students get engaged in healthier coping strategies like finding comfort in religious activities, doing meditation, praying etc. during pandemic (salman et al., 2020). the use of healthier coping mechanisms to overcome academic stress can be one of the reasons for decreasing psychological distress among students. pierceall and keim (2007) also found out that most often coping strategies used by the students was healthier like talking to family and friends, getting involve in leisure activities. the fourth hypothesis of the current study was there will be a gender variance in academic stress and psychological among undergraduate students. the results of independent sample t test show the significant difference in the scores of academic stress and psychological distress among males and females. (p < 0.05). it shows that female experience greater level of academic stress than male. one of the reasons for high academic stress among females can be for them academic life is very important and they have greater fear of academic failure than males, other than that the competition among females are higher than male. one previous study found that females have more academic stress than male (eisenbarth, 2019). jones and hattie (1991) also found that females are more academically stressed than males, they also stated that the reason for high academic stress among females that they are more concern about their performance therefore, they worry more about academic failure. another reason could be females are more passionate about their career and are more hardworking and dedicating towards their studies, and set competition with their peers. madhyastha, latha, and kamath (2014) also revealed that females have more academic performance stress than males. moreover, as in the pandemic situation when there is online system of learning and workload of assignment has been increased, all of the submissions are to be made online, and for the exams purpose and assignments they have to search thoroughly on different sources unlike in the traditional exams where you have to memorize limited stuff, it can also be one of the factors for increasing academic stress among asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(2): 43-52 50 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group females. also, female students are more concerned about their grades and about the perfectionism of their work, it can also contribute to the high level of stress among them. gender wise comparison of psychological distress shows significant difference in the scores of males and females (p < 0.05). it shows that males experience high psychological distress than females. the reason for greater psychological distress among males can be as in the pandemic situation due to social distancing and lock down situation of the country, they are bound to their homes, cannot go for outing which might be increasing psychological distress among them. also, in our culture women are considered to be dependent on men and they get sympathy and support from other family members, they get channel to channelize their emotions, whereas male are usually told to handle their emotions, and not to show out, which increase frustration among them and this could be one of the reason for increased psychological distress among them. siddiqui et al. (2019) conducted a research and found out that male scored high on depression than females and he highlight the reasons that females in our society gets more social support and get a better chance for emotional attachment whereas males are more responsible for outdoor house hold tasks. 6. conclusion the aim of the present study was to find the relationship of coping and self-efficacy with the academic stress and psychological distress. statistical analysis of the results shows that coping and self-efficacy has significant but weak negative relationship with academic stress. however, it was found that self-efficacy has negative relationship with psychological distress but coping has positive relationship with psychological distress. another objective was to explore whether academic stress predicts psychological distress among undergraduate university students and the statistical analysis of the results shows that academic stress negatively predicts psychological distress. moreover, gender wise comparison of the results revealed that academic stress was found high among females whereas psychological distress was found high in males. year wise comparison was also done and it was found out that second year students experience more academic stress than others whereas psychological distress was found high in fourth year students. references anand, n., & devi, n. 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(2005). stressful life events in anxious and depressed children. journal of child & adolescent psychopharmacology, 15(4), 571-580. available at: https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2005.15.571. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 8 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7 no. 1, 8-16, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.8.16 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group from rags to riches: corporate elite of pakistan from 1947-1970 ayesha shoukat assistant professor, islamia university of bahawalpur, pakistan. abstract this paper focuses on the historical narrative of the establishment and development of corporate elite of pakistan in almost twenty years which became a symbol of a success story to follow in those years. literature cover this area under the concept of industrial development and resource allocation but less work is done on it with the power elite approach under political economy perspective. this paper argues that it is due to collusion and contestation of the existing elite of that time, that a new elite, corporate, was established and then was nurtured by other elites to safe guard their own vested interest. the private investors who turn up to be big business groups within two decades used networking among themselves via family links and playing active role in politics. this act of developing corporate elites was aided by international affairs which in turn enhanced the economic and political influence of business groups. keywords: corporate elite, industrial policy, political system, regime shift, networking. jel classification: e02, b52 , l16, l52, d72, d74. citation | ayesha shoukat (2020). from rags to riches: corporate elite of pakistan from 1947-1970. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(1): 8-16. history: received: 11 november 2019 revised: 16 december 2019 accepted: 21 january 2020 published: 27 february 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 9 2. corporate elite as new power elite in pakistan ....................................................................................................................... 10 3. road map of corporate elite to expand from 1947-1970 ..................................................................................................... 13 4. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 15 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.8.16&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1358 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1358 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 8-16 9 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper provides the success story of the corporate elite of pakistan in early twenty years of the creation of pakistan. it had theoretically proved the application of the power elite theory of mills (1956) on the real scenario of collusions and contestations among power elites of this part of the world and how it had given birth to a new elite i-e, corporate elite. who later on played a vital role in crafting the ruling elite of this society. 1. introduction there are two primary reasons for this focus on corporate elites. first, is the fast growth of this elite group in a country which had started with almost zero industrial heritage and infrastructure. second is the ability of corporate elites to acquire control of 66 per cent of total industrial assets, 70 per cent of the insurance sector and 80 per cent of the banking industry within the first twenty years of independence in 1947, a factor that changed the basic structure of the economy and political horizon of the country (haq, 1976). a few corporate elites had contributed to the pakistan movement, but how much their participation helped them to acquire top positions in the corporate sector has yet to be answered. for example, among the founders of the muslim league there were a few muslim manufacturers, the most notable being adamjee pirbhai aga khan1 (later elected as the first president of the league), despite being head of the ismaili community2. he was closely connected to leading muslim manufacturers in bombay0 (hussain, 1985). the other aspect to be investigated is how these corporate elites then utilized their influential position in society and government to further develop their corporate base. to create a complete picture of the development of the corporate sector, there is a need to understand how new business groups entered the corporate sector and went on to become major enterprises.3 1.1. corporate elite useem (1983) analyzed the corporate elite of america and britain and defined them as those comprising men and (a few) women who were in a position to exercise a major influence on the decisions and policies of large companies. the early 1980s was a time when the governments of both countries followed a “supply side economics” philosophy and radical reductions in state social services and traditional safety nets. useem’s work focuses on the resultant strategies and activities of the large corporations towards the government’s pro-business activities. he discussed in detail how corporate elites obtained power and then manipulated the governance of political parties in their own interest. he emphasized multiple in-house strategies opted by corporate elites in the shape of philanthropic activities and nonprofit organizations to sustain their strong stance and position in the society. these corporate elites whom he called an “inner circle”4 obtained the leadership of major business associations, own most of the media channels and financially support political parties and candidates. this study assesses the corporate elite of pakistan under these domains. in pakistan, corporate elites played a critical role at the time of independence and have been an important power source since then. however, the interesting thing about the corporate elites of pakistan is the contestations among them. analysts consider these contestations among the corporate elites of east and west pakistan as the major reason for the division of the country in 1970 and the creation of bangladesh. the corporate elites of west pakistan had been so powerful and influential in policy decisions that it was not considered wrong when the east bengal professional elite (ebpe) accused corporate elites of treating their province as a colony that could be exploited for its raw materials and resources (ali, 2001). pakistani corporate elites have been facing numerous internal and external issues. as emerging elites, they have always been under the social influence of bureaucrats and landlords. being corporate people, their focus involved securing high profits; but they have been entangled in caste and class conflicts too. in an interview with me, one famous political analyst, dr. imran ali, who has extensively studied business groups of pakistan mentioned that corporate elites have always been involved in unproductive social competition with feudal lords who have long had a lavish life style, one they inherited from their ancestors. pakistan is a society of social classes. landlord elites historically are following a lifestyle of lavish living. corporate elites, after securing good profits, strove to compete with each other and other elites by spending extended on lavish lifestyles. at the start of industrial development, such wasteful expenditure should not have been the case as the country needed reinvestment of profits in the industry rather than nonproductive expenditures. to win the race of extravagant lifestyles, pakistan’s corporate elite tried to be in the limelight by spending extraordinary on lavish villas and cars, rather than industrial units. for example, during the development decade (1958-68), over us$300 million was spent on the import of private cars while us$20 million was spent on public transport. at that time private luxury housing accounted for 80-90 per cent of the construction that took place in the country (white, 1974). 1 the adamjee group, though a corporate elite in the early days of pakistan, lost its position and today is no longer among the top companies. in less than two decades, the adamjee group established and managed over forty industrial and financial enterprises in east and west pakistan, burma, thailand, malaysia, lebanon and the united kingdom. in 1971, due to ethnic and social differences between east and west pakistan, a civil war broke out. this ultimately resulted in the bifurcation of the east wing, leading to the creation of independent bangladesh. the newly-formed socialist government of bangladesh took control of all major industrial and financial institutions. the adamjee family lost all its assets in bangladesh and was compelled to shift its group headquarters to karachi. on the western front, the group became the subject of public criticism following the propaganda of anti-trust laws concerning monopolistic business families of the country. as a consequence of this movement, a large segment of its assets in west pakistan was also lost under prime minister z.a. bhutto's nationalization programs in 1974. source: (http://www.adamjees.net/history.aspx) 2 the ismailis are the only muslim business community working in the geographical area which later became pakistan. members of this group also have a business presence in calcutta and bombay. 3 for example, the jahangir saddique group, schon group and best way group have been operating in the corporate sector for more than 30 years and now are among the top in the list of industrialists. 4 useem identified the inner circle as those individuals who have been personally approached by senior government officials with a request for reactions to a “shortlist” of candidates for appointment to major advisory bodies or even top administrative posts. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 8-16 10 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group according to mahboob-ul-haq, for all practical purposes, 22 families had become by 1968 both the planning commission and the ministry of finance for the private sector. they pre-empted most investment permits, import licenses, foreign credits and government patronage because they controlled or influenced most of the decisionmaking forums handing out such permissions. they had virtually established a stranglehold over the system and were in a position to keep out new entrepreneurs. ethnic disputes among corporate elites had not let them gain the economic position which they could have secured if they had worked together and with other elite groups. such ethnic and social factors justified their shape till the 1980s. however, after this period when the local corporate elite had to face global competition, along with the neo-liberal policies of the government, how they responded to these issues and what new strategies were followed by those big corporate names has still not been researched. as dr. kaisar bengali said in 2009, there had been no industrial policy for the last 30 years after the country was transformed from a developmental state to a security state5. this research focuses on these factors which had an impact on the corporate elite and how they sustained in it. 1.2. tools used by corporate elites corporate elites around the world always use networks as a tool to collude with each other and other power elites to expand their profits and businesses. davis et al. (2003) did research the networking patterns of corporate elites and the stability of these ties. they found that the aggregate connectivity of the network is remarkably stable and appears to be an intrinsic property of the interlock network, resilient to major changes in corporate governance. they used concepts from “small world” analysis to explain their findings that the structure of the corporate elite is resilient to macro and micro changes affecting corporate governance. for networking analysis, the sample studied and considered by mills (1956) was a small set of private schools, while groton and exeter provided an essential agency for socializing and organizing members of the upper class, and mintz and schwartz (1985) argued for a special role for money-center banks in knitting together corporate directors. davis et al. (2003) suggest that the small-world organization of the corporate elite is an emergent property of networks-qua-networks and requires no coordinating mechanism. these scholars suggest that no specific mechanism is followed by corporate elites for networking and it keeps changing as per the events occurring in a country. the other school of thought involving the “old school boy” network argues that corporate elites in each society follow certain channels and networks to develop links and liaisons with others which are later useful for future progress (bell, 1994; schaede, 1995). berle and means (1932) explored the evolution of big business through the legal and economic lens and argued that in the modern world those who legally have ownership over companies have to be differentiated from those who control them. later, domhoff (1967) employed berle and means’ concept of ownership and control in his investigation of the corporate structure of america, specifically to trace the flow of power, through elite-based networks of the country. while studying pakistan’s business groups’ ownership and control structure, it was found that as most of them are family business groups so control was with the major shareholders. the average shareholding by family members and the associated companies of the group came up to 30-35 per cent. this makes the boards of directors who primarily constitute family members the major decision-makers and they control the managerial decisions as well. 2. corporate elite as new power elite in pakistan during the early years after its independence, pakistan faced four crises that impaired its development: the war with india over kashmir, communal rioting, urban destruction and a massive influx of refugees into west pakistan (wilcox, 1968). while these events were taking place, the corporate sector was in the process of reviving itself, following the migration to india of 80 percent of karachi’s business giants who were hindus. ali and malik (2009) note that in lahore, out of 215 businesses, 167 were owned by non-muslims and in karachi 80 percent of land and all foreign trade were controlled by non-muslims. urban trade and commerce were managed by hindus who migrated to india creating a serious gap in the areas of banking, insurance, education, trade and industry (sharif, 1966). meanwhile, a majority of those who had migrated to pakistan were small muslim traders with little or no business experience. in 1947, out of a total 14,569 industrial establishments that existed in the subcontinent, only 1,406 units were in pakistan (including the region which is now bangladesh). most of these industrial units were of little importance such as flour and rice mills and cotton ginning factories. there was also the serious problem of limited financial resources without which it was impossible to proceed with any kind of industrial development plan. to counter these problems, the government emphasized establishing export-oriented industrial enterprises. the two major hurdles in establishment of these enterprises were the lack of business-oriented human capital and the poor industrial infrastructure. bureaucrats actively moved to resolve these problems. first, they tried to train and support businessmen with non-business backgrounds by establishing the pakistan industrial development corporation (pidc) and pakistan industrial credit and investment corporation (picic). shafqat (1999) and white (1974) argue that the establishment of pidc and picic was a core factor that led to the creation of financial/industrial groups that came to be known as the “22 families” in the 1970s. according to white (1974) the top 43 groups listed on the karachi stock exchange (pluta and frederiksen, 1980) received 11 of 43 businesses divested by the pidc in east pakistan and eight of 17 firms in west pakistan. the big companies owned by these 22 families included karnaphuli paper mills and burewala textile mills (dawood family), jauharabad sugar mills (now kohinoor sugar mills) (saigol family), karachi gas company (fancy family), charsada sugar mills (hoti family), adamjee chemical works, adamjee industries, adamjee high grade paper and board mills, nowshera and at least six jute mills which were built by wpidc (west pakistan industrial development corporation). 5 http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/business/03-mar-2009/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 8-16 11 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group although east pakistan contributed 70 percent of the total jute production of a united india, it lacked a welldeveloped jute-processing enterprise. in west pakistan, the major crop was cotton but only three processing firms existed in the region (ali and malik, 2009). the geographical area that came under pakistan was only associated with the production of raw agricultural products. the processing firms that were established were in areas that remained with india after partition. table 1 outlines the division of industrial units in 1942 in the areas which were separated as india and pakistan. table-1. division of industrial units in india and pakistan in 1942. industrial units as per products india pakistan cotton 857 15 jute 3 0 sugar 176 15 paper mill 19 0 iron and steel works 36 0 glasswork 112 5 cement and lime works and potteries 57 8 source: eastern economist (1942). these figures do not include small factories and workshops making light consumption goods, such as hosiery and knitwear, electrical fittings, rugs, shoes and leather goods, handicrafts in wool, silk, embroidery, in cities like lahore. in these businesses, pakistan was not badly under-represented. the single industry of any note was the production of sports goods in sialkot in west punjab (spate, 1948). there was little prospect for industrialization except in agricultural-based industries such as cotton ginning and milling, flour, food processing and jute mills in eastern pakistan, though even here these enterprises were encountering serious difficulties. considering the limited available options for creating an industrial sector, the business groups of that time focused on agriculturalrelated industries such as the establishment of dawood cotton mills in 1951. there were a few major muslim-owned enterprises in the region. one of them was the adamjee family, which had played a major role in the pakistan movement, though largely in the form of behind-the-scenes financial support. nevertheless, the absence of a business-oriented class provided immigrant muslims an opportunity to invest in textile industries previously controlled by hindus. in west pakistan, the initial business movers after partition settled in karachi as it was a port city and the hub of business activities. they chose not to settle in punjab as the government selected this region to settle homeless migrants from india. in east pakistan, migrant re-settlement was not an issue and the corporate elite of that area were hindu marwaris, europeans and a few bengali muslims. muslim migrants with business backgrounds settled in karachi in spaces once occupied by a hindu business class. they were mostly memons from gujarat (india) who belonged to the sunni muslim sect; they were extremely hard-working with a long history of involvement in business. others included the dawoodi bohras from bombay, the khoja ismailis from bombay and east africa and the khoja ishnashris, all of whom belonged to the shia sect. the religious sects they belonged to continues to be a factor when it comes to decision-making in business ventures. a region which developed as a business centre after karachi was lyallpur, near lahore (punjab), where the chinioties spearheaded business activities. chiniot is a small town near lyallpur (now renamed faisalabad). the chinioties started a textile industry as the major cash crop in punjab was cotton. 2.1. pakistan’s business history to understand the business history of pakistan, it is necessary to determine the origins of these business groups from united india that emerged under british rule. historians conventionally argue that the indian capitalist class was more prone to collaborate with foreign capital and that they apparently faced “no major conflict” in adapting to its presence (gardezi and rashid, 1983; ali, 2004; bose and jalal, 2004). other historians challenge this as a neo-marxist position, arguing that though indian capitalists were weak and dependent, they struggled with imperialism and made use of crises in the world economy, such as the world wars and the great depression, to emerge as an independent force (raman, 2014). the literature on business activities in india focuses on enterprises in bombay and calcutta. among the business groups of prominence in pakistan were those that had migrated from bombay and calcutta. in pakistan, as in india, the industrialists were usually members of old trading families. these families continue to dominate pakistan’s corporate sector. however, the method used to develop their enterprises was a legacy of the british, the “agency firm”6 (lamb, 1955). families like adamjee, valika and habib were involved in trading, insurance and banking from the colonial period. industrial capitalism was an unintended by-product of british economic and political policy. british presence in india was to capitalize on its raw materials. these materials were used for british products manufactured for export. to facilitate global trade, british needed ports, especially in calcutta and bombay. calcutta was used for jute-related trade and bombay for cotton-related products. the production areas for both these products later became pakistan, but processing units were launched in calcutta and bombay as these cities had ports. the industrial groups in india belonged to different religions. most of the groups were hindus and jains and the others were christians, muslims and zoroastrians. among these business groups, only two ethnic groups were involved in the cotton industry in the 1850s; they provided cotton to bombay’s textile manufacturers. those were the parsis, who had migrated from persia almost 1200 years ago and were a relatively small group, and the gujratis, a subgroup of the larger hindu community. these two groups were selected to control the cotton 6 the managing agency conducted extensive trading operations and ran industrial plants, about which no quantitative information is available. some of these ventures were incorporated as “public” companies with listed shares on stock exchanges and were required to publish annual statements. a long-term contract between the managing agency and each related company allowed the agency to determine overall company policy and to intervene in day-to-day decisions. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 8-16 12 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group industry due to their business knowledge and access to the ports, being residents of nearby areas. the parsis had the advantage of being closer to british businesses because of their command of the english language. in 1854, c.n. davar, a parsi banker and trader with many british contacts, built the first cotton textile mill. it soon matched many other factories in bombay and gujarat. later, the parsi industrialist j.n. tata and his family entered into heavy industries. since then, hindu and parsi business interests expanded, gradually transitioning from trade to industry (lamb, 1955). this is similar to the developments in pakistan with the only difference being that the traditional industrial community were hindus who upon migration to india were replaced by muslim traders. since they had no strong industrial and manufacturing experience, those groups with some measure of business experience like the adamjee and habib groups captured much of the market in the emerging economy. the prominent elite groups who significantly participated in the pakistan movement were landlords, educated secular urbanities and the commercial minorities. these commercial minorities became business groups by expanding their businesses in the first decade. papanek (1962) explains that before 1947, 70 percent of industry owners belonged to the trade sector (buying and selling finished products and gaining a commission) but later became entrepreneurs. he also mentioned that 27 percent of the industrialists were helai memons who comprised only 0.3 percent of the total population. prior to partition, most of the business groups that participated in the growth of pakistan’s industry had their headquarters in calcutta or bombay. after partition, only three cities became the hub of all industrial activities: karachi (a port city), lyallpur (the city with a large number of manufacturing firms) and lahore (the hub of punjab). inevitably, business families settled in these three cities. 40 percent of all industrial workers soon were to be found in these three cities. table 2 details the background of the top business groups which either migrated to pakistan in 1947 or were situated there well before partition. table-2. background of industrial families. business group community family origin/area settled hq location pre 1947 adamjee memon kathiawar/ jetpur karachi calcutta dawood memon kathiawar/bantwa karachi bombay saigol punjabi shaikh west punjab/ chakwal lahore calcutta valika dawoodi/bohra bombay karachi bombay colony punjabishaikh/ chinioti west punjab/ chiniot lahore lahore fancy khoja ismaili kathiawar karachi east africa bawany memon kathiawar/ jetpur karachi rangoon crescent punjabi shaikh/ chinioti west punjab/ chiniot lyallpur delhi beco punjabi east punjab lahore batala wazir ali (none, syed) west punjab/ lahore lahore lahore amin punjabi shaikh west punjab karachi calcutta nishat punjabi chinioti west punjab/ chiniot lyallpur ----- hoti pathan landlord charsadda charsadda charsadda fateh marwari gujurat karachi ---- isphani (none) iranian karachi calcutta karim bohras bombay karachi ---- habib khoja isnasheri bombay karachi bombay hyeson (none) madras karachi madras source: kochanek (1983) table 2 shows that of the top 18 business groups, six belonged to punjab and eight were situated in karachi including the memon, khojas and dawood families. out of these 18 business groups, three did not belong to any community and had no background in business or trade, pre-partition. from the other two provinces of khyber pakhtunkhwa and baluchistan, there was only one business group, owned by a landlord. table 2 also indicates that although punjab had a number of business groups, these were not landlord-turned-corporate elites; rather, they had a history of being in business in delhi, calcutta and lahore. most of these business groups were associated with the cotton industry (west pakistan) or jute industry (east pakistan). when pakistan came into being, there were only 16 textile companies out of which only 12 were in operation. it grew to 70 in 1957 as industrial development took place. by 2013, there were 596 textile mills out of which 442 were in operation. the export revenue of the textile industry contributed a large share to the gdp of pakistan. kochanek (1983) noted that the fastest growing families were not the isphahanis, haroon or rahimtoola7, but dawood, saigol, jalil (amin), adamjee, shaikh, fancy, valika, bawany, bashir (crescent) and wazir ali. the political leaders of the muslim league traditionally kept business and politics separate (kochanek, 1983). the business groups selected as case studies in next chapter represent each industrial community. the dawood group represents the memon group, which had a strong business background in bombay, while the sehgal group is a punjabi sheikh group from calcutta, now settled in lahore. to represent a group which has no community backing, but came up as a strong group, the wazir ali group was selected, now known as the packages group8. a group which had community links but no business background before the partition is the nishat group, located in faisalabad. these groups are diverse in nature, representing all communities, based in all three industrial cities and have had different levels of historical support from the state. 7 these were the leading business groups at the time of the creation of pakistan. the isphanai group held the proud tag of launching orient air ways which later became the national air carrier, pakistan international airline (pia). the raheemtoola group was originally based in bombay and was involved in trading since the late 19th century as well as in politics. sir ibrahim rahimtoola was mayor of bombay and first indian speaker of the indian imperial parliament. his son, habib ibrahim rahimtoola was a close associate of mohammed ali jinnah, the founder of pakistan. habib served pakistan as its first high commissioner to the united kingdom in 1947. the haroon group was also closely linked with jinnah and the pakistan movement. the founder of this group, abdullah haroon, was a british indian politician who contributed to nurturing muslims in economic, educational, social and political fields in south asia. later, his son yousaf haroon, founder of the dawn group, played an active role with jinnah in the pakistan movement. 8 famous as packages group, after its leading packaging firm, packages limited. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 8-16 13 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. road map of corporate elite to expand from 1947-1970 this section explains in detail the effect of different policies adopted by democratic and authoritarian governments in pakistan from 1947 till 1970. how the corporate elite changed their strategies and adapted to policy decisions will be highlighted in the discussion. this needs to be understood in light of the situation of resource allocation to the corporate sector under each regime. 3.1. emergence of corporate elite in first bureaucratic regime, 1947-58 the pakistani government followed a liberal trade policy to strengthen newly-established business groups. businesses incentives were offered to secure investments. this trade policy of the first bureaucratic regime focused on establishing facilities for the processing of domestically produced raw materials. the reason for focusing on these industries was because pakistan was able to produce agriculture products some 50 to 70 percent cheaper than global prices. by the 1950s, pakistan’s agriculture industries were one of the largest and cheapest. the profits earned from this industry allowed for the import of advanced manufacturing units to further industrialization. pakistan sought to transition from exporting cheap raw materials and importing finished goods made by the same raw material at a high price to manufacturing final goods. this push for industrialization came at the expense of the landlords and the agriculture sector. papanek (1962) noted that development of the industrial sector was due to four major reasons: 1. the government’s ability to maintain law and order and prevent massive capital flight by enforcing import controls and providing overhead facilities. 2. a small proportion of the population was accustomed to responding to market incentives. 3. institutions and value systems were supportive of entrepreneurial activities. 4. a political system which did not get unduly worried by high prices, high profits and the presence of foreign enterprises. table 3 presents the expansion of industrial assets from 1947 to 1959. the value of investments in the corporate sector increased tenfold, from rs.580 million to rs.5020 million. this expansion indicated the gap in the economy waiting to be tapped by businesses. papanek (1962) developed an index to explain the growth of industrial assets. this index indicated an almost six-fold expansion of industrial assets within ten years, from 1949 to 1959 see table 3. this meant that investments were increasing in both the manufacturing sector and industrial assets. table-3. growth of industrial assets, 1947–1959. year million (rs.) index 1947 580 17 1949 820 23 1951 1280 36 1953 2030 57 1955 3510 100 1957 4360 124 1959 5020 143 source: papanek (1962). from 1953 to 1960, manufacturing had grown more rapidly in pakistan than in any other country according to the united nations’ statistics, except for japan. papanek (1964) conducted a survey in 1960-61 involving a lengthy questionnaire completed by 255 industrialists belonging to different geographical areas. they were, according to the census of manufacturing industry (cmi), 8 percent of the total 3170 firms at that time. papanek’s study provided primary data derived from the survey and census report and offered evidence of a phenomenal increase in the industrialization of pakistan in the first decade, from 1947 to 1957. however, that industrialization was concentrated in west pakistan. this is evident in table 4 derived from a study by guisinger (1976) about the industrialization pattern that followed the early years. table-4. pattern of industrialization in pakistan, 1950-70. factors all pakistan west pakistan structural characteristics 1950 1960 1970 1970 per capita gnp 65 75 100 110 population (million) 80 100 130 60 share of industry (expected) .12 .13 .17 .16 share of industry (actual) .07 .12 .16 .21 source: guisinger (1976). table 4 outlines industrial expansion in pakistan in the first twenty years. it shows that an under-developed country lacking industrial firms as well as skilled human resources in labour and at managerial levels could find methods to progress. pakistan did make the world wonder about its industrial development. growth was primarily because a group of private entrepreneurs were ready to take the risk and initiative to invest and they showed an ability to efficiently organize the required capital and skilled manpower. these early entrepreneurs competed little with each other because of the ample market opportunities that were available. competition arises when companies face saturation, which was not the case with pakistan in its early days. moreover, local and international markets were open and these entrepreneurs did not face the problem of excess supply. this could only happen as the market gave them space to flourish and take advantage of growing international and national demand. according to the approach developed by maniruzzaman (1966), chinroy, soligo (lewis, 1965) and others, the growth pattern of industrialization can be attributed to import-substitution, export expansion and domestic demand. the korean war brought wealth to pakistan. businesses sold raw materials to the anti-communist nations and then invested their profits in the manufacturing of consumer goods. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 8-16 14 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group a number of reasons account for pakistan’s rapid economic growth soon after independence: the favourable impact of growth in the world economy, the liberalization policy of the 1950s, the economic role of the state and the mobilization of savings (ahmad, 1959; baqai, 1979; amjad, 1982). these factors played a role but cannot be considered as major reasons for the massive expansion of the industrial sector. the core reason was the role of the state involving its capacity to increase investments in manufacturing firms by allocating resources for projects which were essential for development (mccartney, 2011). industrialization was further generated with the reinvestment of profits, including those accruing from trade. industries were initially established by funds derived from approximately 40 percent of trade profits. only 10 percent of finances came from commercial banks. as papanek (1962) noted, dominant family-owned businesses allowed an enterprise to go public after they had skimmed off the high profits of the earlier years, providing them with funds for new investments in high profit areas. the most important source of financing was reinforced earnings, which provided almost half of the industrial investments between 1958 and 1959. the corporate elites who could exploit this gap were old business groups as well as the small traders who were emerging as businessmen. the main problem for industrial development was the huge foreign exchange required to establish such enterprises in pakistan. this was generated from the export of jute, produced in east pakistan. however, the collusions between corporate and bureaucratic elites of west pakistan hindered this foreign exchange from being invested for further industrial expansion in east pakistan. this ignited tensions between east and west pakistan from the early 1950s, a situation created by elites. in the mid-1950s, prime minister suharwardy tried to reduce this tension by sanctioning more import licenses to east pakistan’s corporate groups and by allotting aid for the modernization of ill-equipped industries. however, west pakistan’s business groups did not accept it and sent a protest about this to president iskandar mirza. the corporate elite of west pakistan took advantage of the rifts between president mirza and prime minister suharwardy by seeking an alliance with the former (maniruzzaman, 1966). this alliance became one reason for the overthrow of suharwardy. this resulted in the short-lived interim government of chandigarh (7 october 1957 to 16 december 1957) who cancelled all import licenses and grants awarded to east pakistan. a similar situation occurred under prime minister noon’s regime (16 december 1957 to 7 october 1958), before martial law was imposed by general ayub in october 1958. the early collusions and contestations among corporate and political elites played a significant role in shaping the business structure of current pakistan. the bureaucratic elite also played a significant role in these collusions. bureaucrats had complete autonomy to allocate funds and award licenses to industrialists as well as brief them about future business decisions such as where to expand and what to produce. this policy of offering incentives to develop the industrial sector continued until the 1960s. this policy did not lead to equitable growth, but resulted in concentration of wealth by certain groups. as the import licenses and approvals to establish industrial enterprises were controlled by the bureaucratic elite, they issued those contracts to corporate elites with whom they had personal contacts. by the mid-1950s, corporate groups owned major financial sectors like banks9 and insurance houses. financial capital was thus easily available to them, compared to other emerging groups. this environment created by government and some business groups proved a major problem for new entrants in the corporate sector attempting to establish businesses. 3.2. corporate elite expansion under military regime in the 1960s, pakistan had a mixed economy model in which the state set up industries that were later transferred to private businesses. the pursuit of profit inspired these private businessmen to invest and expand in other sectors of the economy. economic reforms were initiated in agriculture, education, law, land, trade and taxation. the initial results were quite spectacular and the model attracted academics as well as policy-makers from other countries. one of the distinguishing features of the mixed economic model was that pakistan had a strong bureaucracy that guided and directed the private sector. the planning commission of the 1960s was a powerful technocratic institution assisted by foreign economic experts. corruption and parochial interests had not permeated the higher levels of decision-making to the degree that it subverted economic progress and institution building. though this industrial development increased gdp, it could not be sustained and growth was not distributed evenly. as discussed, during the military regime led by general ayub arose the issue of wealth concentration in the hands of a few families. society was clearly divided between elites and the lower and middle classes. since the middle class was emerging in this era, and as ayub was a follower of modernization, this allowed intellectuals and the middle class to articulate their thoughts in public forums. these forums became the reason for ayub’s fall. wilcox (1970) however, was of the view that the reason for ayub’s fall was primarily due to disputes that arose among military elites. inequitable forms of development led to political decisions based on the vested interests of those holding power. in this situation, even risk-taking entrepreneurs stepped back from investing or moved to other countries, especially after the government’s nationalisation policy began. on a related point, since ayub’s regime, the military had developed an independent corporate empire. siddiqa (2007) argues that to ensure control of power, military elites always desired to expand their economic interest. one example of state patronage was the accusation that ayub had awarded numerous rents to his son, gouhar ayub, and his father-in-law, to help set up gandhara industries. khandker (1973) measured pakistan’s income distribution in the first twenty years and found more unequal distribution of income in urban areas compared to rural areas. he also argued that there was increased inequality of wealth in the form of corporate industrial assets. he found that a mere 47 stockholders owned 100 percent of corporate assets. these 47 stockholders consisted of 14 groups and 33 individuals see table 5. 9 for example, the muslim commercial bank was owned by the adamjee group, united bank by kohinoor group and allied bank by the khawaja group. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 8-16 15 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-5. distribution of number of principle stockholders and total assets by size, 1970. number of principle stocks total assets size of assets single group total % single co. million rs. group million rs total million rs % less than 25 10 10(10) 21 149 149 3 25-50 11 1(2) 12(13) 26 364 147 411 10 50-100 9 3(6) 12(15) 26 604 272 876 20 100-150 2 4(9) 6(11) 13 255 539 794 18 150-200 1 1(3) 2(4) 4 190 152 342 8 200-300 2(5) 2(5) 4 483 483 11 300-400 2(9) 2(9) 4 654 654 15 400-above 1(4) 1(4) 2 621 621 15 total 14(38) 47(71) 100 2768 2768 100 notes: values in brackets present the total number of companies. source: khandker (1973). thirty four stockholders (with less than 100 million rupees) owned 33 percent of assets, 10 stockholders (with 100 to 300 million rupees) owned 37 percent and three stakeholders (with above 300 million rupees) owned 30 percent. this concentration of wealth allowed these business groups to indulge in illegal activities to expand their businesses. papanek (1962) contends that investors offered bribes and were even willing to pay a legal surcharge of over 100 percent to import machinery. concentration of wealth among the big 22 families proved that power games had been played to enhance the personal interests of elites. in spite of high growth rates, people were unhappy with the military government and the middle class, specifically university youths who started voicing the need for equal rights and opportunities for everyone. many reasons can be attributed for the fall of ayub’s government. one of the reasons was the decision to withdraw from the 1965 war, after the tashkand agreement10. although ayub blamed zulfiqar ali bhutto (then pakistan’s foreign minister) for this11, his accusation later fuelled bhutto’s success in the elections. bhutto’s main issue in the 1970 elections was the plight of youths and the working class whose votes made him the next prime minister. bhutto’s major support was from west pakistan. in east pakistan, support was primarily for mujeeb ur rehman12. given the conflicts between the military and mujeeb, the latter helped bhutto to become the prime minister13. the reason the military was in conflict with mujeeb was his continuous pressure on ayub regarding the latter’s six point agenda which did not entail giving him regional autonomy. 4. conclusion the two main strategies adopted by a business group to expand were, first by creating family links with each other; this also served as a means to secure connections with other power elites. through this method, the corporate elite also obtained the benefit of becoming a double elite, securing their position in different domains. this was observed in the links between the nishat and kohinoor groups. through marriage ties, the kohinoor group secured access to state rents because of the political contacts that mian mansha of nishat group had with nawaz sharif. second, the expansion and evolution of business groups had implications on politics under different regimes. domestic politics was deeply shaped by foreign affairs and the role of international elites in pakistan. general ayub provided strong support to newly-emerging industrialists and helped them become corporate elites. this act of developing corporate elites was aided by international affairs which in turn enhanced the economic and political influence of business groups. the korean war and the spread of communism in asia drew america to pakistan, enhancing general ayub’s position. ayub used this opportunity to strengthen the position of the military elite, while foreign aid and investments helped expand the industrial sector. bhutto’s nationalization policy was also not an act taken in isolation. as the world was moving towards a socialist approach to development, bhutto’s leftist and populist policy agenda became the reason for winning elections and the country 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licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 8, no. 4, 83-91, 2021 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2021.84.83.91 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group governance and performance of agri-food exporting smes nour-eddine soussi1 habib elfathaoui2 jamal agouram3 ( corresponding author) 1,2faculty of lawl, economic and social sciences of ait melloul, university ibn zohr agadir, morocco. 1email: n.soussi@uiz.ac.ma 2email: elfathaoih@gmail.com 3faculty of economic and management of guelmim, university ibn zohr agadir, morocco. 3email: jamal.agouram@edu.uiz.ac.ma abstract moroccan sme's are involved in local development and are currently the subject of several studies. furthermore, moroccan smes are crucial to the country's economic growth since they produce value, create employment, and play an important role in local development. the goal is to identify the factors that influence its export performance. this performance can be influenced by the governance system, which is defined as a set of mechanisms that have the effect of limiting managers' powers and influencing their decisions. in this light, the purpose of this paper is to demonstrate, using a sample of food sme's in agadir city, that a good governance system improves export performance and accelerates the process of sme internationalization. based on the findings of this study, we can infer that smes with effective internal governance mechanisms, such as an internal control and consultation body and strong hierarchical control, may improve their export performance and, as a result, their internationalization potential. keywords: board of directors, debt, capital structure, hierarchical control, control of the supplier, control of subcontractor export performance, internationalization. jel classification: g30. citation | nour-eddine soussi; habib elfathaoui; jamal agouram (2021). governance and performance of agri-food exporting smes. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 8(4): 83-91. history: received: 4 october 2021 revised: 28 october 2021 accepted: 19 november 2021 published: 9 december 2021 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 84 2. transition from the governance of the large companies to the governance of the small companies ...................... 84 3. sme governance and export performance................................................................................................................................ 87 4. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 91 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 91 mailto:n.soussi@uiz.ac.ma mailto:elfathaoih@gmail.com mailto:jamal.agouram@edu.uiz.ac.ma http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/journal.500.2021.84.83.91 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2215-8939 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9487-227x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1574-1464 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 83-91 84 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature on the one hand, this paper will help to enrich theoretical aspects of governance mechanisms applicable to moroccan exporting smes in order to identify them. this work, on the other hand, presents a methodology as well as an overview of the main findings from the research conducted to identify the corporate governance mechanisms that apply to smes. 1. introduction since berle and means, the debate on corporate governance did not become the norm for organizational management researchers until the 1980s, particularly in the united states. starting from a conception of the firm as a node of contracts, jensen and meckling (1976) considered one of the levers of value creation to be the minimization of conflicts of interest between managers (agent) and shareholders in their seminal article on agency theory (principal). these tensions stem from the separation of risk-taking and management functions that characterized so-called managerial american firms. several empirical studies have since tried to examine this theory by attempting to establish links between the effectiveness of mechanisms for aligning interests in the firm (governance mechanisms) and performance. however, the results were only conclusive in the anglo-saxon context and were frequently mixed in other contexts. national systems of governance differ, according to la porta, lopez de silanes, and shleifer (1999); la porta, lopez-desilanes, shleifer, and vishny (1999), making some of the governance mechanisms from the agency literature unsuitable for countries where legal protection for shareholders is weak, financial markets are underdeveloped, and the economic fabric is highly concentrated in small and medium-sized enterprises (smes). morocco is one of the countries where more than 95 percent of businesses are small and medium-sized enterprises (smes). control of these companies is exercised by families who own significant shares of the capital, explaining the concentration of ownership. these companies are frequently financed through the money market, and competition among them is fierce, making differentiation through human resources a critical success factor. moroccan smes are critical to the country's economic development. it generates value, creates jobs, and is a key player in local development. when confronted with globalization, smes must internationalize by implementing a globalization strategy. access to international markets through export is one method of enhancing and hastening the internationalization process. however, this effort, which has traditionally been considered the prerogative of large corporations, necessitates significant efforts of modernization on several approaches and possibly on the level of governance by the sme. the purpose of this paper is twofold: • to begin, it is necessary to untangle the governance mechanisms applicable to moroccan exporting smes. • second, to assess the effectiveness of these mechanisms in terms of this sme's export performance. the following is how the paper will be structured: • the first section will be devoted to a review of the literature in order to identify corporate governance mechanisms applicable to smes. • the second section will be devoted to the presentation of the methodology as well as an outline of the main findings. 2. transition from the governance of the large companies to the governance of the small companies 2.1. the big company's governance corporate governance is defined as the set of mechanisms that limit managers' discretionary space or govern their behavior. these mechanisms are both internal and external in nature, and their structure varies depending on the type of firm (managerial with diffuse capital, family-owned, or controlled by a group) as well as the legal and institutional environment (la porta, lopez-de-silanes, & shleifer, 1999). in a large managerial firm, no shareholder owns a significant portion of the capital and thus cannot exercise control over the manager. under these conditions, the costs incurred by a shareholder to monitor the manager are prohibitively expensive to bear individually, and the manager can easily take root by capitalizing on the passivity of the shareholders who have become stowaways. the effectiveness of governance mechanisms is justified by their ability to protect shareholder wealth by limiting the manager's entrenchment (shleifer & vishny, 1989). as an internal governance mechanism, the board of directors is distinguished by a large number of shareholders, the majority of whom are independent and hold multiple mandates. the remuneration system is intended to stimulate managerial effort by extending the manager's status as a residual creditor through equity participation, granting him stock options, or indexing his remuneration to performance. the financial, goods and services, and management markets have grown and now serve as external governance mechanisms that aid in the management discipline. the financial market, which is distinguished by a large number of listed companies and a high volume of stock trading, ensures both the mobilization of savings and the reduction of the cost of financing the economy, as well as the discipline of managers through hostile takeover bids, which occur as a result of shareholder dissatisfaction in response to poor performance. the managerial market is a mechanism that motivates managers to develop the companies they manage to increase their reputation in this market, and the market for goods and services, which has always been regarded as the arena where companies compete, is set up alongside other governance mechanisms to control the behavior of managers by customers who govern in the face of managerial discretion by turning away from their products in favor of the competition. however, studies and research have revealed that governance systems vary by country and that the model of the managerial firm that has so inspired authors such as berle and means, jensen and meckling (1976), is unique to anglo-saxon countries. in this regard, la porta et al. (1999) believe that investor protection varies depending on the legal system. the protection of investors is weak in countries characterized by civil law, which justifies their mobilization in the form of shareholder groups, control coalitions, and concentration of capital in these countries. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 83-91 85 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group because of the differences in the legal and institutional environments in these countries, which is also the most common case, governance mechanisms will play a different role in resolving conflicts of interest between minority and majority shareholders or between majority shareholders and creditors. the capital is a large family business is held by one or more people who are linked by family ties and succeed one another in controlling the business from generation to generation. risk assumption and risk management are typically inseparable functions, and conflicts of interest arising from the shareholder-manager relationship appear to be strongly mitigated. dissensions in visions between family members, between two successive generations, or between family shareholders and creditors can all lead to agency problems (in the case of increased recourse to debt to finance the company). the characteristics of such a structure give rise to mechanisms such as the financial market (concentration of capital in the hands of the family, which is hesitant to open it up), the board of directors (limited number of directors, most of whom are members of the same family chaired by the founding father); the financial structure (importance of equity); and the market for managers (the manager, who is frequently the founder, is not very sensitive to his reputation on the market for managers). rather, it is the succession and the transmission of the power of control of the company between two generations that is apprehended as a perilous passage. a significant portion of the capital in the controlled company is held by a company or group of non-family companies that appoint the managers. agency conflicts between shareholders and managers are not ruled out in this structure, but the company's or group's control mitigates these conflicts. conflicts between controlling shareholders (company or group) and minority shareholders are particularly common, necessitating the development of effective mechanisms to protect minority shareholders from obstacles to the right to vote, such as the reduction of the thresholds required to attend general meetings of shareholders, the facilitation of procedures allowing the latter to exercise it (voting by proxy or remote voting), and the transparency of information (poison pills, thresholds of control, the use of the non-voting shares). while the large company, whether managerial, family-owned or controlled (charreaux, 1997), can be governed by a variety of mechanisms whose structure varies depending on the political and institutional legal context, as well as the concentration/dilution of capital and the nature of control, the sme remains a little-studied research subject in the field of corporate governance. 2.2. the smes, a unique business model, and a distinct governance system authors frequently regard the sme model as a distinct model. on the one hand, the sme differs from the large enterprise in several ways, and on the other hand, there is a wide range of typologies within the category of smes. indeed, smes are distinguished from large corporations and one another by their ability to compete, their informal organizational structure, an intuitive and reactive strategy rather than a proactive one with a cost and medium-term scope, a simple information system, and a central repository for the values and beliefs shared by its members. in the case of family smes, these are anchored in the course of existence and experience, or forged by the owner-manager. due to a lack of resources, aversion to external financing, and, in particular, capital increase (for family smes), a small number of shareholders, and a conservative attitude toward transparency, the sme and family sme models require a unique governance system. before discussing the various governance mechanisms applicable to smes, it is necessary to distinguish between two types of smes: family smes and non-family smes. internal or external mechanisms can be understood as a set of mechanisms (charreaux, daviet, hau, roe, & saussois, 1999). 2.2.1. external mechanisms • the financial market the financial market, an effective external governance mechanism in the managerial discipline in large managerial companies, is only as important for the sme if it is listed and owned by shareholders who delegate management to a non-partner or at least do not own a significant share of the capital. however, given the reality of smes, the majority of which have locked-up capital and do not rely on public savings, the financial market mechanism will continue to be limited to large corporations with open capital (elfathaoui, 2018a, 2020). • bank supervision bank control is an external governance mechanism whose effectiveness is determined by the amount of debt in the financial structure. thus, when a company uses debt to finance its investments, the bank has control over the project's execution by the credit contract's commitments. bank control is reputedly stringent, owing to the organizations' experience in auditing and risk management. the sme that does not have access to the stock market or is looking to expand its capital frequently resorts to debt as a second option after self-financing, highlighting the importance of this governance mechanism in the control of the manager (family member manager in the family sme or third-party manager in the non-family sme). • the goods and services market the market for goods and services is the mechanism through which clients exert control over the manager's actions. in this sense, when the manager pursues personal goals that contradict the goal of maximizing the company's value, the company's commercial policy suffers, resulting in a loss of market share and a decrease in profitability. as a result, the market for goods and services is an effective governance mechanism for controlling managerial latitude in the sme (family and non-family), because survival is inextricably linked to market development. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 83-91 86 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group • control of suppliers and subcontractors if porter identified supplier bargaining power as one of the six forces that characterize the industry environment in which the firm evolves and determines its competitive potential, corporate governance has elevated it to the status of an external mechanism that can participate in manager control under certain conditions. indeed, when a company is reliant on a supplier who has exclusive access to specific resources, the latter may decide not to do business with the company if it fails to meet its commitments (payment delay for example). this supplier detour could be the result of managerial latitude that is detrimental to value maximization. to complete the value chain, the subcontractor can intervene at any stage of the company's production process. the sme that wants to maintain its flexibility but does not always have the resources to internalize everything will inevitably turn to this actor, who can contribute to the manager's control under the conditions of the company's long-term relationship, the possession of resources, and specific skills. although suppliers and subcontractors are rarely mentioned as sources of external governance mechanisms for large corporations, they can be critical components of the sme's governance system. 2.2.2. internal mechanisms charreaux et al. (1999) distinguishes between non-systematic or voluntary governance mechanisms (established by the firm) and systematic ones (to which it is subject). thus, internal governance mechanisms can be either voluntarily created or imposed on the firm. • the board of directors the board of directors is, in the theory of corporate governance, an internal mechanism that protects the interests of the shareholders and other stakeholders (partnership governance system) by controlling the managers, fixing their remuneration, and elaborating the major orientations of the company. the structure of this mechanism and the effectiveness of its intervention in the managerial discipline differs according to the type of firm (charreaux & pitol-belin, 1991). the boards of directors of managerial firms are large, with a significant proportion of outside directors who hold several mandates and are involved in management. in family businesses, the board of directors is smaller, and the directors are most often family members who are chaired by the founding father. the intervention of the board of directors of the family firm is passive (charreaux & pitol-belin, 1991). in the sme, the boards of directors are of modest size (limited number of directors). the latter is often the principal shareholders. thus, in the non-family sme where management is ensured by a third-party manager, it is possible to assimilate the role of the board of directors to that played in the large company, insofar as there is a separation between ownership and management (managerial latitude). in the sme managed by an associate manager, the board of directors can limit the entrenchment of the associate manager who may seek to enrich himself at the expense of the other associates (carminatti-marchand & paquerot, 2004). the effectiveness of this mechanism can be interpreted in the two preceding cases by its size and its independence. in the family sme, the board of directors plays the role of the consultative body allowing the members of the family to take stock of the management of the company and its situation in general. in this type of enterprise, it is more a mechanism for consultation than for control. it should be noted that smes often tend to adopt a legal form other than the joint-stock company. the case of morocco can be an example where smes, for reasons of limited financial resources, most often opt for the legal form of "limited liability company" where the board of directors gives way to bodies such as the advisory board or the family council. • the family council and the advisory board the establishment of an advisory board in non-family-owned smes with a legal form other than a limited company will play an important role in the governance system. the advisory board meets once or twice a year with the partners, the manager, and possibly an expert to review the company's management and future prospects. in a non-family sme with a third-party manager or partner, the advisory board is most likely a control and discipline mechanism. in this case, the frequency of its meetings, its independence (the presence of external experts), and the participation of its members (presence at meetings) can all be factors in its effectiveness. in family-owned smes, the family council, which is a meeting of the family members who control the company to debate and discuss the company's situation, allows for a better involvement of the family in the company's management and control. the family council is an effective way to manage succession and control transfer between two successive generations. the number of meetings, the number of council members, and their management experience can all be important criteria for the council's effectiveness. • the system of remuneration the remuneration system is a corporate governance incentive mechanism. this mechanism allows executives' objectives to be aligned with the maximization of value in large companies characterized by the separation of control-ownership and management functions. the granting of stock options, participation in capital, and the indexation of a portion of remuneration to sales are all characteristics of manager remuneration in large corporations (carminatti-marchand & paquerot, 2004). the limited access to the financial market in the sme prevents the use of stock options; however, the indexation of remuneration to the result or participation in the capital can prove to be modalities of an effective remuneration system, particularly in the sme with a non-partner manager. • the structure of ownership since berle and means, the ownership structure has remained the governance mechanism that has frequently been the source of disagreement and dissent among several authors. the results of the impact of this mechanism on asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 83-91 87 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group firm value remain mixed between demsetz's neutrality thesis, jensen and meckling (1976) 's convergence thesis, and shleifer and vishny's entrenchment thesis. managerial ownership may be an active variable in the family sme, insofar as involving the non-member manager in the risk through access to the status of residual creditor (ownership of a share of the capital) may be one way to do so. • hierarchical control this is the power that employees wield over managers. this mechanism can be useful in-service smes where employees can develop specific human capital that gives them bargaining power with managers. employees, for example, can object to practices that contradict the maximization of value by the manager of a non-family sme in collaboration with a partner or third-party manager. to strengthen hierarchical control, it is necessary to provide employees with procedures such as trade unions, representatives on boards of directors or advisory boards, a private phone number to denounce managerial practices that are contrary to the company's interests... (charreaux et al., 1999). • trust a systematic internal governance mechanism (charreaux et al., 1999), mutual trust among firm members, particularly the sme, is a mechanism that makes the other governance mechanisms less rigid. indeed, when employees and shareholders have faith in their managers, the costs of control fall and managers have more leeway, which increases their potential for innovation. 3. sme governance and export performance 3.1. hypotheses and methodology of research the first hypothesis we test in this section is about the relationship between the existence of an internal control body and the existence of an external control body (board of directors, family council and advisory board). the existence of an internal control body, as well as the structure of this body, positively influences the effectiveness of control, according to corporate governance theory. as a result, the first hypothesis: h1: the presence of a board of directors, advisory board, or family improves the sme's export performance. the second hypothesis concerns the role of debt as a governance mechanism. according to the agency theory, debt can positively influence firm performance if the agency conflicts of debt are resolved (conflicts between shareholder-managers and creditors exceed the agency conflicts between shareholders and managers that are due to self-financing). given these arguments, it is difficult to forecast the impact of debt on a firm's export performance. h2: the relationship between the sme's debt and its export performance is not linear the impact of capital structure on performance varies according to theory. according to the agency theory, the greater the manager's stake in the capital, the more the latter will ensure value maximization. in this sense, we assume: h3: managerial ownership is positively related to the sme's export performance employees' discipline is represented by hierarchical control. this discipline is heightened when the company provides employees with the tools and procedures, they need to exercise control. a strong hierarchical control, on the other hand, can lead to internal conflicts that result in the destruction of value. as a result, it is reasonable to assume: h4: the level of hierarchical control and the sme's export performance have a linear relationship. the supplier and subcontractor can participate in the sme's governance system by pressuring the manager to honor his commitments, which can only be done if the latter manages the company profitably. h5: the stronger the supplier and subcontractor control, the better the sme's export performance. 3.2. research methodology 3.2.1. sample and data collection the objective of this paper is to determine in a first step the governance mechanisms applicable to smes. secondly, the impact of the structure of these mechanisms on the internationalization of smes through export. the data on governance structure and export performance was collected via a questionnaire based on a sample of 80 agribusiness smes in the agadir region. this is a reasoned choice based on a parent population of 80 smes. to detect smes, we referred to the moroccan law n°53-00 of july 23, 2002, which defines an sme as any company that is not 25% owned by one or more companies that are not smes, that has not made more than 75 million dirhams during the last two fiscal years and that has a balance sheet total that does not exceed 50 million dirhams. only 34 smes responded, representing a response rate of 42.5%. the information collected corresponds to the 2009 fiscal year. the questionnaire incorporates 3 axes: • characteristics of the sme (size, capital, legal form, date of creation, nature of products manufactured). • characteristics of the governance mechanisms (existence of different mechanisms and their structure) • export performance. a. operationalization of variables: ⎯ sme governance: sme governance is represented by 7 variables • board of directors, family, or advisory board variable • variable debt • variable capital structure • variable hierarchical control asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 83-91 88 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group • supplier control variable • variable control of subcontractor ⎯ export performance: export performance is measured by the share of export sales and total sales. (export sales/ total sales). ⎯ the control variables :we believe that the following variables are likely to influence the export performance ratio • firm size (measured by the logarithm of total assets) • age of the firm (measured by the number of years of existence of the firm) • certification of the firm. b. measurement of endogenous variables: ⎯ the board of directors’ variable is an indicator variable: existence of a board of directors, advisory board, or family board: it takes 1 if the sme has a board of directors (the case of the joint-stock company) or an advisory board and a family board (respectively the case of the non-family sme and the family sme that does not have the joint-stock company legal form) and 0 otherwise. ⎯ the debt variable: measured by the debt ratio: long-term debt/equity ⎯ capital structure variable: this variable is represented by the share of capital held by the manager: capital held by the manager/total capital ⎯ hierarchical control variable: this variable is an indicator, it takes 1 if the sme has a union or other structure allowing employees to denounce managerial practices that harm the company. 0 otherwise ⎯ supplier control variable: this variable is measured concerning the following question: the materials offered by your supplier are: available(0); not readily available(1); rare(2) the relationship with your supplier is very formal and defined by contract (2); formal(1) ; informal (0) ⎯ subcontractor control variables this variable is measured by referring to the following question: the materials services offered by your subcontractor are: available(0) ; not very available(1) ; rare(2) the relationship with your subcontractor is very formal and defined by contract(2) ; formal(1) ; informal (0) c. measurement of control variables : ⎯ sme size variable: it is measured by the logarithm of total assets ⎯ variable age of the sme: it is measured by the number of years of existence of the sme perfexpor: export performance exsorcont: existence of a control body endett: indebtedness propmanag: ownership of the manager contrhie: hierarchical control contrfour: supplier control contrsout: subcontractor control size: size of the company age: age of the company. 3.3. analysis of results 3.3.1. descriptive analyses: in this part we will try in a first step to determine the governance mechanisms of the agri-food smes in the agadir region, and in a second step their characteristics. table-1. descriptive statistics. n minimum maximum mean std. deviation perfexpor 34 0.000 12.210 1.59819 2.409910 exsorcont 34 0 1 0.47 0.507 endett 34 0.000 0.510 0.28068 0.152925 propmanag 34 0.00 1.00 0.6416 0.34970 contrhie 34 0 1 0.18 0.387 contrfour 34 0 4 2.26 1.163 contrsout 34 0 4 1.29 1.292 taill 34 13.12 17.66 15.9550 1.24452 age 34 6 28 14.50 6.657 valid n (listwise) 34 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 83-91 89 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 1 provides descriptive statistics on export performance (perfexpor), indebtedness (endett), managerial ownership (propmanag), hierarchical control (contrhie), supplier control (contrfour), subcontractor control (contrsout), size (size) and age (age) for the 34 smes in the study. on average, the smes studied have an export turnover that exceeds by 60% that achieved on their national territory. this result shows the importance of exports for smes in the agadir region. however, there is a very significant difference between smes in terms of export, insofar as some do not export, while others achieve a turnover in exports that exceeds 12 times the turnover achieved on the national territory. on average, almost half of the smes surveyed have a controlling body (board of directors, advisory board, or family council). debt represents, on average, 28% of financial resources. this low level of debt can be explained by the reluctance of families, which control the majority of the smes studied, to take on debt. indeed, family businesses prefer to finance themselves first by equity (self-financing), then by debt, and finally by capital increase as a last resort (myers, 1984; myers & majluf, 1984). the ownership of the smes studied is concentrated. indeed, the results show that, on average, more than 60% of the capital is held by the manager. this result is explained by the high proportion of family smes where the founder holds the majority of the capital. the hierarchical control is an indicator variable. it takes the value 1 if the company sets up mechanisms allowing the employees to control the manager, otherwise it is cancelled. in view of the results in table 1, hierarchical control in the smes studied is on average weak. control of the supplier and the subcontractor are two index variables. thus, the control of the supplier and the subcontractor is considered strong when this variable is higher than 3, average when it is equal to 2 and weak when it is lower than 2. in the studied smes, the control of the supplier is average, whereas that of the subcontractor is weak. however, it should be noted that the degree of control between the supplier and the subcontractor differs significantly from one sme to another. finally, the size and age of the smes studied differed significantly. the average age of these smes is 14 years. table-2. exporting sme's. n minimum maximum moyenne ecart type exsorcont 20 0 1 0.70 0.47 endett 20 0.100 0.510 0.34280 0.12368 propmanag 20 0.00 1.00 0.5488 0.3048 contrhie 20 0 1 0.25 0.44 contrfour 20 0 4 2.20 1.06 contrsout 20 0 3 1.45 1.28 taill 20 14.73 17.66 16.7155 0.8961 âge 20 7 28 16.95 6.64 n valide (listwise) 20 table-3. non-exporting smes. n minimum maximum moyenne ecart type exsorcont 14 0 1 0.14 0.36 endett 14 0.000 0.450 0.19193 0.15029 propmanag 14 0 1 0.77 0.38 contrhie 14 0 1 7.14e-02 0.27 contrfour 14 0 4 2.36 1.34 contrsout 14 0 4 1.07 1.33 taill 14 13.12 16.03 14.8686 0.7727 âge 14 6 20 11.00 5.05 n valide (listwise) 14 tables 2 and 3 shows the characteristics of the governance mechanisms, retained in this study, for exporting smes table 2 and non-exporting smes table 3. the data in the tables shows that: • the majority of exporting smes (70%) have an internal control body (board of directors, family council, or advisory board), while a minority (14%) of non-exporting smes have such a body (variable exsorcont). • exporting smes are on average more indebted than non-exporting smes (variable endett) • the managerial ownership (variable propmanag) shows that the ownership of the capital of the managers of the non-exporting smes is higher than that of the non-exporting smes. • hierarchical control (variable contrhie) in exporting smes is significantly stronger than in nonexporting smes. • the control of the supplier (variable contrfour) and that of the subcontractor (variable contrsout) are on average similar between exporting and non-exporting smes. • the size (variable taill) of the exporting sme is, on average, relatively larger than the non-exporting sme. • the age (variable age) of the exporting sme is on average higher than that of the non-exporting sme. the results of the descriptive analysis show that among the governance mechanisms applicable to smes, those that seem significant for agribusiness smes in the agadir region are : the capital structure ; the control of banks; the control of the supplier; and the internal body of control and consultation (board of directors, advisory board, family council) in addition, the study of the characteristics of the governance mechanisms, separated from the exporting smes and non-exporting smes shows that: • the capital structures of exporting smes are less concentrated than those of non-exporting smes. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 83-91 90 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group • the control exercised by banks over exporting smes is stronger than that of non-exporting smes. • supplier control is relatively similar for exporting and non-exporting smes. • the majority of exporting smes have an internal control and consultation body. • to confirm these results and test the hypotheses, we will proceed to multivariate analyses in the following. 3.3.2. multivariate analyses first, we will analyze the correlations between all the variables retained in this study. table-4. the matrix of correlations between variables. perfexpor exsorcont endett propmanag contrhie contrfour contrsout taill age perfexpor pearson correlation 1 0.377* 0.316 -0.316 0.341* -0.048 0.206 0.568** 0.537** sig. (2-tailed) 0.028 0.069 0.069 0.048 0.789 0.242 0.000 0.001 n 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 exsorcont pearson correlation 0.377* 1 0.270 -0.450** 0.336 -0.115 0.245 0.484** 0.341* sig. (2-tailed) 0.028 0.123 0.008 0.052 0.517 0.162 0.004 0.048 n 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 endett pearson correlation 0.316 0.270 1 -0.455** 0.362* -0.033 0.304 0.652** 0.309 sig. (2-tailed) 0.069 0.123 0.007 0.035 0.852 0.080 0.000 0.076 n 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 propmanag pearson correlation -0.316 -0.450** -0.455** 1 -0.535** 0.002 -0.275 -0.492** -0.206 sig. (2-tailed) 0.069 0.008 0.007 0.001 0.990 0.115 0.003 0.243 n 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 contrhie pearson correlation 0.341* 0.336 0.362* -0.535** 1 -0.040 0.378* 0.403* 0.306 sig. (2-tailed) 0.048 0.052 0.035 0.001 0.824 0.027 0.018 0.079 n 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 contrfour pearson correlation -0.048 -0.115 -0.033 0.002 -0.040 1 0.390* -0.075 -0.053 sig. (2-tailed) 0.789 0.517 0.852 0.990 0.824 0.022 0.674 0.767 n 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 contrsout pearson correlation 0.206 0.245 0.304 -0.275 0.378* 0.390* 1 0.305 0.169 sig. (2-tailed) 0.242 0.162 0.080 0.115 0.027 0.022 0.079 0.339 n 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 taill pearson correlation 0.568** 0.484** 0.652** -0.492** 0.403* -0.075 0.305 1 0.541** sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.004 0.000 0.003 0.018 0.674 0.079 0.001 n 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 age pearson correlation 0.537** 0.341* 0.309 -0.206 0.306 -0.053 0.169 0.541** 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0.001 0.048 0.076 0.243 0.079 0.767 0.339 0.001 n 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 note: *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). the matrix of correlations between variables table 4 offers the following results: • the export performance of agribusiness smes in the agadir region, is positively and significantly associated (at the error threshold of 5%) with the existence of an internal control and consultation body (board of directors, family council or advisory board). in other words, smes with a control and advisory body have a higher export turnover. hypothesis h1 is validated • the export performance of the agri-food smes studied is positively and significantly associated (at the 5% error threshold) with the level of hierarchical control. the smes that put in place mechanisms that allow employees to control management are more successful internationally. hypothesis h4 is validated. • there is no significant relationship between export performance and the level of debt, the level of managerial ownership, the level of supplier and subcontractor control. rejection of hypotheses h2, h3 and h5 • the variable: export performance, is positively and significantly associated (at the 1% significance level) with the variables size and age of the sme. this result is consistent with results obtained with large companies (charreaux, 1991). thus, the more experienced and the larger the firm, the easier it is for it to export its products. • the variable: existence of an internal control body, is positively and significantly correlated (respectively at the error threshold of 1% and 5%) to the variables size and age (similar result for large companies: alexandre and paquerot (2000); conyon and peck (1998). this result shows that the oldest and largest asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(4): 83-91 91 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group smes tend to choose the legal form of a limited company which provides for the existence of a board of directors (or supervisory board) or, failing that (in the case of the adoption of another legal form) establishes an internal control and consultation body (advisory board or family council). • managerial ownership is negatively and significantly correlated with debt (at the 1% error threshold). this result shows that the more the manager of the sme holds an important part of the capital (case of the family sme), the less he is willing to go into debt (result similar to those obtained with large companies by antoniou, guney, and paudyal (2002); stulz (1988); elfathaoui (2018b). • managerial ownership is negatively and significantly related to the level of hierarchical control (at the 1% error threshold). indeed, the more control the manager has, the more he will tend to annihilate any mechanism allowing employees to control him. • managerial ownership is negatively and significantly associated with size. to meet its financing needs, the sme is forced to open up its capital, which reduces the share held by the initial owner. 4. conclusion the goal of this article was to determine the impact of governance, as perceived by various mechanisms, on the internationalization of the sme as measured by export performance. the findings of descriptive analyses conducted on a sample of 34 agri-food smes in the agadir region show, on the one hand, that the governance mechanisms applicable to smes are: ownership structure, debt, the internal control body (board of directors, advisory board, or family), and supplier control. on the other hand, only exporting smes are the best governed. according to the multivariate analyses, only the existence of an internal control body and hierarchical control can positively and significantly influence the international performance of the smes studied. as a result, we can conclude that the effectiveness of smes' internal governance mechanisms (which is dependent on the presence of an internal control and consultation body as well as strong hierarchical control) improves their export performance and, as a result, their internationalization potential. references alexandre, h., & paquerot, m. 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(1976). theory of the firm: managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure. journal of financial economics, 3(4), 305-360. la porta, r., lopez-de-silanes, f., & shleifer, a. (1999). corporate ownership around the world. the journal of finance, 54(2), 471-517. la porta, r., lopez-de-silanes, f., shleifer, a., & vishny, r. (1999). the quality of government. the journal of law, economics, and organization, 15(1), 222-279. la porta, r., lopez de silanes, f., & shleifer, a. (1999). corporate ownership around the world. the journal of finance, 54(2), 471-517. myers, s. c. (1984). the capital structure puzzle. the journal of finance, 39(3), 575-592. myers, s. c., & majluf, n. (1984). corporate financing and investment decisions when firms have information that investors do not have. journal of financial economics, 13(2), 187-221. shleifer, a., & vishny, r. w. (1989). management entrenchment: the case of manager-specific investments. journal of financial economics, 25(1), 123-139. stulz, r. (1988). managerial control of voting rights: financing policies and the market for corporate control. journal of financial economics, 20, 25-54. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 31 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 9, no. 2, 31-41, 2022 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v9i2.3854 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the construction of the ‘other’ through oral narrative performance: a case of the bukusu folktale joseph juma musungu department of english, literature, journalism and mass communication, kibabii university, kenya. email: jmusungu@kibu.ac.ke abstract kenya as a country has different communities. over time, there have been cases of animosity and even fighting among different communities. such differences obviously undermine the spirit of coexistence in a given society. communities often live under fear and tension, raising the question why people shouldn’t coexist peacefully. this necessitates a concerted effort to unearth why such animosity exists. one possible avenue of establishing the kind of relationship that exists between the people is by listening to what they say about each other through their literary performances. this paper takes interest in the bukusu people who have also been affected by such communal hostilities. the paper specifically focuses on the bukusu perception of “strangers.” it examines the references in bukusu narratives with regard to strangers in order to examine how such references are likely to create or diffuse the tensions between the bukusu and their neighbours. keywords: strangers, performance, construction, other, bukusus, perception, folktale. citation | joseph juma musungu (2022). the construction of the ‘other’ through oral narrative performance: a case of the bukusu folktale. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 9(2): 31-41. history: received: 10 february 2022 revised: 18 march 2022 accepted: 4 april 2022 published: 15 april 2022 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. review of related literature ........................................................................................................................................................ 32 2. theoretical framework .................................................................................................................................................................. 32 3. major findings ................................................................................................................................................................................. 33 4. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 38 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 38 appendices ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 39 mailto:jmusungu@kibu.ac.ke https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v9i2.3854 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1113-3338 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 31-41 32 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the paper focuses on bukusu folktale because as a literary genre, the folktale is a product of the community and carries the norms and values of the community. the paper is predicated on the premise that the bukusu folktale provides a sieve for some understanding of issues pertinent to the understanding of bukusu perception. the overall purpose of this paper is to contribute towards the understanding of how the bukusu perceive and construct the other through folktale performance. 1. review of related literature it suffices that bukusu narratives on strangers are basically motivated by the former’s anxieties regarding the presence and influence of minority strangers. to validate this argument calls for a closer examination of appadurai (2006) when he talks of predatory identities. he defines such identities as: “…those whose social construction and mobilisation require the extinction of other, proximate social categories, defined as threats to the very existence of some group, defined as a we.” he argues that these groups emerge periodically out of pairs of identities, sometimes sets that are larger than two which have long histories of close contact, mixture and some degree of mutual stereotyping. according to appadurai, one of the pairs of identities often turns predatory by mobilising an understanding of itself as a threatened majority. in many cases, they are claims about cultural majorities that seek to be exclusively or exhaustively linked with the identity of the nation. appadurai’s argument is that small numbers represent a tiny obstacle between majority and totality or total purity. in a sense, the smaller the number, the deeper the rage about its capacity to make the majority feel like a mere majority rather than like a whole and uncontested ethnos. appadurai’s views point to the existence of “small numbers” or social and political minorities in a nation-state which are often perceived as blights upon the landscape by those who wish to claim or believe in the purity or homogeneity of the majority. it should however be noted that the way we perceive others only creates the platform upon which we are equally perceived by the others. this explains the existence of different perceptions held by different groups about “others” in the contemporary society. it can be rightly argued that the bukusu who predominantly occupy bungoma county consider themselves as the majority in this county hence the perception of other communities that neighbour them as strangers or minorities. this is clearly demonstrated in bukusu narratives that comment on such perceived strangers. through such narratives, the worldview of the bukusu with regard to strangers is aptly articulated. the characters and actions in bukusu narratives are plausible since they reflect what the bukusu in general consciously or unconsciously do or might do in relation to their relationship with strangers. these narratives reflect the fears and hopes of the bukusu. it is instructive to note that at the centre of these narratives is an audience hence the more dramatic the performance, the more readily the audience come to believe the values of the community as well as the attitudes of the bukusu towards strangers. an understanding of the bukusu perception towards strangers ultimately paves the way for the internalisation of the bukusu worldview on communal coexistence. appiah (2007) clearly captures the concept of strangers when he poses: “what is not strange is that we will always treat people different from us as exactly what they are – strangers. this will happen regardless of the fact that they are humans like us and share some of the values we hold dear.” in essence what appiah implies in this assertion is that the ethos of differentiating societies, notwithstanding, there is more binding similarities in a united world. he is of the view that in the world full of strangers, cosmopolitanism is a universal trait of humankind. this is basically an ancient philosophy but one which still is in dire need of contemporary validation. appiah’s unapologetic stance on the universality of the values that unite humanity therefore still remains a hard sell. human beings will always continue defining themselves in relation with certain groups for identification purposes. warner (2002) aptly summarises what unites a given group of people as: “to be a certain kind of person or inhabit a certain kind of social world, to have at one’s disposal certain media genres, to be motivated by certain normative horizon and to speak within a certain language ideology.” such generalisations about “us” and “others” still have their own shortcomings in the sense that they do not take care of the fact that they underestimate the differences that may still be witnessed among members of the same group. such kind of stereotypes, especially negative ones, are likely to distort our perception of other groups hence ignite unnecessary friction among different groups. 2. theoretical framework this paper provides an analysis of narratives that comment on strangers and it is guided by hermeneutics theory. in its most general sense, hermeneutics is the theory of interpretation. its goal is how best to discover the meaning of the text. essentially, hermeneutics seeks to construct reality by examining a wide range of evidence and situations that can lead to a better understanding of what was to be communicated. this theory has been used to probe the community’s understanding and interpretation of communal co-existence through the narratives that comment on strangers. patton (1990) defines hermeneutics as “…a theoretical and philosophical perspective aimed at the study of interpretive understanding of meaning with special attention to the context and original purpose.” he posits that to meaningfully understand and interpret a text and any other work of art calls for an understanding of the author’s intentions, intended meanings and to place documents in their historical and cultural context. this then calls for an earnest and concerted search for possible meanings of the text or the work under investigation. in this paper, an examination of bukusu narratives on strangers essentially entails an understanding of meaning of the narratives in their context. according to patton (1990) “the term hermeneutics owes its origin to the greek word “hermeneuin” which means to interpret or translate into one’s idiom, to make clear and understandable or to give expression.” in greek mythology, herms interprets the often cryptic messages of the gods to mortals. it is not surprising therefore that hermeneutics as a discipline began as a scriptural exogenesis and was closely allied to philosophy. apart from being a philosophical mode of reflection, hermeneutics is also a methodology whose concern is with the nature of interpretation and understanding. as a philosophical perspective and analytical approach, hermeneutics has the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 31-41 33 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group potential and flexibility to be applied in a wide range of disciplines especially oral literary studies where it is vital in the interpretation of oral texts. culler (2002) advances two accounts of hermeneutics thus: a hermeneutics of recovery and a hermeneutics of suspicion. hermeneutics of recovery seeks to reconstruct the original context of production (the circumstances and intention of the author and the meaning a text might have had for its original readers). hermeneutics of suspicion seeks to expose the unexamined assumption on which a text may rely (political, sexual, philosophical, and linguistic). whereas hermeneutics of recovery celebrates the text and its author as it seeks to make an original message accessible to readers today, hermeneutics of suspicion deemphasises the authority of the text. culler however, notes that these associations are not fixed and can well be reversed. hermeneutics of recovery in restricting the text to some supposedly original meaning remote from our concerns may reduce its power, while hermeneutics of suspicion may value the text for the way in which it engages and helps us re-think issues of the moment. in doing so, it may sometimes subvert the assumptions of the performer. the weaknesses of hermeneutics of suspicion lie in its stress on the deeper meaning. it neglects the specificity of the object and looks at it as a sign of something else. whereas the symbolic meaning is crucial in literary works, it need not be overemphasised at the expense of the literal meaning. this way, its reliability in interpreting narratives is watered down. this paper circumvents this weakness by examining both the specific and literary meaning of the narratives under study. this is informed by the fact that some narratives are more direct and specific than symbolic in nature. any attempt to analyse such narratives using hermeneutics of suspicion is likely to fail. nonetheless, the two accounts of hermeneutics of recovery and suspicion have been useful in this paper. the two complement and supplement each other in appraising the construction of bukusu worldview on strangers. whereas hermeneutics of recovery has been used to situate the bukusu narratives in their original context of performance, hermeneutics of suspicion is vital in interpreting the world view of the community on strangers through a deeper analysis of these narratives. this is pegged on the assumption that many bukusu oral narratives indeed have deeper meanings apart from their normal surface meaning. hermeneutics of recovery is particularly useful in cases where the researcher has to attend the original contexts of narrative performances through fieldwork. this way, the researcher comes face to face with the narrative performances in their original state. hermeneutics theory has therefore been used in this paper to locate the bukusu construction of strangers. it has also been used to probe the community’s understanding and interpretation of strangers through oral narratives. 3. major findings 3.1. perceptions of strangers as deceptive and treacherous in examining bukusu perceptions of other people, the paper is guided by the view that in oral performances, the elements and values most vividly remembered are the images and ideas stressed and emphasised by the narrator. these images are drawn from the socio-cultural environment that the narrator shares with his audience. the narrator makes good use of the context of performance to ensure that these images and ideas are not only seen to be taking place in the narratives but also have an effect of permanence on his audience. kabira (1986) argues that “the ideological standpoint of the performers determines the principles and ideas that she stresses in the process of performance.” kabira underscores the critical role of the narrator in oral narrative performances. in her opinion, the narrative process is entirely guided by the psychological and ideological disposition of the narrator. kabira’s position is however is not fully convincing especially if one has to consider the performers as principal determinants of the course of performance especially with regard to their ideological standpoints. what should not be forgotten is the fact that the ideologies of the performers are more often than not dictated by the audience in a performance. the point that we need not belabour in this sense is that the performers and the audience have a lot of information in common such that the images and ideas that the former stresses are not anything new to the audience. this common understanding is however no guarantee to the total acceptance of the performance by the audience. the narrative performance still calls for a pleasant narrator who is able to articulate the shared experiences with the audience in an artistically acceptable manner. this is the literariness that accounts for the differences in oral performances. among the bukusu, just like in many other oral performances from different communities, the narrator is a creative ideologue creating from a clear ideological framework. the primary purpose of the narrative is therefore to persuade the audience to accept a particular way of thinking. in these narrative performances, it can be argued that the narrator merely acts as the mouth piece of the community by articulating the values and issues so dearly held by the community through narration. this explains why he/she is directly answerable to the audience in the entire narrative session. nonetheless, the fact that the narrator is entrusted with the responsibility of performing the narrative is in itself an elevation of his/her status in the community. this is validated by the significant role that narrators perform in shaping the communal perception especially with regard to strangers. a close look at bukusu narratives reveals the communal perception of some strangers as exhibiting deceptive tendencies. the narratives which have depicted strangers in the negative sense as being deceptive and treacherous stem from deep-rooted attitudes nourished over a long period of time. it can be argued that such attitudes emanate from cultural, economic and even political dynamics of the bukusu. these are the necessary pillars in constructing the bukusu worldview on communal coexistence. these narratives comment on the two vices as potential barriers to peaceful communal coexistence. some of the narratives analysed point out the damage occasioned by such vices in the bukusu community in particular and the society in general. in n1 (pp 24), apelu provides a typical example where the audience comes face to face with communal relationships with regard to the bukusu and strangers. in this narrative, the bukusu community willingly allow a stranger, whom they know little of, to live in their midst and conducts himself in a deceitful and exploitative manner. apelu, the deceitful stranger, is not ready to allow his daughter get married to hare. having lived among the bukusu for some time and taking advantage of their hospitality, he cunningly dupes them into believing that one of them can marry his daughter. however, when this hour comes and that person to marry his daughter turns out to be hare, he decides to escape with his family to heaven from where he had come so as to avoid the embarrassment of marrying off his only daughter to hare. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 31-41 34 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group in the morning when hare is expected to officially pick his bride, he comes to the house and to his utter shock, the house is empty. after searching the house, hare comes across a beautiful tobacco pipe which he decides to carry home as a source of consolation. his friends ridicule his action of “marrying” a tobacco pipe instead of a woman. hare’s mother laments her son’s fate and equally castigates what he does in bringing home a worthless object. this does not deter hare from pursuing his course. the following morning, however, namikasa, the beautiful maiden, appears and pleads with hare to marry him while apologising on behalf of her father, apelu. the weakest and despised hare has therefore won the beautiful maiden. apelu’s treachery has been defeated as is the case with other suitors who thought themselves more worthwhile than hare. his bitterest critics and rivals most of whom are well to do personalities in the community cannot help but burn with jealousy as they come to terms with their future. to them, namikasa should have been married to a more worthwhile person than hare. their jealousy notwithstanding, they are left with no option rather than accepting the turn of events. hare emerges the hero of our story. in this narrative, the narrator brings forth the presence of deceit and betrayal in the society. through the presentation of characters in this narrative, it emerges that the narrator advocates for shunning of vices that can pose a threat to peaceful communal coexistence. this perhaps explains why hare miraculously escapes the suffering occasioned by these vices. it can be inferred that through such narratives, the communal perception of strangers is aptly captured. the message in this narrative according to our respondents, is the need for the society to learn to appreciate all people irrespective of their social status. what matters in life is not how much material wealth one has acquired but the ability to live and coexist peacefully with others. the proud apelu cannot conceive of his beautiful daughter getting married to hare despite the fact that apelu is a stranger in this land and his survival largely depends on the hospitality of his neighbours. the despised hare is symbolic of the wisdom that the bukusu community prides in. it should be noted that bukusu narratives, just like many other east african narratives, symbolically use hare to represent wisdom and intelligence. he is also renowned for using dishonest means to succeed where others have failed. his triumph in this narrative, symbolises the triumph of the community in the face of strangers. our informants argue that it would be inconceivable for a stranger to not only deceive but also suppress the bukusu in their land. these views however, are mainly subjective in the sense that they lift the bukusu community above the rest by presenting them as flawless and victims of circumstances. this can prove a hard sell given in the contemporary society where the bukusu live and mingle with people from different cultural backgrounds in the native bungoma county. it is therefore possible that both the bukusu and strangers share certain characteristics in common given that they live within the same environment. it is therefore unconvincing to wholesomely condemn strangers as being deceptive and treacherous. nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that the bukusu community generally co-exists with strangers. this explains why they do not shun the seemingly arrogant apelu from the very onset. these worries can only find answers in the saying that the bukusu pride themselves in as: “lirango lie enjofu” or “the elephant’s thy.” this brings us back to the power of images in bukusu narratives. these images are at the core of narrative performances in that through them, the narrator is able to achieve his goal of creating the desired emotions in the audience. according to harold (1978) “images are felt actions evoked in the imagination of the members of the audience by verbal elements arranged and controlled by the performer.” it is important to note that despite the performer having the power to control and arrange the images in oral performances, the audience is generally privy to what is going on since they share the norms and conventions of these performances with the performer. in bukusu narratives, the image of the elephant’s thigh for instance presupposes shared knowledge between the narrator and the audience with regard to communal perception of the elephant as an animal. our informants contend that this is an animal that is associated with strength and steadfastness. it is instructive at this point to note that reference of the bukusu as “elephant’s thigh” fits in the myths which are invoked to imagine the essence of being bukusu. it accords members of the bukusu community some sense of belonging and the pride that goes with such belonging. the elephant’s thigh is also a symbol of mental strength as well as responsibility. this line of thought serves to present the bukusu as a group that boasts of mental superiority over strangers or non bukusu people. on a similar note, the image depicts the bukusu as a people who are not only accommodating but also much ready to assimilate other people especially from non bukusu communities. the ability to accommodate others stems from the high sense of responsibility associated with the elephant. this certain show of tolerance is quite laudable in the present society, especially kenya, where peaceful coexistence has at times proven to be an elusive endeavour. that the bukusu tolerates a seemingly arrogant and deceitful stranger like apelu reveals their endeavour to coexist peacefully with other communities. this story of apelu finds a semblance to n4 (pp 28) where a scabrous stranger hears of a beautiful, proud maiden, ready to get married but whose overreaching ambition has made her set an absurd price on her head: the man to marry her must be able to thread a complete waistband of beads using his teeth rather than his hands. this makes her father’s home a beehive of activities as suitors from all walks of life flock there to try their luck. one by one, different men come, try and fail. it is however quite ironical that the man who finally wins is not only a stranger but also one whom the proud young lady could not have accepted under normal circumstances. he is quite unsightly. he is given the opportunity just because no one expects him to succeed after all since his hands are ever busy scratching his scabies invested body. when he succeeds, the young woman is shocked but she has to comply though she sets another dangerous task that requires the young man to go down the lake and bring home a single feather guarded by the lake monster. the young man does so and gets cleansed in the process so that when he appears next, there are no signs of scabies on him. the two get married. according to our respondents, the journey down the lake is symbolic of the transformation that this stranger is set to undergo. the lake is part of the universe that is not inhabited by human beings and those who visit it must have compelling reasons. in his study of maragoli narratives, kabaji (2006) points out the existence of three domains in maragoli folktales: “the home, the environment just outside the home and the world beyond the forest.” he argues that in maragoli narratives, the world beyond the forest is meant for the brave and courageous. kabaji argues that this is a no go zone for girls and women. this brings out the question of gender in maragoli narratives in that women are considered as weak and cannot fulfill certain tasks without relying on the support of men. this view has however, been overtaken by events especially in the modern world where political correctness demands for equal asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 31-41 35 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group representation of gender in almost all aspects. taking cue from kabaji however, it can be rightly argued that the journey that our hero in n4 makes is in essence a journey toward maturity and purification. all the symbolic projections point to the fact that the stranger is being transformed into a man of substance and by extension a husband. the argument advanced in this narrative is that the stranger has to undergo this purification exercise in order to be allowed to marry a bukusu woman. the implication in this narrative is that the bukusu are ready to coexist with other communities as long as those communities are ready to embrace the bukusu way of life. the fact that this stranger undertakes to accomplish all the demands placed on him is a pointer to the willingness and readiness of other communities to coexist with the bukusu. the position adopted by the bukusu is likely to jeopardise the much yearned for communal coexistence due to its subjectivity. the view that it is only strangers to submit to bukusu way of life is quite parochial and a barrier to communal coexistence. it also emerges from this narrative that the bukusu community use women’s bodies to affirm their nationhood. a young audience listening to this narrative is quick to visualise the triumph of the young man before a supposedly proud maiden. this view can be validated by a close reading of mcclintock (1995) though in a different setting when she poses: “women were constructed as the symbolic bearers of the nation, but without having an historical and national agency.” she further argues that women became both representatives of the inert, atavistic body of national tradition, embodying nationalism’s conservative principle of continuity. men by contrast represented the progressive agent of national modernity, embodying nationalism’s progressive principle of discontinuity. even though it is possible to argue against such a strict demarcation between men and women in terms of the roles attached to them during the formation of nations, mcclintock also stresses the differences between different groups of men and women and acknowledges that nationalisms do not follow a universal blueprint. it can be argued that the bukusu community present women as people without any history and their history can only be realised when they are overpowered by men. this bukusu perception of strangers in the negative sense also emanates from their desire to paint a picture of a unique group that can only be corrupted through interaction with suspicious strangers. this feeling can be taken to be a universal perception held by many cultural communities across the divide. this is exemplified in eddy (2003) when he posits that: “often discussions that deal with the personal identity issues whether about race, gender, religion, or nation, descend quickly into an ‘us’ and ‘them ‘opposition that ceases to do productive work and poisons the hopes of any participant for a satisfying resolution of conflict.” eddy’s argument points to the existing differences in the society where different communities struggle to identify themselves as distinct from others. such differences are varied and range from gender, religion, race, nation or even language. such differences are quite instrumental in reflecting the kind of relationships that exist among these groups of people. although eddy pleads for peace between different groups, such peace should not come at the expense of losing a healthy sense of nationalism and cultural pride. this peace can however be nourished by the different groups accepting and appreciating the existence of the peculiarities that differentiate them from others and put such peculiarities to good use for a peaceful communal coexistence. the perception of the bukusu to some strangers as being deceptive and treacherous can be likened to a double edged sword given that inasmuch as the target is to depict their strangers in the negative sense, this perception inadvertently compels the bukusu to deal fairly with others. they too are not expected to condone any deceptive and treacherous tendencies. a close examination of bukusu narratives reveals the existence of group divisions through the narratives that comment on strangers. a number of these narratives are metaphorically tailored to comment on strangers hence they call for the unraveling of the literary meaning in order to appreciate the bukusu perception of strangers. in his comments on the use of symbolic language in narratives, okpewho (1983) poses: how indeed does one treat the evidence that people’s ancestors descended from the sky? in the absence of any proof of early astronomic technology, such a statement must be seen as having a primarily poetic interest. whatever may be the real historical foundations of the claim, it is evident that the people who tell such a tale have decided to consecrate that history to poetic resource of symbolism. okpewho’s position is significant in elucidating the significance of symbolism in oral literary performances. it can be argued that many oral literary subgenres among them bukusu narratives heavily rely on symbolism in their performances. as such, our attempt to glean something of the original meaning in most narratives demands that we work our way through that medium of suggestive fancy employed by the performers to describe their most cherished experiences, that oblique language of symbols, by which they identify the familiar elements of their cultural universe. it has already been mentioned that, the images and symbols employed in narrative performances need to have a bearing to the socio-cultural and historical environment for them to communicate to the audience and the narrator alike. 3.2. perceptions of strangers as untrustworthy and ungrateful an examination of some bukusu narratives reveals the extent to which some strangers are perceived as being untrustworthy and ungrateful. n3 (pp 27) is perhaps one of those narratives that warn the community to be wary of strangers who may pose a serious threat to the otherwise peaceful coexistence. in this narrative, a woman is digging up sweet potatoes in a garden when a hyena comes by running and approaches her with pleas for help. he is panting and sweating profusely. the woman is startled and almost takes to flight but the hyena begs her not to run away since he is only running away from hunters who want to kill him. he therefore requests the woman to protect him from his adversaries. without saying a word, the frightened woman takes up a large basket and covers the hyena thereby concealing him completely. shortly afterwards, hunters arrive and enquire from her if she has seen the hyena pass by to which the woman denies seeing any hyena. so the hunters go their way warning her that it would be foolhardy to conceal a dangerous creature like the hyena from the hunters since it could easily turn against the same woman and eat her up. when the hunters have gone, the woman lifts the basket on one side and asks the hyena whether it is true that it could eat her up. the hyena replies callously that any person who ignores sound advice like her indeed deserves to be eaten up. the woman is asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 31-41 36 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group shocked. soon after the hyena is sure that the hunters have gone far out of sight, he throws off the basket, seizes the woman and starts eating her up despite her screams and pleas for mercy. this narrative has been told repeatedly in the bukusu community to enlighten the audience on embracing openness and shunning evil practices that can be detrimental to the existing social order in the society. miruka (1999) notes that the hyena in many east african narratives is regarded as a symbol of greed and foolishness. these are some of the vices that the bukusu community and the rest of the society are likely to avoid at all costs. it is therefore ironic if a member of the community can willingly propagate such vices. our respondents observe that this narrative warns the audience and the bukusu community to desist from condoning evil and come out openly to condemn such practices at both individual and communal levels. the narrative equally warns the community to not only be wary of strangers with unknown background but also desist from wholly embracing issues and ideologies that are remotely related to them. this will guard them from falling victims of deceit and betrayal. to date, individuals who engage in suspicious deals with unknown people are always reminded of this narrative. those who willingly go against the dictates of the community are regarded as social misfits and whenever calamity strikes, they are held personally responsible for their actions. this is the ideal society that this narrative and many others advocate for. it is however ironic that this narrative narrows its perception of evil to be emanating from strangers. this is an unacceptable position largely fostered by general ethnocentric tendencies and social psychological mechanisms individual members of the bukusu community subscribe to. n7 (pp 30) reveals the extent to which the bukusu were wary of their perceived “enemies” especially the sabaots. it is instructive to note that this narrative has some historical bearing as evidenced in were (1967) when he highlights the major external “enemies” of the abaluhya in general and the bukusu in particular as; “luo, nandi, teso and uasin gishu maasai.” the nandi and teso in particular were frequently fighting with the bukusu over land and livestock. this eroded the relationship between these communities that the bukusu would perform a narrative aimed at warning young women ready for marriage against endearing themselves to strangers. the narrative which is in form of a song goes thus: nabwile, nabwile nabwile, nabwile khasinja olikona nying’inyi khasinja you should not sleep deeply. nabwile, nabwile nabwile, nabwile khasinga olikona nying’inyi khasinja you should not sleep deeply. according to (john wafula, appendix 18 pp 29) this narrative underscores the kind of relationship between the bukusu and their neighbours. it presents the bukusu community as having been victims of aggression from some aggressive neighbours and is therefore not ready to allow its members to freely mingle with such strangers. this is more specifically in marriage where sometimes young people look beyond their respective communities in choosing a partner. the perception of the bukusu as mere victims of aggression is a hard sell given that quite often different groups have different interests in any given society. it is justifiable to infer that the bukusu, just like their neighbours, greatly contributed to the kind of relationship that existed among them. in the above narrative, our narrator argues against intermarriages especially with regard to those communities perceived as “enemies.” it is however, instructive to observe that the perception of the bukusu towards their sabaot neighbours is subjective in the sense that the former are keen on painting their counterparts as the aggressors out to harm the bukusu. such a biased presentation of history is questionable given the fact that the bukusu equally engaged in several wars on their way to settle in western parts of kenya. this is clearly captured in were (1967) when he posits: “in the early years of the raids, the teso seem to have come off best. at one time for example, they defeated the babukusu and forced many of them to flee. however, from the accounts of people, the situation was never static.” the fact that the bukusu engaged in a series of wars with other non bukusu communities can only be taken to imply that they had group interests which they fought for. it would therefore be imprudent for the bukusu to perceive of other communities as aggressors and assume innocence all the time. this narrative is closely related to n5 (pp 29) where the sabaots are depicted as despising their bukusu neighbours who hitherto have not been practicing circumcision the way the sabaots do. it takes the courage of mango, a bukusu man, who kills the python that had defeated valiant warriors among the sabaots for the sabaots to accept the bukusu among their fold. the act of killing a python is in itself symbolic of the ability to protect the community from external aggression. this daring act can only be accomplished by the privileged few who are normally brave like mango. his transformation into a heroic character in this narrative symbolises the communal achievements in the face of the perceived enemy community. forthwith, the sabaots will no longer despise their bukusu counterparts. the acceptance of the bukusu by the sabaots is however conditional – the bukusu have to embrace circumcision which had long been forgotten in the community. to this extent, it can be argued that inasmuch as the bukusu regard the sabaots as an enemy community, they equally feel indebted to them for the reemergence of the practice of circumcision which they now take a lot of pride in. this boils down to the interrelationship that characterise not only the bukusu and the sabaots but also many other world communities. the relationship between the bukusu and their neighbouring teso community is aptly captured in n5 (pp 29). this reveals the perception which was earlier held by the bukusu to their neighbours as ungrateful. this, according to (john wafula,one of our key respondents pp 27) was occasioned by the frequent wars between the two communities. the climax was the defeat of the teso by the bukusu and the subsequent humiliation of the former when they sought peace. the history of frequent feuds between the two communities is aptly captured by were (1967) when he observes that in order to defeat the teso, the bukusu had to “…adopt a new kind of warfare. this consisted of night raids and battles.” this helped the bukusu to defeat and subdue their aggressive neighbours. the bukusu saying of “bamia balia embwa” or simply “the teso who ate a dog” is used in reference to the humiliation that the teso suffered at the hands of the bukusu. this was in form of the bukusu forcing them into eating a young heifer’s meat after one teso man being forced to lie in the intestines of the slaughtered animal. this was a humbling exercise that the teso took without faltering. the act of “eating a dog” is metaphorically used to reveal the suing for peace between the two communities. the other metaphor that the bukusu have consistently employed with reference to the teso is the infamous “khupa omumia akhulindile kamamela” translated as “hit the teso soundly so that he can mind your elusive sprouts.” among the bukusu community, the role of minding elusive sprouts was assigned to the children and weak in body. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 31-41 37 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group since the teso posed a constant threat on bukusu frontiers, it was more desirable to render them harmless. this then necessitated the application of this adage on an enemy in view. given that the bukusu live and interact with other communities in their day to day activities, there are high chances of communal feuds emerging at any given time. this then calls for communal unity in the event of external aggression. the emerging value in this metaphor is communal unity which surpasses individualism. individual members of the community are called upon to be ready to sacrifice for the sake of the community especially in the event of some external forces that threaten the very fabric of peaceful coexistence. it is important to observe that n5, n6 and n7 above all border on historical events that indeed happened in the history of the bukusu community. such historical events are significant in authenticating the narrative process and make it appeal to both the audience and the narrator. in his comments on african myths and narratives, okpewho (1983) notes: “the relationship between history/fact on one hand and ‘poetry’ and fiction/fancy on the other helps us to determine the true sense of the mythic. the closer a tale gets to historical reality; the less capable it is of being an illustration or vehicle, of larger, timeless, abstract details.” okpewho’s position is laudable in situating the place of oral narratives in their historical and cultural set up. the relationship between oral performances and historical and cultural setups has already been exemplified in the earlier chapters. perhaps the narrative of the bukusu and teso is closely related to yet another common metaphor among the bukusu “oteremaka acha ebunyolo” translated as “a coward person should migrate and live at the lakeside.” this clearly points to the obvious bukusu disdain to those communities that live at the lake shores. one of our respondents opines that this metaphor specifically targets the luos who live near lake victoria. the seemingly open dislike for the luos in this case can only be linked to the wars that the two communities underwent. this metaphor is mainly employed with reference to the young boys who are about to be initiated into adulthood through circumcision. our respondents observe that due to constant migrations and feuds with neighbours as the teso mentioned above, the practice of circumcision was disrupted for some time until mango of neala, revived it after killing the ferocious python that had caused untold suffering to both the bukusu and their neighbours. it is however interesting to note that the sabaots, who used to boast of valiant warriors, had not been able to kill this python which was posing a great challenge to their very existence. when mango therefore vows to avenge his daughter’s death, the sabaot warriors ridicule him because they could not conceive of an uncircumcised man killing a python that has defeated the most reputable warriors of the time. mango was however not dissuaded from his resolution. he spends days and nights sharpening his sword in readiness for the impending showdown with the python. the news of his killing of the python spread like wild fire in the bush. the sabaot elders who previously held their bukusu neighbours in disrepute because of circumcision decide to circumcise mango and crown him the status of an elder. this then marks the onset of circumcision among the bukusu. from the above, it suffices that the bukusu and the sabaots both had frosty relationships that can only be attributed to the question of identity formations and the “us” and “them” concepts. the sabaots who view themselves as superior to the bukusu only allow the latter to be circumcised after this act of bravery from mango. it is imperative to note that what mango achieves does not only bring peace to the bukusu families but also the entire neighbourhood. this is a significant pointer to the need for peaceful coexistence given that different communities living in a similar environment are faced with similar challenges. henceforth, circumcision has been used as a mark of transition from childhood to adulthood. the narratives around this practice have been used to inculcate; morality, behaviour and responsibilities. these narratives equally pave the way for the initiate to receive a more serious form of traditional education. such symbolic maturity is preceded, accompanied and followed by tuition in all areas of life including sex education. boys who delay undergoing this rite are jeered and ridiculed by the public, especially by their age mates who are already circumcised as well as by girls who consider them as cowards. circumcision is thus a mark of courage since the initiates are encouraged to “face the knife” without flinching. any slight show of fear is highly disapproved. in his comments on bukusu circumcision, bulimo (2013) observes: “in bukusu, double-bladed knives are used with each knife cutting four initiates – one side chopping two older boys while the other side cuts the young ones.” bulimo argues that this serves to bond candidates further and assume symbolic meaning of brotherhood later in life when the initiates refer to each other as being of one blade. it is however imperative to note that the practice of using one blade on different initiates has forthwith changed due to biomedical reasons. it is vital at this point to observe that regardless of ethnic group, male circumcision has several related dimensions which range from social, religious, philosophical and even biomedical. niang and boiro (2007) argues that among the balante of guinea bissau, for example, “the image of a circumcised man is that of a wise man who understands and respects what is socially prohibited and social mores. circumcision makes a man more human and less dissolute and transforms the status of words and acts.” this standpoint seems to over glorify circumcision by elevating the status of a circumcised man above the rest. the argument that such a person becomes less dissolute is equally contestable in the sense that cases of overindulgence cannot have a one to one relationship with circumcision. nevertheless, what emerges from this argument is the fact that circumcision is highly valued among the balante ethnic group. this is a practice that comes with a high sense of responsibility and accountability to the community. niang and boiro further postulate that among the wolof of senegal still, “a circumcised man is one who prays and who meets the conditions of spiritual purity required for an act of religious communion.” this position introduces a different dimension of religiosity in circumcision. this is an attempt to purify circumcision and make those who partake of it feel better in the eyes of those who do not. such views are not very different from the bukusu where circumcision is perceived of as a source of new social relations. according to (joseph nangendo appendix 15 pp 29), those who are circumcised in the same group are considered to be bound by undying closeness, even stronger than that with a parent. forthwith, any violence among them is highly prohibited. these are the codes that guarantee peaceful coexistence among those circumcised at the same time and the bukusu in general while at the same time presenting the community as a unique group. this paper provides an elaborate description of circumcision among the bukusu because this is one of the most elaborate cultural practices that binds the bukusu as a community. it equally singles them out as brave people who are ready to defend the community from any external aggression all the time. this explains why the tag “coward” is asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 31-41 38 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group considered an insult to a bukusu young man just about to be circumcised. he therefore has to prove his bravery by withstanding the pain that go with circumcision. in doing so, the young man is partaking in a communal bond that identifies the bukusu as a distinct entity. this boils down to the concept of identities and how various communities consider themselves as different from others. when terms that contain any derivates of it such as community are used, it often evokes profound feelings in people. after all, how can one not be proud of one’s community, common bond with one’s fellow members of the community or the unquestionable loyalty to the community that has nurtured and imparted the sense of commonness? in his comments on imagined communities, anderson (1991) posits that: “communities are to be distinguished, not by their falsity/genuineness, but by the style in which they are imagined.” according to anderson, language is the main ingredient in the mixture that glues a “nation” together and creates group consciousness. it is language that tells history, evokes images and produces social cohesion. however, the same language tool can be used to draw distinct lines between those who “historically” belong to the nations and those who are outsiders and intruders. anderson rightly captures the significance of language in communal identities. it is true that language plays a major role in disseminating ideas and unifying people with imaginary links. at this point, it is instructive to observe that reflection on whether and how to provide male circumcision has taken a particular importance in the recent past. this has been occasioned by the clinical trials in countries like south africa, kenya and rwanda which have revealed that male circumcision reduces the risk of hiv infection by more than 50% in heterosexual men. these trials have somewhat altered the perception of circumcision as a mere mark of transition from childhood to adulthood. the fact that the bukusu refer to their luo neighbours as cowards stems more from politics than negative stereotypes in the sense that the tesos who equally do not practise circumcision are not considered as cowards in bukusu narratives. circumcision is regarded as a measure of maturity and bravery hence readiness to serve the community including defending it from external aggression. it is worth to reiterate that to date circumcision is still symbolically used to imply maturity among the bukusu. however, age is no longer a factor in circumcision as many families circumcise their male children at very tender ages. again, the bukusu are no longer at war with their neighbours. nonetheless, the tag of cowardice especially those who fail to live according to communal expectations has consistently been used to bring out the negativity inherent among the bukusu towards their luo counterparts. from the above examples of narratives, it emerges that bukusu narratives are vital in capturing the kind of perceptions that the community has about strangers. such perceptions are geared towards depicting the bukusu as an independent group surrounded by people from different social, economic and political backgrounds. it is also significant to note that through these narratives, communal relationships are clearly revealed. 4. conclusion in this paper, it emerges that bukusu narratives can be construed as social levelers in the sense that during the performance, barriers that would otherwise separate the different groups of people in other social contexts have been broken. consequently, one finds children, women, as well as people from all walks of life gathered together to share this ancient art form. a critical examination of the narratives in this paper reveals that communal coexistence is one of the determining factors in their construction and performance. the values that these narratives propound enforce a way of perception that is anchored on communal coexistence. similarly, these narratives vividly capture the communal perception on strangers. the paper examines bukusu narratives as a body of dynamic texts which reveal the corpus of beliefs and practices that govern communal relationships especially between the bukusu and strangers. in doing so, the narratives are viewed not as domestic entertainment but as a site from which the narrators articulate a commentary upon communal relationships. of great significance, the paper has interrogated these texts in order to show how they articulate and represent particular perceptions on strangers. being works of art, it has emerged that bukusu narratives, are presented in cultural images and symbolic representations that mirror social realities. the discussion in this paper was guided by the assumption that these narratives are created within a specific cultural set up context and that they articulate broader social values and ideologies that transcend the boarders of bukusu community. references anderson, b. (1991). imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. london, new york: verso. appadurai, a. (2006). fear of small numbers: an essay on the geography of anger. durham and london: duke university press. appiah, a. (2007). cosmopolitanism: ethics in a world of strangers. new york; london: w.w norton and company. bulimo, s. (2013). luyia nation: origins, clans and taboos. paper presented at the library of congress: trafford publishing. culler, j. (2002). literary theory: a very short introduction. new york: oxford university press. eddy, b. (2003). the rites of identity: the religious naturalism and cultural criticism of kenneth burke and ralph ellison. princeton and oxford: princeton university press. harold, s. (1978). oral narrative process and the use of models. varia folklorica. ed (pp. 102-140). alan dundes: mouton publishers paris. kabaji, e. (2006). the construction of gender through the narrative process. phd, thesis, university of south africa. kabira, w. (1986). the oral artist. nairobi: heinemann. mcclintock, a. (1995). imperial leather: race, gender and sexuality in the colonial contest. new york: routledge. miruka, o. (1999). studying oral literature. nairobi: acacia publishers. niang, c. i., & boiro, h. (2007). “you can also cut my finger!”: social construction of male circumcision in west africa, a case study of senegal and guinea-bissau. reproductive health matters, 15(29), 22-32. okpewho, i. (1983). myth in africa. cambridge: cambridge university press. patton, m. (1990). qualitative education and research methods. ca: sage publications. warner, m. (2002). publics and counter publics. new york: zone books. were, g. (1967). a history of the abaluyia of western kenya. nairobi: east african publishing house. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 31-41 39 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group appendices bukusu oral narratives collected this section provides the narratives that have been adduced to in this paper. these narratives were rendered in lubukusu, the native language of the bukusu. the english translation provided here was arrived at after transliteration and then translation by the research assistants in collaboration with the researcher. the bukusu songs in the narratives have been translated into english. narrative 1 apelu narrator: rael mukhwana one day, in the quiet, peaceful village of sibwani, across the meadowlands of wabutubile, people woke up in the morning to find that there was a stranger among them. a picturesque house had come into existence where previously there had been no house. next to the kitchen was a cattle kraal. the cattle and sheep of the stranger were so healthy and beautiful that people wondered how such good animals could have grazed within their vicinity without their notice. a story went round about the strange happenings in sibwani and out of curiosity many people flocked there to see things for themselves. although the stranger communicated with the inhabitants in their language, people feared to come into close contact with him and simply contented themselves with feasting their eyes from a distance. occasionally, a handful of village elders dropped in for a chat; but they likewise showed constraint in the presence of the stranger, and their talks were brief and casual. soon, young men began to show interest in the stranger’s only daughter. several intending suitors started approaching the stranger seeking his daughter’s hand in marriage. in view of the offers coming from numerous suitors, the stranger decided to do something unusual so as to abate growing anxiety on the part of his hosts. the stranger decided to invite villagers to his house entertaining them with plenty of beer and meat. in the midst of the entertainment, he asked them whether they knew him by name to which they all replied in the negative. he then declared that whoever was interested in his daughter must first tell him at a public gathering he was due to hold what his name was. this left the village elders dumbfounded. however, they went home and spread the news to their respective villages. aspiring suitors could not sleep a wink. they sat up throughout the thin hours of the morning trying to unravel the riddle. one fellow who did not bother to crack his head over the riddle was hare, who always used unconventional methods to solve new problems. on the eve of the great occasion, hare visited the stranger’s homestead at night. quite aware that there were fierce dogs which might attack him, he carried along with him some meat to placate the dogs in the event they barked and snarled at him. thus, whenever a dog barked, he threw a piece of meat at it making the beast to settle down to feast. the commotion outside the stranger’s house arose his wife from sleep and she frantically tried to awaken her husband who was too sleepy to bestir. she kept on listening keenly for some time but when the dogs stopped barking, she went back to sleep. however, before she could even sleep a wink, hare hurled a large rock into the kraal causing the cattle to stampede round and round in the kraal creating such a disturbance that she woke up once more. one restless bull, charged at the other animals wildly causing a terrific stir, which seemed to break down the wooden enclosure. she shoke her husband vigorously calling loudly; “apelu. apelu, please wake up…enemies are breaking into the kraal! apelu…apelu…apelu…” while the woman was calling her husband, hare was standing at the door listening keenly. as soon as apelu jumped out from sleep and heads for the door, hare bolted and escaped. hare did not sleep a wink that night; he kept on singing the name apelu repeatedly until the break of dawn. in the morning, a huge crowd of people gathered at apelu’s house for the purpose of unraveling the riddle. apelu took his royal stool and went to sit atop a nearby mound while the audience spread itself on the flat ground below from where they gazed at him in awe. his mesmerizing personality convinced everyone present that he was either a prince or a king from unknown land. he was for the first time appearing in royal apparel in public, wearing, ekutusi and waving a flywhisk made from a buffalo’s tail. prospective candidates therefore stood up in turns and one by one called him all sorts of conceivable names: names of animate and inanimate things; names of heroes and gods of the bukusu and names of clan founders. each time someone stood and shouted a name, the stranger shook his head in denial. thus, the situation appeared completely hopeless. when the prospects of unraveling the riddle were completely dwindling, hare the smallest fellow in the crowd, pushed his way to the mound where the stranger was sitting. everyone broke down laughing at the sight of the slovenly dressed, diminutive fellow braving his way out. his first words were drowned in a peal of laughter. as soon as calm was restored, hare shouted out the name of the stranger. the stranger’s charming smile disappeared completely and the rest of the people were left in shock. the stranger rose and announced to the bewildered crowd that his name is apelu. the diminutive fellow had therefore won the bet. the crowd dispersed and people went home gossiping among themselves about the triumphant little sloven. the deceitful stranger decided to escape with his family to heaven from where he had come from so as to avoid the embarrassment of marrying off his only daughter to such worthless fellow. in the morning, hare came to the house and to his utter shock, the house was empty. after searching the house, he came across a beautiful tobacco pipe which he decided to carry home as a source of consolation. his friends ridiculed his action of “marrying” a tobacco pipe instead of a woman. hare’s mother lamented her son’s fate and equally castigated what he did in bringing home a worthless object. this did not deter hare. the following morning, however, namikasa the beautiful maiden appeared and pleaded with hare to marry him while apologizing on behalf of her father, apelu. narrative 2 three men meet a strange old woman narrator: martin makhanu a long time ago, some three men who had gone out to raid cattle from their enemies were returning home when they came upon an old woman who was stranded by the riverside. she was so weak that she could not cross the river by herself so when she saw them walking towards her, she was so grateful and begged them to carry her across the river. two of the men flatly rejected her retorting that it was not their duty to carry old hags like her on their bags. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 31-41 40 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the third man, however, overpowered by compassion for the old woman offered to help her cross the river. he asked her to jump on his back and managed to cross the river with her. on reaching the other side of the river, the old woman refused to disembark from the man’s back. she remained clinging on the man’s bag despite his plea to be allowed to join his colleagues. this prompted the other two men to leave their friend behind and go look for an animal to come and slaughter. on coming back, they erected an arbour within which they roasted meat. when the meat was ready, they asked the woman to let go off their friend so that she could eat but she adamantly refused to come down and demanded to eat from his back. the men refused to share the meat with her. so they ate until they were satisfied. when darkness set in, they slept by the fireside. no sooner did the old woman see them sleeping than she jumped down and started eating the meat greedily. but it did not take long before she too was overcome by sleep. while she was still thus sleeping, the man who had been carrying her all along woke up feeling very light. he then immediately woke his friends up and the trio stealthily walked out leaving the old woman still sleeping. long after the men had gone a hyena which had scented meat came to the scene and started eating the remains. while it was thus busy gleaning the enclosure of every bone, the old woman woke up from her sleep and jumped on his back thinking that it was the young man who had helped her cross the river. the hyena got so frightened that it took off with great speed running aimlessly without stopping. when he eventually plunged into the sea where he drowned, the old woman was still firmly perched on his back. thus the greedy hyena and the ungrateful woman both met their tragic end. narrative 3 a hyena ate his protector narrator: japheth sipingili once upon a time, a woman was digging up sweet potatoes in a garden when a hyena came by running and approached her with pleas for help. he was panting and sweating profusely. the woman was startled and almost took to flight but the hyena begged her not to run away since he was only running away from hunters who wanted to kill him. he therefore requested the woman to protect him from his adversaries. without saying a word, the frightened woman took up a large basket and covered it over the hyena thereby concealing him completely. shortly afterwards, hunters arrived and enquired from her if she had seen the mischievous hyena pass by to which the woman denied. so the hunters went their way warning her that it would be foolhardy to conceal a dangerous creature like the hyena from the hunters since it could easily turn against the same woman and eat her up. when the hunters had gone, the woman lifted the basket on one side and asked the hyena whether it is true that it could eat her up. the hyena replied callously that any person who ignored sound advice like her indeed deserved to be eaten up. the woman was shocked beyond words. soon after the hyena had been assured that the hunters had gone far out of sight, he threw off the basket, seized the woman and started eating her up despite her screams and pleas for mercy. narrative 4 a beautiful proud maiden narrator: david nasong’o once upon a time, there lived a beautiful proud maiden who was ready to get married but whose overreaching ambition had made her set an absurd premium on her head: the man to marry her must be able to thread a complete waistband of beads using his teeth rather than his hands. this made her father’s home a beehive of activities as suitors from all walks of life flock there to try their luck. one by one, different men came, tried and failed. it is however quite ironical that the man who finally won was the one that the proud young lady could not have accepted under normal circumstances. he was quite unsightly. he was given the opportunity just because no one expected him to succeed after all since his hands were ever busy scratching his scary body. when he succeeded, the young woman was shocked out of her wits but she had to comply though she set another dangerous task that required the young man to go down the lake and bring home a single feather guarded by the lake monster. the young man did so and got cleansed in the process so that when he appeared next, there were no signs of scabies on him. the two got married. narrative 5 the teso who ate a dog narrator: john wafula sometime back the bukusu engaged in continuous fighting with their teso neighbours over fertile land and grazing fields. this war went on for quite some time until it became apparent that there was need to make peace. the bukusu were equipped with spears while their adversaries only had clubs which made the former a stronger and more formidable force. consequently, the teso sought to make peace. the bukusu therefore slaughtered a young heifer and asked one teso man to lie in the intestines of this slaughtered animal. the entire community was later asked to eat this beef as a mark of peace between the two communities. this was a humbling exercise that the teso undertook without faltering. from this incidence, the bukusu coined an aphorisms: “bamia balia embwa, and khupa omumia akhulindile silundu,” or simply the teso ate the dog and beat up the teso to take care of your garden respectively. narrative 6 the bukusu circumcision narrator: joseph nangendo once there was a giant python that threatened to completely annihilate the bukusu community. it ssis said to have swallowed both animals and human beings indiscriminately. one day, this dreaded creature swallowed mango’s only daughter when she had gone to fetch water. this infuriated him so much that he swore to kill the python by all means. at this time, the bukusu were freely intermingling with their sabot neighbours who used to practice circumcision. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 31-41 41 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group it is however interesting to note that the sabots, who boast of valiant warriors, had not been able to kill this python which was posing a great challenge to their very existence. when mango therefore vowed to avenge his daughter’s death, the sabot warriors ridiculed him because they could not conceive of an uncircumcised man killing a snake that had defeated the most reputable warriors of the time. mango was however not dissuaded from his resolution. he spent days and nights sharpening his sword in readiness for the impending showdown with the python. on the fateful day, he strategically took cover next to the cave where the python always retired to at the end of the day. he placed a tree stamp at the entrance to the cave and held his sword at ready. it is said that the python was so huge that when it moved, trees could sway and some rocks could roll down the mountain. it is at this backdrop that one wonders the courage exhibited by the protagonist in this narrative. eventually when the python arrived and rested its scaring head on the tree stamp, mango swiftly raised his sword and chopped off the head marking the end of the misery that this creature had subjected people to. this news spread like wild fire in the bush. the sabot elders who previously held their bukusu neighbours in disrepute because of circumcision decide to circumcise mango and crown him the status of an elder. this then marked the onset of circumcision among the bukusu. narrative 7 nabwile narrator: john wafula long ago, the bukusu who lived next to their sabot neighbours did not approve of intermarriage between the two communities. to make sure that this never happened, they used to warn their daughters who had reached marriageable age in narratives. the narrative which was in form of a song went thus: nabwile, nabwile nabwile, nabwile khasinja olikona nying’inyi khasinja you should not sleep deeply. nabwile, nabwile nabwile, nabwile khasinga olikona nying’inyi khasinja you should not sleep deeply. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 99 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 2, 99-103, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.99.103 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group teachers’ effectiveness and students’ academic achievement in senior secondary school civic, osun state nigeria babatunde adeniyi adeyemi institute of education, obafemi awolowo university, ile-ife, nigeria. abstract the study assessed the level of teaching effectiveness of civic teachers in osun state. it also determined the relationship between teachers’ effectiveness and senior secondary school students’ academic achievement and examined the difference between the academic achievement of the students taught by male civic teachers and those taught by female civic teachers in the study area. the study employed correlational research design and the population for the study comprised of civic teachers and the senior secondary school students in osun state. the sample size for the study consisted of forty (40) civic teachers and two hundred (200) students selected using multistage sampling procedure. a research question and two hypotheses were raised to guide the study. two instruments: teachers’ effectiveness rating scale (ters) and civic achievement test (cat) were developed and used for data collection. the two instruments were given to experts in civic education and test and measurement for face and content validity and were later subjected to a reliability test using pearson moment product correlation which yielded values of 0.65 and 0.72 respectively. data collected were analysed using frequency counts, simple percentages, mean, standard deviation, linear regression and t-test statistics. findings of the study showed that the level of teaching effectiveness of civic teachers in the study area is moderate. the study concluded that teachers’ effectiveness is a correlate of senior secondary school students’ academic achievement in civic in ife central local government area of osun state. keywords: teachers, effectiveness, students, academic, achievement, civic. citation | babatunde adeniyi adeyemi (2020). teachers’ effectiveness and students’ academic achievement in senior secondary school civic, osun state nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(2): 99-103. history: received: 5 february 2020 revised: 13 march 2020 accepted: 17 april 2020 published: 11 may 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper.. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 100 2. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 101 3. results .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 101 4. discussion of findings .................................................................................................................................................................. 102 5. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 103 6. recommendations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 103 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 103 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.99.103&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1619 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9467-4721 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1619 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9467-4721 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1619 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9467-4721 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 99-103 100 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study has provided empirical evidences that showed the level of teaching effectiveness of civics teachers in the study area. not only that, the study revealed that there was a significant relationship between teachers’ effectiveness and senior secondary school students’ academic achievement in civic in the study area. in addition, the study showed that there was no significant difference between the academic achievement of students taught by male civic teachers and those taught by female civic teachers in the study area. 1. introduction education is key for human development. education is a tool that brings about upliftment and growths for people. alade (2004) asserted that education is an instrument for children in the nursery school to be well developed and grow in their skills and potentials. education allows for survival among pupils in the school. it is the foundation to which skills are developed among the learners and the society at large. teaching is such a profession that is practiced among people who are passionate and have the skill of developing people and wanting them to grow. a teacher must be ready to motivate, encourage, counsel, educate and develop others for the sake of development. teachers must not see teaching job as a stepping stone to other professions, they must it as an opportunity to build the lives of others via contents and practice (okolocha & onyeneke, 2013). teaching is geared and should be focused on human sustainable development and effective growth (oyekan, 2000).if the educational tanning of teachers is well built, there would be room for effective teaching among the learners as well as educators. for effective teaching to be brought to limelight, teachers must be able to give room for creativity, intellectualism, love, hospitality, love for wisdom and the ability to understand the theme of individual differences. the extent of the competence of teachers, the level of adaptation, the strength of understanding of the teachers and many more have to be well understood. if teaching would be meaningful and effective, the teacher must demonstrate high level of intelligence, skills and knowledge in line with pedagogical delivery (adeyemi, 2016). one of the main differences in the junior secondary school (jss) and senior secondary school (sss) curricula is the fact that teachers must be able and ready to demonstrate high level of mastery of the subject to be taught. teachers must be well grounded in the subjects that have been trained to teach the learners. such virtues as classroom evaluation, assessment of content learnt and many more should not be put aside in the teaching profession. teachers should allow for effective classroom interaction as a way of build and evaluating the extent to which learners have learnt (adeyemi, 2019). academic competencies can be seen as skills that have been developed by the teachers to make sure that the students are academically achieved and competent. the principal attributes of teaching should be well understood by teachers to give room for effective teaching deliveries among teachers (akpan, 2002). an effective teacher is such that does not keep stop learning and understanding the trends in teaching profession. the teaching styles and skills of the teachers are scored by the level and extend of performance of learners academically. most research had revealed that the best place to locate the answer to those questions is to ask the students who are being taught (daniel & james, 2007).in the word of akomolafe (2010) attention on students’ achievement, quality teaching responsive to students learning opportunities, pedagogical practices play prominent roles in effective teaching deliveries of teachers. the school, teachers and the society at large should be ready to assist learners to perform well and effectively in the roles as professional teachers. the school curriculum should be focused on developing the holistic child such as developing the intellectual, physical and social skills. academic performance can be seen as the level or extend to which the goals of education or a particular curriculum has been achieved among learners. the academic performance of the learners is dependent on the ability of the teachers to teach effectively and educate learners from their reservoir of knowledge. the level of academic achievement of learners is achieved via the ability of learners to demonstrate their competence via writing of examination of test after been exposed to content under the tutelage of teachers. when a test or examination is to be written, learners have anxiety, fear and discouragement. this does not stop learners from showing their level of academic competence and academic achievement. a school is then seen as an institution where learners are exposed to content to test their level of intelligence and academic performance from one stage of education to the other. ademola (2007) in his findings found that though there are more female teachers in the school than make teachers, female teachers are still more absent in the school that the male teachers. this might be due to the fact that some of them are children that they attend to on the daily bases before finding their way to the school. however, akinmusire (2012) revealed that more learners taught by female teachers perform more than learners that are taught by the male teachers. the core of this study is therefore to investigate teachers’ effectiveness and students’ academic performance in civics in osun state, nigeria. 1.1. statement of the problem teachers’ primary role of transmission of knowledge and skills is never in dispute hence the adequacy and quality for better service delivery of teachers need to be assessed on a regular basis. therefore, the performance of teachers should be glaring and persistent for their learners to perform well academically and social in and out of the school. it is however sad to note that most learners have been faced with low academic performance being the fact that the teachers are not well skilled and passionate among the learners. this extent and level of academic performance therefore borders on the quality of human and material resources which are available during their schooling. this study therefore aims at investigating the influence of teacher’s effectiveness on students’ academic achievement on civic. 1.2. purpose of the study the purpose of the study is to find out the relationship between teacher effectiveness and students’ academic achievement in civics. specifically, this study sought to; (i) assess the level of teaching effectiveness of civic teachers in ife central local government area of osun state. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 99-103 101 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group (ii) determine the relationship between teachers’ effectiveness and senior secondary school students’ academic achievement in civic in the study area. (iii) examine the difference between the academic achievement of the students taught by male civic teachers and those taught by female civic teachers in the study area. 1.3. research question what is the level of teaching effectiveness of civic teachers in osun state? 1.4. hypotheses (i) there is no significant relationship between teachers’ effectiveness and senior secondary school students’ academic achievement in civic in the study area. (ii) there is no significant difference between the academic achievement of students taught by male civics teachers and those taught by female civic teachers in the study area. 2. methodology this study adopted a correlational research design. the population for the study consisted of all secondary school civic teachers and students in osun state. the sample size for the study comprised forty (40) civic teachers and two hundred (200) senior secondary school students selected using multistage sampling procedure. two senatorial districts were selected from the three in the region using simple random sampling technique. ten local government areas (lgas) were selected from each of the selected senatorial districts. from each lga, two senior secondary schools were then selected using simple random sampling technique. one civic teacher and five students were then selected from each school using simple random sampling technique. two instruments were designed and administered for data collection with the help of trained research assistance. these instruments were: teachers effectiveness rating scale (ters) and civic achievement test (cat). the ters was designed in two major sections. section a deals with personal information of the respondents while section b contains four major items with five sub-items under each. the second instrument tagged cat was also designed in two major sections. section a deals with personal information of the respondents while section b consisted of objective questions with options a – d. the two instruments were given to the experts in civic education and test and measurement for face and content validity. the instruments were trial tested in a pilot study outside the scope of the study using a sample of ten (10) for the teachers effectiveness rating scale (ters) and fifty (50) civic achievement test (cat) through pearson moment product correlation and the results yielded values of 0.65 and 0.72 respectively. the values obtained indicated that the instruments are good enough and reliable for the study. data collected were analysed using frequency counts, simple percentage, mean, standard deviation, linear regression and t-test statistical tools. 3. results table-1. correlational statistics of socio-demographic information of secondary school civic teachers in the study area. n = 40 s/n variables frequency (f) percentage (%) 1. gender male 18 45.0 female 22 55.0 2. age below 30 6 15.0 30-40 20 50.0 41 and above 14 35.0 3. marital status single 8 20.0 married 29 72.5 widow 3 7.3 note: n = 40. table-2. correlational statistics of socio-demographic information of senior secondary school students of civic in the study area. n = 200 s/n variables frequency (f) percentage (%) 1. sex male 92 46.0 female 108 54.0 2. age below 15 90 45.0 above 16 110 55.0 class 3. sss 1 75 37.5 sss 2 70 35.0 sss 3 55 27.5 note: n = 200 results in table 1 showed the descriptive statistics of socio-demographic information of civic teachers in senior secondary schools in the study area. from the table, it can be deduced that 18(45.0%) are males while asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 99-103 102 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 22(55.0%) are females even as 6(15.0%), 20(50.0%) and 14(35.0%) are in the age range of below 30, 30-40 and 41 and above respectively. considering marital status, 8(20.0%), 29(72.5%) and 3(7.3%) are single, married and divorced respectively in the study area. results in table 2 showed the descriptive statistics of socio-demographic information of the respondents in the study area. it can be observed from the table that 92(46.0%) are males while 108(54.0%) are females. on age range, 90(45.0%) are below 15 while 110(55.0%) are above 16 years of age even as 75(37.5%), 70(35.0%) and 55(27.5%) are in sss 1, sss 2 and sss 3 respectively in the study area. research question: what is the level of teaching effectiveness of civic teachers in ife central local government area of osun state? in order to answer this research question, data collected on the civic teachers’ effectiveness were subjected to correlational statistics to determine the level using the average result of standard deviation and the results are presented in table 3. low = 1.00 – 1.39, moderate = 1.40 – 1.59, high = 1.60 – 2.00 table-3. correlational statistics of the level of teaching effectiveness of civic teachers in the study area. s/n general effectiveness mean standard deviation 1. classroom managemen 2.20 1.50 2. personality 2.00 1.58 3. teaching techniques and methods 1.95 1.77 4. appearance 2.22 1.44 average results 2.09 1.57 results in table 3 showed correlational statistics of the level of teaching effectiveness of civic teachers in ife central local government area of osun state. considering the average result of the standard deviation, it can be drawn out from the table that the level of teaching effectiveness of civics teachers in the study area is moderate at (sd = 1.57). 3.1. hypotheses h01: there is no significant relationship between teachers’ effectiveness and senior secondary school students’ academic achievement in civic in the study area. in order to test this hypothesis, data collected on teachers’ effectiveness and students’’ academic achievement in civic were subjected to linear regression analysis and the results are presented in table 4. table-4. regression analysis of the relationship between teachers’ effectiveness and senior secondary school students’ academic achievement in civic in the study area. model sum of squares df mean square f sig. regression 103.068 1 34.356 4.096 .007 residual 2902.087 198 8.388 total 3005.154 199 r = 0.185a, r square = 0.034, adjusted r square = 0.026 note: f = 4.096, p < 0.05. results in table 4 showed that there is significant relationship between teachers’ effectiveness and senior secondary school students’ academic achievement in civic in the study area (f = 4.096, p < 0.05). therefore, the null hypothesis that states that there is no significant relationship between teachers’ effectiveness and senior secondary school students’ academic achievement in civic in the study area is hereby rejected. the r square value of 0.185a indicated a high degree of correlation between teachers’ effectiveness and senior secondary school students’ academic achievement in civic in the study area. also, the r square value of 0.034 accounted for a low variation of 3.4% in teachers’ effectiveness and senior secondary school students’ academic achievement in civic in the study area. h02: there is no significant difference between the academic achievement of students taught by male civics teachers and those taught by female civic teachers in the study area. in order to test this hypothesis, data collected on students’ academic achievement considering the numbers of those taught by male civic teachers and those taught by female civic teachers were subjected to t-test analysis and the results are presented in table 5. table-5. t-test analysis of the difference between the academic achievement of students taught by male civic teachers and those taught by female civic teachers in the study area. groups n mean s.d df t sig.(2-tailed) students taught by male teachers 89 32.44 12.22 198 3.235 .215 students taught by female teachers 111 34.18 13.46 note: t = 3.235, p > 0.05. results in table 5 showed that there is no significant difference between the academic achievement of students taught by male civic teachers and those taught by female civic teachers in the study area (t = 3.235, p > 0.05). hence, the null hypothesis that states that there is no significant difference between the academic achievement of students taught by male civic teachers and those taught by female civic teachers in the study area is hereby not rejected. 4. discussion of findings findings of the study showed that the level of teaching effectiveness of civic teachers in the study area is moderate. the result is in line with the findings of stronge, ward, and grant (2011); aina (2013) they asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 99-103 103 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group acknowledged that teaching effectiveness among teachers can be traced to their ability to utilize both human and non-human resources to bring about effective teaching-learning process and that the level of teaching effectiveness is relatively moderate in some society and high in others but low ow in underdeveloped areas. results of the study further revealed that there is significant relationship between teachers’ effectiveness and senior secondary school students’ academic achievement in civic in the study area. the result supports the findings of oliver and reschly (2007) they submitted that effectiveness of teachers determines academic performance of students since effective teaching-learning process will be well actualized. in the same vein, orji (2014) pointed out that when teachers discharge their responsibilities meaningfully, it will prompt and boast the performance of learners. finally, results of the study indicated that there is no significant difference between the academic achievement of students taught by male civic teachers and those taught by female civic teachers in the study area according to the researcher. 5. conclusion based on the findings of this study, it can therefore be concluded that teachers’ effectiveness is a correlate of senior secondary school students’ academic achievement in civic in ife central local government area of osun state. 6. recommendations the following recommendations are put forward based on the findings of this study: 1. there should be opportunity by the government for the purpose of learning via seminars, conferences and training. 2. there should be room for motivation and reinforcement for teachers as a way of making sure that they are motivated for effective teaching and educational practices. 3. teachers should always emphasize and encourage all eligible students to actively participate in civic activities. classroom teaching/learning should not be limited to learning to pass alone but to inculcate positive habits and character expected of a good citizen. 4. teachers should equip their students with adequate civic knowledge as well emphasize the essence of knowledge to their practical lives as responsible individuals. 5. in addition to fostering adequate civic knowledge of their students, teachers should also model a positive attitude towards civic obligations as this can encourage students to emulate good character and behaviour. this can be achieved by appropriately relating acquired knowledge to practical principles of life. references ademola, b. (2007). teachers’ effectiveness and gender as correlates of students’ academic achievement in english language in ondo state. african journal of education research, 2(182), 12-20. adeyemi, b. (2016). the efficacy of social studies teachers’ competence in the use of playway method in lower primary schools in osun state, nigeria. journal of education and human development, 5(1), 249-255.available at: https://doi.org/10.15640/jehd.v5n1a25. adeyemi, b. a. (2019). a study of relationship between pedagogical knowledge and practice among senior secondary school civic teachers in osun state nigeria. international journal of research and innovation in social science, 3(4), 90-95. aina, j. k. (2013). effective teaching and learning in science education through information and communication technology [ict]. iosr journal of research and method in education, 2(5), 43-47.available at: https://doi.org/10.9790/7388-0254347. akinmusire, p. a. (2012). critical reading and story-mapping instructional strategies as determinants of nigeria certificate in education teachers classroom practices and achievement in english reading comprehension. unpublished ph.d thesis, university of ibadan. akomolafe, c. o. (2010). strategies and challenges of ict: an infrastructural development for university education in nigeria. retrieved from www.herpnet.org/revitalizationofhigher/chapter/pdf. akpan, b. b. (2002). basic concepts in educational psychology. uyo: academic publishers ltd. alade, i. a. (2004). improving the status of vocational technical education: a route to national development. teachers’ mandate on education and social development in nigeria. in d. f. elaturoti and k. babarinde (eds) (pp. 95-105). ibadan: sterling-horden publishers. daniel, s. n., & james, k. g. (2007). the effect of in-service education and training (inset) programmes in mathematics and science on classroom interaction: a case study of primary and secondary schools in kenya. africa education review, 4(1), 104-126.available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/18146620701412191. okolocha, c. c., & onyeneke, e. n. (2013). secondary school principals’ perception of business studies teachers’ teaching effectiveness in anambra state, nigeria. journal of education and practice, 4(2), 171-179. oliver, r. m., & reschly, d. j. (2007). effective classroom management: teacher preparation and professional development. washington. dc: national comprehensive centre for teachers quality. orji, n. (2014). relationship between science teachers’ classroom management effectiveness and students’ outcome in chemistry . international journal of modern education research, 1(1), 11-14. oyekan, s. o. (2000). foundations of teacher education. okitipupa: ebun-oluwa press. stronge, j. h., ward, t. j., & grant, l. w. (2011). what makes good teachers good? a cross-case analysis of the connection between teacher effectiveness and student achievement. journal of teacher education, 62(4), 339-355.available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487111404241. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.herpnet.org/revitalizationofhigher/chapter/pdf 51 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 9, no. 2, 51-59, 2022 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v9i2.3962 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group chief executive officer duality, nationality and firms’ growth opportunities henry osahon osazevbaru department of business administration, faculty of management sciences, delta state university, abraka, delta state, nigeria. email: henryosas@yahoo.com abstract corporate governance mechanisms highlight the invaluable role of the chief executive officer (ceo) in the affairs of an organization. the nexus between ceo characteristics and firm performance is not mute in the literature and mixed findings have also been presented. this study deviates from previous studies by focusing on the impact of ceo attributes on growth opportunities of the firm. accordingly, this paper analysed duality and nationality of ceo on firms’ growth opportunities against the backdrop of national culture and societal values. to this end, secondary data of 76 non-financial firms listed on the nigerian exchange group from 2010 2019 were analyzed. various diagnostic tests for panel data unit root were conducted. the result of the robust panel data analysis revealed that both ceo duality and nationality have negative but insignificant relationship with firms’ growth opportunities. clearly, the ceo attributes examined do not wield significant influence in diminishing growth opportunities. keywords: agency cost, board chair, corporate governance, firm age, firm’s performance, national culture, stewardship theory, unit root. jel classification: c23; g30; m10. citation | henry osahon osazevbaru (2022). chief executive officer duality, nationality and firms’ growth opportunities. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 9(2): 5159. history: received: 7 march 2022 revised: 28 april 2022 accepted: 12 may 2022 published: 1 june 2022 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 52 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 52 3. research methods ............................................................................................................................................................................ 54 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 55 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 57 mailto:henryosas@yahoo.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v9i2.3962 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8570-0206 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 51-59 52 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to cg literature by adopting a dynamic model of panel data analysis to advance the methodological frontier of analysis in the nexus between ceo attributes and firms’ growth opportunities. the empirical submissions of the paper have implications for ceo succession in the context of nigeria economic landscape. 1. introduction the essence of corporate governance (cg) is to structure a company in the area of policies and procedures for actualisation of goals and objectives. good cg brings about increase in shareholders’ wealth (mohammed, 2004; naciti, 2019; oso & semiu, 2012). currently, there is contention in the literature on ceo characteristics as an aspect of cg. one of the highbrow debates is whether to separate the office of ceo and chairman of the board, a term described as ceo duality (yang & zhao, 2014). a major reason for this argument is that financial scandals have befallen many firms, arising from the enormous power and influence wielded by the ceo (erkens, hung, & matos, 2012; lew, yu, & park, 2018). as observed by lew et al. (2018) corporate crises in many firms have made shareholders to consider the re-construction of their firms to reflect more effective cg system that will promote growth opportunities and enhance foreign investment. as a result, firms that have ceos performing dual roles are reducing in number (yang & zhao, 2014). clearly, agency and stewardship theories are diametrically opposed to each other on the desirability or otherwise of ceo duality. duality is favoured by stewardship theory in that accountability to stakeholders is enhanced (kaur & singh, 2019) while agency theory fears that it will affect the evaluation of ceo performance. arising from this, different nature of relationships has been established between ceo duality and firms’ growth and performance. for instance, pham and pham (2020) posited a positive relationship. on the other hand, abdul et al. (2021) submitted a negative relationship, while an insignificant relationship was put forward by vintila, paunescu, and gherghina (2015). stock market reaction to ceo duality has also been examined. marco, farina, and fattobene (2021) found that investors do not favourably perceive ceo duality because of the negative reaction by the stock market. another aspect of the empirical argument is whether the nationality of ceo matters in the determination of firms’ performance (jalbert, chan, jalbert, & landry, 2007; ogochukwu, 2020). the question of whether a firm’s ceo should be a national or foreigner is important against the backdrop of stockholders sentiment and national culture. local culture often hinders knowledge importation. gray (1988) extension of hofstede model on culture consequences revealed a link between a society’s structures and societal values and hence business ownership. masulis, wang, and fei (2007) state that foreign ceos perform poorly compared to those of national origin due to lack of information about the environment and sentiments of shareholders. kabbani (2018) added that there is low performance of foreign ceos in capturing firms’ growth opportunities. these argumentations need empirical validation especially from the perspective of developing economies with weak institutional framework and market microstructure. there is need for adequate understanding of the concepts of ceo duality, nationality, and growth opportunities as this will enable researchers to develop similar views on the concepts. this study seeks to provide new evidence, using robust analytical methods, to close this research gap by examining the nexus of ceo duality and nationality on growth opportunities of listed firms in emerging african economies using quoted non-finance firms in nigeria. the specific objectives of this study therefore, are to: (i) examine the relationship between ceo duality and growth opportunities, and (ii) ascertain the nature of the influence of ceo nationality on growth opportunities. the study is guided by the following hypotheses: h1: ceo duality does not significantly relate with firms’ growth opportunities. h2: ceo nationality has no significant influence on firms’ growth opportunities. it is hoped that the outcome of this investigation will facilitate the seamless construction of the literature on ceo dynamics from the perspective of emerging economies. 2. literature review 2.1. growth opportunities growth opportunity refers to the potential of growth for investments or projects that will significantly create profit for investors. latif, aslani, and khodabakhshi (2014) viewed growth potential as the future ability of a firm to make more profits, increase its employees, and production capacity. growth opportunity may be used to indicate a firm’s effort to move into new markets, engage in market development or create new lines of product. performance has remained an important indicator for determining a firm’s growth (jalbert et al., 2007) and can be assessed by growth rates of sales (alfred, 2020). the growth rate of sales is used to determine the rate at which a firm is able to raise revenue from sales during a given time frame. similarly, average growth rate of sales is the ratio of difference of current period sales and prior period sales to prior period sales multiplied by 100 (alfred, 2020). pope (2019) approached growth potentials from employees’ perspective. based on this perspective, organizations that desire growth should consider an improvement in firm’s characteristics. the value of growth opportunities is one aspect of the elements of share price which permits the understanding of corporate financial structure and capital budgeting decisions (awan, bhatti, ali, & qureshi, 2010). however, the analysis of the proportion of company value attributable to value of growth opportunities is scanty in the literature. 2.2. chief executive officer in cg, the ceo occupies the highest ranking position in a company. the ceo has the responsibility of making decisions that will affect the entire company as well as that of maximizing company’s value (emestine & setyaningrum, 2019). for non-profit making organizations and public sectors, the ceos ensure that the broad goals of the organization are achieved. the ceo manages the entire operations of the company and acts as the main link between the board of directors and corporate operations (ghardallou, borgi, & alkhalifah, 2020). the ceo performs the following functions: (i) communication he is the tie between the company, the shareholders, and the public. (ii) leadership he provides motivation and supervision for the company, and advises the bod on asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 51-59 53 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group strategic issues. (iii) provision of strategic intent as he creates and implements the vision or mission of the company. (iv) resource mobilization and allocation the ceo ensures that all needed resources (financial and human resources) are acquired and utilized efficiently. (v) supervision of top managers he supervises all the executives in the company (yang & liu, 2017). 2.3. chief executive officer duality the practice of a single individual serving as both ceo and board chair is a widely discussed cg phenomenon (dalton, hitt, certo, & dalton, 2007). ceo duality is used to describe the combination of roles of an individual as a ceo and the chairman at the same time (chineme, 2019; goergen, limbach, & scholz-daneshgari, 2020; yang & zhao, 2014). it is the tendency whereby the chief executive plays a dual role in the company. ceo duality has remained a hot debate in rashid (2010) observes as follows: “the ceo duality, which combines the executive function of the board with monitoring function, is commonly found in the one-tier board. in such a board there may be any combination of executive and non-executive directors” the above suggests that ceo duality depends on how the cg system of a given firm is structured. arguably, the combination of the roles might breed inefficiency in management (yang & zhao, 2014). it is also argued that it has the tendency of making the ceo more powerful in the board and this can cause agency problems (goergen et al., 2020). however, empirical studies have not been consistent in the relationship between the duality of ceo and performance of business entities. separation of the two offices generally seeks to reduce firm’s agency costs. kajola (2008) established a significant connection between performance and separation of the office of board chair and ceo. similarly, coles and daniel (2008) confirmed that big and autonomous boards add to firm’s value and the synthesis of the two offices unenthusiastically affects firm’s performance, as the firm has a lesser amount of access to debt finance. in nigeria, the central bank clearly outlaws the fusion of the responsibility of the head of the board and that of the chief managerial officer to be one person. this is because it will create individuals with loose powers of decision-making not to be responsible for delegation of power. furthermore, no two members of same extended family should occupy chairmanship, ceo, or managerial role at the same time. doing otherwise is considered as improper as the board is expected to monitor the operations of the ceo and his management team. it is always argued that this role cannot be effectively performed if one person occupies the two positions (omoye & eriki, 2013). some studies favor ceo duality, suggesting that it may improve corporate performance. others differ by stating that it obstructs managerial performance and promote poor communication between board and ceo (ahern & dittmar, 2012). 2.4. chief executive officer nationality ceo nationality is used to explain the origin and wealth of knowledge of the ceo resulting from his exposure to cultures other than those operating in a given country (jalbert et al., 2007; saidu, 2019). studies show that ceos that have wide international exposure tend to have experience to manage employees of diversity in the organization and also have the ability to relate with various investors (ogochukwu, 2020). hillman, nicholson, and shropshire (2008) have provided evidence on the characteristics of firm with ethnic nationalities on board. firms with women and foreign directors were examined and compared with firms without women and foreign directors. the study observed that board nationality and gender diversity provide managers with unique information and skill, allowing for better decision-making at the corporate level. furthermore, board gender and national diversity increase access to talent, as it sends positive signals to both product and labor markets. maina (2005) states that heterogeneity in board of directors would improve the value of corporate result as board members are directly involved in introducing measures to enhance regulation, transparency, accountability and independence. hence, board with diverse nationalities will improve performance by increasing board independence. 2.5. firm age, firm size, and capital adequacy these variables are used as control to capture firms’ heterogeneity and uniqueness. firm’s age is the age of a legal entity. it is the observation year minus the registered start year of the legal entity. the extensive information on firms is unique and helps to access the age effect on growth performance (parker, 2004). some studies have indicated that firm’s age significantly determine growth, with younger firms growing faster than older firms (coad & rao, 2008; haltiwanger, jarmin, & miranda, 2013). daunfeldt, elert, and johansson (2014) also indicated that high growth firms in general were younger than other firms, irrespective of the growth indicators used; whether employment, sales, labour, productivity or value added. contrary to the foregoing submissions, sørensen and stuart (2000) and chang, gomes, and schorfheide (2002) suggest that older firms may benefit from their greater business experience and therefore have a higher degree of growth persistence than younger firms. firm size is used to describe firms’ market power and negotiating ability. cuong, tuong, and binh (2021) found firm size, measured by total assets, to be a significant determinant of performance based on data of 190,499 vietnamese private firms from 2009-2018. similar submission was made by kuncová, hedija, and fiala (2016) from data of 42 firms in abertina cz gold edition of 2013. however, osazevbaru and yahaya (2021) did not find firm size estimated by logarithm of total assets to significantly relate with performance in nigerian financial firms. capital adequacy refers to ability of a firm to weld against risk and reduce vulnerability to crises. arekhandia and hassan (2019) found capital adequacy to positively and significantly relate with firm performance using sample of ten banks in nigeria for the period 2010-2017. 2.6. theoretical review cg in many countries is underpinned on the twin theories of agency and stakeholders. the stakeholders’ theory maintains that organizational performance is enhanced by close relationship between management and stakeholders. conversely, agency theory asserts a fiduciary relationship between the company management and the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 51-59 54 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group shareholders that requires management to maximize the wealth of the shareholders (momanyi, ragama, & kibati, 2018). this paper is anchored on agency theory. the agency theory explains principal-agent relationship (oso & semiu, 2012). the principal (owner of resources) hires the agent (the manager or owner’s representative) to manage his resources on his behalf. the agent is delegated with the responsibility of decision-making on principal’s behalf. in cg, agency theory describes the relationship between shareholders (as principal) and company executives (as agent) (panda & leepsa, 2017). the theory assumes that directors should not be trusted to act in good faith towards the shareholders. according to lekaram (2014) “agency theory suggests that managers sometimes do not act in their principal’s interest, but in their own interests”. the issue is that the directors (agents) are more knowledgeable about the business affairs than the shareholders, and will not readily provide all such information to them. whereas the shareholders are interested in all these information, but the directors often fail to disclose them. this brings about conflict of interest (hastori, siregar, sembel, & maulana, 2015)and the information asymmetry can hinder the assessment of the agent’s ability to serve the principal’s interest (rashid, 2016). the major causes of the conflict in the agency relationship are goals incompatibility and risk aversion differences. for instance, the top management may want to adopt a long term strategy of market expansion, whereas the shareholders prefer an alternative short term strategy. 2.7. empirical review 2.7.1. ceo duality and growth opportunities abdullah (2004) analyzed the relation between board of directors’ duality and company performance and reported insignificant relationship. yu (2008) reported similar result for chinese firms for 2000-2001. negative relationship between ceo duality and performance was found by lam and lee (2008) for hong kong family businesses, ehikioya (2009) for nigeria, rashid (2010) for bangladesh, ujunwa (2012) for 122 listed nigerian firms for the period 1991-2008. negative relationship has also been reported by aygun, ic, and sayim (2014). chineme (2019) used data of 22 listed banks in nigeria from 2000-2016 to investigate duality and profitability. the regression results revealed a negative relationship. abdul et al. (2021) unraveled the intricate link between ceo characteristics and performance of 200 pakistani listed firms over the period 2010 to 2019. financial performance measures of roa, roe, and tobin q were used. the study found ceo duality to be negative and insignificant implying that it adversely affects financial performance. on their part, vintila et al. (2015) investigated the effect of corporate governance on company performance using 90 u.s companies. no statistically significant relation was found between duality and indicators of company performance. on the other hand, some studies have submitted positive link of ceo duality with growth and performance. such studies include, but not limited to, ramdani and witteloostuijn (2010) for companies in indonesia, malaysia, south korea and thailand, gill and mathur (2011a) and gill and mathur (2011b) for canadian manufacturing and service companies respectively. other studies that have reported positive relationship between ceo duality and company performance are those of amarjit and neil (2011);yildiz and doğan (2012) and mirza, malik, and mahmood (2020). yang and zhao (2014) investigated ceo duality and performance. the study used the 1989 exogenous shock of canada-united states free trade agreement and found that firms that practice duality outperform those who are non-duality firm by an average of 34 percent. the paper concluded that duality has benefits as it makes decision-taking quicker and saves information cost. lew et al. (2018) examined ceo duality on performance in the chinese post-institutional transition era. manufacturing firms registered with shanghai and shenzhen stock exchanges since 2010 were sampled. it was revealed that separation of the position of ceo from the chairman promotes efficiency in firms’ operations and performance. 2.7.2. ceo nationality and growth opportunities jalbert et al. (2007) conducted a study on ceo nationality, financial management, compensation, and performance. nationality was measured by cultural background. data for the study was drawn from 800 ceos in united states for the period 1991-1997. ceo nationality was found to have a nonsignificant influence on firm performance. ogochukwu (2020) carried out a study on ceo characteristics and capital structure of sub-saharan african firms. ceo characteristic was proxy by ceo international experience. twenty-three (23) ceos were examined for the period 2012 to 2016. the results showed a significant link between ceo international experience and capital structure. kumshe, anaso, and gulani (2020) conducted a study on ceo characteristics and dividend payout in subsaharan african. ceo characteristics were approximated by tenure, nationality, gender, and share ownership. the study utilized data from 2012-2016. the regression results revealed that ceo nationality have a significant relationship with dividend payout. other studies such as those of ujunwa (2012) and badru and raji (2016) found positive link between ceo nationality and firm growth performance, while abdul et al. (2021) reported negative insignificant relationship. 3. research methods this study adopts an ex-post facto quantitative research design because of the longitudinal secondary data utilized. quantitative research has the aim of determining the relationship between independent and dependent variables in a population of study. the population of the study comprises non-financial firms in the nigerian stock exchange. a total of 76 firms which have complete data from the period 2010 to 2019 constituted the sample which was used for the study. the data were sourced from company financial statements and the nigerian exchange group database. 3.1. measurement and operationalization of variables the variable used for the study are operationalized and measured as presented in table 1. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 51-59 55 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 1. measurement of variables. variable operationalization source dependent variable growth opportunity (revg) measured by the average growth rate of sales, it is the ratio of difference of current period sales and prior period sales to prior period sales multiplied by 100 alfred (2020) independent variables ceo duality (ceod) the situation in which the titles of both the board chair and ceo go to one individual; measured as a dummy variable with 1 for companies that have a ceo that is separated from chairman and zero otherwise chineme (2019) ceo nationality (ceon) the origin of the ceo resulting from his exposure to cultures other than those operating in a given country; measured as a dummy variable computed as 1 for firms that have foreign ceos and zero otherwise jalbert et al. (2007);elsharkawy, paterson, and sherif (2018) control variables firm age (fira) the observation year minus the registered start year of the legal entity parker (2004) firm size (fsiz) measured as natural logarithm of total assets osazevbaru and yahaya (2021) capital adequacy (capd) a proxy for asset structure, measured as total equity divided by total assets arekhandia and hassan (2019) 3.2. model specification a panel data fixed effect and random effect models are specified for this study. this estimation technique is more robust than the normal ordinary least square as it permits within firm analysis, between firm analysis, and overall analysis. generally, the fixed effect (fe) model and random effect (re) model are captured respectively by equations 1 and 2. yit = αi + β1x1it +… + β4x4it + uit (1) yit = βxit + αi + uit + εit (2) where, yit = firm’s growth opportunity (revg). xit = explanatory and control variables (ceod, ceon, fira, fsiz,capd). i = ith firm (i = 1…76). t = time period. αi = intercept for each entity (n entity-specific intercepts). β = coefficient for the variables. εit = within entity error. uit = between entity error. to determine the suitable model for analysis, the hausman test is carried out. where the result of the test suggests the rejection of the null hypothesis, then the fe model is more appropriate; otherwise, the re model is chosen. table 2. descriptive statistics. variable obs. mean std. dev. min. max. revg 760 9.8698 65.0447 -100 1354.255 ceod 760 0.9697 0.1714 0 1 ceon 760 0.2553 0.4363 0 1 fira 760 25.9540 13.3401 1 55 fsiz 760 7.0382 0.8792 4.6201 9.2409 capd 760 36.8041 35.1487 -295.4504 94.9327 4. results and discussion 4.1. analysis of descriptive statistics and diagnostic tests 4.1.1. descriptive statistics to illuminate the data, some distributional features are presented in table 2. table 2 shows the average values of the variables. for instance, the mean for revg is 9.8698 which show that growth opportunities for the firms under study is 9.87 percent annually. ceod has a mean value of 0.9697. this value is close to unity showing that on the average the firms under investigation, and for the period under consideration, have ceo separated from the chairman. the mean of ceon is 0.02553. this implies that on the average, the sampled firms cluster around not having foreign ceos. the mean age of sampled firms is 26 years (fira, 25.9540), while fsiz and capd have 7.0382 and 36.8041 respectively as mean. the descriptive statistics also show the standard deviation values of the variables. revg has a value of 65.0447, while ceod and ceon have 0.1714 and 0.4365 respectively. the standard deviation values for the control variables are: fira (13.3401), fsiz (0.8792), and capd (35.1487). the values for revg, fira, and capd are quite high implying that they exhibit volatility and are far away from their mean. the minimum and maximum values of the variables are also displayed. 4.2. analysis of pearson correlation the correlation coefficient for the dependent and independent variables of the model are presented in table 3. from the result, ceod, ceon, and fira have negative correlation with the dependent variable (revg), while fsiz and capd have positive correlation. accordingly, the variables with negative correlation coefficients have asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 51-59 56 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the tendency to move in opposite direction with the dependent variable, while the positive correlations move in the same direction. interestingly, the correlation coefficients for the independent variables are all less than 0.9 implying that there is no multicollinearity problem (dimitrios & hall, 2015). the vif as a diagnostic test for model suitability was computed and the result is presented in table 4. table 3.pearson correlation matrix. variable revg ceod ceon fira fsiz capd revg 1.0000 ceod -0.0605 1.0000 ceon -0.0306 0.1034 1.0000 fira -0.0258 0.0777 0.3092 1.0000 fsiz 0.0587 -0.0045 0.2370 0.1186 1.0000 capd 0.0465 0.0670 0.0511 -0.0115 0.0331 1.0000 table 4.vif test result. variable vif 1/vif ceod 1.02 0.9816 ceon 1.17 0.8551 fira 1.16 0.8990 fsiz 1.06 0.9400 capd 1.01 0.9919 mean vif 1.07 4.3. variance inflation factor (vif) test the vif for each variable, as well as the mean vif are below the benchmark value of 10. implicitly, there is no problem of multicollinearity among the independent and control variables. they are therefore suitable for estimation. 4.4. unit root test to ascertain the stationarity of the data, the unit root test was computed and result presented in table 5. table 5. panel data unit root test. variable at level im-pesaran-shin test hadri lm test t-bar t-tilde-bar z-stat revg -8.6301*** (0.0000) -6.0737***(0.0000) 2.1116 (0.0174) ceod -8.7325*** (0.0000) -6.1822***(0.0000) -0.8299 (0.7967) ceon -8.0538*** (0.0000) -5.8858***(0.0000) 1.0160 (0.1548) fira -8.8347*** (0.0000) -6.1836*** (0.0000) -0.3190 (0.6251) fsiz -8.9631*** (0.0000) -6.2260*** (0.0000) -1.0375 (0.8502) capd -8.7373*** (0.0000) -6.1473*** (0.0000) -2.0739 (0.9810) note:*** indicates significance at 1% and values in bracket shows probability values. table 5 presents results of the unit root test of the data using im-pesaran-shin test and hadri lm test. the null hypothesis for the im-pesaran-shin test is that all panels have unit roots. the results of the two t-values judging from the probability values are statistically significant at 1% suggesting that the null hypothesis should be rejected. therefore, the panels are stationary. similarly, the hadri lm test was conducted to confirm the results of the im-pesaran-shin test. the null hypothesis for this test is that all panels are stationary. the probability values of the z-stat for all variables are greater than 0.01 indicating that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected at the 1% level. accordingly, the data is stationary. in table 5, only the results at level were presented. first difference results were not presented because the outcome is not different from the results obtained at level. 4.5. empirical results and discussion table 6 presents the panel regression results for test of the hypotheses raised in the study. table 6. panel regression results. model/ variables model 1 (fe model) model 2 (re model) coeff t-value prob coeff z-value prob const -5.0360 -0.21 0.836 -3.9021 -0.16 0.870 ceod -22.0573 -1.57 0.116 -22.1048 -1.59 0.111 ceon -5.6715 -0.94 0.346 -5.6641 -0.97 0.332 fira -0.0654 -0.34 0.734 -0.0828 -0.44 0.657 fsiz 5.1327 1.84 0.066 5.0306 1.82 0.069 capd 0.0901 1.33 0.185 0.0923 1.37 0.170 r-squared within 0.0114 0.0114 r-squared between 0.0471 0.0563 r-squared overall 0.0114 0.0114 prob > f 1.71 0.1288 wald chi(2) 8.73 0.1204 hausman test chi2 = 0.42 pro.= 0.995 table 6 shows the results for the panel data fe model and re model. the result that is appropriate for interpretation is determined by the result of hausman test. the chi-square value for the hausman test is 0.42 with asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 51-59 57 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group a probability value of 0.9946. the probability value is greater than the 0.05 level of significance hence the null hypothesis is not rejected. therefore, the random effect model is appropriate. the result of the re model shows the coefficient for ceod to be -22.1048 and that of ceon to be -5.6641. the coefficients of the control variables used to capture firms’ heterogeneity are; fira (-0.0828), fsiz (5.0306), and capd (0.0923). of the control variables, fsiz and capd are positive, meaning they could influence growth opportunities. however, this influence is not significant as the probability value of 0.995 is greater than 0.05. the within firm coefficient of determination (r2 within) is 0.0114, between firm r2 is 0.0563, and overall r2 is 0.0114. these values show that the explanatory variables explain an infinitesimal proportion of any negative variation in firm growth opportunities. the joint statistical significance of the explanatory variables measured by the wald chi (2) has a value of 8.73 and probability of 0.1204. given that the probability is greater than 0.05 level of significance, there is no significant effect of the explanators on the negative variation in the explained variable. to take decision on the study’s hypotheses, the sign as well as the statistical significance of the estimates of the independent variables need to be considered. ceod (-22.1048) is negatively related to firm growth. this means that when same individual serves simultaneously as ceo and chair of a board, it reduces the growth of the firm. this is because it gives opportunity to the ceo to pursue personal interest rather than group interest. nevertheless, this result is not statistically significant as the probability value of the z-statistics (0.111) is greater than 5% level of significance; hence the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. therefore, no significant negative relationship exists between ceo duality and firms’ growth opportunities. implicitly, growth opportunities are not significantly reduced by ceo duality. for the second hypothesis, ceon has a coefficient of -5.6641 which shows a negative influence on firms’ growth opportunities. the implication of this is that the nationality of a ceo can reduce growth opportunities. nonetheless, this estimate is not significant statistically because the probability value of the z statistics (0.332) is greater than level of significance of the test which is 5%. accordingly, the null hypothesis is not rejected. clearly, no significant negative relationship exists between the origin of a ceo, or wealth of knowledge arising from exposure to other countries culture and the growth opportunities of the firm. nationality is not significant in reducing growth opportunities. the finding that ceon is not significant is consistent with the findings of jalbert et al. (2007) and abdul et al. (2021). also the finding that ceod is not significant is consistent with the findings of rashid (2010) and chineme (2019) but inconsistent with that of yang and zhao (2014) and lew et al. (2018). 5. conclusion this study has attempted an examination of the influence of duality and nationality of ceo on the growth opportunities of firms. essentially, the research focused on whether these attributes impact on firm’s growth. to address this, 76 non-financial firms were investigated using data from 2010-2019. the result of the analysis of data found ceo duality to have negative association with growth opportunities, but this was not significant. also, negative and insignificant relationship was found between the nationality of ceo and growth opportunities. implicitly, that a ceo is both the board chair and chief executive or that ceo has a foreign background do not significantly diminish firm’s growth opportunities in the nigerian context of non-financial firms. the policy implication of this study cannot be overemphasized. it will guide policy makers and regulators in selecting attributes of chief executives to target particular cg activities of listed firms. this study is not without limitation. it is limited by the size and span of data as well as number of ceo attributes studied. further studies should increase the number of ceo variables and use a different analytical model, perhaps non-linear to accommodate the intricate links between explanatory and explained variables. references abdul, r., ji, c. j., alam, r., muhammad, z., muhammad, a., kashif, s., & shams, u. r. 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(2008). analyst coverage and earnings management. journal of financial economics, 88(2), 245-271.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2007.05.008. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 60 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 9, no. 3, 60-64, 2022 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v9i3.4069 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the current status of secondary school teacher’s perception of happiness in nam dinh province during the implementation period of the 2018 general education program pham thi hong tham1 pham thi phuong thuc2 phan thi huong giang3 nguyen thanh tam4 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3,4the vietnam institute of educational sciences, vietnam. 1email: thampth@vnies.edu.vn tel: +84(0913873966) 2email: thucptp@vnies.edu.vn tel: +84(0977636411) 3email: giangpth@vnies.edu.vn tel: +84 (0988261852) 4email: tamnt@vnies.edu.vn tel: +84 (0979978773) abstract in the current context of a major revolution in the vietnamese education system, teachers’ perception of happiness makes an important criterion in evaluating effectiveness of the changes made to educational programs. the initial investigation of the positive effects of this renovation was conducted on the scale of nam dinh province and the results show multidimensional sources of information. in addition to positive information, there is still information that raises many questions for leaders to pay attention to. the outcome of the investigation suggests the evaluation of “the job is meaningful” is 3.10 out of 5 points, which is the lowest in assessment criteria. meanwhile, the rates for “completely disbelieve” and “slightly disbelieve” in happiness of their profession in the future take up a large proportion (24.4%). however, other criteria namely “being satisfied with current position” and “feeling motivated with the job” received higher evaluation scores, respectively 4.05/5 points and 4.11/5 points. via the results of the research, the author is looking forward to appropriate actions taken by the ministry of education and training of vietnam with a view to enhancing the perception of happiness among teachers. keywords: perception of happiness, current status, secondary school teachers, well being, happiness, secondary school. citation | pham thi hong tham; pham thi phuong thuc; phan thi huong giang; nguyen thanh tam (2022). the current status of secondary school teacher’s perception of happiness in nam dinh province during the implementation period of the 2018 general education program. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 9(3): 60-64. history: received: 7 march 2022 revised: 28 april 2022 accepted: 12 may 2022 published: 1 june 2022 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 61 2. research content ............................................................................................................................................................. 61 3. research results .............................................................................................................................................................. 62 4. conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................ 64 references ............................................................................................................................................................................ 64 mailto:thampth@vnies.edu.vn mailto:thucptp@vnies.edu.vn mailto:giangpth@vnies.edu.vn mailto:tamnt@vnies.edu.vn https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v9i3.4069 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2755-3230 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0850-5770 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9814-5846 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0719-1172 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(3): 60-64 61 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the article is the result of a survey on feelings of happiness during the period of educational reform in vietnam. this study has provided completely new survey data. in addition, the study has concluded to help the ministry of education have a more accurate view of the current teachers' feelings. 1. introduction there are several different conceptions of happiness. according to corey (2002) happiness is a marker of mental health and includes manifestations of existence or non-existence of positive feelings about life. in terms of people’s careers, happiness can be defined as job satisfaction, where laborers can fulfill their professional ideals, promote their own potential and experience joy in their work. for teaching, happiness at work is extremely important because it affects the positive psychological development of teachers as well as indirectly influences their professional attitude. moreover, happiness also affects teachers' initiative and creativity. that is the reason why managers and headmasters need to pay more attention to promoting teachers’ job satisfaction so that they can love their job more and commit to them. in the current context of a transforming phase of vietnam’s general education program, in line with modern models and international development trends, the teacher's happiness plays an even more important role. to what extent can teachers be satisfied with the new program? finding a way to debunk this question is equivalent to contributing to the effectiveness of reform. 2. research content 2.1. research topics overview the team has been in search of the information from journals on professional happiness of teachers, most notably the studies of bui and nguyen (2018); pham (2018); tran (2013); duong and ha (2018). the results of all studies showed that the current sense of job satisfaction among teachers is not high, specifically 10.2% of teachers are unhappy, 9.3% are quite unhappy, 11.2% happy, 31.3% quite happy, and only 3.6% feel very happy (bui & nguyen, 2018). since the implementation of the 2018 general education program, more attention has been paid to the study of job satisfaction. however, current studies are seemingly not receiving enough devotion and commitment. based on the overview of domestic research, it can be acknowledged that there is a lack of studies on teachers’ perception of happiness and it requires much more attention from all departments, researchers, and especially teachers the most essential factor in educational activities. 2.2. survey participants and duration 2.2.1. participants in order to obtain the basis for making initial judgments about the psychological performance of teachers when new programs took place, we conducted a survey on 290 teachers from 7 different secondary schools in nam dinh province, 1 of which is located in nam dinh city area, two in town and 3 in different district areas. information on the surveyed subjects is as follows: ● educational background: university accounts for the highest rate 94.8%; upper-university accounts for 1%; sub-university accounts for 4.1%. ● gender: female 94,1%, male 5,9%. ● age: under 30 years (17.9%); from 31-40 years (29.7%); from 41 to 50 years (37.2%); over 50 years (15.2%). ● work seniority: less than 10 years (21.7%); from 11-20 years (34.5%); more than 20 years (43.8%). 2.2.2. duration this survey of teachers’ perception of happiness was conducted in late september, early october in the academic year 2020-2021, one month after the implementation of the general education program and a certain period of teacher training in order to adapt to the new program. initial assessment of job satisfaction during this period is of great importance as it is, later, the most objective assessment, helping the ministry of education and training of vietnam make reasonable adjustments during the implementation of the 2018 general education program. 2.3. study methodology survey methods: authors use the following research methods to conduct the research:1/questionnaire; 2/in-depth interview; 3/observation; 4/theoretical research; 5/mathematical statistics. 2.3.1. survey tool 1/ design a questionnaire based on the theory of do and phan (2019) and refer to some other domestic and foreign authors. the questionnaire consists of 38 questions divided into 3 parts: part 1/general information; part 2/actual situation of teachers' happiness feeling; part 3/factors affecting teachers' health feeling. 2/ scale: the author referred to the scale of happiness in the work of bagheri, kousha, janati, and asgharijafarabadi (2012); the scale of happiness in the work of do and phan (2019) and tailored this study to measure the level of happiness of teachers based on the research objectives. however, in this study, the author focused on exploiting satisfaction and faith in the work of teachers today. 3/interview and observation sheet: the author used this method to maximize the level of satisfaction and faith of teachers in the work, as the basis to better confirm the authenticity of the research. the evaluation scale: the author uses a 5-point scale (1-5). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(3): 60-64 62 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. research results 3.1. concepts perception of happiness: according to diener (2000) it is the evaluation of perception and feeling towards life. thus, it dwells an even broader meaning including satisfactory experience, low status of negativity and high life satisfaction. keyes and waterman shared their views of this concept as individual perception and assessment when one is in positive mood. meanwhile, phan (2014) linked the perception of happiness to a subjective assessment of people's satisfaction and comfort with their lives, considering satisfaction as the most effective measure of quality of life, human satisfaction with the work they are doing. sharing the same idea with phan thi mai huong, the author uses satisfaction as a measure of the sense of well-being of each individual in their life. perception of job satisfaction: carver and scheier (1990) think that feeling professional happiness is more of the frequent experience of positive emotional states (such as satisfaction, interest, care, love...) than negative emotions (boredom, sadness, anxiety...). according to bagheri et al. (2012) the feeling of professional happiness is the employees’ satisfaction with the work, which is the harmony between the perception of employees about their needs and what they get from the work. in this study, the author uses the view of bagheri et al. (2012) agreeing that the feeling of professional happiness is satisfied with what they are doing and achieving at work. 3.2. initial assessment of job satisfaction of teachers in secondary schools of nam dinh province 3.2.1. job satisfaction at work, satisfaction can arguably be the principal factor that encourages individuals to work. as for teachers, not only does satisfaction affect their attitudes and affection for their career but it also directly impacts their students’ morale and emotions. therefore, it can be said that the level of satisfaction of teachers has a great impact on their performance. so, to what extent are teachers currently satisfied with their work? the results in table 1 will show this. table 1. teachers’ satisfaction of occupation nowadays. are teachers satisfied with their current job? level frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid very dissatisfied 12 4.1 4.1 4.1 somewhat dissatisfied 18 6.2 6.2 10.3 neutra 123 42.4 42.4 52.8 somewhat satisfied 69 23.8 23.8 76.6 very satisfied 68 23.4 23.4 100.0 total 290 100.0 100.0 it can be seen that the “very satisfied”, “somewhat satisfied” and “normal” ratings are significantly higher than the “very dissatisfied” and “somewhat dissatisfied” ratings. approximately 20 percent of teachers in vietnam’s secondary schools felt dissatisfied with their career 10 years ago (nguyen, 2012) and that data has sharply declined nowadays to only 10% (see the table). accordingly, the percentage of teachers who are “somewhat satisfied” and “very satisfied” with the profession increased. at this level of assessment, we have only made a preliminary survey of the subjective perception of teachers when they have just applied the new general education program rather than taking in-depth measurements. however, with these completely subjective assessments, we are partly aware of the fact that teachers are feeling satisfied with the changes when implementing the new education program. table 2. job satisfaction of middle school teachers in nam dinh province. satisfaction level n minimum maximum mean std. deviation being satisfied with current position 290 2.00 5.00 4.0552 0.95054 being aware of their labour values 290 1.00 5.00 3.1862 0.93739 feeling self-fulfilling at work 290 1.00 5.00 3.3517 1.17959 feeling motivated with the job 290 2.00 5.00 4.1138 1.07382 feeling meaningful work 290 1.00 5.00 3.1034 1.50535 feeling a sense of contribution 290 1.00 5.00 3.9966 1.06696 valid n (listwise) 290 table 2 presents the job satisfaction of teachers in the period since vietnam started implementing. the new general education program in 2018. 3.2.2. specific expressions of satisfaction from the statistics table, we can clearly see that teachers now show relatively high job satisfaction, with the highest score 4.11/5 going for the evaluation criterion “feeling motivated with the job” and the lowest evaluation score is greater than 3 (average). in addition, other criteria also received relatively high evaluation scores. “perceiving the significance of the job” is a very important criterion to evaluate the feeling of teachers for the work as they can only be dedicated to the job once they perceive the significance of what they are doing. however, teaching, which is considered as “the most noble of all occupations”, in this survey, received the lowest rating compared to other criteria, showing that teachers are currently not appreciating their work. this finding is explicable concerning long-lasting weaknesses and embarrassments in the organization of vietnamese education. additionally, the lack of social appreciation for teaching in recent years has made teachers feel insecure about the job. this has resulted in a tangible undermined mentality among them and it requires time to eliminate. criteria such as “being aware of their labour values” and “feeling a sense of competence” are not highly evaluated compared to other criteria despite being above average. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(3): 60-64 63 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group comparison of job satisfaction on the basis of gender shows that there is no marked difference in job satisfaction. while female participants show a level of satisfaction or mean = 3.56, that of their male counterparts is 3.52 (mean = 3,52). it can be seen that at secondary level, teachers in nam dinh province feel relatively satisfied with their jobs and there are no excessive differences between sexes. comparison of job satisfaction on the basis of educational background shows that job satisfaction varies differently based on qualifications. the sub-university group possesses the highest level of satisfaction with means = 5.00, while the group of university level has the lowest level of satisfaction means = 3.49 and the group of upper-university level subjects reaches mean = 4.00. comparison of job satisfaction on the basis of age shows that the 41-50 age group has the highest level of job satisfaction compared to the other groups (mean = 3.89). at these ages, most teachers are proficient enough in knowledge, skills and basically fulfill career goals, so they are more confident at work. stress and tension are often seen among teachers in the 31-40 age group when teachers have gone through a period of work and are in the stage of completing career plans. in group below 30, they have the satisfaction level or mean = 3.46; mean = 3.31 for group 31-40; and mean = 3.34 for group above 50. table 3. influential factors on teachers’ job satisfaction nowadays. factor n minimum maximum mean std. deviation social respect towards teaching 290 1.00 5.00 4.0517 1.20009 professional development policy for teachers 290 2.00 5.00 3.4862 0.96378 appropriate regulations of working time 290 2.00 5.00 3.3828 0.84123 reasonableness in teacher assessment 290 2.00 5.00 3.9724 0.94810 empathy from leaders and colleagues 290 2.00 5.00 3.9828 1.01018 good relationships with colleagues 290 1.00 5.00 4.2793 0.95645 students’ good attitude towards their study 290 2.00 5.00 4.0414 0.89114 teachers’ satisfaction with students’ results 290 1.00 5.00 3.2931 1.48357 self-efficacy 290 1.00 5.00 4.1034 1.03050 suitable teaching expertise 290 3.00 5.00 4.2138 0.78644 valid n (listwise) 290 table 3 presents the factors affecting teachers' perceived happiness at work, conducted by surveying and interviewing the teachers.by and large, the level of job satisfaction of different age groups during the implementation period is relatively high, although the satisfaction level is quite high at any age. this indicates that the 2018 general education program is making teachers feel more satisfied in their professional activities. 3.2.3. influential factors on teachers’ job satisfaction from the data, we can see that the teacher “good relationships with colleagues” has the highest score among factors affecting their perception of happiness (4.21/5 points) while the lowest score goes for “teachers’ satisfaction with students’ results”. factors such as “suitable teaching expertise”, “self-efficacy” and “students’ good attitude towards their study” obtain relatively high scores. among all factors, “teachers’ satisfaction with students’ results” is rated the lowest by teachers (3.29/5). this ranking seemingly contradicts the aforementioned. what is the root of this phenomenon? nam dinh has so far achieved numerous remarkable achievements in education sector, ranked at the top of the whole country. apparently, teachers of this province have been put under great pressure regarding students’ academic performance, which can be seen in the final outcome of this research and many other ones, and they want their students to go further in their academic performance. it is the high expectations of teachers that make them always feel dissatisfied with what students have achieved (pham, 2020). “appropriate regulations of working time” is not highly rated by teachers, either. according to statistics, up to 68.3% of teachers have to work from 8-10 hours and 30.3% of teachers need to use more than 10 hours to complete the daily workload. secondary teachers in nam dinh province now have to use their excessive resources to work and this also shows that the workload of teachers compared to 10 years ago has not changed much (referring to the research results of nguyen (2012). “professional development policy for teachers” is another factor not highly appreciated by teachers. in the stage of implementing the new educational program, professional training needs to be paid more attention to. the current professional supplementation for teachers is largely carried out by training sessions, seminars, and professional exchanges while these forms of development are still not really appreciated in vietnam. many teachers still consider these training forms as “breaks” and actually “gain nothing” after those training sessions. the results of this survey have partially revealed the initial assessment of teachers’ perception of happiness in the early stages of implementing the 2018 general education program. 3.3. teacher's faith in future professional happiness there are two types of beliefs: positive beliefs and negative beliefs. in this study, we conducted a survey of teachers' beliefs based on the former. after a period of going through practical activities and getting trained to prepare for the implementation of the 2018 general education program, so far, whether or not teachers believe in a good future, we will review the survey results in table 4. table 4. do teachers believe that in the future you will be happier in their profession?. believe level frequency percent valid percent cumulative percent valid completely disbelieve 30 10.3 10.3 10.3 slightly disbelieve 41 14.1 14.1 24.5 neutral 122 42.1 42.1 66.6 slightly believe 60 20.7 20.7 87.2 completely believe 37 12.8 12.8 100.0 total 290 100.0 100.0 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(3): 60-64 64 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group judging from the statistics table, we can clearly see that the percentage of teachers who choose the “neutral” level accounts for the highest rate of 42.1%, which may ambiguously represent “disbelieve” and “not disbelieve” at the same time. in vietnamese culture, “neutral” expresses “uncertain feelings and attitudes towards subjects” (vu, 2012). the rate of teachers who “slightly believe” in job satisfaction in the future is only 12.8%. meanwhile, up to 10.3% of teachers today “completely disbelieve” in their future career satisfaction. besides, there are also 14.1% of teachers who are “slightly disbelieving” about their professional happiness. however, if there were a correlation between “believe” and “disbelieve”, the number of teachers choosing “believe” would still take up a higher proportion. this is a positive sign for the change in the current 2018 general education program. however, concerning the context of education where teachers play core roles and determine the prosperity of this profession, these “disbelieve” statistics above indicate an unwanted “risk”. the question is: why do teachers value their job satisfaction while not placing too much faith in the future? the interviews with some teachers clearly show that. “i don't put too much faith in it, at first it was nice to do so, but then i don’t know how it will be in the future”. (teacher no. 21), or teacher no. 172: “i think we only have to be in this situation for the next few years then get accustomed to it and we will have to do all the unnamed things as before”. “the biggest change of the 2018 general education program is to pass on knowledge to develop the qualities of learners, whereby teachers also need to change teaching methods and techniques to meet those requirements. that said, most teachers are familiar with traditional teaching methods. in order to change, it takes a lot of time. in addition, with the current interdisciplinary integration, teachers’ knowledge also needs to be broad enough to meet this requirement. there are still too many problems to solve to achieve that” (teacher no. 205). 4. conclusion job satisfaction is an extremely important measure for any industry, which provides leaders with a more comprehensive view of employees' attitudes and motivation. education in vietnam is in a period of general renovation, teachers are the people who bring inspiration, and are able to create a prosperous education system. within the framework of the survey, the author pointed out the level of job satisfaction of teachers and specific expressions of that satisfaction and, at the same time, stated the factors affecting teachers’ perception of happiness as follows: • teachers are currently evaluating their job satisfaction at a relatively high level. • teachers appreciate a few criteria for job satisfaction but many are still underestimated. • there are many factors that affect teachers’ perception of happiness, among which factors related to the relationship with colleagues is most rated. • teachers do not fully believe in their future professional happiness. for that reason, the ministry of education of vietnam needs more effective measures to better improve teachers' occupational happiness. references bagheri, s., kousha, a., janati, a., & asghari-jafarabadi, m. 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(2013). teacher's satisfaction in teaching and research at an giang university. science magazine, 1, 91 – 100. vu, t. t. h. (2012). demand for foreign language and civil servants’ attitude towards foreign language education policy. hanoi: journal of languages, 45(8), 13-25. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 70 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 9, no. 4, 70-74, 2022 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v9i4.4240 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group role of emotional intelligence in dyadic adjustment of married couples shahrbano zaidi1 esha-tur-razia2 sidra shoaib3 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3institute of professional psychology, bahria university karachi campus, pakistan. 1email: shahrbano.zaidi98@gmail.com 2email: eesharaaziah@gmail.com 3email: sidrashoaib175@yahoo.com abstract this study aims to investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence and dyadic adjustment of married individuals. it was hypothesized, that there will be a significant positive relationship of emotional intelligence with dyadic adjustment of married individuals. this study employed a quantitative correlation survey research design. the sample of this study consisted of married individuals (n = 205) that were approached via purposive snowball sampling technique. the demographic shows that 138 (67.3%) participants were females while males were 67 (32.7%) and their years of marriages were from 10-50 (m= 12.97; 56 & sd=10.62).the data was collected through a google form which included informed consent, demographic information form, schutte self-report emotional intelligence test (sseit) and revised dyadic adjustment scale (rdas). the results revealed a significant weak positive relationship of emotional intelligence with dyadic adjustment of married individuals. furthermore, the emotional intelligence remained high as years of marriage progressed but dyadic adjustment decreased with the increase in years of marriage. this implies that emotional intelligence and years of marriage play a limited role in the dyadic adjustment of married individuals. the current findings can be utilized in the development of indigenous intervention plans for marital adjustment and conflict resolution. keywords: emotional intelligence, dyadic adjustment, married couples. citation | shahrbano zaidi; esha-tur-razia; sidra shoaib (2022). role of emotional intelligence in dyadic adjustment of married couples. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 9(4): 70-74. history: received: 10 august 2022 revised: 28 september 2022 accepted: 12 october 2022 published: 25 october 2022 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 71 2. method ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 72 3. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 72 4. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 73 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 73 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 74 mailto:shahrbano.zaidi98@gmail.com mailto:eesharaaziah@gmail.com mailto:sidrashoaib175@yahoo.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v9i4.4240 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6203-9598 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1213-3081 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0251-4879 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(4): 70-74 71 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the current study extends the literature on emotional intelligence and dyadic adjustment by studying a previously lesser explored population. hence, the findings of the current study will provide an indigenous perspective on the institution of marriage which holds utmost importance in asian culture. 1. introduction emotional intelligence (ei) is defined as the ability of an individual to perceive, understand, regulate and manage one’s own and others’ emotion. this enables an individual, to differentiate among emotions which results in better understanding of the social environment which in turn promote personal growth. this ability is divided into four categories, which are perceiving emotions, using emotions, understanding emotions and managing emotions which may varies from person to person (mayer, salovey, salovey, & sluyter, 1997; salovey & mayer, 1990). similarly, goleman (1995) defines emotional intelligence as characteristic of an individual that enables him for the processing of unpleasant emotions, and asserts that everything does not fall into intellectual intelligence. traditionally emotional intelligence is referred as an ability of an individual to reason about emotions and processing emotional information in order to intensify cognitive processes (grewal, brackett, & salovey, 2006). bar-on (2006) proposes a model which states thatemotional-social intelligence is a cross-section of interconnected social and emotional competencies, skills and faculties which determine our understanding and expression and ability to understand and relate with others, and to cope with daily demands. so emotional-social intelligence is based on five competencies i.e understanding and expressing oneself, understanding of other individuals and how well one’s able to relate to them and successfully coping with the daily demand and challenges of the environment. therefore, it provides foundation to individuals’ intrapersonal and interpersonal skills; which ultimately results in realistic, flexible and effective management of environmental and social domain of life (schutte et al., 1998). emotional intelligence does vary from person to person, as emotionally intelligent person is more aware of their own and others’ feelings and emotions. individual may be open to different aspects of internal experiences such as being more open to positive and negative emotions. this allows individual to label and communicate emotions in an appropriate manner. this ability facilitates an effective regulation of affect within the person and others, and so it contributes to wellbeing of an individual (mayer & salovey, 1993). dildar, bashir, shoaib, sultan, and saeed (2012) proposes that emotional competencies are learned capabilities rather than innate talents, which a person can develop to acquire psychological wellbeing. several studies have hypothesized about a potential link between emotional intelligence and relationship quality among married individuals. noller, beach, and osgarby (1997), stated that individuals’ report of marital happiness correlates with accuracy in expressing and recognizing emotions. carton, kessler, and pape (1999) found that predictor of happiness in marital relationships can be sensitivity and accuracy in nonverbal communication. it can be argued that greater levels of marital satisfaction are influenced by higher level of emotional intelligence whereas marital conflict is attributed to lower levels of emotional intelligence. dildar et al. (2012) stated that marriage is the most significant relationship between two individuals. a marriage is that relationship in an adult’s life which along with legal commitment also has an emotional component. thus, marital instability in couple’s life will affect them as well as their children. fitness (2001) indicates a distinct association between emotional intelligence and marital adjustment. perception, understanding and reasoning, and regulation or management of emotions is considered important in marital relationships. hence, emotional intelligence has said to be a primary factor for the adjustment in all aspects of life (goleman, 1995). marital adjustment is described as the condition in which two individuals; husband and wife feels pleasure and are in state of contentment with each other (hashmi, khurshid, & hassan, 2007). salovey & mayer’s theoretical framework of emotional intelligence includes various positive characteristics that are related to quality of marital relations. therefore, individuals who are aware of one’s own and others’ feelings are open to different aspects of internal experiences whether they are positive or negative. these individuals are able to label those experiences and communicate them, when its appropriate. thus, emotionally intelligent individual is often considered to be pleasure around and makes others feels better. such individuals have awareness of themselves and other emotion which often leads to effective regulation of emotions within themselves and others, thereby contributing to personal wellbeing. furthermore, salovey and assistants stated that, emotional intelligence can be taught to the individual in marital therapy, as a result, the couple enhance their skills to improve their insight as well as their communications (muhammad, abbas, & mahmood, 2015; salovey & mayer, 1990). fitness (2001) stated that intimate interpersonal relationships like marital or romantic relations are both rich in emotions as well as conflict in a social contexts. the intimacy between two individuals is dependent on the emotional experiences of individuals. therefore, it is indicated that couple who are emotionally intelligent communicate effectively and handle their conflicts appropriately, and better regulate their emotions which, in the end, facilitates adaptive outcomes and solutions and results in dyadic adjustment. prior studies support that emotional intelligence is important in marital relations. such as, emotional intelligence has been found to be an important contributing factor to the stability and happiness of the relationship (fitness, 2001). in order to cope successfully with outgoing and emotional problems, it has become critical for partners that they acquire the skills of identification, understanding, and regulation of their own emotions and those of their partners (zeidner & kloda, 2013). therefore, emotional intelligence is an essential part of marital adjustment which can be defined as a state in which there two individuals who are married to each other such as husband and wife have general feeling of happiness and satisfaction with each other (nema, 2013; sinha & mukerjee, 1990). pandey and anand (2010) studied the relationship of emotional intelligence with marital adjustment and health of spouse. their study found out that high emotional intelligence of a spouse is positively associated with one's own marital adjustment, along with that of their partner. furthermore, the study showed that wellbeing and health of an individual is positively correlated to adjustment in marriage. similarly, dildar et al. (2012) studied the association between marital adjustment and emotional intelligence of married individuals of gujrat, pakistan. it asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(4): 70-74 72 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group identified a positive relationship between marital adjustment and emotional intelligence. however, the results showed no effect of age and gender on marital adjustment. bhalla, sidhu, and ali (2019) found that emotional intelligence is a contributing factor in the quality of the relationship between partners. when both of the partners have high emotional intelligence they are found to be more committed and stable in their relationship. this increased level of commitment is the result of increased emotional awareness and availability which results in intimate bonding. it can be said that the quality of the relationship between the partners can be attributed to emotional awareness and availability, consensus and cohesion, satisfaction, closeness and intimacy and trust and commitment. emotional intelligence and dyadic adjustment has been studied in various other contexts as well. jalil and muazzam (2013) have studied emotional intelligence as the predictor of marital adjustment in couples with infertility. their study reported that emotional intelligence is a predictor of marital adjustment. moreover, fertile women had better marital adjustment than infertile women. stolarsk, postek, and smieja (2011) studied the role of emotional intelligence and conflict resolution strategies in romantic heterosexual couples and found that females with high emotional intelligence had superior conflict resolution skills, as compared to males in a romantic relationship. in the light of increasing rate of marital conflicts and cases of separation or divorce in the country, and insufficient research studies in the domain of dyadic adjustment, it is imperative to examine the role of effective emotional regulation in managing or preventing marital conflicts. the significance of the current study can be lies the fact that it’s extends the literature on emotional intelligence and dyadic adjustment by studying a previously lesser explored population. hence, the findings of the current study may be utilized in marital and family counselling and development of indigenous intervention plans for marital adjustment and conflict resolution. in the light of above mentioned literature the current study aims to explore the role of emotional intelligence in the dyadic adjustment of married individuals. 2. method 2.1. research design the current study has employed quantitative correlation survey design in which standard questionnaires have been used to gauge the association between the variables. 2.2. participants the participants for this study were those individuals who are legally married. a sample size of 205 married individuals was gathered through purposive snowball sampling. the demographic shows 138 (67.3%) participants were females while 67 (32.7%) were male. demographic also indicated that the years of marriages were from 10-50 (m= 12.97; sd=10.62). in this study, the inclusion criteria for the couples are the couples should be officially and legally married while those individuals who were married for less than 10 years or were in a premarital relationship were excluded from the study. 2.3. measures for the current study informed consent was used with following scales and demographic information sheet. 2.3.1 schutte self-report emotional intelligence test (sseit; schutte et al. (1998)) the schutte self-report emotional intelligence test (sseit) is based on conceptual model of salovey and mayer (1990). the test consist of self-reporting 33-items, in which it uses likert scale ranging from 1 as strongly agree to 5 as strongly disagree scale. the internal consistency of the scale indicates the cronbach’s alpha of 0.90, while it has test-re-test reliability of 0.78 (schutte et al., 1998). 2.3.2. revised dyadic adjustment scale (rdas; busby, christensen, crane, and larson (1995)) the revised dyadic adjustment scale (rdas) is a 14item self-report questionnaire that evaluates seven dimensions of couple relationships. the scale has four subscales which includes dyadic consensus, affectional expression, dyadic satisfaction and dyadic cohesion. the items of the scales ask the respondents to rate certain aspects of her/his relationship on a 5-point scale. the rdas has cronbach’s alpha of 0.90 (busby et al., 1995). 2.4 procedure firstly the permission to use revised dyadic adjustment scale (rdas) was obtained from the respective authorities while sseit is freely available for research purposes. then a google forms was made comprising of an informed consent which contained a brief introduction of the study and all the ethical considerations followed by demographic information sheet, schutte self-report emotional intelligence test (sseit) and revised dyadic adjustment scale (rdas). a debriefing document was also provided with form to make sure none of the participants was harmed in any way. it took approximately 10-15 minutes for each participant to fill out the survey form. the data was analyzed through spss. 3. results in order to comprise the results, statistical analysis was conducted utilizing the statistical package for social sciences (spss 23). table 1 shows the values of the cronbach alpha which indicates good to excellent reliability of the measures except for the subscale of cohesion which is acceptable. this indicates that the scales used for the study are reliable. the values of skewness and kurtosis are indicating that the data is normally distributed. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(4): 70-74 73 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 1. descriptive statistics and alpha reliability coefficients, univariate normality of study variables and dyadic adjustment subscales. variables n of items cronbach’s alpha α skewness kurtosis emotional intelligence 33 0.88 -2.08 10.21 dyadic adjustment 14 0.79 -0.50 -0.31 consensus 6 0.75 -1.12 3.21 satisfaction 4 0.86 -1.11 0.60 cohesion 4 0.48 -0.13 -0.62 table 2. pearson’s moment correlation of emotional intelligence and years of marriage with dyadic adjustment variables emotional intelligence years of marriage emotional intelligence 0.03** dyadic adjustment 0.33** -0.14** consensus 0.13** -0.13** satisfaction 0.36** -0.08** cohesion 0.26 -0.04** note: **p<.01. table 2 shows the pearson’s moment correlation of emotional intelligence with dyadic adjustment and its subscales. there is a weak positive correlation of emotional intelligence with dyadic adjustment and its subscales of consensus and satisfaction while cohesion has a non-significant relationship with emotional intelligence. it shows that the years of marriage has weak positive correlation with emotional intelligence and a weak negative correlation with dyadic adjustment. 4. discussion the current study aimed to explore the role of emotional intelligence in the dyadic adjustment of married individuals. emotional intelligence and dyadic adjustment are significant but weakly correlated therefore it shows that emotional intelligence plays a minor in dyadic adjustment of married individuals, which can be justified by the fact the relationships in pakistani society are bounded by hierarchies not by emotions. as pakistan has patriarchal society where male of the family is considered to be the head of the family and main earning individual, specifically fathers, brothers or husband in the households, therefore every individual of the family has to work according to their appetency, which therefore requires less emotionality resulting in the limited role of consensus in family dynamics. according to zaloudek (2014) in the hierarchy of gender and in household with family setting, the heads of family is husbands. which also lines up with islamic principles i.e. it is the responsibility of a husband to fulfil the duties and obligations of the family (aman, abbas, nurunnabi, & bano, 2019). another factor can play a role in it which is hierarchy follow in the household as sung (2010) states that lower emotional intelligence is related to hierarchal and domineering beliefs while higher emotional intelligence is linked to reciprocal relationships. similarly, yeh (2003) reported that authoritarian filial piety is detrimental to emotional development while reciprocal filial piety is beneficial for intergenerational relationships. furthermore, there could be other factor which could play role in adjustment of married individuals other than emotional factors such as family dynamics as pakistanis are family-oriented individuals, therefore it becomes difficult to exit relationships for them. karim (2011) states that collectivist rely on close and strong ties between individuals, they are dependent on groups and have collective goals, while individualistic cultures give emphasizes on personal goals of an individual and their independence. this also reflects in the negative relation of dyadic adjustment and years of marriage that even the adjustment is not found between the partners they are still living together to maintain the family ties. similarly it has been observed that our society tends satisfy their emotional and sexual needs through other channels such as financial gains which can also contribute to the weak relationship of emotional intelligence and dyadic adjustment. similarly, it has been observed that cohesion is imbedded in family values; it is not acquired from emotional intelligence. the results highlights the importance of other factors that may contribute to a healthy dyadic adjustment of married individual like type of marriage as aman et al. (2019) stated that the key individuals in an arranged marriage are not the bride and groom but rather their parents. in pakistan, marriages are considered to be the union of two families rather than that of two individuals. hence, the marital adjustment may come from the social support of the family rather than the emotional support of the partner. however, most of the younger generation in pakistan doesn’t want to adhere to traditional marriage ideology any longer and they pursue marital happiness and romantic love with their partner, while their parent’s emphasis on commitment or loyalty of a partner. however, essential role is still played by the parents in the family functioning of their children. the result indicates that the emotional intelligence is increasing with years of marriage because in pakistan, young married couples are deemed immature and impulsive in managing and regulating their emotions. young married couples are considered to be imprudent in expressing emotions and kindling a fight between themselves due to unrealistic expectations. aman et al. (2019) states that in various societies, marriage is associated with religion as the couple getting married has to usually pledge to spend their lives together in the eyes of god, therefore it is regarded as a religious sacrament. the couples who believe in religion have strong marital commitments, strengthening their marital relationship as religion stresses on marriage. hence it can be inferred that religion can play a better role in the dyadic adjustment of the married individuals than emotional intelligence and years of marriage. 5. conclusion this study revealed that there is minor role of emotional intelligence in dyadic adjustment of married couples. furthermore, the emotional intelligence remained high as years of marriage progressed but dyadic adjustment decreased with the increase in marriage years. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(4): 70-74 74 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the limitation of the current study was its limited sample size and as the data was gathered through online google form the gender ratio of the participants was not found to be equal. hence future researches can target a larger sample size and physical data collection approach which will allow them better controls. as limited role of emotional intelligence has been found in the current study; a qualitative study can be conducted to find out the indigenous factors that may contribute to successful dyadic adjustment and happy married life. moreover, an experimental study can also provide a broader perspective regarding the variables of the current study. references aman, j., abbas, j., nurunnabi, m., & bano, s. (2019). the relationship of religiosity and marital satisfaction: the role of religious commitment and practices on marital satisfaction among pakistani respondents. behavioral sciences, 9(3), 1-13.available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/bs9030030. bar-on, r. (2006). the bar-on model of emotional-social intelligence (esi) 1. psicothema, 18, 13-25.available at: https://doi.org/10.5772/32468. bhalla, p., sidhu, a., & ali, i. s. s. (2019). impact of emotional intelligence on quality of romantic relationships: review research. international journal of recent technology and engineering, 7, 1774-1779. busby, d. m., christensen, c., crane, d. r., & larson, j. h. (1995). a revision of the dyadic adjustment scale for use with distressed and nondistressed couples: construct hierarchy and multidimensional scales. journal of marital and family therapy, 21(3), 289308.available at: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.1995.tb00163.x. carton, j. s., kessler, e. a., & pape, c. l. (1999). nonverbal decoding skills and relationship well-being in adults. journal of nonverbal behavior, 23(1), 91-100. dildar, s., bashir, s., shoaib, m., sultan, t., & saeed, y. (2012). chains do not hold a marriage together: emotional intelligence and marital adjustment (a case of gujrat district, pakistan). middle-east journal of scientific research, 11(7), 982-987. fitness, j. (2001). emotional intelligence and intimate relationships, emotional intelligence and everyday life (pp. 98-112). new york: psychological press. goleman, d. (1995). emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than iq. new york: batman books. grewal, d., brackett, m., & salovey, p. (2006). emotional intelligence and the self-regulation of affect (pp. 37–55): american psychological association. hashmi, h. a., khurshid, m., & hassan, i. (2007). marital adjustment, stress and depression among working and non-working married women. internet journal of medical update, 2(1), 19-26.available at: https://doi.org/10.4314/ijmu.v2i1.39843. jalil, t., & muazzam, a. (2013). emotional intelligence as a predictor of marital adjustment to infertility. international journal of research, 2(3), 45-58.available at: https://doi.org/10.5861/ijrsp.2013.237. karim, j. (2011). emotional intelligence: a cross-cultural psychometric analysis. doctoral dissertation, aix-marseille mayer, j. d., salovey, p., salovey, p., & sluyter, d. (1997). emotional development and emotional intelligence: implications for educators. what is emotional intelligence, 3-31. mayer, j. d., & salovey, p. (1993). the intelligence of emotional intelligence. intelligence, 17(4), 433-442. muhammad, a., abbas, i., & mahmood, k. (2015). emotional intelligence and marital adjustment among professionals of different organizations. research on humanities and social sciences issn (paper), 5(1), 2224-5766. nema, s. (2013). effect of marital adjustment in middle-aged adults. international journal of scientific and research publications, 3(9), 1-6. noller, p., beach, s., & osgarby, s. (1997). cognitive and affective processes in marriage. in w. k. halford & h. j. markman (eds.), clinical handbook of marriage and couples interventions (pp. 43–71): john wiley & sons inc. pandey, r., & anand, t. (2010). emotional intelligence and its relationship with marital adjustment and health of spouse. indian journal of social science researches, 7(2), 38-46. salovey, p., & mayer, j. d. (1990). emotional intelligence. imagination, cognition and personality, 9(3), 185–211.available at: https://doi.org/10.2190/dugg-p24e-52wk-6cdg. schutte, n. s., malouff, j. m., hall, l. e., haggerty, d. j., cooper, j. t., golden, c. j., & dornheim, l. (1998). development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. personality and individual differences, 25(2), 167-177.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(98)00001-4. sinha, s. p., & mukerjee, n. (1990). marital adjustment and personal space orientation. the journal of social psychology, 130(5), 633-639. stolarsk, m., postek, s., & smieja, m. (2011). emotional intelligence and conflict resolution strategies in romantic heterosexual couples. psychological studies, 49(5), 65-76. sung, h. y. (2010). the influence of culture on parenting practices of east asian families and emotional intelligence of older adolescents: a qualitative study. school psychology international, 31(2), 199-214.available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034309352268. yeh, k.-h. (2003). the beneficial and harmful effects of filial piety: an integrative analysis. progress in asian social psychology: conceptual and empirical contributions: conceptual and empirical contributions, 42, 67-82. zaloudek, j. a. (2014). evangelicals’ sanctification of marriage through the metaphor of jesus as a husband. religions, 5(3), 623-647.available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel5030623. zeidner, m., & kloda, i. (2013). emotional intelligence (ei), conflict resolution patterns, and relationship satisfaction: actor and partner effects revisited. personality and individual differences, 54(2), 278-283.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.09.013. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 23 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 8, no. 1, 23-30, 2021 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2021.81.23.30 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group coping strategies in adolescent siblings of individuals with and without physical disability maria waris nawaz1 shumaila imtiaz2 syeda sadia anwer3 seema siddiqua4 kiran bashir ahmad5 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3,4,5institute of professional psychology, bahria university karachi campus, karachi, pakistan. abstract raising a child with a physical disability can be challenging for families and may demand strong coping strategies to maintain stability in family relationships. according to the previous literature, sibling bond is a process that plays a vital role in an individual’s growth and development since childhood. thus, it is very important to understand the underlying linkage between siblings. this study aims to extrapolate the affinity amongst siblings and their way of coping when one individual is physically disabled, as these siblings may carry potential triggers of disturbed emotional state. this comparative study included 100 overall participants. 50 participants for each of the two groups without gender specification, selected by purposive sampling from different special schools in karachi, pakistan. the measures involved, coping strategy indicator, amirkhan (1994a) which is a self-reporting scale along with a demographic form. it was formulated that, the coping strategies of typically developing adolescent siblings of individuals without physical disability had no difference as compared to the coping strategies present in typically developing adolescent siblings of individuals with physical disability. this study serves as an implication for the psychologists and care givers who need to be well-adjusted to the needs of both disabled and non-disabled individuals, as the results depict an integral literature for different institutionalized settings where disabled individuals receive better support needed by them to establish further stronger bonds within their household especially with their siblings. keywords: siblings, typically developing, coping, social support, physical disability, adolescence, institutionalized settings. jel classification: i12, i14, i30, i31, p32. citation | maria waris nawaz; shumaila imtiaz; syeda sadia anwer; seema siddiqua; kiran bashir ahmad (2021). coping strategies in adolescent siblings of individuals with and without physical disability. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 8(1): 23-30. history: received: 23 january 2021 revised: 25 february 2021 accepted: 12 march 2021 published: 30 march 2021 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 24 2. theoretical framework .................................................................................................................................................................. 25 3. the present study ........................................................................................................................................................................... 25 4. method ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 25 5. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 26 6. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 27 7. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 28 8. limitations and recommendation ............................................................................................................................................... 28 9. compliance with ethical standards ............................................................................................................................................. 29 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 29 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2021.81.23.30&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2769 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7560-9473 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6526-2368 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8599-8775 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6614-933x https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3322-4396 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 23-30 24 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study serves as an implication for the psychologists and care givers who need to be welladjusted to the needs of both disabled and non-disabled individuals, as the results depict an integral literature for different institutionalized settings where disabled individuals receive better support needed by them to establish further stronger bonds within their household especially with their siblings. 1. introduction the world’s biggest survey of 2011 on disability identified that more than 500 million people are disabled around the world with partial disability or full disability. one cause of this high prevalence is that there is more physically disabled population in the developing countries due to the lack of resources and awareness. as physical disability council (kaduwanema, 2009)stated that physical disability can be identified as partial or full loss of person’s body parts (for instance hands, legs etc.). having any disability may lead to crucial factors that can cause depression, discrimination and anxiety (bordieri, drehmer, & taricone, 1990). in addition to this, disability may serve as an underlying factor for developing bonds with other individuals as well, starting with siblings. for instance, people with disability might feel distressed about their immobility or functionality, which in return might affect their internal and external environment negatively (fewell, 1986; susman, 1994). the influence of a disabled child is very complex on the family system. previous researchers have actively tried to compare family bonds of physically disabled and non-disabled children, that had often lead to contradictory conclusions. for instance, many studies have found that having a child with any disability a member of the family, along with having another child as his/her sibling without any disability may have both the positive and negative effect within the household (holaday, phuphaibul, and muensa (1999). most researchers have found that siblings play a pivotal role in family, as they may fulfil their role of providing emotional support to other family members in different situations. since, siblings spend longer span of life together in comparison to other relations so it becomes long-lasting and stronger with time (cicirelli, 1995). 1.1. siblings of individuals with physical disability many studies have observed different domains of physical disability in sibling individuals and its effect on their quality of life (ponce, 2007). also, as a disabled individual he himself can be quite vulnerable to feelings of inadequacy and low self-worth. due to which his siblings may face similar emotional instability overtime (adler (1917). the bonds that individuals form with the disabled one may be based on self-esteem or sympathy while bonds between typically developing or siblings without any disability might have more safe and secure attachment along with stronger emotional support (iriarte & ibarrola-garcía, 2010). also, siblings with any physical disability might gain more attention due to labels given to them like being handicapped, unfit, incomplete or broken and because of this, their other siblings might get induced with feelings of aggression towards their disabled sibling as their self-esteem might get targeted which can lead to disruption in sibling bonds or cause depression and anxiety in the long run (burke, 2010; rodrigue, geffken, & morgan, 1993). in another study, consisting of different views where their idea of family structure states that impact of individuals having disabilities have more influence on the family itself than only on one individual (dunn, slomkowski, & beardsall, 1994). 1.2. siblings of individuals without physical disability sibling bonds serve as crucial antecedents for having emotional support and attachment needed to develop grown-up connections among individuals over their course of life (davidoff, 2006; lobato, 1990). results from early research consistently reflects the idea that siblings play an important role in developing personality (brim, 1958). having constant conflicts and fights among siblings may indicate less warmth between them can lead to various psychological issues like depression, anxiety, isolation, as well antisocial behavior issues (bank, patterson, reid, & brody, 1996).whereas, if siblings spend considerable time together and have common interests, experiences and feelings, then the quality of the linkages that they can develop with others can be better. dunn (1998) suggests that when facing personal challenges or personal problems in the future, then individuals with stronger sibling connections can have better coping (atkin & tozer, 2014). 1.3. coping strategies lazarus and folkman (1984) defined coping as, “reducing continuous stress behaviorally and psychologically by managing the resources”. this way of coping may differ among individuals, and can further be classified into different coping strategies like problem focused coping, behavior focused coping and emotion focused coping (lazarus & folkman, 1984). carver, scheier, and weintraub (1989) identified two major styles for coping, the first one is problem solving which focuses on problem by making rational choice among all the alternative choices available while the other one is emotion-focused coping style, where one deals with problems by focusing on internalizing the problem. they discussed another factor related to coping that was avoiding the situation and may cause denial to reduce the stress which could be either denying it psychologically or behaviorally. individuals who apply emotion-focused coping style might get involved in drugs, drinking or an avoidant individual might withdraw from all activities to escape from problem (holahan & moos, 1987). now days, it is known that growing with any physically-disabled sibling or with a sibling having other abnormality may have both the negative and positive effects (fisman, wolf, ellison, & freeman, 2000; rossiter & sharpe, 2001). nixon and cummings (1999) identified that having a disabled sibling in the house will affect the individual’s healthy coping negatively and inculcate stress in daily living. they might feel less secure and provoked, both at the same time which leads to aggression and may create annoyance towards their disabled sibling in different social settings. many previous researches focused on siblings with abnormality have identified that these individuals are more vulnerable to take negative cues from their immediate environment and as a result they become prone to psychological distress (davidoff, 2006; lobato, 1990; verté, roeyers, & buysse, 2003). research studies have observed the relationship between a physically disabled sibling in family and siblings asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 23-30 25 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group without abnormalities being present with mixed findings, whereas, researchers stress that the outcomes of coping with a sibling having any disability is more severe and may contribute to low self-esteem (opperman & alant, 2003). most of the high school students shared their experiences mentioning that having a sibling with abnormality made them more stronger and compassionate as their experience has taught them about how to adjust with stressful situations (caplan, 2011). researchers found out that most children having disabled siblings or siblings with chronic diseases can handle stressful situations well. cuskelly and gunn (2006) on the other hand suggested that having a physically disabled sibling can be a risk factor, leading towards adjustment problems (giallo, gavidia-payne, minett, & kapoor, 2012) for instance, due to low self-esteem they may experience adjustment and communication issues at school (williams, 1997). a stronger relationship with siblings may have positive effect on individuals as it may provide deeper emotional support (noller, 2005). communication with siblings have many positive effects for instance on language development or understanding the emotion and feelings of others. if there is no communication in early childhood phase then there is a high chance that individuals might communication problems ,behavior tantrum issues during adolescence (brody, 2004). siblings of individuals with disability can have low self-esteem and low confidence as they might play a role of a caretaker which can affect their psychological health (mikami & pfiffner, 2008). 2. theoretical framework based on lazarus and folkman’s ‘stress coping theory’ of 1984, 'cognitive assessment' of a stressor is made on certain condition and interpretation of those events that determine coping methods. it tells us that in overwhelming situations we use coping strategies to overcome stress. in this theory, it was suggested that stress management coping strategies may create a global coping approach, as a dominant approach to cope with life situations. there are two principal styles of coping: problem focused coping and emotional coping (lazarus & folkman, 1984). a problem focused coping style include behaviors or approaches that solve problems with best solutions and not stress out and internalize problem. by using it, individuals can cognitively engage and solve problem with reasoning to reduce the stress. whereas, emotion focused coping is more involved in internalizing the problem and focuses on emotion other than solving a problem. it is an emotional regulation strategy where individuals see or consider others’ behaviors under good light and positively reframe the scenario to look for an alternative positive explanation while focusing on emotions. it can also lead to avoiding the situation by behavioral disengagement or by remaining in denial to avoid stressful events (folkman, 2013; lazarus & folkman, 1984). there is no specific successful style in managing stress but problemfocused style is more preferable because researchers consider it more adaptive during stressful situations. the coping model along with stress serves as the theoretical framework of this research. 3. the present study according to the literature summarized above, the present study hypothesized that ‘there will be a significant difference in coping strategies of the typically developing adolescent siblings of individuals with and without physical disability’. the variable of physical disability is defined as any deformity or abnormality in the visible body make up, having occurred for more than 6 months. while the coping strategies of their siblings depended upon the given score on the provided test items. 4. method 4.1. research design the comparative research design is utilized for the study. structured self-report questionnaires were used to determine the coping strategies of typically developing adolescent siblings of individuals with and without physical disability. the study has a correlational aspect as it aimed at exploring the relationship between coping strategies of the siblings of both disabled and non-disabled individuals. for this research, purposive sampling was used to select participants. 4.2. participants as part of the inclusion criteria, the age group decided for this research was typically developing adolescent sibling participants. the between group design consisted of two independent groups, one group having the typically developing siblings of individuals having any physical disability (either brother or sister) with specific birth order that is middle born or last born while the independent group comprised of typically developing siblings of individuals without disability (either brother or sister) with specific birth order that is middle born or last born having no psychological or physical disability. each independent group consisted of 50 participants falling in the age range of 10-19 years. the adolescent siblings of both the independent groups did not have any physical or psychological issue, hence referred as typically developing. elder sibling with physical disability elder sibling without any physical disability typically developing adolescent siblings with middle or last birth order (100 total) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 23-30 26 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.3. measures 4.3.1. demographic form the demographic form was given to collect information about gender, age, number of siblings, birth order and education, family structure and family background on which the study was based upon. it was important to inquire the age and birth order to qualify on the identified criteria of csicoping strategy indicator (amirkhan, 1994a). csithe coping strategy indicator is a 33-item, 3-point self-report rating scale intended to survey 3 fundamental methods of coping. according to the measure, participants select an upsetting situation from their lives and respond to the items based on it. the situation should not have happened more than 3 months before taking part in the study. at that point, participants while remembering that situation respond to 33 questions of the measure. these reactions show whether subjects cope by critical thinking, looking for social help, or maintaining a strategic distance from the occasion. the csi is psychometrically superior to other coping questionnaires. convergent validity has been demonstrated, both in terms of convergence with existing measures of coping, personality, and pathology, and in terms of non-co-variation with social desirability indices. criterion validity is evidenced by csi’s ability to predict actual coping responses made in both laboratory simulations and real-world settings (amirkhan, 1994a). 4.4. procedure the researchers started the study by contacting mr. khan for getting permission of using his scale csi during this study. letters of permission were acquired from the director of institute of professional psychology, bahria university in order to conduct research outside the university. institutes holding the facility of providing care to the children mentioned in the inclusion criteria were approached, these included al umeed rehabilitation association (aura), special children school karsaz and dewa academy. the above-mentioned centers were visited by researchers and information was gathered about the disabled individuals and their siblings. a self-report questionnaire, along with informed consent (that needed to be signed by the parents) and demographic form was sent to the potential participants in school diary recommended by the school management. parents were given instructions to complete and return the survey to the school. a parent teacher meeting was also scheduled with a request of bringing siblings along with them for this purpose. at the meeting, siblings were asked to fill out the questionnaires after their parents signed the consent forms. it was specified that their participation was completely voluntary and that their answers will remain confidential and anonymous. the average time taken by the participants to complete csi scale was 10-15 minutes. the result obtained from the filled questionnaires was analyzed using the statistical packages for social science (spss, 20.0). 5. results the following research has been analyzed by using statistical packages for social sciences (spss 22.0). the demographics and their percentage of siblings of individuals with and without disability during adolescence have been shown in the table 1 in terms of gender, family structure, and background and birth order. the total sample consisted of 100 participants including 50 siblings of disabled individuals and 50 siblings of non-disabled individuals. table-1. descriptive statistics of ages of siblings of individuals with and without physical disability. n=100. age n m sd min max soiwd 50 13.24 2.86 9 18 soiwod 50 16.28 2.01 10 19 note: soiwd = siblings of individuals with physical disability, soiwod = siblings of individuals without physical disability. as shown in table 1 the mean age of the siblings of individuals with physical disability during adolescence has been found to be 13.24 years whereas the mean age of siblings of individuals without any physical disability is 16.28 years as shown in table 1. whereas, the min age value for siblings of individuals with physical disability was 9 years and the max age was 18 years with standard deviation 2.86. the min age value for siblings of individuals without physical disability was 10 years and the max age value was 19 years with standard deviation 2.01. table-2. descriptive statistics and cronbach’s alpha reliability of the sub scales of coping strategy inventory (csi). (csi) α m sd min max skew kurt problem solving 0.82 25.76 5.05 15 33 -0.15 -0.98 seeking social support 0.83 22.52 11 11 33 0.04 -0.58 avoidance 0.71 21.98 12 12 30 -0.45 0.60 note: csi= coping strategy indicator. table 2 shows the cronbach’s alpha for the three sub scales of coping strategy inventory (csi). the table includes the mean, standard deviation, range, min and max value along with skewness and kurtosis. table-3. the t-test between siblings of individuals with and without physical disability for the coping strategy subscale of problem solving (n=100). variable groups n m sd sem df p t siblings of disabled individuals 50 25.16 5.3 1.06 problem solving 48 0.40 -0.83 siblings of non-disabled individuals 50 26.36 4.8 0.96 note: *p≤.05, **p≤.01 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 23-30 27 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 3 shows the t-test analysis of subscale: problem solving for both the groups. there is no difference in the coping strategy of problem solving among the siblings of individuals with and without physical disability, as it is confirmed by the value; p>.05 table 4. table-4. the t-test between siblings of individuals with and without physical disability for the coping strategy subscale of seeking social support. n=50. variable groups n m sd sem df p t siblings of disabled individuals 50 22.68 5.46 1.09 seeking social support 48 0.83 0.20 siblings of non-disabled individuals 50 22.36 5.36 1.07 note: *p≤.05, **p≤.01 table 4 shows the t-test analysis of subscale: seeking social support. the results show there is no difference in the coping strategy of seeking social support between the siblings of individuals of with physical disability and without physical disability as is it confirmed by the value; p>.05. table-5. the t-test between siblings of individual with and without physical disability for the coping strategy subscale of seeking social support (n=100). variable groups n m sd sem df p t siblings of disabled individuals 50 21.80 4.98 0.99 avoidance 48 0.78 -0.28 siblings of non-disabled individuals 50 22.16 4.00 0.96 note: *p≤.05, **p≤.01 table 5 shows that t-test analysis of subscale: avoidance. the results suggest that there is no difference in the coping strategy of avoidance between the siblings of individuals with physical disability and without physical disability. this is also confirmed by the value; p>.05 6. discussion the present study investigated the coping strategies in the sample of typically developing adolescent siblings of the individuals with any physical disability in comparison to the typically developing adolescent siblings of individuals without any physical disability. the hypothesis of this study suggested that there will be a significant difference between the coping strategies of the two groups. however, the results of this study could not prove the hypothesis and found that there was no significant difference indicated in the coping strategies of problem solving p>.05(.40), seeking social support p>.05(.83) and avoidance p>.05(.78). the basis of the current study has been laid over the extensive work of ahmad (2013). the main aim of the study was to find out about the role of locus of control, self-esteem and perceived social support in the psychological adjustment of adolescence with and without disabilities, whereas, this current study aimed at testing the difference in the coping strategies of the adolescent siblings of individuals with and without physical disability. the variable of coping strategy tested on siblings aimed at giving a new aspect to the field of pakistani researches. the present study was conducted in pakistan, where the statistical analysis of the current study did not support the hypothesis, thus showing no difference of adopted coping strategies by the siblings of both the groups. considering pakistan, where disability is treated as a stigma and so the families having any disabled individuals in their house do not feel comfortable in sharing information about their personal life or even about their other typically developing children because they feel that this might be stressful and embarrassing for them. however, for this study, the researchers used coping strategy indicator (csi) to assess the coping strategies of 80 sibling participants of the physically disabled and 80 sibling participants of the non-physically disabled individuals by giving them questionnaires to fill, only 100 total sibling participants responded (62.5% response rate), after critical evaluation of the protocols in the light of the inclusion criteria. hence, the data of only 100 protocols was analyzed using descriptive statistics. frequency and percentages were also calculated for the demographic factors. for all the three sub-scales, mean, median and standard deviation was also recorded and compared with the normative data of csi scale. the variables of demographics were analyzed and interpreted for the statistical significance in regards to the relationship of each of the subscales. previous studies also supported the results of this study, as they showed that there is no significant difference in the coping strategies of these two groups (ponce, 2007). according to argirakouli and zafeiropoulou (2003) there was no difference found in the confidence or stress levels prevalent in the siblings of individuals with or without any disability. one of the inclusion criteria as discussed in chapter ii (method) states that the siblings selected for this study either middle or last born were observed. it was found that the younger siblings of the physically disabled individuals were very concerned about their brother/sister during filling the research form, they somehow had attachment with their disabled sibling and also played a caregiver’s role or an attachment figure. it is noted that according to john bowlby’s theory of attachment, older siblings are primary caregivers of their younger siblings during a typical relationship. this kind of secure bond yields positive self-concept while when the older sibling already has a need of dependency on their family particularly parents and siblings, this kind of relationship turns to be insecure, leading towards a conflict bond or disappointment (whiteman, mchale, & soli, 2011). in asian culture, mothers tend to be more protective for their physically disabled children and this parental influence can make the typically developing siblings of these individuals become more protective for them as well, this suggests that their role of being younger and dependent on their elder sibling might get reformed (chang, 2007). coping is an essential factor for dealing with stressful situation, where adaptive and maladaptive coping asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 23-30 28 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group strategies can change the situation and lead to those consequences that may be either devastating or satisfying at times. sibling bonds tend to provide support to these individuals, especially during the period of adolescence where a lot of physical and mental changes are experienced by individuals (scharf, shulman, & avigad-spitz, 2005). adolescents are volatile and vulnerable to environmental dynamics during this period of life, and would seek support and care from their family. since, reputed special needs schools of karachi city were selected for this study as discussed in the later section of limitations, the researchers found it difficult to find the second born or last born as the typically developing sibling of the disabled. the first factor suggested that most of the families did not plan a baby after giving birth to their first disabled child. second factor suggested that most of the families had two children, both being mostly disabled so even they could not fit into the inclusion criteria. the third factor was that the parents of the disabled individuals might have gotten immune to filling questionnaires, as final year students from different universities must have contacted them before for different thesis projects based on individuals having disabilities. this might have contributed to parent’s non-serious attitude towards proactively responding to these protocols. these were some of the reasons that lead to a smaller sample size of this study. another factor that contributed towards the less sample size of this study was the inclusion criteria, which focused mainly on the typically developing adolescent siblings of the physically disabled individuals having issues just with their limbs or body make up. also, individuals who did not classify under any psychological condition as per their history records that is of having any intellectual deficits, mental retardation, autism spectrum disorder or attention deficit disorder. street children/beggars having any physical disability were also ruled out to make sure that that there no extraneous variables intervening the research process. the results concluded no difference in the coping strategies among the two groups, this can be due to a lot of factors, for adolescents who have typically developing siblings would be free from a responsibility of taking care of their sibling, while the other group having a disabled sibling would have an added responsibility of being careful, vigilant, thoughtful and patient as they might face issues dealing with their disabled sibling along with facing issues in their normal life. the prevalence of issues in their life is not the main question but the coping and directing oneself away from those issues by providing solutions is the main challenge present (kutner, 2016). parents and siblings being the immediate caregivers provide this support, affirmation and assurance that helps build confidence and positive self-idea while making them adopt effective and timely coping possible. the results of this study analyzed the data collected from different institutes for individuals with special needs, and also from mainstream schools for individuals without any physical, psychological or sensory disability. the family of these individuals did have resources for providing education to their special needs and typically developing children, thus financial constraints did not impact the individual’s growth. the siblings of typically developing individuals were seen to be more active and open when collecting data while the siblings of the disabled individuals were found to be shy. an analysis of this behavior may pertain to the need of sharing information related of their self and also of the experiences they have with their physically disabled siblings that might cause anxiety and nervousness in them. in one of the previous studies it was found that, individuals belonging from a lower socio-economic background might lack in resources and basic amenities, due to which they might not be able to treat their disabled children and their other typically developing children equally. for future research work, it is suggested that the behaviors of families belonging from different socio-economic backgrounds should be compared (fewell, 1986). the present study was conducted on individuals having a stable socio-economic status, which suggested that they belonged from either lower-upper class or upper-middle class families and were able to enroll their disabled children in a reputed school. this may be one the reasons that in the subscale of seeking social support (csi), they have an elevated value p>.05(.835) as shown in table 4, as compared to other subscales of problem solving and avoidance. hence, it can be said that this is the first study conducted in karachi city, pakistan that explains the coping of typically developing adolescent siblings of the disabled and non-disabled individuals while having scant literature over sibling’s coping strategies. furthermore, these siblings may carry potential indicators of developing poor psychological health in the future, even if they do not currently have maladaptive coping. due to this, they might face emotional exhaustion and burn out in the long run if their underlying issues are not addressed profoundly. moreover, this study has also emphasized that if the facilities provided to the disabled individuals are improved more, and then there are elevated chances of an improved wellbeing and coping of individuals who may face any kind of emotional symptoms, especially those who have a disabled sibling living with them in the household. 7. conclusion this is a comparative study, conducted on the typically developing adolescent siblings of the physically disabled and non-disabled individuals. while working with this sample, differences in their coping strategies using the scale coping strategy inventory (csi) were studied. also, there were contrasting views presented in the previously available literature. however, this study yields no difference in the coping strategies of the typically developing adolescent siblings of individuals with and without physical disability. 8. limitations and recommendation this study was conducted on a sample that consisted primarily of secondary school and college going students, this may have had an effect on the results which have been discussed earlier. furthermore, as the sample size of this study was (n=100) so this same research can be conducted on a larger sample size to determine more engaging factors pertaining to the study. thus, future researchers can include or incorporate a wider range of age such as children, adults and senior citizens. the study was conducted on a stable socio-economic background of families who were more supportive to their disabled children in terms of providing them with education, social and moral support as compared to other families belonging from lower socio-economic background. during this study, there was no set age gap between the disabled sibling and their typically developing siblings for both the groups; the chosen siblings were selected only on the basis of falling under the criteria of being in the age range of typically developing adolescents while having middle or last birth order. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 23-30 29 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 9. compliance with ethical standards 9.1. ethical approval all procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (institutional and national) and with the helsinki declaration of 1964 and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. disclosure of potential conflicts of interest: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest and that this manuscript has not been previously published and has not been submitted elsewhere. informed consent: informed consent was obtained from all the participants for being included in the study using a consent form which included all the required information about the study to be shared with the participants with the mention of any potential risks and associated steps to overcome them for assurance. for participants <18 years old, informed consent was obtained from parents/legal guardians and assent was obtained from the participants. animal rights: this article does not contain any studies with animal subjects performed by any of the authors. references adler, a. 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(1997). siblings and pediatric chronic illness: a review of the literature. international journal of nursing studies, 34(4), 312323.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0020-7489(97)00019-9. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 173 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 3, 173-179, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.173.179 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the effects of the covid-19 pandemic on the nigeria’s economy and possible coping strategies innocent otache department of business administration and management, federal polytechnic, idah, kogi state, nigeria. abstract the world has been shocked by the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic and no country is spared of the effects of the pandemic. however, the effects and strategies to cope with the effects of the pandemic might vary from one country to another. the purpose of this article, therefore, is to identify and discuss the effects of the covid-19 pandemic on the nigeria’s economy and possible coping strategies. in addition to the viewpoint of the author, this paper undertook a review of the related literature regarding the covid-19 pandemic and how nigerians and the nigerian government can cope with the effects of the pandemic. the review reveals that the effects of the covid-19 pandemic in nigeria include jobs losses, a sharp drop in income of the informal workers and the poor, food insecurity, business and school closures, a steep decline in oil revenues and economic uncertainties. this paper has recommended some measures to be adopted by nigerians and the nigerian government in order to cope with the devastating effects of the covid-19 pandemic and similar pandemics in future. the measures include monetary and fiscal policy measures, diversification of the economy through agriculture, revamping of the manufacturing sector, acquisition of relevant ict skills, adoption of e-learning model by schools, adoption of ebusiness model by business organizations and the need to have multiple sources of income. keywords: coronavirus, covid-19, pandemic, economic uncertainties, nigeria’s economy, world health organization. jel classification: b21, b22, e52, e58, e62, i15. citation | innocent otache (2020). the effects of the covid-19 pandemic on the nigeria’s economy and possible coping strategies. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(3): 173179. history: received: 10 june 2020 revised: 17 june 2020 accepted: 22 june 2020 published: 30 june 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 174 2. what is covid-19? ......................................................................................................................................................................... 174 3. the effects of the covid-19 pandemic in nigeria .................................................................................................................. 175 4. conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 176 5. recommendations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 176 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 178 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.173.179&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1817 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5746-5066 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1817 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5746-5066 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1817 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5746-5066 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 173-179 174 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper contributes to the existing literature on how nigeria and other developing countries can cope with the devastating effects of the covid-19 pandemic and similar pandemics or crises in future. 1. introduction the world has been shocked by the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic. the world health organization (who) announced the outbreak of a new coronavirus (sars-cov-2) at the beginning of the year 2020 (adhikari et al., 2020; congressional research service., 2020; harapan, itoh, yufika, winardi, keam, te, et al., 2020). according to who, the disease was first reported in the city of wuhan, china, in december 2019 (adhikari et al., 2020; adnan, khan, kazmi, bashir, & siddique, 2020; unhale, ansar, sanap, thakhre, & wadatkar, 2020) and has since then spread like a wildfire to more than 190 countries (congressional research service., 2020; harapan, itoh, yufika, winardi, keam, te, et al., 2020). in other words, the disease has become a global pandemic. the pandemic has caused massive economic disruptions across the globe. economic experts have predicted that the pandemic could plunge the world into a global recession (ozili, 2020). also, the pandemic has claimed a significant number of lives across the globe. table 1 shows the summary of confirmed cases and deaths reported since the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic globally as at 24th may, 2020. the table shows that 5,203,796 confirmed cases and 336,559 deaths were recorded globally as at 24th may, 2020. table-1. global covid-19 statistics as at 24th may, 2020. region total confirmed cases total deaths africa 77,295 2,073 americas 2,338,124 138,116 eastern mediterranean 415,806 10,988 europe 2,006,984 173,886 south-east asia 191,966 5,748 western pacific 173,621 5,748 total 5,203,796 336,559 source: who. although the covid-19 disease broke out in china in december 2019, nigeria recorded its first index case specifically on the 27th of february, 2020 (ohia, bakarey, & ahmad, 2020). since then, the disease has spread to more than 30 states with the confirmed cases and death toll increasing on daily basis according to the nigeria centre for disease control (ncdc) (nigeria centre for disease control, 2020). table 2 shows the number of confirmed cases and deaths reported by the ncdc from 17th to 23rd may, 2020. table-2. nigeria’s covid-19 statistics from 17th to 23rd may, 2020. date total confirmed cases total deaths 17/05/20 5,621 176 18/05/20 5,959 182 19/05/20 6,175 191 20/05/20 6,401 192 21/05/20 6,677 200 22/05/20 7,016 211 23/05/20 7,261 221 source: who. from the statistics presented above, there is no denying that the pandemic has brought untold hardships on nigerians. many people have lost their jobs, lives and businesses. the nigeria’s economy has also been badly affected. the pandemic has affected negatively various sectors of the economy such as education, banking, manufacturing, sports, agricultural, aviation, transportation and hospitality, among others. for example, in the aviation sector, the pandemic has led to massive cancellation of flights. the ban on international travels has prevented people from travelling abroad for business and personal purposes. the hospitality industry has also received its own fair share of the effects of the pandemic. many hotels have been closed down due to the lockdown policy and, definitely, their operations, sales and profits would be affected negatively. needless to say, many hotel reservations have been cancelled. given that the covid-19 pandemic is relatively recent, articles that discuss its effects on the nigeria’s economy and possible coping strategies are limited. this article, therefore, is among the first to discuss the effects of the covid-19 pandemic on the nigeria’s economy and possible coping strategies. the article has suggested a number of strategies that can help nigerians and the nigerian government cope with the devastating effects of the covid-19 pandemic and similar pandemics or economic crises in future. certainly, nigerians and the nigerian government will be the first beneficiaries of this article. also, people from other countries and governments of other countries will find this article useful. moreover, future researchers will use this article as a reference material. from the above discussion, the objective of this article is to identify and discuss the effects of the covid-19 pandemic on the nigeria’s economy and possible coping strategies. to achieve this objective, the remainder of this article is structured as follows: the next section will discuss covid-19, followed by the section on the effects of the covid-19 pandemic in nigeria. thereafter, the article will be concluded and, lastly, possible strategies on how nigerians and the nigerian government can cope with the effects of the covid-19 pandemic will be identified and discussed. 2. what is covid-19? coronavirus disease 2019 is an infectious disease that is popularly known as covid-19 (moore, 2020; ohia et al., 2020). the disease is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; otherwise known as sarsasian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 173-179 175 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group cov-2 (adnan et al., 2020; harapan, itoh, yufika, winardi, keam, & mudatsir, 2020; ohia et al., 2020; poudel, poudel, gautam, phuyal, & tiwari, 2020). its symptoms include fever, cough, shortness of breath, sore throat, runny nose, sneezing, among others (harapan, itoh, yufika, winardi, keam, & mudatsir, 2020; ohia et al., 2020; unhale et al., 2020). it is a highly communicable disease (adnan et al., 2020) and its mode of transmission is from person-to-person (unhale et al., 2020). transmission occurs among close contacts mostly through respiratory droplets released when the infected person sneezes or coughs (harapan, itoh, yufika, winardi, keam, te, et al., 2020). while measures such as lockdown, social distancing, self-isolation or self-quarantine and observation of simple hygiene habits such as regular washing of hands, wearing of facemasks and covering the mouth with a handkerchief when coughing or sneezing have been recommended to contain the spread of the disease among people (ohia et al., 2020) it is important to note that there is no any known cure or vaccine for the covid-19 pandemic presently (adnan et al., 2020). nevertheless, different countries and international organizations like who are making efforts to develop vaccines or drugs for the covid-19 disease. 3. the effects of the covid-19 pandemic in nigeria generally, the covid-19 pandemic has social, religious, political and economic effects on the economy. some people might argue that it is too early to discuss the effects of the pandemic. however, the pertinent question is, when likely will the pandemic be over? according to experts, the covid-19 pandemic may not go away anytime soon or completely (brito, 2020). besides, there is no cure for it now. therefore, it is important to discuss the effects now so that measures or actions can be taken to cushion the effects of the pandemic. with that said, the following are the effects of the covid-19 pandemic in nigeria. 3.1. job losses many people have lost their jobs as a result of the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic and many jobs are in jeopardy in the near future. the pandemic has worsened the unemployment situation in nigeria. for instance, the unemployment rate in nigeria before the pandemic stood at 23.1 per cent (csea, 2019; national bureau of statistics, 2018; nseg, 2019). however, due to the pandemic, the unemployment rate is estimated to rise to about 33 per cent by the end of 2020 (obiezu, 2020). an upsurge in unemployment has negative effects on the economy. for example, when unemployment increases there is the likelihood that social vices or criminal activities would increase and this portends grave danger for the country. also, an upsurge in unemployment could lead to more hunger and poverty in the country. 3.2. a sharp drop in income of the informal workers and the poor the informal workers and the poor are the hardest hit by the covid-19 pandemic because they live on daily income. this category of people includes street vendors or hawkers, petty traders, taxi drivers, motorcycle (i.e. “okada”) riders, artisans, hairdressers and garbage collectors, etc. they engage in daily trading activities for their daily bread. the lockdown and other containment measures have threatened their means of livelihoods and subjected them further to poverty and hunger. it is important to note that the informal workers constitute about 60 per cent of the global labour force (international labour orgnization, 2020) and they live on less than $2 per day. 3.3. business closures many businesses, particularly small and medium enterprises (smes) have been closed down as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. smes are badly hit by the outbreak of the pandemic due to their vulnerability and limited resources. measures such as self-isolation or quarantine, social distancing, ban on social gatherings and closure of markets taken to contain the spread of the disease have impacted negatively on their operations, sales and profits. many smes have experienced demand and supply chains shocks during this pandemic. demands for goods have reduced drastically due to lockdown and restrictions of movement. additionally, the supply chains have been badly affected. for example, business organizations in nigeria import their goods from china (ozili, 2020). with the ban on foreign travels during this pandemic, the supply of such goods and the continuity of such businesses would be negatively affected. needless to say, border closures have negative impacts on import and export businesses. 3.4. agriculture and food insecurity the covid-19 pandemic has affected the production and marketing of agricultural products. no doubt, the pandemic has worsened the food insecurity situation in the country. the demand and supply chains of agricultural products and foods internally and externally have been affected as a result of the measures adopted to contain the spread of the disease. farmers find it difficult to obtain seedlings, fertilizers, pesticides and farm implements. moreover, labour-intensive agricultural production processes have been affected due to labour shortages and logistical constraints. additionally, the timing of the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic in nigeria disrupts farming activities. for some farmers, the timing of the outbreak of the disease coincides with the planting season whereas, for others, the timing of the outbreak of the pandemic coincides with the period of harvest. these disruptions, no doubt, have devastating effects on the production and marketing of agricultural products. 3.5. a steep decline in oil revenues nigeria is a mono-product economy (agbaeze & ukoha, 2018; national bureau of statisticsa, 2019). it depends heavily on the export of crude oil for economic growth and development. the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic has affected negatively the price of crude oil in the international market. for example, the price of crude oil dropped from about $60 per barrel to less than $30 per barrel (ozili, 2020) and this has affected negatively the revenues from the sales of crude oil for nigeria. the demand and patronage of nigeria’s crude oil has reduced drastically due to the pandemic. the plunge in the price of crude oil has far-reaching effects on the nigeria’s economy. specifically, it affects nigeria’s 2020 budget. the steep decline in oil revenues has led to the review of the budget. the nigeria’s 2020 budget was originally n10.594 trillion. it has been reduced to n10.276 trillion. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 173-179 176 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group likewise, the oil benchmark that was originally pegged at $57 per barrel has been reduced to $30 per barrel (ozili, 2020). it is important to note that revenues from the sales of crude oil form the largest part of the money expected to fund nigeria’s 2020 budget (budgi, 2020; pwc, 2020). 3.6. school closures the covid-19 pandemic has posed a huge challenge to education systems. with the ban on social gatherings and the social distancing measure adopted to contain the spread of the disease, many schools (primary, secondary and tertiary) have been closed down. academic activities have been suspended and many academic calendars have been disrupted. the implication is that students would not graduate at the expected time. 3.7. death toll the coronavirus pandemic has claimed many lives across the country. the statistics released by the ncdc as at 23rd may, 2020 shows that 221 deaths have been recorded since the outbreak of the disease. the number of active cases as at 23rd may, 2020 stands at 5,123 (ncdc, 2020). this is a serious cause for concern considering the poor state of the health facilities in the country. 3.8. economic uncertainties the nigeria’s economy is bleak, sliding towards a recession or an economic contraction as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. indices of economic recession abound. prices of goods and services have skyrocketed during this pandemic. unemployment has increased and exchange rate has become volatile. moreover, economic activities have been greatly disrupted and the covid-19 pandemic has no cure for now. this situation makes the economy unpredictable. additionally, production and job losses and change in buying habits have strained the economy. moreover, the steep decline in oil revenues occasioned by the sharp fall in crude oil price is likely to deplete nigeria’s external reserves, thereby making the future unpredictable. 4. conclusions this article identifies and discusses the effects of the covid-19 pandemic on the nigeria’s economy and possible coping strategies. generally, the covid-19 pandemic has social, religious, political and economic effects on the nigeria’s economy. specifically, the effects of the covid-19 pandemic in nigeria include jobs losses, a sharp drop in income of the informal workers and the poor, food insecurity, business and school closures, a steep decline in oil revenues and economic uncertainties. 5. recommendations the following are the strategies that can help nigerians and the nigerian government cope with the devastating effects of the covid-19 pandemic: 5.1. monetary policy measures some monetary policy measures have been announced by the nigerian government through the central bank of nigeria (cbn) with a view to mitigating the effects of the covid-19 pandemic on the nigeria’s economy. for example, the cbn has announced a stimulus package of n3.5 trillion for economic recovery (pkf, 2020). also, the cbn has approved the sum of n50 billion ($138.89 million) as a credit facility for households and smes that have been badly affected by the pandemic. another n100 billion ($277.78 million) has been earmarked for the health sector. additionally, the sum of n1 trillion ($2.78 billion) has been approved as a credit facility for the manufacturing sector. furthermore, the interest rates on all the cbn interventions have been reduced from 9 to 5 per cent and a one-year moratorium on all the cbn interventions has been introduced. while the above monetary policy measures have already been taken, there are still more to be done. for instance, the interest rate at which commercial banks lend to smes is high and should be reduced. the official interest rate stands at 13.5 per cent (united capital, 2020). this recommendation is important because not all smes are qualified to access the credit facility approved by the cbn for smes. also, the government through the cbn should improve the supply of foreign exchange in order to facilitate import and export trades. all these measures would help to stimulate economic activities in the country and boost the economy. 5.2. fiscal policy measures the nigerian government should also implement some fiscal policy measures in order to mitigate the effects of the pandemic on the economy. for example, the government should reduce the existing tax rate or give tax breaks to certain smes. this would free some money for business expansion. moreover, the government should increase its spending in the provision of basic infrastructures. for example, the government should invest in electricity. many smes have been generating their own electricity and this has increased the cost of doing business in nigeria. no doubt, constant supply of electricity would reduce significantly the cost of doing business in nigeria. additionally, the nigerian government should invest heavily in the health sector. the covid-19 pandemic has exposed the poor state of the health facilities in the country. investing in the health sector would position the country to cope with similar pandemics in future since covid-19 might not be the last pandemic. furthermore, the government should consider the option of direct cash transfers to those who have lost their jobs as a safety net programme in addition to the existing conditional cash transfers to the poor. 5.3. diversification of the economy through agriculture with the steep decline in oil revenues due to the covid-19 pandemic, it is imperative that nigeria diversifies its economy. as a matter of fact, diversification of the nigeria’s economy is long overdue. the sudden and steep fall in crude oil price suggests that nigeria should consider other options of sustaining its economy apart from the oil sector. one of the best options available to nigeria in its diversification drive is to prioritize agriculture. nigeria asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 173-179 177 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group needs to focus on agriculture and invest massively in the agricultural sector in order to fully maximize the gains therein. agriculture has the potential to contribute to the economic development of the country (praburaj, design, & nadu, 2018; sertoğlu, ugural, & bekun, 2017; tahamipour & mahmoudi, 2018). literature review reveals that agriculture provides jobs, income and food (otache, 2017). specifically, it provides food for the farmers and ensures food security for the country. similarly, agricultural produce serves as a source of income to the farmers, as well as a source of revenue to the government. also, agriculture provides jobs opportunities for the teeming youths. to maximize fully the potentials of the agricultural sector, the government should make agriculture attractive and profitable by formulating agricultural policies that would encourage people to go into agriculture and agribusiness. for example, the government could give financial assistance to the existing and potential farmers in the form of soft loans at a reduced interest rate. alternatively, the government could buy seedlings, fertilizers, pesticides and farm implements and sell them to farmers at a subsidized rate or distribute those items to farmers free of charge in order to motivate them. additionally, mechanized and irrigation farming systems should be adopted. more importantly, the nigerian youths including young graduates should embrace agriculture and agribusiness. nigerian youths should take advantage of the availability of vast agricultural land and agribusiness opportunities in nigeria (otache, 2017). they could go into farming of crops such as maize and millets or go into poultry and fish farming. 5.4. revamping of the manufacturing sector the manufacturing sector is regarded as the hub of the economy (uma et al., 2019). however, for many years, the nigerian government has not accorded the manufacturing sector its rightful place in the development and sustenance of the economy. this is attributable to the oil boom of the 1970s. thus, nigeria has become a consuming nation (bamiro, 2012). nigeria relies heavily on imports for economic sustenance (kemi, 2019; orji, ogbuabor, okeke, & anthony-orji, 2018; uma et al., 2019). overdependence on imported goods explains why the nigeria’s economy is usually badly affected during global crises. no doubt, the covid-19 pandemic has taken its toll on the nigeria’s economy. for example, nigeria imports mainly from china (ozili, 2020) and with the lockdown and ban on foreign travels during this pandemic, importing goods from china becomes difficult. moreover, the plunge in oil revenues in the wake of the covid-19 pandemic has shown that relying on the oil sector alone as the backbone of the economy can be disastrous. therefore, there is the need to diversify the economy. in addition to the agricultural sector, the nigerian government should focus on the manufacturing sector in its economic diversification drive (edd). presently, the contribution of the manufacturing sector to the gross domestic product (gdp) is low. for example, available statistics shows that the sector contributed only 9.20 per cent to the gdp in 2018 (national bureau of statisticsa, 2019). this statistics suggests that much can be done to improve the performance of the sector. in this regard, the government should invest massively in the sector. apart from assisting the manufacturers financially, the government needs to invest in infrastructures such as electricity and road construction. addressing the challenges of electricity and roads in nigeria would improve significantly the performance of the sector. also, the government could give tax incentives to manufacturers. it would motivate them and also encourage more people to go into manufacturing. when the sector is revamped, it would not only drive the economic sustainability of the country, but also job opportunities would be created. in the end, the problem of unemployment that is facing nigeria would be resolved significantly. 5.5. adoption of e-business model with the lessons learnt from the covid-19 pandemic, business organizations need to come to terms with the new order of doing business, which is e-business. business organizations must go online if they must remain in business and be competitive. due to lockdown and restrictions of movement during this pandemic, many customers have adopted online shopping. interestingly, online shopping allows goods bought to be delivered to the buyer right at the comfort of their home. moreover, we are living in a digital world. thus, business organizations must digitalize their operations. they must adopt emerging automation technologies such as robotics and artificial intelligence in the performance of their activities. additionally, business organizations must make sure that their employees are equipped with relevant ict or digital skills to enable them adjust to the new order of doing business. 5.6. adoption of e-learning the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic has made virtual classrooms or online education system (i.e. elearning) indispensable. online education system enables students to learn from home. with the lockdown policy and other containment measures enforced during this pandemic, many schools have adopted online education system so that academic activities would not be disrupted. interestingly, some schools, particularly in developed countries, had adopted online education system even before the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic. nigeria must embrace online education system in addition to the existing traditional classroom system. to do this, the nigerian government should provide online learning environments and resources. in this regard, the government should make laptops available to students and teachers at a subsidized rate. also, an affordable internet service should be provided in schools in order to facilitate online teaching and learning. in addition, constant electricity should be provided. more importantly, training programmes should be organized for teachers so that they can acquire digital or e-learning skills for effective online teaching. likewise, students must acquire basic ict skills for effective online learning. 5.7. acquisition of relevant ict skills the shutdown of businesses, government offices and other organizations during this pandemic has made ict skills indispensable. remarkably, many employees work from home (i.e. teleworking) during this pandemic. also, many business and government meetings are held online via video conferencing platforms such as zoom, skype and whatsapp video during this pandemic. therefore, employees must acquire relevant ict skills for their services to be retained. possession of ict skills is important because telecommuting or teleworking (also known as asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 173-179 178 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group working from home [wfh]) may become a new norm even after the pandemic. also, job-seekers should acquire relevant ict or digital and e-marketing skills in order to increase their employability. possession of ict skills would be an added advantage for job-seekers. examples of ict skills include basic operation of ict hardware such as printers, scanners, projectors, photocopiers, laptops, smartphones and tablets; internet usage such as using search engines to search for information; typing, which has to do with the ability to use word processing program to create letters or agenda; email setup and management; social media usage (twitter, linkedin, instagram, facebook, etc.); and ability to use communication and collaboration tools such as slack, zoom, g-suite, office 365, webex and skype, etc. 5.8. the need for multiple sources of income the outbreak of this pandemic has underscored the need for multiple sources of income. many people have lost their jobs due to the pandemic and some people who depend on one business as a source of livelihood have lost their business. one of the lessons learnt from this pandemic is that relying on one source of income is tantamount to putting all your eggs in one basket and it could be disastrous when that source of income is lost. having multiple sources of income is important because when one source of income is affected, there would be other source(s) to fall back on. for paid-employees, it is advisable to build other sources of income that can be combined with their main jobs. for example, paid-employees could go into businesses like blogging, rentals, online 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(2020). nigeria outlook 2020: a different playing field. retrieved from https://www.unitedcapitalplcgroup.com/wpcontent/uploads/2020/01/nigeria-outlook-2020_a-different-playing-field-3.pdf. 1-10. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.unitedcapitalplcgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/nigeria-outlook-2020_a-different-playing-field-3.pdf http://www.unitedcapitalplcgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/nigeria-outlook-2020_a-different-playing-field-3.pdf 236 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 3, 236-249, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.236.249 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group rohingya massive exodus into cox’s bazar grows security concern: impacts over tourism industry of bangladesh muhammad tanbirul islam research intern of bangladesh institute of peace and security studies (bipss), dhaka, bangladesh. abstract cox’s bazar, the largest sea beach of the world has reached peak regarding national revenue generation as well as employment creation for bangladesh, expecting to be a new economic hub. in 2019 it has contributed 4.4% of national gdp. therefore, the recent development of rohingya mass exodus into cox’s bazar and the increasing number of crimes have become a matter of grave concern to tourists, businessman as well as other associated stakeholders of this sector. the article mainly attempted to figure out different forms of traditional and nontraditional security threat to cox’s bazar due to rohingyas. it has found some traditional security threat created by rohingyas including murder, rape, gang activities, robbery, hijack, abduction, human trafficking, drug trafficking and etc. the article also found some spot crime on beach like stealing, snatching and sweeping the accessories and luggage of tourist by rohingya youth. it has also given special focus on non-traditional security threat caused by rohingyas including environmental disaster, and health risks of local community. it figured out the massive settlement of rohingyas at green and hilly land space that resultantly cleared a large forest area. some diseases such as diphtheria, diarrhea, aids have been already broken out as the heath management collapses due to overpressure of rohingya cases. tourist arrivals consequently have been declining at alarming rate in cox’s bazar than last year in 2018. the revenue of tourism industry has also been diminishing that indicates the decline of its contribution to national gdp. keywords: rohingya exodus, security, environmental cost, tourism, economy, criminal psychology, relative deprivation. jel classification: z38 tourism: policy. citation | muhammad tanbirul islam (2020). rohingya massive exodus into cox’s bazar grows security concern: impacts over tourism industry of bangladesh. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(3): 236-249. history: received: 15 may 2020 revised: 22 june 2020 accepted: 24 july 2020 published: 20 august 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 237 2. rohingya refugees ........................................................................................................................................................................ 237 3. theoretical paradigm ................................................................................................................................................................... 240 4. crimes are committed by rohingyas ....................................................................................................................................... 242 5. environmental cost ....................................................................................................................................................................... 244 6. impacts on tourism .................................................................................................................................................................... 246 7. conducive factors for rohingyas to commit crime ......................................................................................................... 247 8. recommendation............................................................................................................................................................................ 247 9. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 248 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 248 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.236.249&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2036 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6347-9686 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 236-249 237 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this article figured out how the migrants mainly having psychological, social and economic fragility are provoked to engage in crime activities. how and why they are getting motivated to create traditional and non-traditional threats to zonal, national and regional peace. 1. introduction rohingya is one of the most persecuted ethnic minorities of the world in un terms (ohchr, 2017) have now been residing in arakan (e.g now rakhain) for centuries. it has been denied citizenship by for a long time. the military launched its operation dragon king to clean the nation myanmar from foreigners in 1977 (constantine, 2019). since then the rohingyas have been forced to leave their homeland, rakhain, for bangladesh and continues until present. recently the crisis has been escalated with a terrorist attack on police and military base by a militant organization named arakan roingya salvation army (arsa). in response to such an attack the myanmar military has launched its large-scale military offensive (edroos, 2017). the recent military campaign has been accused of committing genocide on rohingyas by many national and international human rights organizations. human rights watch claimed to have evidence of mass killing, arson attack, gang rape, enforced disappearance and various physical and psychological tortures over the civilians by military force (human rights watch, 2019). un has termed the move of myanmar government as the textbook example of ethnic cleansing (bruce, 2017). rohingyas subsequently have started moving into cox’s bazar and settled down in teknaf and ukhiya, two sub district areas of cox’s bazar (unhcr, 2019). however, such a large population of rohingya is now becoming the reason of many problems in cox’s bazar area. according to law enforcement agencies, the allegations and litigations against the crimes of rohingyas have been increasing day by day alarmingly (khan, 2019). the allegation includes murder, rape, narcotics, abduction, human trafficking as well as dacoit. however, it has been apparent in recent days that the security of cox’s bazar is being threatened day by day. rohigyas have settled down at hilly forest area, leading it into barren. according to undp (2018) thousand acres of forest area have been already cleared as a result of rohingyas inhabitation. landslide and soil erosion subsequently have been frequenting in hilly area. the most concerning aspect is about tourism area. the striking natural beauty has been spoiling and the places of tourist spots are also being undersized due to rohingysa. the environmental cost has been dragging vast consequence for the whole nation. according to the report of who in 2019, because of having limited health management facilities compared to large population, several epidemic diseases like diphtheria, dengue, diarrhea and several other communicable diseases have been increasing unchecked (who, 2019). as a result, the epidemic has grown concerns among locals and tourists of possible outbreak. recently rohingyas are seen in different tourist spots of cox’s bazar such as inani beach, himchori where they have made tents, declining the tourist space along with spoiling the scenic beauty of spots (patwary, 2017). besides rohingyas are also involved at stealing, hijacking, snatching, sweeping the accessories of luggage and suitcases of tourists, those have created an atmosphere of fear among tourists. according to wttc and world data atlas, the number of real tourists has been declined in recent days (wttc, 2019); (world data atlas, 2019). however, the arrivals although are shown sharp increase, but most of them are here for working with ngos and for other international organizations as local people said. therefore, this decline has grown a huge concern among the businessman, hotel owners, tourism authority, law enforce agencies and local community who are living on the income from tourism. tourism is the most potential economic sector of our country. so it is undeniable that the crisis in tourism will produce immeasurable consequences over the national economy (husain & ovi, 2017). analyst precautions the imaginative geography built upon ‘the good will of bangladesh’ could be hampered by the rohingya situation (khan, 2018). this article mainly explored the problematic situation of cox’s bazaar particularly the tourism which is badly affected by rohingyas. it also focused on increasing number of different nontraditional security threats including militancy, environment damages, health effects, and economic cost. this article is mainly constituted with seven parts. the first part deals with introductory discussion of rohingyas and their recent move into bangladesh. the second part contains a theoretical framework, which was designed to demonstrate the critical situation in cox’s bazar due to rohingyas. rohingyas crime activities are talked in third section of this article. the fourth section deals with environmental damages along with health effects due to rohingya crisis. some factors are responsible for turning the problem more acute and unchecked which were clearly demonstrated in the sixth part of this article. at the end part of this article, a concluding observation is added along with some probable recommendations to manage the ongoing situation. 2. rohingya refugees a muslim ethnic minority of rakhain state, who has been residing there for centuries, is still denied citizenship since the military takeover of power in 1962 (dewan, 2017). however they were officially declined to citizenship in 1982 while the military regime introduced a new law named burma citizenship law 1982. there are 3.6 million rohingyas populations still in myanmar among 52 million across the world (khaliq, 2019). this community has been facing brutal military crackdown by myanmar military force as well as buddhist extremists in rakhain. they were forced to flee from their homeland since the beginning of military crackdown in 1982. the number of their exodus has been reached to 1.1 million until 2018 in according to government (pennington, 2018). 2.1. historical background of rohingya exodus muslim people started settling down at arakan (e.g. now called rakhain) since 1430. this state remained independent until the burmese conquered in 1784. british as a colonial power of indian subcontinent occupied arakan in 1824. in 1948, the burma including arakan got independence from colonial rule of britain. from demographic view, it was largely the buddhist majority area, which has a small number of muslims alongside other communities like, hindus and christians. from very historical age, the muslims of this area have strong connectivity with the muslims of neighboring cox’s bazar area. they are mainly bonded with familial, lingual, and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 236-249 238 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group ethnic bondages. therefore, several other ingredients such employment, trade and commerce have played also predominant role in intensifying their mutual proximity with each other. they used to travel each other usually before demarcating the boundary of pakistan and myanmar in 1947. it is true that many people from chittagong had established their inhabitants in arakan, as people from arakan settled down in cox’s bazar. britain, then colonial power, promised to offer autonomy status to arakan muslim, which was not fulfilled even after the independence of myanmar from colonial rule. the ethnic identity of rohingya muslim was not even also recognized by the myanmar government (albert & maizland, 2020). figure -1. the growing number of rohingyas in bangladesh. source: prepared by author based on human rights watch (2019); khaliq (2019). figure-2. ratio of local people and rohingyas in ukhiya and teknaf. source: prepared by author based on; undp bangladesh (2018). the junta regime came into rule of myanmar in 1962 and started military offensive against so called foreigners. the forceful migration started from then. the junta regime introduced a new citizenship law in 1982. the law defined the criteria of getting citizenship particularly for the unrecognized ethnic minorities of myanmar. it officially denied giving citizenship status to rohingyas which refueled the tension in that region. the military instantly began offensive campaign against muslim minorities that has been undergoing until present with having some intervals (arraiza & vonk, 2017). in 1977 myanmar junta regime started its first military campaign named “operation dragon king”. it was mainly for excluding the foreigners from myanmar. it took a program to register its own citizen. thus the roingya whole community was alienated from the rest of the population and subsequently was subjected to torture by military as they were termed as the foreigners. as a result a large number of rohingyas were forced to mobilize into bangladesh. it was estimated nearly 200,000 rohingyas had migrated to bangladesh during 1977-78. therefore a repatriation treaty between bangladesh and myanmar had been signed in 1978 and around 180,000 rohingyas were allowed to go back into myanmar. for the first time in 1982, myanmar officially declared the list of its ethnic communities. in that declaration rohingya was denied as an ethnic community though myanmar, the then military government officially recognized 135 ethnic communities. in 1990, nearly 200,000 rohingyas again moved into bangladesh from their homeland in face of military crackdown. with the collaboration of unhcr, a repatriation deal had been signed in 1992 and again bangladesh could repatriate around 230,000 rohingyas into myanmar. in 2012 rohingyas faced another brutal military crackdown. subsequently a large number of rohingyas, nearly 150,000, came into bangladesh (human rights watch, 2019; khaliq, 2019). that exodus has been continuing till date although having some intervals. last in 2017 the influx has been massive. the number of newly migrated rohingyas has already been reached to 750,000. bangladesh has now become the host of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 236-249 239 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group majority rohingya refugees across the world. bangladesh officially estimated the number is around 1.1 million in 2019. therefore the number of rohingya refugee has been growing alarmingly. it has even now become larger than the local community of those areas (undp, 2018). 2.2. geographic location: rohingya refugee camps in bangladesh figure-3. geographical location of rohingya refugee camps in cox’s bazar. source: benar news (2019) based on data of unhcr. rohingyas have settled down mainly in ukhiya and teknaf, two sub district areas of cox’s bazar. rohingyas are mostly staying at refugee camp. however, though it is restricted but a large number of rohingyas get mixed into the local community (illius, 2017). the refugee camps are mainly located at different points of teknaf and ukhiya including hakimpara, kutapalang, bagbona, kunarpara, moiner ghona and thangkhali. the law enforcement agencies including police, bgb and military force encircled the whole area in order to halt the movement of rohingyas from campsites to local area. government is mostly concerned about the infiltration of refugees into city area and particularly tourist areas. however despite the lockdown, rohingyas recently are seen at many areas of cox’s bazar city and tourist spots including inani beach, himchori and fishari-ghat. some of them also make tents on beach, roadsides and many other places (patwary, 2017). rohingyas due to having common appearances and lingual features with local people cannot be detected easily. the authority recently has revealed that a large number of rohingyas are gone missing from the campsite (illius, 2017). 2.3. jobs are done by rohingyas in tourist spots rohingyas usually adopt different tricks and ways to earn money on beach. they usually do photography, sale of flowers, gurgle, street peddling, and begging. rohingya youngsters aged 15-30 mainly do photography on beach at a minimum cost, per photo 20 tk (bdt). some children sale flowers usually rose and gardenia. sometimes they bring homemade string and chain with the flowers. they normally attract the travellers and convince them to buy flowers by pleading or requesting. the price of these flowers and ornaments of flowers are from 20150 tk (bdt) cost. the young men of rohingyas act as the porter on the bus station, rail station and before the hotel. they usually carry the luggage, bags and baggage and other different heavy accessories of tourists. they also assist the travellers by doing their heavy works. they offer these works at minimum cost ranged within 50-300 tk (bdt). in somewhere rohingyas are seen to peddle different accessories and cosmetics products. it carries caracole and necklace for selling. they provide this at 50-200 tk (bdt) cost. some rohingyas also serve simple fast food items and water at 30-100 tk (bdt) cost. the sale of coconut at tourist spots is also very demanding that cost (35-50) tk (bdt) per piece. sometimes in different locations rohingyas are seen begging. this act is banned by police but rohingyas are likely to continue unrestraint. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 236-249 240 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure-4. geographical distribution of rohingya refugees across the world. source: al-jazeera news (2018) based on unhcr and iom. 3. theoretical paradigm the author analyzes the problems caused by rohingyas in cox’s bazar through various paradigms and discourses. it mainly focuses on why rohingyas are prone to committing crime and what factors motivate them to such threatening activities on cox’s bazar security situation. 3.1. relative deprivation theory the initial concept of relative deprivation is simply a psychological aspect. according to walker & pettigrew, relative deprivation refers to a person who feels deprived of some desirable things relative to their own past, other persons’ belongings, eminence and social positions (walter & pettigrew, 1984). relative deprivation is also perceived as the discrepancy between individual’s subjective value expectations and value capabilities. value expectation means goods and conditions of life that an individual think as their entitlement. therefore the value capabilities mean to have the ability to achieve their desired goods and conditions of life (gurr, 1970). therefore davis & runciman termed it as the eventual outcome of relative comparison on the basis of social categories (davis, 1959). runciman explained it from more specific view. he termed this as the comparison among friends, relatives and others closest one. therefore he analyzed this theory from two grounds. one is egoistical that is individual centric and other is fraternal that is group centric (runciman, 1966). crosby set a model through mentioning five preconditions that defined the individual extent of relative deprivation in figure 5 (crosby, 1976). figure-5. five preconditions of relative deprivation. source: prepared by author based on crosby (1976) 1) a person observes other person who possesses the desirable goods and conditions of life . 2) he desires to get that goods and conditions what he observed. 3) he feels entitled to get such desirable goods and conditions in his own life. 4) he started to think, that things is feasible to attain for him. 5) he started blaming the society and system for not possessing these desirable goods and conditions of life crosby also denoted two eventual outcomes if the desirable goods and conditions of life cannot be met. the one outcome is constructive change in society as positive, and the second one is violence against society as the negative consequence (crosby, 1976). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 236-249 241 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3.2. constructive change in society the desire of an individual most possibly provokes the people to attain that. then the question of opportunity will arise. if the opportunity is kept open for them, the positive outcome will come through heroic effort from such individual. it is expected that the social leaders, volunteers and other different actors will come forward to assist those people with a view to achieving progress. the changes are also expected to occur in the society through designing an inclusive and constructive strategy. therefore if desired responses are failed to achieve and goals are not attained, the responsibility will go to the system not over the society. in this, individual will not go to do violence rather will be inspired to make a positive change in the whole system of the society. 3.3. violence against the society it has been common for emigrants, and refugees who are likely denied to get civil, economic, political and even basic rights. the scope, opportunity and platform for achieving desirable goods and conditions of life always not remain unfolded to them. it invokes the refugee to inflict violence in the society. rohingyas are the most persecuted ethnic minorities of the world as un termed (ohchr, 2017). the relative deprivation theory has been perfectly applicable to them. the rhohingyas have been forced to flee from their home land, in face of military offensive. they carry the tragic memory of horrific persecution like mass murder, gang rape, burning down the homeland, not having even a minimum level of civil, political and human rights. so the anger and vengeance of them to existing systems have grounded the possibility of inflicting violence in society. at the same time the tourists mainly come from different parts of the world in order to entertain their life. but the luxury of tourist’s life may grow a feeling of relative discrimination among rohingyas as they are not having basic rights guaranteed. so the theory of relative deprivation suggests having sufficient factors on the ground that may provoke rohingyas to act against society. 3.4. theories of criminal behavior theories of criminal behavior suggest traumatic experience and stressful environment that are highly responsible for breeding anger and irritability to a victim. it badly impacts traumatized victims and raises the risk of committing antisocial conduct (elbogen et al., 2012). post-traumatic stress order is another major element provoke individual to crime attitude. it refers to a psychological torment situation that a traumatized people suffer after trauma incident. it disturbs the victims with frequent flashbacks, nightmares and severe anxiety along with uncontrollable imagination about the incidents. return to normal life is always hampered by these flashbacks, nightmares and anxiety. they even cannot adjust with their family, friends and the society as well. they feel always scared about life. it contributes to feel them always instable and insecure. psychologist precautions regarding these people are at risk of getting involved with abnormal activities and horrendous crimes. they are vulnerable of being abused by different local and global actors in order to pursue their political objectives. the different theories of criminal behavior demonstrate how the traumatic experience and stressful environment are highly responsible for leading abnormalities into a victim. rohingyas are at high risk of being infected by the posttraumatic stress disorder (ptsd) or traumatic brain injury (tbi). psychologist precautions regarding rohingyas who are mostly traumatized victims and vulnerable for inflicting an y sort of crimes including brutal offense or militancy activities. in order to demonstrate the fresh impacts of trauma over victim, it is relevant to drag the example of syrian refugees in germany. a study found 32.5% crimes are committed by the foreigners mostly who came from syria as refugee while german local populations are responsible for 13% crimes (the local, 2017). 3.5. freud’s personality theory sigmund freud coined a theory named personality theory demonstrated three stages of personality (sigmund, 1962). the first stage is id, the second is ego and the last stage is super ego. id denotes the actual intention of an individual. it is the first stage of building personality. then the individual get accessed into reality. this is, the second stage, termed as ego. in the last stage conscience, norms, ethics and values influence and shape the individual acts and behaviors. this third stage is named as super ego. first stage id and the second stage ego are merged and corrected in this last stage (mcleod, 2019). rohingya community due to lack of effective parenting and unfavorable social and familial environment, faces high deficit of super ego. they came from a family where norms and values had not been performed properly. the second stage, ‘ego’, has been always predominant in their behavior. so it indicates the increase of risks to be more wild and aggressive of them. 3.6. maslow's hierarchy of needs maslow formulated a theory named ‘hierarchy of needs’ is consisted with five tiers in figure 6 (maslow, 1943). those tiers are shaped as pyramid. the first two tiers from bottom demonstrate basic needs. it holds physiological needs and safety needs. human physiological needs include food, water, warmth and rest. safety needs include security and safety. the second stage is consisted with the need of esteem, belongingness and love refer to the psychological needs. it includes human interactions, relationships and different communication approaches. then it comes about the last stage termed as self-fulfillment needs. in this stage it holds self-actualization that is placed at the highest stages of human needs (mcleod, 2019). rohingyas are actually the victim of basic needs like the deficiency of food, water, warmth, rest, safety and security. these deficiencies badly impact other needs. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 236-249 242 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure-6. pyramid of moslows’ hierarchy of needs. source: mcleod. (2020). thus the esteem and gratitude towards local communities of cox’s bazar in exchange of their considerable sacrifices have been consequently missing to rohingyas. rohingyas are seemed mostly desperate in their acts and behavior. this situation actually pushes them to be more prone towards crimes even the heinous crime against the local community without hesitation. 4. crimes are committed by rohingyas figure-7. the number of cases against rohingyas. source: khan (2019). table-1. the types of cases against rohingyas. types of allegation 2017 2018 2019 cases accused cases accused cases accused arms 12 23 13 21 11 38 murder 8 22 15 33 20 81 rape/ attempt to rape 2 2 16 27 13 27 narcotics 22 40 95 159 91 169 abduction 0 0 9 39 6 40 human trafficking 0 0 2 8 22 94 police assault 1 8 0 0 0 0 dacoity/ attempt to dacoity 2 6 7 26 0 0 filed under the foreigners act 23 39 12 20 2 13 filed under the special power act 2 3 9 20 10 20 other crimes 4 16 30 61 12 33 total 76 159 208 414 187 515 source: khan (2019). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 236-249 243 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the figure 7 reveals the flourishing rate of crime by rohingyas from 2017, the initial year of recent influx. the number of case against rohingyas has been sharply increased and it became more than twice within just two years from 2017 to 2019. the table 1 shows number of accused rohingyas simultaneously is also increased more than thrice within two years between 2017-2019. 4.1. arms recently the news about 6000 sharp objects that were retrieved from a blacksmith shop. locals alleged those were supposed to distribute among rohingyas. some rohingyas were also arrested for carrying fire arms, as news reported. a senior politician tofail ahmed cited it as he said, “we now see a deep-rooted conspiracy going on” (bdnews24.com, 2019). in cox’s bazar 144 local and international ngos set up their office according to bangladesh ngo bureau affairs (mahmud, 2018). some ngos are suspended for being alleged to provide arms among rohingya youths. foreign ministry termed these acts as misdeed (bdnews24.com, 2019). along with bearing firearms and sharp objects the local community alleged of seeing other domestic weapons which are also available to rohingyas. local people, experts and law enforcers expressed their grave concern over the increasing number of weapons to rohingyas (uca news, 2017). 4.2. rape and sexual harassment more than 31 cases have been filed about rape and attempted rape against rohingyas mostly inside camp and some are outside camp as table 1 suggested. according to post traumatic stress order theory, the human sense, morality and norms naturally do not work to people while he/she has horrendous experience or is going through a disastrous condition of life, inhuman treatment, having uncertainty of basic rights, minimal condition human rights and no conformity of getting justice (national institute of mental health, 2019). so the growth of crime activities like rape, and attempt rape has been increased. allegations mainly came from the rohingyas against their own nationals and sometimes it has come from tourists and locals of being sexually harassed. rohingya youth allegedly tease girls and women through verbal and attitudinal indication. sometimes they whistle and utter awkward something before of girls. so the fear of sexual harassment is getting escalated. 4.3 murdering and committing violence individual, familial and tribal strife are being intensified day by day, which inflicts huge amount of violence and results casualties inside the camp. the conflicts are mainly for establishing dominance and leadership on several issues including repatriation, rehabilitation, tenting and the distribution of foreign aid. at least 22 people were reportedly killed including one of tribal leaders inside the camp (molla, 2019). therefore recently the tension between local and rohingys have been also escalated that resulted in a large scale violence. usurpation of the local people’s land, allegation and counter allegation of crimes as well as expressing hatred are the main reason of conflict. local people have always blamed rohingyas for inciting violence while the rohingyas denied of carrying any liability. 4.4. narcotics drug trafficking is one of the grave allegation against rohingyas in coxs’ bazar. bangladesh has recently opened its border for allowing rohingyas free access in the humanitarian viewpoint. but the opportunists grab this as the chance to import yaba, heroin, fencidil, marijuana and others narcotics. according to reuters, bangladesh has recently become the big market of drug (das, 2017). according to government, a record number of methamphetamine pills around 53 million were retrieved by the law enforcement officials in 2018 (gulf news, 2019). police officials of cox’s bazar were interviewed, while one of them said “the border region has been vulnerable for being used as the hub of drags trafficking. due to government’s anti -narcotics operations in mid of 2018, it had been limited, but for few days. now it turns into its own wave again” 1. however the anti-narcotics operation was accused of extrajudicial killing by amnesty international and other human rights organizations (gupta & pokharel, 2018). moreover the massive and unregulated influx of rohingyas make it difficult for the local administration to end this drug trafficking. rohigya young people are mostly unemployed. so it has been very easy for the local or global drug smugglers to abuse them into dr ug trafficking. 4.5. human trafficking rohingyas particularly child and women are at the eyes of human traffickers. according to police officials of cox’s bazar several groups are active in abduction of women and children and trafficking them into abroad particularly to middle east countries as slave and sex slave (al-jazeera, 2019). therefore sometimes the abductor also claims money instead of releasing kidnapped individuals. however, some recent incidents of kidnapping have added new tensions among the locals and travelers particularly to woman and children. tourists nowadays have alleged not to have enough security measures on spots. the accusation of abduction rate has also been increasing alarmingly (the independent, 2019). experts urge the government to take initiatives immediately unless the situation goes out of control. 4.6. robbery and hijacking according to police officials of cox’s bazar, at least 9 cases have been filed about robbery and hijacking against rohingyas till july 2019 since the 2017 while the recent influx has newly begun (khan, 2019). however, the robbery and hijacking are being increased rampantly due to lack of sufficient police patrolling, proper monitoring over the rohingyas movement and disproportionate grow of rohingyas across the town than the number of law enforcers. police recently identified some spots are considered danger zone of robbery and 1 the author took this interview from teknaf thana on 02/06/2019. however, the interviewed one was reluctant to expose his identity. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 236-249 244 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group hijacking. robbery and hijacking many times turn into causalities. many people alleged to get stabbed while they came under attack by the hijackers or robbers. thus, growing number of incidents have concerned locale as well as tourists to move freely or to stay outside at night. 4.7. insurgency threat in recent days it has seen a number of national and international terrorist outfits who became active in cox’s bazar. arakan rohingya salvation army (arsa) is one of the rakhain based leading terrorist organization. arsa has claimed responsibility of leading several attacks on military post and government installation of myanmar in rakhain. the recent ongoing military offensive has begun in response of those attacks. in recently, a large number of arsa members have been operative in bangladesh as many news media reported (alam, 2018). they are allegedly plotting terrorist attack on myanmar by using bangladesh land. the number of arsa operatives inside the rohingya camp as active is nearly 3500 as estimated (conrad, czimmek, & islam, 2019). pakistani taliban named ‘tehrik-e-taliban pakistan (ttp)’ has also declared to activate their base in bangladesh. a leader of ttp is seen recently urging the rakhain muslim to take arms against myanmar military. it also pledged to give all sort of assistance in terms of militancy training, arms and intelligence (abc news, 2015). in recent days al-qaeda also have conveyed bangladeshi muslim to get together and wage war against myanmar army (dhaka tribune, 2017). as well as different fundamentalist groups and opportunist networks are also allegedly trying to abuse rohingyas for pursuing thei r diverse political objectives. 4.8. crime acts on tourist spots many rohingyas in tourist spots are mostly involved with stealing and sweeping the accessories, luggage and precious goods of tourist while they find them unconscious. it is also happened while travelers are down to sea for swimming. it creates an environment of fear while the travelers need to be concerned about their accessories. such incidents of losing accessories and bags turn the tour into very undesirable and horrible of someone’s life. cox’s bazar hosts usually the tourists from across the world varied of social and cultural backgrounds. so, attire, dialects, appearances and behaviors have been varied in person to person. however, rohingya youngsters many times react very harshly with laugh at, ridicule and tease particularly the female travelers on beach. teasing, jeering, whistling and odd indications to girls in verbal and attitudinal forms have recently become common in cox’s bazaar. in most case the rohingyas particularly the youngsters are found involved with such crime which is considered as sexual harassment. many times, the harassment reached to danger level and ended up with rape and gang rape. many rohingyas including their child are seen begging for living hood. the begging strictly is prohibited since it creates an awkward situation at tourist spots. but by eluding the eyes of law enforcers many beggars are appeared at spots. many times, they seek financial help by catching up hands and legs, stretching cloths of tourists that seemed very awkward and embarrassing. 5. environmental cost cox’s bazar has witnessed a massive range of environmental damages including digging hills, rampant deforestation due to indiscriminate settlement of rohingyas which are breeding worst consequences over the environments. thus, environmental destruction has badly impacted and reasoned for the decline of scenic beauty, ecological imbalance and the spoiling of tourism friendly atmosphere in cox’s bazar. the number of tourists subsequently has fallen. the effects of such environmental destruction have also impacted the lifestyle, living conditions and livelihood of the local people. the dream city, cox’s bazar has been gradually turning into unlivable due to adverse environmental condition, mass congestion everywhere and excessive pollution. nowadays the life of biodiversity is also at risk due to repercussion of climate change. table-2. impact on forestry in teknaf and ukhiya upazilas. upazila land acquired lost forest assets created forest asset lost daily firewood nee (in camps) teknaf 125 acres tk. 50 core tk. 3 crore 50 tons us$ 6.0 million us$ 0.36 million ukhiya 5000 acres tk. 500 crore tk. 235 crore 650 tons us$ 60.2 million us$ 28.3 million source: prepared by undp based on forest department, cox’s bazar sadar (undp bangladesh (2018); (islam (2020). 5.1. deforestation according to cox’s bazar forest office, rohingyas have already cleared nearly 6125 acres forest land in ukhiya and teknaf where they set up their inhabitants. massive deforestation took place in order to meet growing need of firewood, furniture in addition to other daily needs. the cox’s bazar environment has been facing immense threat from the rohingyas, as the deforestation continues increasing. in the estimation of the forest office, the cost of the damage is around 788 crore tk. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 236-249 245 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 5.2. demolition of hills according to undp report of 2018, the half of hill forest has been already cleared in ukhiya and teknaf area. rohingyas indiscriminately cut down the trees for housing, collecting fire woods and in order to make furniture as well (undp, 2018). rohingyas also continue digging hills in order to facilitate the walkway and make the place convenient for their living. however, it results in large scale landslide and soil erosion. the deforestation has also created a huge backlash on the whole environment including impacts on biodiversity life and ecological balance. this results in natural calamities and climate change as well (huq, 2019). 5.3. ecosystem and biodiversity the biodiversity of cox’s bazar area is in threat due to large scale of deforestation. according to undp report of 2018, at least 28 factors are created for rohingyas, responsible for damaging the biodiversity in camp area. due to shortening of the forest area the wild elephant has entered into local area and inflicted a large number of casualties including at least 13 deaths and many more injures. however, a large number of unknown species are also at risk of being vanished due to wide range of deforestation (alam, 2018). 5.4. air and water pollution a large number of tube wells have been set up in order to meet the demand of water inside the rohingya camps. the aquifer of water has subsequently downed. it impacts upon the whole surface like diminishing the moisture of soil. the whole area has rapidly turned into barren. a very few trees actually can grow up in that area due to lack of moisture in soil. many people including ngo workers, visitors, volunteers, government officials, national and international personalities and law enforcement teams travel into rohingya camps almost every day. the smoke from excessive traffic, firewood, sometimes from burning forest along with excessive particles and stenches turns the whole area into uninhabitable. so many air borne diseases including cancer, influenza, chickenpox, tuberculosis tb, diphtheria, bronchitis and etc. have been widespread in those area in accordance of who in 2019 (who 2019). 5.5. mass inhabitants of rohingyas many rohingyas has moved away from campsite and set up tents on beaches and parks. some also make tents near the market place and beside road. some others also settled on the verge of hill that makes bad impact on local environment posing a threat of landslide. however, such large gatherings of rohingyas diminish the natural beauty in one side and on the other side have shrunk beach and tourist zone. 5.6. waste management more than 1.1 million rohingyas settled in ukhiya and teknaf, two sub districts of cox’s bazar have been producing a huge number of disposals and solid wastes (undp, 2018). the waste management has nearly been collapsed due to small capability of local authority compared to large quantity of disposals (hayes, 2019). this actually makes negative impacts on local community health. some limitations of that area have also pushed the problem into more trajectory including jeopardized and congested settlements, poor connectivity, unregulated dumping, inadequate space for communal pit, low level of sanitation knowledge and adjustment, poor infrastructure and technology as well as excessive rainfall (asad, khan, & zion, 2019). several disease including diphtheria, diarrhea, and dengue have been already spread out among rohingyas and community people as well. 5.7. epidemic virus and communicable diseases figure-8. number of reported dengue cases from camps for the week of 01 to 39 week in 2009, cox’s bazar. source: who. (2019). after having completed a research on rohingya camps for 37 weeks world health organization who reported to have at least 8 people confirmed of dengue patient and 33 people as suspects. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 236-249 246 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure -9. number of reported diphtheria cases from camps for the week of 01 to 39 week in 2009, cox’s bazar. source: who (2019). who (2019) demonstrates that the number of patients who has been confirmed of diphtheria disease is 306. therefore 2749 people are in danger level and 5714 people are also identified as suspected of this disease. therefore, the figure illustrates a clear rise of the disease in last two weeks among 37 weeks of observation. however, at the same time it has found 6189 diarrheal cases among which 4615 cases were identified with acute watery diarrhea (awd), 385 cases were bloody diarrhea and 1189 cases were reported to suffer another diarrhea (who, 2019). 6. impacts on tourism 6.1. security warnings from different embassy large exodus of rohingyas into bangladesh and unchecked mobilization of them across the country particularly towards tourist spots has grown wide range of insecurity and fear among tourists who has come mainly from across the world including inside and outside of the country. bangladesh based different embassy and high commissions including us embassy dhaka (2019) and uk (2019) warned their citizen to stay cautious during travel. the increasing number of crime activities in cox’s bazar area was mainly responsible for making these warnings. 6.2. declining trend of tourism contribution to bangladesh national gdp figure-10. tourism contribution to bangladesh national gdp. source: world travel and tourism council data (2019); world data atlas (2019). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 236-249 247 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-3. tourism contribution to bangladesh national gdp. year value (%) change (%) 2020 4.38 6.83 2019 4.39 7.56 2018 4.39 11.38 2017 4.25 8.23 2016 4.21 2.35 2015 4.41 5.52 2014 4.45 10.28 2013 4.28 4.45 2012 4.34 9.42 2011 4.23 -4.22 2010 4.70 8.04 2009 4.59 -4.69 2008 5.06 7.18 2007 5.01 7.03 source: world travel and tourism council data (2019); world data atlas (2019). figure 10 and table 3 illustrates the declining rate of tourism revenue since 2008 when it was at the highest level around 5.1% of total gdp. the fall of tourism contribution to gdp has begun latter although having some ups and downs. in 2015 the tourism contribution to gdp was nearly 4.4% that had overthrown sharply to 4.2% in 2017. in 2018 the revenue had been slightly increased reaching to 4.4%. therefore in 2019, the growth rate has slightly decreased and that has continued until 2020. however according to world travel and tourism council report 2018, bangladesh stood at 161 in terms of tourism contribution to national gdp across the world. according to world economic forum report 2019, bangladesh stood 120th in terms of global travel and tourism competitiveness index 2019 (ttci) while it has scored 3.1 (calderwood & soshkin, 2019). 7. conducive factors for rohingyas to commit crime rohingyas are seen creating threat elements in cox’s bazar security situation due to having some conducive elements on the ground. the first reason is identification problem. the behavior, appearance, lingual feature and others identification features are mostly similar with local community. so, it is difficult for law enforcers to detect rohingyas while they get merged with local community. the fake documents are also creating the identification more problematic. in recent time, rohingyas are found bearing bangladeshi national id card and passport to travel abroad particularly to middle eastern countries. however, many times they get involved with crime and were detained. but unfortunately, the defamation has been carried out by bangladesh due to their carrying bangladeshi passport and identity. it has been spreading discredit of bangladeshi across the world. rohingyas mainly collected the passport and id card which were retrieved from them recently through forgery. thus, it also makes threat for the national security. the second most concerning aspect is hired crime. bangladesh due to having political tensions, disunity and criminalized structure increases the risk from rohingyas. a large number of unemployed rohingya youths are particularly identified as mostly vulnerable to be abused in pursuing political aims. the global terror outfits have recently declared to extend their activities by equipping rohingya youths. it is very possible to be abused by such terror network as the ground for leading militancy across the region. social exclusion is the third essential factors that provokes the situation more crime prone. the uncertainty of the living space, unaffordability of basic needs including food, health, security, disadvantaged housing conditions and low life expectancy are deepening the social exclusion among rohingyas (abdullah, basharat, & kamal, 2012). the social exclusion negates the values of humanity, social interaction, bondages and communication. rohingyas in somewhat can be said having less sensitivity to the human feelings and emotions that turn them into brutality and disgrace activities (waddington, 2000). so, the tendency of doing crime has been increased and the fear of punishment simultaneously has been decreased (uk essays, 2018). lack of proper parenting is also accounted for inciting the rohingya child to crime. parenting is a crucial step for a child to build its personality and social behavior. in according to kevin n. wright and karen e. wright, the child is highly at vulnerable of being involved at crime in absence of their father. paternal direction, inspiration, and encouragement to child have been considered the basic tenets of shaping the child personality (dina, christopher, travis, & satenik, 2004). the father in most case has been the iconic figure to their child. the maternal affection offers child the virtues of love, conscience, compassion and fairness. the child has risk of being arrogant and brutal in absence of their mother (popenoe, 1996). however, a large number of rohingya children has been rearing up at orphanage or in camp particularly who lost their parents or any of them. in many times the rohigya parents are also even unable to do well parenting of their child due to uncertainty of living space and condition, inadequate knowledge, insecurity of basic needs and lack of consistency in lifestyle. 8. recommendation after having a rigorous analysis and scrutiny of cox’s bazar situation, the study has reached some probable recommendations or measures which are thought to improve the situation. the first measure is imposing strict supervision on rohingya people inside and outside of the refugee camp. government though has deployed army in order to halt their exit from camp. however, deployme nt of army is considered as a great development but not enough. another law enforcement agencies and government intelligence should have great involvement. in such effort the inclusion of local expert and community people in building security management is immensely needed. in most case the law enforcement team can't distinguish the rohingyas from local community for having common appearance and lingual asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 236-249 248 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group feature. so the involvement of local people can facilitate the process in an effective way. overall a nat ional task force is also needed to make better coordination of all efforts by the government and non-government organizations with a view to preventing all forms of security threat from rohingyas. the second measure should be organizing seminar, symposium & interactive public session in order to grow the consciousness and knowledge among general people regarding the problems created by rohingyas and its impacts. the people should also be kept in touch for having better coordination in implementing the preventive measures taken by the law enforcers, ngos and local administration. the third step should be taken to prevent the deforestation of hill forest and forest area. it also requires replanting a large number of tress in forest area which has been already cleared by the rohingyas. government should take concrete measure to save the environment and forest from being demolished further. the involvement of local people should be encouraged in order to resist massive deforestation through organizing social movement. the last measure is strengthening the tourist police with increasing manpower, advanced equipment and training facilities. it is alleged by the tourists and businessman of not having enough security personnel at the ground. the authority also admitted the problem as there is shortage of manpower. at the same time, the training facility for the tourist police is also poor. so, the increase of tourist police with offering proper training is imperative. 9. conclusion tourism, the most potential economic sector of bangladesh, which contributed 4.4% value to national gdp in 2019 has now hampered by the unchecked migration of rohingya refugees into cox’s bazar. nationals and foreigners more than hundred thousand travelers come usually into cox’s bazaar every year. but recently the number of tourists in cox’s bazaar has been reduced disproportionately. this has badly impacted the tourism and its associated more than one million people’s life. this article mainly explored the problematic scenario of cox’s bazaar which is mainly attributed due to unrestraint exodus of rohingya refugees. the article clearly demonstrated different types of crime like murdering, smuggling, robbery, hijacking, rape, attempted rape and narcotics which have been growing rapidly in cox’s bazar area. rohingyas currently are seen infiltrating into different tourist spots and committing some spot crimes like snatching luggage and accessories, harassing women, creating chaos and treating tourist badly on beach and other spots as a regular basis. environment is being also spoilt by wide range of deforestation and digging of hills. rohignyas’ makeshifts on beach and spots are attributed to spoiling the scenic beauty of that area. who has recently reported the outbreak of some communicable diseases like, diphtheria, dengue, diarrhea and aids in rohingya camps and neighboring local area insecurity, declining scenic beauty, outbreak of disease and unintended chaos are creating disinterest among tourists from domestic and abroad, push them to go to alternative tourist hubs including india, nepal, thailand and singapore. government officials, businessmen, and nearly 1 million people who are directly or indirectly associated to tourism for their livelihood expressed their disappointment and distress. it is a precaution from the expert community to stop such actions by immediate measure. a large effort is also needed to rebuild the confidence of tourists regarding security conditions of cox’s bazar. otherwise it predicts to face fresh overthrow in tourism revenue of cox’s bazar. references abc news. 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licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 12, no. 3, 59-68, 2025 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v12i3.7427 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group promotion and employees' performance at university of abuja: the moderating role of employees’ belief that fairness in decisions of promotions motivates employees’ performance innocent uchechukwu duru1 millicent adanne eze2 iyaji danjuma3 emmanuel ejike odeh4 ojo toluwalashe favour5 ( corresponding author) 1department of economics, rhema university nigeria, aba, abia state, nigeria. 1email: iud3x@yahoo.com 2school of business, law and social sciences, abertay university, dundee, united kingdom. 2email: ezemillicent@gmail.com 3department of economics, nigerian army university, biu, borno state, nigeria. 3email: danjumaiyaji@gmail.com 4department of political science, rhema university nigeria, aba, abia state, nigeria. 4email: odeson_son@yahoo.com 5ado-ekiti state university, ekiti state, nigeria. 5email: ojotoluwalashe1995@gmail.com abstract this study examined how promotions at the university of abuja affected workers' performance, using workers' perceptions that fairness in promotion decisions drives workers' output as a moderating factor. both primary and secondary sources of data were utilized in the investigation. descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and the partial least squares structural equation modeling technique were employed for the study. the findings indicated that when employees perceived that fairness in promotion decisions motivated them to perform better, the influence of promotions on their performance was positive and significant. additionally, the mediation analysis revealed that when employees believed that fairness in promotion decisions motivated their performance, promotions had a favorable and significant impact on their performance, although this was only a partial mediation. the overall results demonstrated that promotions significantly and positively impacted workers' performance. the study recommended that the university of abuja administration should prioritize equity in promotion processes to enhance employee performance. furthermore, to support employees in meeting promotion requirements, the university's management must ensure impartiality in promotion decisions. keywords: confirmatory factor analysis, employee performance, exploratory factor analysis, partial least squares structural equation modelling, promotion, university of abuja. citation | duru, i. u., eze, m. a., danjuma, i., odeh, e. e., & favour, o. t. (2025). promotion and employees’ performance at university of abuja: the moderating role of employees’ belief that fairness in decisions of promotions motivates employees’ performance. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 12(3), 59–68. 10.20448/ajssms.v12i3.7427 history: received: 28 may 2025 revised: 25 august 2025 accepted: 9 september 2025 published: 16 september 2025 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the study involved minimal risk and followed ethical guidelines for social science fieldwork. formal approval from an institutional review board was not required under the policies of university of abuja, nigeria. informed verbal consent was obtained from all participants, and all data were anonymized to protect participant confidentiality. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 60 2. theoretical framework and empirical issues ........................................................................................................................... 60 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 61 4. results and discussions .................................................................................................................................................................. 62 5. conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................... 67 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 67 mailto:iud3x@yahoo.com mailto:ezemillicent@gmail.com mailto:danjumaiyaji@gmail.com mailto:odeson_son@yahoo.com mailto:ojotoluwalashe1995@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v12i3.7427 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8958-0686 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2951-4027 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0275-6608 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5630-2575 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(3): 59-68 60 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study was the first to investigate the modulating effect of employees' belief that fairness in promotion decisions motivates employees' performance, specifically examining the impact of promotion on employees' performance at the university of abuja. 1. introduction studies on organizational behavior and human resource management have focused on how promotions influence worker performance. according to lazear (1992), promotions are regarded as a vital component of career advancement and serve as a primary motivator for employees to enhance their performance. promotions, as noted by pergamit and veum (1999), play a crucial role in increasing employee performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. conversely, folger and konovsky (1989) argued that the effectiveness of promotions in motivating employees depends on various factors, including perceived fairness in the promotion process. one significant factor that can limit the relationship between promotion and employee performance is employees' perception that fairness in promotion decisions influences performance. according to the equity hypothesis, workers perceive equity when they believe their contributions and efforts are valued and appropriately compensated (adams, 1965). according to greenberg (1987), employees are more likely to perform better if they believe that the requirements for promotions are fair and clear. however, cropanzano and randall (1993) contended that demotivation and poorer performance occur when employees perceive the promotion process as unjust or biased. fair promotions can boost employees' enthusiasm and performance in the fiercely competitive and dynamic academic environment, where workers either succeed or fail, become prominent or disappear. conversely, unethical promotion practices lead to lower morale, disengagement, and turnover. the study's findings will shed light on the circumstances under which promotions at the university of abuja are most successful in raising employee performance. furthermore, this study is essential since promotion equity is a metric used to evaluate the performance and motivation of university-educated staff. duru, eze, yusuf, danjuma, and saleh (2023) stated that in developing and developed economies, promotion acts as a veritable instrument for self-development, the attainment of workers' satisfaction, the development of the spirit of competition, reduction of workers' turnover, the attraction of skilled and industrious individuals, and the realization of optimal performance from the workforce (p. 2). no wonder (tilahun, 2019) stated that "the loss of employees represents a loss of skills, knowledge, and experiences which can create a significant economic impact and cost to the organization as well as impacting the needs of customers" (p. 4). previous research on promotions mostly examined the connection between promotions and worker performance (ansah, 2017; duru et al., 2023; hidig, 2014; ligare, wanyama, & aliata, 2020; muhati & makhamara, 2023; njiraine, 2019; nyaga & omuya, 2024; owota & raimi, 2022; peter, 2014; ratemo, bula, & felistus, 2021; razak, sarpan, & ramlan, 2018; rinny, purba, & handiman, 2020; rochaeni, ludiin, & ramly, 2019; salsa & dewi, 2024; setyawati, woelandari, & rianto, 2022; tasman, siregar, & nasution, 2021; winoto, surati, & wahyulina, 2021). furthermore, there were not many studies that looked at the relationship between employee performance and promotions with a moderating element (arisaq, rivai, & lukito, 2023; irawan, briggs, azami, & nurfaliza, 2021; izudin, suharto, & sanusi, 2024; lumbanraja, haryono, & njotowidjojo, 2024; nurteja, lumbanraja, & absah, 2022; trihudiyatmanto & maesaroh, 2023; vasudevan & kumar, 2024). once more, none of this research examined how promotions affect workers' performance using the intervening variable that workers believe fairness in promotion decisions drives workers' performance. furthermore, none of the research was conducted in nigeria. as a result, little is known about the relationship between promotions and employee performance at the university of abuja, with employees' perceptions that fairness in promotion decisions serve as a moderating factor. employees' perception that fairness in promotion decisions drives employee performance at the university of abuja will be used in this study to investigate the impact of promotions on employee performance. the issue to be addressed is how employees' perceptions of fairness in promotion decisions influence their performance in the relationship between promotions and performance at the university of abuja. this study will contribute to the literature by investigating, for the first time, the modulating effect of employees' belief that fairness in decisions of promotions motivates employees' performance on the effect of promotion on employees' performance at the university of abuja. four sections make up the remainder of this work. the theoretical foundation and literature review are covered in the second section. section three covers the methodology. section four concentrates on results and discussions, while section five focuses on the conclusion and suggestions. 2. theoretical framework and empirical issues the study's theoretical underpinning will be the expectation theory. this hypothesis serves as the prism through which the impact of promotions on workers' performance will be examined, taking into account the moderating influence of workers' perceptions that fairness in promotion decisions inspires work. the expectancy theory highlights how employees' performance and motivation are impacted by their belief that their efforts will lead to desired results, such as promotions. when compared to employees who did not obtain promotions, those who did will have higher performance levels. employees' perceptions of fairness moderate the link between the two variables of interest. therefore, when workers feel that fairness in promotion decisions inspires performance, the relationship between promotion and employee performance is greater. three points of view form the basis of the theory. these are expectation, instrumentality (the conviction that performance will result in a particular outcome), and valence (attractiveness). valence is the term used to describe the emotional tendencies that people associate with results (rewards). it also conveys the seriousness of an employee's need for intrinsic (like job satisfaction) or extrinsic (like money, promotions, time off, benefits, etc.) rewards. therefore, management must determine the values of the employees. valence measures the significance of the awards that employees receive for their achievements. this concept can be used in many areas of the workplace, from hiring to identifying what drives specific workers. that being said, vroom (1964) contended that expectation is the belief that a specific behavior will lead to a desired consequence. by giving employees clear expectations, feedback, and recognition, promotions can boost their motivation and increase the valence of desired results. according to the expectation theory, employees are more motivated when they perceive a clear connection between performance, effort, and reward (vroom, 1964). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(3): 59-68 61 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group this study assessed studies that looked at the association between employee performance and promotion using a moderating variable. this was predicated on the fact that no study examined how promotions affected workers' performance using workers' perceptions that fairness in promotion decisions drives workers' performance as an intervening variable. at the food, agriculture, and fisheries department of wonosobo regency, trihudiyatmanto and maesaroh (2023) employed the partial least squares (pls) structural equation modelling (sem) methodology to investigate the relationship between job promotion and employee performance, with job satisfaction acting as a moderating factor. data for the study were gathered through questionnaires and interviews with 121 employees. the findings showed that work performance was positively impacted by job promotion and job satisfaction. furthermore, lumbanraja et al. (2024) employed the pls-sem technique to examine the impact of training and promotion sessions on worker productivity at reliance insurance indonesia, controlling for motivation. the findings demonstrated that staff productivity was positively impacted by training and promotions. additionally, productivity was positively impacted by motivation. furthermore, the relationship between productivity and training is mediated by motivation. using job satisfaction as a mediating factor, vasudevan and kumar (2024) investigated the relationship between employee performance, pay, recognition, appreciation, and promotions. the study employed the pls-sem approach. the results showed that employee performance was positively impacted by pay, work satisfaction, promotion, recognition, and appreciation. in a similar vein, nurteja et al. (2022) used the sem methodology to examine how internal promotions and job placements affected pt.x employees' work loyalty and performance. the results showed that employee loyalty was positively impacted by job placement. employee performance was positively impacted by employee loyalty as well. additionally, job placement and internal promotions have no bearing on employees' performance. through work loyalty, the employee's placement had a positive impact on their loyalty. izudin et al. (2024) employed a quantitative approach to investigate how job discipline and promotion affected workers' job happiness and performance at pt. bank capital indonesia's tbk branch kuningan tower. the results demonstrated that work discipline and job promotion had a partial impact on employee performance. furthermore, the association between work discipline and job promotion cannot be mediated by employee satisfaction. according to the reviewed literature, no study examined how promotions affected workers' performance using the intervening variable that workers believe fairness in promotion decisions drives workers' performance. additionally, there were a few studies that looked at other moderating factors in the relationship between employee performance and promotions. these investigations were conducted in other nations. the majority of the investigations used the plssem approach. nigeria was not the site of any of these investigations. however, this study was informed by the lack of research on how promotions affect workers' performance in nigeria using a moderating variable. by examining the impact of promotions on university of abuja employees' performance and using the employees' perception that fairness in promotion decisions drives employee performance as an intervening variable, this study aims to close this gap. 2.1. hypotheses these hypotheses were tested for direct effects as follows: h01: the university rewards excellence in performance through a promotion system; it does not affect employees’ performance. h02: promotion does not affect employees’ performance. h03: the university rewards excellence in performance through a promotion system that does not mediate the relationship between promotion and employees’ performance. 3. methodology the research design employed in this study was descriptive. the university of abuja served as the site of the study. the population consisted of 2,145 employees of the university of abuja, including 1,505 non-academic staff members and 640 academic staff members. the yamane (1967) formula was used to determine the sample size, resulting in a sample size of 337 based on the calculation. stratified random sampling was the technique used for sampling in this investigation. this method involved randomly selecting employees from each stratum in proportion to their representation in the overall population, ensuring that the sample accurately reflected the population's composition. consequently, the sample sizes for each stratum closely matched their respective population sizes. utilizing this technique minimized bias in population parameter estimation and enhanced the representativeness of the sample, thereby increasing the reliability of the study findings. for the investigation, proportionate stratified random sampling was used. a proportionate stratified sample would preserve the population's 30/70 percent divide between academics and non-academics. academic staff received 337/2145 * 640 = 101 for each stratum, whereas non-academic staff received 337/2145 * 1505 = 236. to reach a sample size of 337 employees, 101 and 236 individuals were selected from the academic and non-academic personnel, respectively. a structured questionnaire was used as the data collection tool. each construct was given a five-point likert scale, with 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 denoting strongly disagree, disagree, uncertain, agree, and strongly agree, respectively. promotion was measured using the eight promotion practice items adopted from krivokapic-skoko, o'neill, and dowell (2009). however, we adopted 11 duru et al. (2023) items to gauge employee performance. when compared to other employee performance indicators with correlation values of 0.8 or less, investment in research had the highest loading value; hence, it was used to measure it out of the 11 indicators. partial least squares structural equation modelling (pls-sem) and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. the frequency distribution, mean, and percentages were the descriptive statistics employed in the data analysis. the presence of unique items from the promotion practices construct was ascertained using exploratory factor analysis (efa). the association between observed variables and their underlying latent constructs was also examined using confirmatory factor analysis (cfa). to ensure the dependability of the study tool, cronbach's alpha dependability test was used. data analysis was conducted using jamovi version 2.6.44, jasp version 0.19.3, and the statistical package for social sciences (spss) version 25. the study adhered to research ethics principles, including respondents' voluntary involvement, anonymity, confidentiality, integrity, and the right to privacy. throughout this inquiry, ethical standards such as secrecy, honesty, anonymity, and the respondents' right to privacy were upheld. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(3): 59-68 62 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4. results and discussions three hundred of the surveys that were given to the participants were recovered. this indicates an 89% response rate and an 11% non-response rate, respectively. employee performance metrics and the promotion procedures construct both had cronbach's alpha reliability values of 0.969 and 0.869, respectively. these figures demonstrated the instrument's dependability. for the entire instrument, a cronbach's alpha score of 0.932 was achieved. for data analysis, these coefficients were judged to be trustworthy. table 1 displays the demographic data. table 1. demographic information. variable items frequency percentage (%) type of staff academic staff 220 73.3 non-academic staff 80 26.7 total 300 100.0 number of years worked less than 5 years 40 13.3 6-10 years 49 16.3 11-15 years 116 38.7 16-20 years 29 9.7 21-25 years 40 13.3 26 years and above 26 8.7 total 300 100.0 marital status married 225 75 single 75 25 widowed 0 0.0 separated 0 0.0 never married 0 0.0 divorced 0 0.0 engaged to be married 0 0.0 total 300 100.0 gender male 235 78.3 female 65 21.7 total 300 100.0 age 21-25 years 4 1.3 26-30 years 41 13.7 31-35 years 124 41.3 36 40 years 14 4.7 41-45 years 42 14.0 46-50 years 15 5.0 51-55 years 45 15 56-60 years 15 5.0 61-65 years 0 0.0 66-70 years 0 0.0 total 300 100.0 education no education 0 0.0 primary education 0 0.0 secondary education 16 5.3 polytechnic education 12 4.0 tertiary education 272 90.7 total 300 100.0 source: field survey, 2022. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(3): 59-68 63 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 2. effects of promotion practices at the university of abuja. code opinion strongly agree (x5) agree (x4) undecided (x3) disagree (x2) strongly disagree (x1) sum mean std. dev. rank prp1 the university provides clear and consistent requirements for promotion. 275 424 174 88 37 998 3.33 1.28 1st prp2 the university treats you fairly and equitably with regard to promotion. 50 500 150 136 47 883 2.94 1.19 2nd prp3 the university is fair and equitable in its treatment of management. 45 252 177 210 64 748 2.49 1.13 4th prp4 the university provides opportunities for career development. 190 116 126 212 85 729 2.43 1.33 5th prp5 the university supports ongoing professional development. 245 92 102 86 151 676 2.25 1.53 7th prp6 the university provides promotional opportunities. 215 128 96 44 171 654 2.18 1.54 8th prp7 the university acknowledges the long hours you devote to work. 45 344 126 238 44 797 2.66 1.13 3rd prp8 the university rewards excellence in performance through a promotion system. 45 360 99 70 133 707 2.36 1.38 6th note: prp denotes promotion practices. source: field survey, 2022. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(3): 59-68 64 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 1 presents the respondents' background characteristics. it was found that academic staff comprised 220 respondents, or 73.3%. conversely, 80 respondents, or 26.7%, were non-academic staff members. it was observed that 116 respondents, or 38.7%, have spent 11–15 years working at the university of abuja. the remaining portion, or 61.3%, was distributed among those with less than five years, six to ten years, eleven to fifteen years, sixteen to twenty years, twenty-one to twenty-five years, and twenty-six or more years of service. regarding marital status, 75 respondents, or 25%, were single, while 225 respondents, or 75%, were married. however, those who were widowed, separated, divorced, never married, and engaged to be married all received an equal amount of 0 or 0%. according to the results, 235 respondents, or 78.3% of the sample, were men, and the remaining 65 respondents, or 21.7% of the sample, were women. additionally, the plurality of respondents 124, or 41.3% were between the ages of 31 and 35. on the other hand, 58.7% of the remaining respondents were in the following age groups: 21–25, 26–30, 36–40, 41–45, 46–50, 51–55, and 56–60 years past the age of sixty. regarding education, university education was held by 272 respondents, or 90.7%. furthermore, 16 respondents, or 5.3%, had completed secondary school. nonetheless, 12 respondents, or 4%, held a polytechnic degree. a 5-point likert scale questionnaire was used to assess the efficacy of the university of abuja's promotion strategies (see table 2). promotion was measured using eight items adopted from krivokapic-skoko et al. (2009). the respondents were asked to rate their degree of agreement with the university of abuja's promotion practices. the decision-making benchmark was the average of a five-point rating system (3.00). the opinion was considered to be in agreement if the mean value was ≥ 3.00. conversely, the opinion was considered unpopular if the mean value was less than 3.00. according to the responses, the university offers uniform and transparent advancement standards. it was the only promotion construct factor with a mean score higher than 3.00 and was ranked first. however, the respondents acknowledged that the university of abuja's remaining promotion strategies were ineffective. the fact that these promotion practices were ranked below the mean score of 3.00 further supports this conclusion. table 3. results of exploratory factor analysis. code construct and observed factors loadings eigenvalues percentage of variance cronbach’s alpha construct: promotion practices 0.869 prp1 the university provides clear and consistent requirements for promotion. 0.713 4.199 52.483 prp2 the university treats you fairly and equitably with regard to promotion. 0.786 2.239 27.988 prp3 the university is fair and equitable in its treatment of management. 0.856 0.67 8.372 prp4 the university provides opportunities for career development. 0.851 0.292 3.645 prp5 the university supports ongoing professional development. 0.79 0.279 3.482 prp6 the university provides promotional opportunities. 0.779 0.157 1.963 prp7 the university acknowledges the long hours you devote to work. 0.405 0.124 1.554 prp8 the university rewards excellence in performance through a promotion system. 0.47 0.041 0.514 total variance explained by promotion practices 100 table 3 displays the efa result. promotional practices were not rejected in any way. the factors as a whole demonstrated strong internal dependability and were approved for further examination. bartlett's test of sphericity reached statistical significance (ꭔ2 2304.44, p<0.0000) based on bartlett (1954), and the kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) index was 0.754, above the suggested value of 0.6, specified by kaiser (1970), suggesting that the data were appropriate for factor analysis. the initial analysis's findings showed that two factors, each accounting for 52.48% and 27.99% of the variance, had eigenvalues greater than 1. the relevance of the bartlett test of sphericity further emphasized the value of factor analysis. however, due to multicollinearity issues, this study only used components of the promotion construct with correlation coefficients of 0.8 or less. therefore, when compared to other indicators of the promotion construct, prp1, prp2, prp3, prp4, prp6, and prp8 were the only components with correlation coefficients of 0.8 or less. as a result, prp5 and prp7 were excluded and not recommended for further examination. table 4. results of exploratory factor analysis. code construct and observed factors loadings eigenvalues percentage of variance cronbach’s alpha construct: employees’ performance 0.969 ep1 quality services 0.77 8.52 77.454 ep2 effectiveness 0.85 0.985 8.952 ep3 service delivery 0.884 0.427 3.88 ep4 productivity 0.918 0.291 2.643 ep5 mental production (decisions) 0.75 0.228 2.077 ep6 return to government 0.891 0.146 1.323 ep7 investment in research 0.902 0.117 1.063 ep8 web ranking 0.902 0.104 0.947 ep9 task done 0.931 0.082 0.749 ep10 observable action 0.931 0.061 0.558 ep11 rate of innovation 0.931 0.039 0.355 total variance explained by employees’ performance 100 note: ep denotes employees’ performance for the factors. to determine the number of elements that best represent the data, an efa was performed on eleven employee performance indicators in table 4. but none of its components were disapproved of. every component showed strong asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(3): 59-68 65 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group internal dependability. a check was performed to ensure that minimum requirements were met and that there was a moderate amount of correlation between the variables. bartlett's test of sphericity gained statistical significance (ꭔ2 4800.98, p<0.0000) based on bartlett (1954), and the kmo index was 0.924, above the suggested value of 0.6, stated by kaiser (1970), suggesting that the data were appropriate for factor analysis. the first analysis's findings showed that one factor, accounting for 77.45% of the variance, had eigenvalues greater than 1. the bartlett test of sphericity's significance further demonstrated that factor analysis was appropriate. however, due to the issue of multicollinearity, this analysis only included components of the employee performance construct with correlation values of 0.8 or below. therefore, when compared to other measures of employee performance, only ep5, ep6, and ep7 had correlation coefficients of 0.8 or below. consequently, ep5, ep6, and ep7 were recommended for additional analysis, while the remaining components of employee performance were removed. however, in contrast to ep5 and ep6, ep7, which represents research investment and had loading values of 0.902, was used as a stand-in for employee performance in the mediation analysis. 4.1. results of confirmatory factor analysis as shown in table 5, the significance of the p-values for the items of the employees' performance construct and promotion practices construct demonstrated that the items loaded onto the corresponding factors and measured what they were intended to measure. the estimate indicated the factor loadings. employee performance and promotion practices have cronbach's alpha values of 0.969 and 0.869, respectively. they fall within the permissible range. factor loadings or the standardized estimates exceeded 0.5. no factor needed to be eliminated to conduct further analysis. to evaluate the standardized factor loadings, the composite reliability (cr) for employee performance and promotion practices was calculated. a cr of at least 0.7 is considered acceptable. as a result, the promotion practices and employee performance scores of 1.00 and 1.03 were deemed good. likewise, the average variance extracted (ave) for employee performance and promotion practices was 1.19 and 1.06, respectively. since the minimal ave was 0.5, the data were deemed acceptable. therefore, there is strong convergent validity between employee performance and promotion practices. 4.2. results of the structural model table 6 evaluated the fit indices. figure 1 illustrates the connection between employees’ performance and promotion practices. there is a connection between the two latent variables. the performance of employees is correlated with their indicators. additionally, the elements of promotion practices are linked to it. to determine whether employee performance and promotion practices align with the data, we will evaluate the fit indices. the chisquare statistic's outcome was not as expected; it was significant. the likely explanation for this result is that sample size has a significant impact on chi-square. the chi-square is more likely to be significant if the sample size is large. for this reason, we look at fit indices other than the chi-square. therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that there is strong convergent validity between employee performance and promotion methods. a satisfactory fit was indicated by the cfi value of 0.99. it indicates that the model can replicate 99 percent of the covariation in the data. the rmsea value of 0.17 was not good. a good match is indicated by a tli value of 0.98. the value of the srmr was 0.09. the better the model, the lower the srmr. although our value was low, it was not as expected. based on standardized residuals, the srmr is the average difference between the model's actual and projected variance and covariance. if the model fits well, the chi-square value shouldn't be significant. the discrepancy between the estimated and actual covariance matrices in the model increases with the chi-square value. thus, our model did not fit well. table 5. results of construct reliability and validity tests. construct estimate cronbach’s alpha cr ave p-value emp 1.00-1.15 0.969 1.03 1.19 < 0.001 prp 0.75-1.14 0.869 1.00 1.06 < 0.001 figure 1. structural model for study constructs. note: unstandardized estimate. source: extract from jamovi output. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(3): 59-68 66 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 6. assessment of fit indices. fit indices rule results ꭔ2 97.6 ꭔ2 p-value should be non-significant < 0.01 cfi should be at least 0.90; ideally 0.95 0.99 tli should be at least 0.90; ideally 0.95 0.98 rmsea should be less < 0.08 0.17 srmr should be less < 0.08 0.09 source: extract from jamovi output. where: ꭔ2=chi-square value. cfi=comparative fit index. tli=tucker-lewis index. rmsea=root mean square error of approximation. spmr=standard root mean square residual. emp = employees' performance for latent variable. prp=promotion practices. figure 2. path plot for effect of promotion on employees' performance mediated by employees' perception that fairness in decisions of promotions boosts employees' performance. 4.3. to decide between full or partial mediation 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∝= 0.27, 𝛽 = 0.3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑 = 0.37 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 decision rule: 𝑎. 𝐼𝑓 𝜃 =∝ 𝛽 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏. 𝐼𝑓 𝜃 =∝ 𝛽 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑 ≠ 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒, 0.27 ∗ 0.3 = 0.081 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0.37 ≠ 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 the indirect effect, also known as the mediation effect, is composed of the coefficients in the correlations between prp3 and prp8 and between prp8 and ep7. multiplying 0.27 and 0.3 in figure 2 or 0.297 and 0.273 in table 6, which show the movement from prp8 to ep7 and prp3 to prp8 in the path coefficient data, yields the coefficient of the indirect impact or mediation effect. error values on the path diagram are present but are not shown in the tables. table 7. results of path coefficients. path β std. error confidence interval z p-value lower upper prp8 ep7 0.297 0.091 0.107 0.468 3.255 0.001 prp3 ep7 0.367 0.090 0.178 0.528 4.062 <0.001 prp3 prp8 0.273 0.095 0.082 0.450 2.877 0.004 note: estimator is ml. ml is maximum likelihood. standardized estimate. source: extract from jasp output. table 8. results of tested hypotheses. hypotheses decision h1, h2 and h3 rejected the null hypothesis source: extract from jasp output. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(3): 59-68 67 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 8 shows the outcomes of the hypothesis that was tested. based on statistical evidence, the null hypothesis was disproved in every instance. the university's promotion system had a positive and significant effect on employees’ performance. in addition, the results showed that promotion had a positive and significant effect on employees’ performance. this outcome is consistent with trihudiyatmanto and maesaroh (2023) and vasudevan and kumar (2024) submissions. nevertheless, it runs counter to nurteja et al. (2022)'s arguments. table 7 provided the information on which the first two hypotheses were founded. furthermore, the university rewards excellence in performance through a promotion system that mediates the relationship between promotion and employees' performance. table 9. effect of promotion on employees’ performance. variable estimate std. error p-value outcome variable: emp prp 0.695 0.066 < 0.001 source: extract from jasp output. table 9 reports the variables' direct impact on workers' performance. the findings demonstrated that promotions had a positive and significant impact on workers' performance. table 10. results of mediation analysis. effect path β std. error confidence interval z p-value conclusion lower upper total prp3 ep7 0.448 0.080 0.291 0.605 5.606 <0.001 not applicable indirect prp3 prp8 ep7 0.081 0.036 0.011 0.151 2.253 0.024 partial direct prp3 ep7 0.367 0.083 0.204 0.530 4.420 <0.001 not applicable note: standardized estimate. source: extract from jasp output. where: ep7=proxy for employees' performance based on efa loadings. prp3 = proxy for promotion based on efa loadings. prp8=proxy for employees' perception that fairness in decisions of promotions boosts employees performance. table 10 presents the mediation analysis's findings. the results of the direct effect demonstrate that when employees believe that fairness in promotion decisions motivates employees' performance, the effect of promotions on employees’ performance is positive and significant. the findings suggest that workers' perceptions of fairness in promotion decisions encourage them to perform better, which in turn improves their overall performance. additionally, the indirect effect or mediation effect indicates that promotion has a positive and significant effect on employees’ performance when mediated by employees’ belief that fairness in promotion decisions motivates employees’ performance. this finding implies that there would be a stronger correlation between promotions and employee performance if workers believed that decisions about promotions were fair. the mediation hypothesis is supported by this. therefore, the relationship between promotions and employee performance is mediated by employees' perception that fairness in promotion decisions motivates employees' performance. it was only a partial mediation, though. hence, there is a partial mediation of the university rewards excellence in performance through a promotion system on the relationship between promotion and employees’ performance. partial mediation may imply that promotions influence employee performance and that employees' perceptions of fairness in promotion decisions inspire them to perform better. it might also indicate that there are additional, hidden factors that mediate the relationship between employee performance and promotions. additionally, the total effect's findings demonstrated that promotions significantly and positively impacted workers' performance. because employees believe that fairness in promotions motivates employees' performance, this result suggests that the relationship between promotions and employees’ performance has significantly increased. 5. conclusion and recommendations the findings of the mediation analysis demonstrated that the direct effect of promotions on workers' performance was positive and significant when mediated by workers' perceptions that fairness in promotion decisions inspires workers' performance. additionally, the indirect effect or mediation effect result showed that when employees believe that fairness in promotion decisions motivates employees' performance, promotions have a positive and significant impact on employees’ performance. the mediation hypothesis is supported by this. it was only a partial mediation, though. as a result, the university partially mediates the relationship between promotion and employee performance by rewarding excellence in performance through a promotion system. additionally, the total effect's findings demonstrated that promotions significantly and positively impacted workers' performance. the results of the tested hypothesis demonstrated that the university's rewards for excellence in performance through a promotion system had a positive and significant effect on employees' performance. furthermore, the findings demonstrated that promotions significantly and positively impacted workers' performance. additionally, the university rewards excellence in performance through a promotion system that mediates the relationship between promotion and employees' performance. according to the study, in order to boost employee performance, the university of abuja management should prioritize equity when it comes to promotions. the university's administration should also continue to implement its promotion strategies. additionally, in order to assist the discipline of their employees in satisfying promotion requirements, the university of abuja's management must ensure 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(1967). statistics: an introductory analysis (2nd ed.). new york: harper & row. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1954.tb00174.x https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1987.4306437 https://doi.org/10.54443/ijset.v1i1.2 https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02291817 https://doi.org/10.61426/sjbcm.v10i1.2547 https://doi.org/10.7176/ejbm/11-14-08 https://doi.org/10.46336/ijbesd.v5i2.640 https://doi.org/10.1177/001979399905200405 https://doi.org/10.46827/ejhrms.v5i1.1041 https://doi.org/10.20448/2002.31.18.27 https://doi.org/10.55927/eajmr.v1i9.1453 https://doi.org/10.22034/ijhcum.2024.04.10 15 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 8, no. 1, 15-22, 2021 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2021.81.15.22 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group relationship between the service sector and economic growth: evidence from china vusal murselzade1 behiye cavusoglu2  ( corresponding author) 1,2department of economics, near east university, north cyprus. abstract the rapid economic growth of china during the last four decades has reshaped the political and economic arena around the world. under the leadership of deng xiaoping, china has realized sets of reforms towards modernization and opening the economy since 1978 and these reforms have helped china to become an economic giant. china’s economy is still growing today and a distinct growth pattern together with a complex economic system and the society of china draw interest from all over the world to research and understand what factors trigger such fast growth rates. in this study, the relationship between economic growth and two subsectors of the service sector, namely real estate and hotel & catering in china, is analyzed. the study uses quantitative methodology and time-series data acquired from secondary sources. the autoregressive distributed lag method (ardl) in e-views 10 statistical software is utilized to analyze the data. the findings of the data analysis reveal that both sub sectors have a significant and positive impact on economic growth of china in both the long run and short run. the findings can be generalized and referred to the entire service sector and it can also be claimed that a positive relationship exists between the service sector and economic growth in china. keywords: economic growth, service sector, real estate, hotel, catering, ardl, china. jel classification: b40, c10, c13, c19, l89. citation | vusal murselzade; behiye cavusoglu (2021). relationship between the service sector and economic growth: evidence from china. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 8(1): 15-22. history: received: 18 january 2021 revised: 22 february 2021 accepted: 10 march 2021 published: 29 march 2021 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 16 2. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 18 3. conclusion and recommendation ................................................................................................................................................ 21 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 21 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2021.81.15.22&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2761 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3434-8369 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 15-22 16 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper contributes to the existing literature on how real estate and hotel & catering sub sectors affect economic growth in china. 1. introduction the 20th century witnessed great changes in the geopolitical arena. events like world wars, the great depression, replacement of hegemonic powers and the cold war significantly changed and restructured the balance of power among states, causing some of them to become much stronger than before and others to end their existence. the balance of power among world actors is rather a political term, but it has paramount implications for economies. today, one of the prominent figures in the global geopolitical arena is china. china has realized miracles in the last few decades and achieved significant economic growth, which has significantly improved its status and power among other states. the economic growth of china is perceived differently by regional and global actors. some of them consider china as a threat, despite china’s attempts to build peaceful and beneficial relations with its neighbors and other world actors. others consider china’s economic growth to be an exaggeration, accusing china of falsifying statistical data covering many fields of the chinese economy. nevertheless, china’s skyrocketing economic growth is an extraordinary phenomenon and a very interesting case for scholars. numerable scholars have attempted to explore the determinants of chinese economic growth thus far. in this study, quantitative analysis will be conducted to understand the role of the service sector (two sub sectors of the service sector real estate and hotel & catering will be analyzed) in the economic growth of china. this study is a valuable source for all those who are surprised by the economic achievements of china and will help academics to look at growth phenomena from a different and more accurate angle. the study seeks to find answers to the following questions: is there any relationship between the service sector and economic growth in china in the long run and in the short run? how do the sub sectors of the service sector, namely the real estate and hotel and catering subsectors, impact economic growth in the long run and short run? the main aim of the study is to examine the relationship between the service sector growth and overall economic growth of china. 1.1. economic growth different scholars have defined economic growth in different ways. howitt. and weil (2010) interpreted the term as an increase in a country’s living standards. economic growth is generally measured by gross domestic production (gdp) per capita change. growth can be extensive or intensive. extensive growth occurs when an increase in the gdp is fully absorbed by population increase, leaving no room for per capita income to rise. intensive growth happens when the gdp increases faster than the population, which causes a rise in the gdp per capita (snowdon & vane, 2005). barro and sala-i-martin (2003) presented an interesting calculation and comparison to understand the most important growth factors, especially sustainable long-term growth. the authors made calculations to determine the annual average growth rate for the us economy. they used real per capita gdp by a factor of 10 in 1870, which equaled 3340$ in 1870 and 33.330 $ in 2000, both on the basis of the 1996 dollar value. they found that the annual growth rate was approximately 1.8%. emphasizing this point, the authors claimed that if the annual growth rate in the united states (us) was 0.8% (only 1 % less than the number they found), the per capita gdp in 2000 would only be 9450 $ in the us. this growth rate would be similar to the growth rates of countries like pakistan and india. on the contrary, if the growth rate of the us was 1% more than the actual value (2.8 %), then the per capita gdp would be 127.000 $, which is 3.8 times more than the actual value in 2000. in fact, no country in recorded history has been able to achieve such a growth rate. maddison (2001) answered this question in his studies and noted that world economic growth started to increase considerably around 1820 when the industrial revolution occurred. he stated that changes in factors such as output and population growth level have been unequal over years. there were severe catastrophes in the 6th and 14th centuries, which caused huge slowdowns in economic systems. also, many countries experienced major recessions in the 17th century. there were several factors that affected population growth in a very negative way. among the severest ones were famines, infectious diseases and devastating wars, which continued for hundreds of years. the industrial revolution paved the way for sustainable growth. starting in the uk, the revolution and resulting economic growth spread across the whole world, but not in an equal way. significant discrepancies started to emerge among the country’s growth rates. economic growth has evolved unequally across different regions. north america and western europe have managed to achieve high standards of living in comparison to the rest of the world, japan being an exception. during the latter half of the 20th century, the increase in the difference in income distribution between countries has weakened with rapid economic growth in asian countries. however, the income gap disparity between the richest and poorest countries (mainly african countries) did not shrink (evans, 1996). sala-i-martin (2006) examined cross country data and reached the conclusion that the proportional income gap inequality among individuals has significantly reduced around the world during the period between 1970 and 2000. relating economic growth and development to external factors rather than internal factors is the main presumption of exogenous growth theories. in neoclassical growth models, an important subject is capital accumulation. positive output is a consequence of the rise in human capital and augmented labor. one of the main neoclassical growth models is solow (1956) growth model. according to the solow model of growth, technological innovation outweighs capital accumulation. technological innovation is referred to as total factor productivity and is determined exogenously in the model (pollard, shackman, & piffaut, 2011). the role of capital in growth theories was strengthened from 1980 onwards. new growth theories started to emphasize the importance of knowledge in achieving growth. new growth theories deal with technological knowledge, its transmission, research and development and the innovation of technologies and consider all these factors to be the main driver of economic growth (lucas, 1988; romer, 1990). early works of romer and lucas can be considered as the initial foundations of new endogenous theories, which endogenous technological growth that was considered as an external factor in neoclassical theories. some of the key studies conducted in the field belong to romer (1990) and grossman and helpman (1994). howitt claimed that, as innovations are generated by asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 15-22 17 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group research and development (r&d), economic policies fostering competition, property rights etc. can affect r&d and consequently result in innovation (howitt, 1999). new growth theories emphasize that economic growth is the result of increasing revenues generated by new knowledge. the ability to develop the economy by increasing knowledge creates opportunities for almost limitless growth. since ideas can be transmitted and used endlessly, they can be accumulated without restrictions (cortright, 2001). governments play an important role in achieving growth in the framework of endogenous growth theories. government actions such as policies, regulations, institutions and protection of rights can foster growth in the long run (barro & sala-i-martin, 2003). cortright (2001) also noted that, as any kind of physical capital is subject to diminishing returns, sustainable growth based on only physical capital is impossible to achieve. romer (1986) stated that “we now know that the classical suggestion that we can grow rich by accumulating more and more pieces of physical capital like forklifts is simply wrong.” economic growth has been extensively researched in the literature from different perspectives. many studies have focused on the classic determinants of economic growth, such as fdi, trade, unemployment etc. alfaro, chanda, kalemli-ozcan, and sayek (2004) focused on the relationship between fdi and economic growth. belloumi (2014) investigated the trade, fdi and growth nexus in tunisia. akeju and olanipekun (2014) and kreishan (2011) studied the relationship between unemployment and economic growth. singh (2010); zahonogo (2016); el khoury and savvides (2006) examined the trade and growth nexus. another strand of the literature has focused on economic growth within the framework of endogenous growth theories. wong, ho, and autio (2005) studied the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and economic growth. verspagen (2005) studied innovation and economic growth. the paper of ulku (2004) focused on r&d, innovation, and economic growth. boekema, morgan, bakkers, and rutten (2000) studied the relationship between knowledge, innovation and economic growth. last but not least, recent studies have paid significant attention to the connection between environmental issues and economic growth. george, lin, and chen (2015) and mitchell and james (2015) investigated economic growth and circular economies, whereas smulders (1995); oyelola, ajiboshin, raimi, raheem, and cn (2013) and zhang (2012) focused on sustainable economic growth. 1.2. economy of china official statistics published by the national bureau of statistics of china (nbsc) for the year 2018 revealed many facets of the chinese economic system. the chinese population has grown from 962.59 million in 1978 to 1.39 billion in 2017. in 1978, only 172.45 million people lived in cities (urban population), which constituted around 18% of the total population, but in 2017, the urbanization rate was recorded to be around 59%. the main reason for this switch can be attributed to better life conditions and employment options developed in urban areas. the annual average growth rate of the total population has been 0.9 %. the number of people employed in china reached 776.4 million in 2017. the gross domestic product was 82.71 quadrillion yuan. primary industry contributed 6.54 quadrillion yuan to the gdp, while secondary industry contributed 33.46 quadrillion yuan and finally, tertiary industry contributed 42.7 quadrillion yuan. per capita gdp rose from 385 yuan in 1978 to 59,660 yuan in 2017 (china statistical yearbook, 2018). china’s stellar economic performance in recent decades cannot simply be interpreted via the neoclassical growth model. new endogenous growth theories can provide more comprehensive modeling of the chinese economy (zheng, 2011). additionally, china’s growth strategy changed after the mid-1990s. while china was previously more reliant on capital accumulation in particular, the situation is different now (zheng & hu, 2006). zheng (2011) suggested that as of the mid-1990s, chinese economic productivity was a result of policies and reforms and if china cannot maintain its ‘reform momentum’, productivity and growth will eventually slow down. exports have long been an important pillar of economic growth in china. coates, horton, and mcnamee (2012) claimed that the chinese kind of growth model has enabled the transmission of new technologies and business know-how to apply to the wider economy, which has generated more productivity gains. however, export-led growth cannot be the main driver of growth forever. some changes naturally occur such as rising costs of labor. furthermore, china’s large external trade and current account surpluses show that this kind of growth model is unsustainable. to keep the growth rate stable and increasing, chinese firms will need to pay more attention to innovation and technological progress, especially in high value-added industries. coates et al. (2012) claimed that shifting the exports strategy is understandable and also a necessary step in economic development. similar steps were made by other former export intensive emerging economies. foreign direct investment (fdi) inflow to the country is another major source of growth in china. fdi inflow is generally used in more export-oriented industries such as the electronics industry. fdi inflow has been strongly supported by the government in the last decades. the establishment of special economic zones (sez) was an indication of such policies. due to these policies, many enterprises were founded which were almost completely reliant on foreign investment (crane, albrecht, duffin, & albrecht, 2018). china consists of many regions with discrete characteristics. discrepancies are visible geographically, socially and economically. from an economic point of view, there is a huge gap in income and living standards among china’s urban areas and agricultural areas (qian & smyth, 2008). china’s coastal regions are generally urban areas, while the western and central regions are mainly agricultural districts and this divergence can serve as a destabilizing factor for chinese economy if the gap is too huge (zhao & tong, 2000). 1.3. the service sector the standard gb / t 4754, called industrial classification for national economic activities, defines three levels of industry primary, secondary and "third industry" or tertiary industry. primary industry includes farming, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery industries. secondary industry includes mining, manufacturing, construction and production and the supply of electric power, gas and water. finally, the tertiary industry includes traffic, storage and mail businesses, computer service and software industry, wholesale and retail trade, accommodation and food industry, finance industry, scientific research, technical service and geologic examination industry, education, health industry and so on (all china data, 2017). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 15-22 18 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group qin (2006) stated that there has been a significant change in the shares of the three sectors in chinese economy growth after the reforms were implemented. the share of the agricultural sector in the gdp has decreased from 19.7 % to only 10%. on the other hand, the share of the manufacturing sector has increased from 41.6% to 46.6% and the share of the service sector in the gdp has risen from 31.3% to 434% between 1990 and 2011. china is considered as a transformation economy. wei (1999); wei (2001) separated china’s transition process into three parts, namely decentralization, marketization and globalization. decentralization refers to the delegation of power from central to local governments and it is a strong indicator of the transition phase (wei, 2001). weakening state control on the economy and development of market mechanisms are essential features of the marketization process in china. a decreasing amount of people working in state-owned enterprises is an important indicator of marketization (zhong & wei, 2018). the service sector has been a strong engine of growth in both developed and developing countries. services are generally characterized by intangibility, heterogeneity, simultaneity of production and consumption, and perishability (tham, 2017). the world bank indicates that, in 2014 the share of the service sector in gdp growth rose to 74% in rich countries. for developing countries, this number constituted 55% for the same year. however, in china, the share of this sector in gdp is even lower than developing countries, with only 47.8 % in 2014 (fan, pan, & zhou, 2019). the growth of china’s service sector is still behind the global average, particular in relation to the most developed countries (chan & zhao, 2012). currently, the main service industries in china are financial, consultancy, information and communication, tourism, insurance, education and medical services. china’s ministry of commerce reported in 2014 that financial services contributed 66.2% to total services trade from 2012 to 2013. consulting and information & communication sectors came next with 19.9% and 17% respectively. the impact of the service sector on per capita gdp has been researched in different countries. for example, nayyar (2002) claimed that this sector played a significant role in the economic development of india. the relationship between the service sector and economic growth was a research theme in the studies of gani and clemes (2010) where the authors examined the relationship in pacific island countries and (singh, 2010) while the same relationship was examined in india. anwar and sam (2008) examined how the service sector impacts economic growth in singapore. chen and whalley (2014) researched trade in services and its contribution to the chinese economy and concluded that trade in services is growing and is likely to grow further in the next decade. previous studies have also examined the real estate and economic growth relationship, which is also empirically examined in this study. green (1997) showed that housing investment caused growth in gdp in the us, but was not caused by gdp growth, implying that there is a unidirectional causality running from housing investment towards gdp growth. chau and zou (2000) researched the short run and long run effects of both public and private housing investments in hong kong on gdp and found that an increase in public investment has a positive effect on long run gdp growth, whereas growth in private housing investment affects short run economic output. liu, zheng, and park (2002) used annual time series data and hypothesized that there is a relationship between housing investment and gdp growth. the findings of the research indicated that growth in housing investment positively affects gdp growth in the short run. 2. methodology china’s national bureau of statistics regularly publishes statistical yearbooks and yearbooks on specific sectors of the economy or regions. annual time series data have been used in this study covering the 1990-2018 time span. for the purpose of the study, data have been collected for three different variables. these variables are nominal gross domestic product, value added of the hotel and catering industry and value added of the real estate industry between 1990 and 2018. data have been analyzed in eviews 10 statistical software. previously, cointegration tests proposed by johansen (1991); engle and granger (1987); gregory and hansen (1996) and johansen and juselius (2009) have been widely used in quantitative research. however, these tests require variables to have the same order/rank. furthermore, these tests have proved to be vulnerable and do not yield precise results when small sample sizes are used. the bounds test approach allows these challenges to be overcome, which has increased its popularity among contemporary researchers. the ardl methodology developed by pesaran and shin (1998) will be used in this study. as mentioned above, ardl methodology does not require the variables to be integrated of the same order and yields effective results in the case of small sample sizes. in this study, the relationship between the overall economic growth and service sector growth of china will be examined. economic growth is expressed by change in annual nominal gdp (instrumentalized as 100 billion chinese yuan). the service sector is represented by two subsectors, which are the real estate and the hotel & catering sectors. analyzing the overall service sector would be possible as well; however, the sector combines many discrete subsectors and it is better to concentrate on smaller fields inside the sector for more accurate and detailed research. in summary, the value added of the real estate and hotel & catering sub sectors will be analyzed and the results of the analysis will be implemented to the general service sector. the research model of the study will be as below: gdp =  (rea, hot) (1) transforming equation 1 into a linear equation, the equation 2 is obtained: gdpt= β0+ β1reat+ β2hott+ εt (2) here, gdpt signifies economic growth at time t, reat represents value added of the real estate sector at time t and hott represents the value added of the hotel and catering sector at time t. β0 is the constant of the model. β1 and β2 are coefficients of variables in the model. finally, εt is the error term of the model equation. all variables are transformed into natural logarithms in the model. therefore, the final version of our model can be presented as equation 3: lngdpt= β0+ β1lnreat+ β2lnhott+ εt (3) the ardl method requires variables to be stationary at either i(0) or i(1) levels (im, pesaran, & shin, 2003). according to narayan and narayan (2006) it is possible to obtain both short run and long run results using the ardl bounds test approach. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 15-22 19 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the ardl approach allows us to examine whether there is cointegration among the variables or not. in order to reach a conclusion, the acquired f-statistics needs to be compared with the i(0) lower and i(1) upper critical values obtained by conducting the bounds test. if the value of f-statistics is greater than the i(1) upper critical value, we can deduce that there is cointegration among variables. thus, the null hypothesis can be formulated as ‘there is no long run cointegration among the variables’ and alternative hypotheses can be expressed as ‘there is long run cointegration among the variables’. different tests will be used during the empirical analysis of the study. first of all, the stationarity of the variables must be checked. unit root tests are broadly used to check stationarity. augmented dickey-fuller (adf) test will be used in this study to check the unit root at both level and the first difference. the adf test results are presented in table 1 and table 2. table-1. adf test results at level. adf at level (intercept) adf at level (trend and intercept) variable t-statistic prob* t-statistic prob* lgdp -0,836418 0,7903 -4,605173 0,0055 lrea -2,304918 0,1774 -3,139969 0,1201 lhot -5,917088 0,0000 -5,501978 0,0006 table-2. adf test results at 1st difference. adf at 1st difference (intercept) adf at 1st difference (trend and intercept) variable t-statistic prob* t-statistic prob* lgdp -5,029405 0,0005 -4,669908 0,0055 lrea -3,814400 0,0076 -4,434003 0,0081 lhot -3,933574 0,0057 -4,410216 0,0085 the null hypothesis in the adf test is that lgdp, lhot and lrea have unit roots at 5% significance level. the adf test results show that, although lgdp has a unit root at level (intercept) and lrea also has a unit root at level (intercept and trend & intercept), none of the variables have a unit root at the 1st difference. for this reason, it is possible to assert that lgdp and lrea are i(1) variables, whereas lhot is an i(0) variable. this result provides favorable conditions to fulfill the requirements of the ardl bounds test approach. in the next phase, the long run results derived from the bounds test will be examined. table 3 displays the results of the bounds test: table-3. bounds test long run results. significance i(0) bound i(1) bound 10% 2.63 3.35 5% 3.1 3.87 2.5% 3.55 4.38 1% 4.13 5 f-statistic 11,02723 according to the rules of the ardl method, the obtained f-statistics value must be higher than the i(1) upper bound in order to prove co-integration among variables. it is clear that the obtained f-statistics in the model is greater than the upper bound at all significance levels. thus, it is possible to claim that there is a long run relationship and cointegration among economic growth and value added of the real estate and hotel & catering sectors. the test also presents numerical values of independent variables in the long run, as indicated in table 4. table-4. long run coefficients of the independent variables. variable coefficient std. error t-statistics prob. lrea 0.622930 0.042559 14.63691 0.0000 lhot 0.260582 0.055512 4.694163 0.0002 c 3.545184 0.031014 114.3095 0.0000 the long run results show that the valued added of both real estate and hotel & catering subsectors are significant to explain nominal gdp growth. both the real estate industry and hotel and catering industry positively affect economic growth in the long run. to be more specific, a 1% increase in the value added of the real estate sub sector will increase nominal gdp by approximately 0.62% in the long run. at the same time, a 1% increase in the value added of the hotel and catering sector increases nominal gdp by 0.26 %. the ardl methodology also makes it possible to check the short run relationship among the variables via the error correction model (ecm). the results obtained from the ecm model are presented in table 5. firstly, the short run results indicate the significance of both the independent variables and their lags. table-5. error correction model results. variable coefficient std. error t-statistics prob. d(lgdp(-1)) 0.411857 0.070328 5.856248 0.0000 d(lrea) 0.321199 0.040698 7.892308 0.0000 d(lres(-1)) 0.128055 0.047608 2.899838 0.0095 d(lhot) 0.208239 0.057278 3.635555 0.0019 d(lhot(-1)) -0.233878 0.048853 -4.787345 0.0001 cointeq(-1)* -0.536841 0.074836 -7.173590 0.0000 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 15-22 20 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group according to table 5, the coefficient of real estate is 0.321199, which means that a 1% increase in the value added of the real estate sector increases the country’s gdp by around 0.32 %. the lag of real estate also has a positive and significant impact on the overall gdp of the country. what effect does the hotel and catering sector have on the economic growth of china in the short run? the ecm results show a positive and significant effect of this sector in the short run, with a positive coefficient of 0.208239. the result implies that a 1% increase in the value added of the hotel and catering sector will increase gdp by around 0.21%. however, the coefficient of lag of this variable has a negative sign, despite being significant. the coefficient of the error correction model in our model is negative and significant. the ect coefficient is estimated as -0.536841. 2.1. diagnostic tests the breusch-pagan–godfrey test will be used to check whether there is heteroskedasticity in the model. the null hypothesis is that there is no heteroskedasticity in the model and the alternative hypothesis supports the existence of heteroskedasticity in the model. table 6 shows the heteroskedasticity test results. as the probability value is greater than 0.05, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected and it can therefore be accepted that there is no heteroskedasticity in the model; in other words, the model is homoscedastic. table-6. breusch-pagan-godfrey test results. heteroscedasticity test: breusch-pagan-godfrey null hypothesis: homoscedasticity f-statistics 0.494188 prob. f(8,18) 0.8446 obs*r-squared 4.862303 prob. chi-square(8) 0.7722 scaled explained ss 1.814528 prob. chi-square(8) 0.9862 in order to check serial correlation, the breusch-godfrey serial correlation lm test will be used in our study. the null hypothesis in this test is that serial correlation is absent in the model. on the contrary, the alternative hypothesis supports that there is serial correlation in our model. the serial correlation lm test results are indicated in table 7. table-7. breusch-godfrey serial correlation lm test results. breusch-godfrey serial correlation lm test null hypothesis: no serial correlation at up to 2 lags f-statistic 1.234895 prob. f(2,16) 0.3171 obs*r-squared 3.610454 prob. chi-square(2) 0.1644 the test results show that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected, as probability value is greater than 0.05 which means there is no autocorrelation in the model up to 2 lags. besides the abovementioned diagnostic tests, cusum and cusum of squares stability tests were also conducted to check if the model is stable. the cusum and cusum of squares test results are indicated in figure 1 and figure 2, respectively. figure-1. cusum test results. figure-2. cusum of squares test results. both test results clearly depict that the model is stable and our results can be used for policy making processes. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 15-22 21 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. conclusion and recommendation time-series data for nominal gdp, value added of real estate sector and value added of hotel and catering sector covering 1990-2018 were collected to conduct this study. data was analyzed in eviews 10 student version and ardl methodology was utilized to analyze the collected data. different methodologies could be used to analyze the data, but ardl has certain advantages such as providing more precise results for small sample data, the possibility of checking both short run and long run relationships and the ability to use variables integrated of different orders. different tests were used to strengthen the findings of the data analysis. first of all, the ardl bounds test results showed that nominal gdp in china and value added of real estate and hotel & catering industries are cointegrated in the long run. this means that there is a long run relationship between nominal gdp growth and growth in value added of the real estate and hotel & catering industries in china. furthermore, the value added of the real estate and hotel & catering subsectors are significant enough to explain nominal gdp growth in china in the long run and finally, both real estate and hotel & catering subsectors have a positive effect on economic growth in china in the long run. numerically speaking, a 1% increase in real estate will increase the gdp by approximately 0.62% in china in the long run. at the same time, a 1% increase in the hotel and catering sector increases total gdp by 0.26 %. in order to obtain the short run results, the error correction model was used and the results of the ecm showed that value added of real estate and hotel & catering subsectors are significant to explain nominal gdp growth in china and there is a positive relationship among value added of the real estate, hotel & catering subsectors and nominal gdp growth in the short run. numerically, in the short run, a 1% increase in the value added of the real estate sector increases china’s gdp by around 0.32 %. the results also imply that an 1% increase in the value added of the hotel and catering sector will increase china’s gdp by around 0.21 % in the short run. the short run and long run results of the research prove that the value added of the two subsectors of the service sector positively and significantly affect the economic growth of china. the findings are in line with those of green (1997); chau and zou (2000) and liu et al. (2002). the findings of the data analysis can be generalized and be referred to the overall service sector of china. in other words, the findings prove that the service sector positively affects the economic growth of chinese economy. the study approves the findings of previous literature on the contribution of the service sector to economic growth, such as studies conducted by clemes, hu, and li (2016) and nayyar (2002). the results have practical implications for policymakers in china. below are our recommendations for policymakers based on the research findings: i. further efforts must be made to develop the service sector in china as the development of this sector is still behind the world average level. further development of the sector will result in a larger contribution to economic growth in the country. ii. policies and regulations must be established by the government to eliminate or at least decrease inequality of development among different regions of china. the review of the literature clearly shows that the service sector and overall economic growth is highly regional, which might hinder further growth in china. iii. not only real estate and hotel and catering, but also other sub sectors of the services industry should develop. many subsectors of the service sector in china are highly interconnected and simultaneous growth of various subsectors can promote higher growth of the service sector. several suggestions can be made in order to enrich the literature on the theme. first of all, the number of existing studies researching the catering sector in china is very limited and it therefore needs more academic attention. at the same time, trade in services in china requires in-depth analysis. in particular, recent developments in services trade and trade patterns should be intensively researched, as such development might reshape the future of china’s economic growth. abbreviations: ardl: autoregressive distributed lag method; ecm: error correction model; fdi: foreign direct investment; hot: value added of the hotel and catering sector; nbsc: national bureau of statistics of china; r&d: research and development; rea: value added of the real estate sector. sez: special economic zones; us: united states. references akeju, k. f., & olanipekun, d. b. 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(2018). economic transition, urban hierarchy and service industry growth in china. tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, 109(2), 189-209. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 61 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 8, no. 3, 61-68, 2021 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2021.83.61.68 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group gender based mood analysis on purchase of wrist watches in bangalore, karnataka satheeshkumar rangasamy1 sushma rawath2 gokula krishnan s3 raja gopal d4 1professor, department of m.b.a, surana college, kengeri campus, kst, bangalore, karnataka, india. 2assistant professor, department of m.b.a, surana college, kengeri campus, kst, bangalore, karnataka, india. 3associate professor hr, analytics & entrepreneurship, department of management studies (mba), acharya institute of technology, india. 4assistant professor, department of computer application, vivekanandha college of arts and science for women, autonomous, namakkal district, tamilnadu, india. ( corresponding author) abstract buying behavior and spending pattern are highly influenced by mood of the customer in general. mood shapes person’s attention, choices of the product and purchasing decision though the life span of mood is short. organizations must find out means and measures to trigger customers’ mood into positive that in turn will induce them to buy the product. this article focuses on gender-based mood analysis on purchase of wrist watches. the researcher has adopted structured questionnaire to get the primary responses from the respondent to study how far mood varies among the genders on purchase of wrist watches and researcher has made framework to highlight the order of the measures / attributes to be followed to trigger the customers’ mood. the researcher has applied descriptive statistics to present the key aspects of mood of the respondents and applied ranking method to identify the attribute that trigger the mood of the potential customers. it is concluded that the attribute of demonstration of wrist watches features in specific to men and women, building a community group and attribute of need, elite and self-esteem, sense of accomplishment, aspiration, and marketing communication tactics are some of the significant attributes that trigger the customers to buy wrist watches from highest order to lowest order. keywords: gender based, purchase decision, mood analysis, triggering attributes, marketing communication and cognition. jel classification: m00. citation | satheeshkumar rangasamy; sushma rawath; gokula krishnan s; raja gopal d (2021). gender based mood analysis on purchase of wrist watches in bangalore, karnataka. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 8(3): 61-68. history: received: 13 may 2021 revised: 18 june 2021 accepted: 20 july 2021 published: 16 august 2021 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction of the study ............................................................................................................................................................... 62 2. overview about wristwatch categories ..................................................................................................................................... 62 3. review of literature ........................................................................................................................................................................ 62 4. statement of problem ..................................................................................................................................................................... 63 5. objectives of the study ................................................................................................................................................................... 63 6. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................... 63 7. data analysis and interpretation ................................................................................................................................................. 64 8. findings of the study ...................................................................................................................................................................... 67 9. suggestions of the study ................................................................................................................................................................ 67 10. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 67 11. scope for further research ......................................................................................................................................................... 67 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 67 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2021.83.61.68&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/3209 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2426-2331 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8238-1219 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6931-1833 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7348-1552 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 61-68 62 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to existing literature by focusing on gender-based mood analysis on purchase of wrist watches. 1. introduction of the study positive mood inspires good thoughts and negative moods can lead to put off doom loop in which an individual perpetually delays important tasks. mood shapes person’s attention, choices of the product and purchasing decision though the life span of mood is short. organizations must find out means and measures to trigger customers’ mood in to positive that in turn will induce them to buy the product. gerard zaltman in his book “how customer think: essential insights into the mind of market” pointed out that ninety five percent of cognition happens outside of our conscious brain and rest happen inside of our sub conscious and emotional brains. so, marketers must trigger emotional brains. zaltman (2016) study showed that 95% of our cognition happens in our emotional brain. table-1. market share growth rate of different segments including jewelry and watches. particulars 2012 2017 2022 (exp) cagr (2017-22) food & grocery 67.5% 66.7% 65.8% 11.4% fashion 9.5% 9.1% 8.9% 10.7% jewelry & watches 7.3% 7.7% 8.2% 13.7% consumer electronics 5.2% 5.9% 6.8% 12.0% home & living 4.2% 4.3% 4.4% 13.3% pharmacy & wellness 2.8% 2.9% 3% 11.9% others 3.6% 3.2% 3.1% 10.4% total 322 575 979 11.2% table 1 present details about market share growth rate of different sectors including jewelry and watches and it provides the picture of constant growth of jewelry and watches sector. it is noted that jewelry and watches sector had 7.3% market share in the year 2012 and it increased to the tune of 7.7% in the year 2017 and it is expected to grow as 8.2% in the year 2022 and it has 13.7% cagr between 2017 and 2022. 2. overview about wristwatch categories the wrist watches market in india can be ordered into three general categories based on cost. the first category of watches is the mass value section comprising of watches estimated worth lower than rs. 1,000 which are sold by the sloppy players. the mass value section watches are dominated by titan, pa time enterprises and citizen. sonata (for people), and zoop (kids) are brands of titan with their dominant part presence in mass portion. maxima from pa time businesses and q&q from citizen are different brands in mass segment. the second category of watches are the mid-value segment of watches. this category watches price ranges from rs. 1,000 to rs.10, 000. this section likewise has design watches from global players like diesel, esprit, fossil, giordano, tommy hilfiger, guess, kenneth cole, police and so on. the third category of watches are the top-notch fragment watches which has the estimated worth of above rs. 10,000. the top-notch fragment wristwatch market in india can be additionally partitioned into three value classifications: reasonable extravagance, elegance, and super extravagance. the extravagance section which is essential for premium lot worth ranges between rs. 1, 00,000 and rs. 10, 00,000. large numbers of these top-ofthe-line watches are frequently gold plated, precious stone studded and utilized as left arm gems. brands ranges from superior, moderate extravagance to eminence value groups. models are guess collection, seiko, tissot, xylys, dior, longines, rado, tag heuer, harry winston, iwc, jlc, patek philippe, ulysse nardin, breitling, cartier, montblanc, omega, and rolex, so on. elegance category of watches includes brand like daniel, van heusan, titan raga, meister singer and fossil. super extravagance category of watches includes brand like movado ultra, micael kors, tissot, rolex, tag heuer, louis moinet memories, corum. 3. review of literature gasper (2003) explored how mood influences flexible thinking. her research suggests that individuals in sad moods are more flexible than those in happy moods when tasks proved difficult and unpleasant. individuals in sad moods were more likely to try new and different approaches to solve a problem than those in happy moods. research by gardner and ronald (1986) demonstrates that mood states have an impact on and are impacted by consumers' activities during the buying process. finally, we should consider the impact of marketer-induced moods upon product evaluations. if marketers manipulate mood, they will improve or reduce the likelihood that consumers use of information contained in their communications. gardner and ronald (1986) found a relationship between mood states, processing style, and product category selected for evaluation by consumers. clark and teasdale (1985) found that women are more likely than men to recall pleasant words when they in a happy mood and less likely to recall pleasant information when they are in a depressed mood. several explanations for the interaction of mood and gender have been suggested. clark and teasdale use an associative network model to explain the gender difference and suggest that women may have stronger links between mood and cognitive nodes in memory, either because they are used more frequently or more intensely. an alternative explanation of mood-gender interaction is proposed by rothkopf and blaney (1991). the authors suggest that mood congruent recall requires at least some awareness of one's own mood state. further, women are superficially more likely to be aware of (and effected by) their own mood state in recall of information. in general, the psychological literature suggests that gender differences may have both a main effect on perceived time and a moderating effect on mood's influence. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 61-68 63 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4. statement of problem it is evident from the reviews that effects of mood of the human being have been felt extensively in the buying process. rook and meryl (1986) have demonstrated that consumer's mood impacts the amount of money spent on impulse purchases. various studies have been carried out to understand the effect of mood, cognition, and emotion of customers in the buying process and product purchase. the researcher identifies research gap that there are also differences in the purchase pattern among the different gender. hence, it prompted the researcher to undertake the study on gender-based mood analysis in purchase of wrist watches. 5. objectives of the study 1. to identify the factors that influencing the customers to purchase of wrist watches. 2. to find out reasons for buying a new wristwatch. 3. to analyze customers opinion on point of cognition. 4. to evaluate the measures / attributes that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches. 6. research methodology 6.1. type of research design researcher has adopted descriptive research and presented the research work in a descriptive manner in terms of market share growth rate of different sectors including jewelry and watches, overview about wristwatch categories, measures / attributes that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches and presented the outcome of the research work with descriptive analysis and ranking method. table-2. demographic profile of the respondents particulars no. of respondent percentage area of residence urban 125 73 semi urban 24 14 rural 23 13 total 172 100 gender of respondents male 80 47 female 92 53 total 172 100 age of respondents up to 25 years 111 65 26-30 years 14 8 31-35 years 18 10 36-40 years 15 9 over 40 years 14 8 total 172 100 academic qualification school level 2 1 undergraduate 31 18 postgraduate 120 70 professional 17 10 others specify 2 1 total 172 100 present employment status govt. employee 0 0 private employee 48 28 businessmen 8 5 housewife 4 2 professional 16 9 student 91 53 others specify 5 3 total 172 100 monthly family income below rs.25000 67 39 rs. 25001-35000 26 15 rs. 35001-45000 20 12 rs. 45001-55000 17 10 above rs. 55000 42 24 total 172 100 type of family joint family 60 35 nuclear 112 65 total 172 100 number of members in the family below 3 members 16 9 3 – 5 members 129 75 above 5 members 27 16 total 172 100 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 61-68 64 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 6.2. sampling method and size researcher has adopted convenient sampling method and has taken 172 respondents as sample size assuming 95% confidence level with a five percent margin of error and 100000 as the estimated population size. researcher has referred watson (2001), how to determine a sample size: tip sheet #60, university park, pa: penn state cooperative extension to finalize the given sample size. 6.3. source of data researcher has collected the data from primary data and secondary data from various source. 6.4. instruments for data collection researcher has collected the responses from respondents using the structured questionnaire through google form. 6.5. tools for data analysis descriptive analysis and weighted average ranking score method are the tools for data analysis. 6.6. limitations of the study 1. present study is subject to respondents’ bias. 2. study findings are applicable to bangalore only. 7. data analysis and interpretation interpretation table 2 presents about the demographic profile of the respondents. it is found that 73% of the respondents are belonging to urban area, 53% of the respondents are female, 65% of the respondents belong to the age group of lesser than 25 years old and 70 of the respondents are postgraduates. 28% of respondents are private employees and 39% of the respondents belong to the income group of below rs.25000. 65% of the respondents belong to nuclear family and 75% of the respondents said that they have 3-5 members in their family. table-3. factors that respondents consider for purchase of wrist watches. sl. no factors that customers consider for purchase of wrist watches no. of respondents percentage 1 brand image 60 35 2 price 23 13 3 appearance 28 16 4 water resistance 3 2 5 durability 22 13 6 long warranty period 13 8 7 technical specifications 21 12 8 after sales service 2 1 total 172 100 interpretation it is found from the table 3 that 35% of the respondents said that brand image is first factor that they consider buying the wrist watches and 16% and 13% of the respondents said that they consider appearance and durability respectively to buy the wrist watches. only 1% of the respondents said that they consider after sales service as the factor to buy the wrist watches. table-4. reasons for buying a new wristwatch. sl no. reason for buying a new wristwatch no. of respondents percentage 1 requirement 43 25 2 style 50 29 3 better model available in the market 16 9 4 gifting 1 1 5 luxury 25 15 6 convenience 37 22 total 172 100 interpretation it is studied from the table 4 that 29% of the respondents said that style is the main reason for buying a new wrist watch and only 1% of the respondents said that they buy the wrist watches for gifting purpose.25% of the respondents purchased for the sake of requirement, 22% purchased for convenience, 15% purchased for luxury and 9% for better models. it is inferred that most of the respondents purchased for styles. table-5. category of wrist watches that respondents wish to buy. sl. no category of wrist watches that customers wish to buy no. of respondents percentage 1 professional 25 15 2 fashionable 46 27 3 quality-oriented 27 16 4 sporty 4 2 5 multi-functional 20 12 6 digital watch 9 5 7 all-in-one 41 24 total 172 100 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 61-68 65 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group interpretation it is concluded from the table 5 that 27% of the respondents wish to buy for fashionable and 24% of the respondents said that all in one category of watches are the next preference. table-6. respondents’ preferred price band on the selection of wrist watches. sl. no preferred price band of wrist watches that customers wish to buy no. of. respondents percentage 1 up to rs.5000 91 53 2 rs.5001-rs.10000 40 23 3 rs.10001rs.15000 8 5 4 rs.15001rs.20000 20 12 5 rs.20001rs.25000 2 1 6 above rs.25000 11 6 total 172 100 interpretation it is noted from the table 6 that 53% of the respondents said that they preferred price band on the selection of wrist watches fall up to rs.5000 and only 1% of the respondents said that their preferred price band on the selection of wrist watches between rs.20001to rs.25000. 23% of the respondents preferred the price brand between 50001 to 10000 and 16% of the respondents wish to buy for quality-oriented reasons. 15% of the respondents bought for professional reasons. table-7. respondents’ opinion on point of cognition. sl. no. opinion on point of cognition no. of respondents percentage 1 happens outside of individuals’ conscious brain 90 52 2 inside of individuals sub conscious and emotional brains 82 48 total 172 100 interpretation it is identified from the table 7 that 52% of the respondents have an opinion that their point of cognition happens outside of individuals conscious brain and 48% of the respondents have an opinion that their point of cognition happens inside of individuals sub conscious and emotional brains. table-8. respondents’ opinion on whether customers’ attention can be shaped by triggering of emotional brains and mood. sl. no respondents opinion no. of. respondents percentage 1 yes 154 90 2 no 18 10 total 172 100 interpretation it is observed from the table 8 that 90% of the respondents have an opinion that customers’ attention can be shaped by triggering of emotional brains and mood and 10% of the respondents have an opinion that customers’ attention can’t be shaped by triggering of emotional brains and mood. figure-1. framework on measures / attributes that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wristwatch. interpretation figure 1 provides the framework on measures / attributes that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wristwatch. the organization in the given sector must adopt the above measures / attributes to trigger the customers’ mood to make them to buy the wristwatch. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 61-68 66 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-9.1. measures / attributes that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches. s l n o measures / attributes that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches n o . o f. r e sp o n d e n ts w h o h a v e g iv e n r a n k 1 r a n k i * 1 0 n o . o f. r e sp o n d e n ts w h o h a v e g iv e n r a n k 2 r a n k i i * 9 n o . o f. r e sp o n d e n ts w h o h a v e g iv e n r a n k 3 r a n k i i i* 8 n o . o f. r e sp o n d e n ts w h o h a v e g iv e n r a n k 4 r a n k i v * 7 n o . o f. r e sp o n d e n ts w h o h a v e g iv e n r a n k 5 r a n k v * 6 n o . o f. r e sp o n d e n ts w h o h a v e g iv e n r a n k 6 r a n k v i * 5 n o . o f. r e sp o n d e n ts w h o h a v e g iv e n r a n k 7 r a n k v ii * 4 n o . o f. r e sp o n d e n ts w h o h a v e g iv e n r a n k 8 r a n k v ii i * 3 n o . o f. r e sp o n d e n ts w h o h a v e g iv e n r a n k 9 r a n k i x * 2 n o . o f. r e sp o n d e n ts w h o h a v e g iv e n r a n k 1 0 r a n k x * 1 w e ig h te d s c o re t o ta l 1 drive out buying behaviour with need, self-esteem, sense of achievement 9 90 3 27 3 24 4 28 3 18 2 10 6 24 28 84 46 92 68 68 569 2 novelty 4 40 6 54 5 40 3 21 8 48 8 40 9 36 23 69 73 146 33 33 666 3 inspire curiosity 4 40 7 63 1 8 6 42 2 12 15 75 14 56 33 99 40 80 50 50 647 4 demonstration of wrist watches features in specific to men & women 4 40 4 36 4 32 4 28 11 66 12 60 12 48 26 78 59 118 36 36 678 5 social proof 2 20 7 63 8 64 4 28 6 36 13 65 2 8 37 111 54 108 39 39 675 6 reference creation 0 0 5 45 7 56 6 42 4 24 12 60 9 36 22 66 76 152 31 31 653 7 make potential customer feel significant with the brand 4 40 10 90 4 32 2 14 8 48 18 90 1 4 33 99 41 82 51 51 671 8 build a community 5 50 5 45 7 56 4 28 3 18 7 35 23 92 20 60 60 120 38 38 676 9 keep brand with customers’ top of mind and tip of the dialect 4 40 10 90 6 48 2 14 1 6 9 45 13 52 34 102 34 68 59 59 637 10 strong marketing communication messages 9 90 8 72 2 16 3 21 1 6 6 30 7 28 20 60 45 90 71 71 585 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 61-68 67 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-9.2. measures / attributes that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches. sl. no measures/ attributes that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches total weighted score rank 1 demonstration of wrist watches features in specific to men and women 678 i 2 build a community 676 ii 3 social proof 675 iii 4 make potential customer feel significant with the brand 671 iv 5 novelty 666 v 6 reference creation 653 vi 7 inspire curiosity 647 vii 8 keep brand with customers’ top of mind and tip of the dialect 637 viii 9 strong marketing communication messages 585 ix 10 drive out buying behavior with need, self-esteem, sense of achievement 569 x interpretation it is noticed from the table 9 that attribute of demonstration of wrist watches features in specific to men and women stood first (i) rank with the weighted average ranking score of 678 that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches and build a community is the next attribute stood second (ii) rank with the weighted average ranking score of 676 trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches. attribute of drive out buying behavior with need, self-esteem, and sense of achievement stood tenth (x) rank with the weighted average ranking score of 569 that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches. 8. findings of the study 35% of the respondents said that brand image is first factor that they consider buying the wrist watches and 16% and 13% of the respondents said that they consider appearance and durability respectively to buy the wrist watches. only 1% of the respondents said that they consider after sales service as the factor to buy the wrist watches. 29% of the respondents said that style is the main reason for buying a new wrist watches and only 1% of the respondents said that they buy the wrist watches for gifting purpose. 27% of the respondents wish to buy for fashionable and 24% of the respondents said that all in one category of watches are the next preference. 53% of the respondents preferred price band on the selection of wrist watches fall up to rs.5000 and only 1% of the respondents said that their preferred price band on the selection of wrist watches between rs.20001 to rs.25000. 52% of the respondents have an opinion that their point of cognition happens outside of individuals’ conscious brain and 48% of the respondents have an opinion that their point of cognition happens inside of individuals’ sub conscious and emotional brains. 90% of the respondents have an opinion that customers’ attention can be shaped by triggering of emotional brains and mood and 10% of the respondents have an opinion that customers’ attention can’t be shaped by triggering of emotional brains and mood. attribute of demonstration of wrist watches features in specific to men and women stood first (i) rank with the weighted average ranking score of 678 that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches and build a community is the next attribute stood second (ii) rank with the weighted average ranking score of 676 trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches. attribute of drive out buying behavior with need, self-esteem, and sense of achievement stood tenth (x) rank with the weighted average ranking score of 569 that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches. 9. suggestions of the study it is suggested that jewelry and watches segment must focus more on the measures/attributes that trigger customers’ mood to buy the wrist watches as detailed in the framework and it would result in moments of truth, stimuli on purchase of product. it is also suggested that marketers must appropriately design the strategy to stimulate point of cognition of customers that would happen either inside of individuals’ sub conscious and emotional brains or outside of individuals’ conscious brain. 10. conclusion it is concluded that attribute of demonstration of wrist watches features in specific to men and women, building a community group and attribute of need, elite and self-esteem, sense of accomplishment, aspiration, and marketing communication tactics are some of the significant attributes that trigger the customers to buy wrist watches from highest order to lowest order. 11. scope for further research the present study focused on gender-based mood analysis on purchase of wrist watches. given the fact, further research can be carried out to analyze the mood of respondents on purchase of other product categories and can be on what triggers the mood of the respondents to buy the other product categories. references clark, d. m., & teasdale, j. d. (1985). constraints on the effects of mood on memory. journal of personality and social psychology, 48(6), 1595– 1608. available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.6.1595. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 61-68 68 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group gardner, m. p., & ronald, p. h. (1986). consumers' mood states: antecedents and consequences of experiential vs. informational strategies for brand choice," working paper. new york: new york university. gasper, k. (2003). when necessity is the mother of invention: mood and problem solving. journal of experimental social psychology, 39(3), 248–262. available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-1031(03)00023-4. rook, d., & meryl, p. g. (1986). mood factors and impulsive buying behavior. los angeles, ca: working paper, university of southern california. rothkopf, j. s., & blaney, p. h. (1991). mood congruent memory. the role of affective focus and gender. cognition and emotion, 5(1), 53–64. available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02699939108411023. watson, j. (2001). how to determine a sample size: tip sheet #60. university park, pa: penn state. zaltman, g. (2016). marketing’s forthcoming age of imagination. academy of marketing science review, 6(3), 99-115. available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13162-016-0082-3. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 65 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 9, no. 3, 65-69, 2022 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v9i3.4131 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group food service provision status and patients’ satisfaction at selected government hospitals in ethiopia berhanu wodajo1  sileshi demelash2 solomon eshetu3 aweke kebede4 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3,4ethiopian public health institute, addis ababa, ethiopia. 1email: berhanuw99@gmail.com 2email: sileyeshi21@gmail.com 3email: solomoneshetu13@yahoo.com 4email: awekekeb@gmail.com abstract the daily provision of hospital patients’ nutritional food dietary intake is still a major problem at the majority of government hospitals found in ethiopia. this leads to increased recovery time, morbidity, and mortality of lives. this cross-sectional study was designed to investigate the current status and functioning of the health facility concerning daily dietary food provision for patients under health care treatments for various health reasons. the main objective of this assessment was to generate evidence-based information on the current status and functioning of the health facility concerning daily dietary food provision for patients under health treatments for various health problems. a cross-sectional design, with a mixed-method approach (both qualitative and quantitative methods), was conducted from february to may 2019. the qualitative data were collected from key informants and quantitative data were collected through a structured questionnaire. the mean age of the participants was 37.35 (±16.59) and overall, 74.75% of the targeted populations were not satisfied with the food prepared at hospitals and 13.00% of them had no idea about the food prepared for the patients. insufficient budget allocation, unskilled manpower, and less attention to hospital nutritional foods were common problems among the 13 governmental hospitals. the nutritional food services offered to hospital patients should be improved. keywords: hospital, patients’ satisfaction, nutritional food provision. citation | berhanu wodajo; sileshi demelash; solomon eshetu; aweke kebede (2022). food service provision status and patients’ satisfaction at selected government hospitals in ethiopia. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 9(3): 65-69. history: received: 2 june 2022 revised: 26 july 2022 accepted: 10 august 2022 published: 31 august 2022 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 66 2. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 67 3. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 68 4. conclusion and recommendation ................................................................................................................................................ 69 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 69 mailto:berhanuw99@gmail.com mailto:sileyeshi21@gmail.com mailto:solomoneshetu13@yahoo.com mailto:awekekeb@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v9i3.4131 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(3): 65-69 66 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the objective of this study was to assess the daily nutritional food provision for hospital patients under treatment. this nutritional food assessment has contributed a clear picture for the governments and any interested partners for intervention to improve the insufficient nutritional food assessed by this study. 1. introduction nutritional food provision is a serious problem in developing countries. hospital patients are easily vulnerable to malnutrition after being admitted to hospitals due to the lack of nutritional foods provided to them. the problem has resulted from the lack of knowledge backgrounds on the role of nutritional food in health care services. the hospital caregivers from low to top hierarchies are giving less priority to the importance of nutritional foods either to the limitation of background knowledge or insufficient budget allocation by the government for each hospital. impaired nutrition is associated with prolonged hospitalization, poor patient outcomes, high mortality, and increased health costs. nutritional assessment is very important in recognition of changes in the patient’s nutritional status from admission to discharge and may promote early nutritional interventions by the health providers to prevent complications of poor nutrition. the consequences of malnutrition can lead to health complications, reduced tolerance to treatment, prolonged hospital stay, higher economic cost, and higher mortality and morbidity. an early diagnosis is essential to initiate adequate nutritional food to enhance the patient’s recovery time. malnutrition is a medical condition caused by nutrient deficiency because of a diminished intake, an increase in losses, or increased requirements. the prevalence of malnutrition in hospitals can be influenced by the implementation of a variety of nutrition care strategies (o’flynn, peake, hickson, foster, & frost, 2005). increasing appetite and nutritional food intake improves the health status and shortens the recovery time of the patients. this improvement is associated with a reduction in morbidity and mortality (kenea, garoma, & gemede, 2015). patients who are well treated with high-quality nutritional food service can get fast recovery from their sickness than those who received medium-quality of nutritional food. on contrary, patients receiving lowquality of nutritional food stay longer time and are exposed to additional expenses. malnutrition is a state of nutrition in which a deficiency or excess or imbalance of energy, protein, and other nutrients, causes measurable adverse effects on tissue or body form function, and clinical outcome. prior screening should be practiced to identify the patient's malnutrition level (kruizenga, seidell, de vet, & wierdsma, 2005). to minimize the level of patients’ malnutrition, the provided meal should be safe and nutritionally good in quality. the rate of complications, mortality, and hospitalization is related to the malnutrition problem in hospitals (de aquino & philippi, 2011). the process of food preparation and meal distribution may have a significant impact on the food intake of hospital patients who are likely to develop malnutrition. nutritional risk is an important indicator used to predict the probability of clinical outcomes related to nutritional factors (rasmussen et al., 2004). when patients are admitted to hospitals for various disease cases, the daily dietary nutritional food services had no priority and are not recognized as an integral and important part of clinical treatments. there is no least minimum standard nationally agreed with the guideline for admitted patients in governmental hospitals. only a few hospitals have tried to develop menu preparation guidelines for only internal consumption at their particular hospitals. some hospitals were using any ordinary food for the patients purchased from the outsourced cafeteria found in hospital compounds. during the assessment, some hospitals were found to employ unskilled laborers for cooking and food deliverance from the kitchen. therefore, this study was conducted to assess the nutritional service status and investigate patient satisfaction with nutritional food services given to patients under medical treatments for various health issues. 1.1. general objective the main objective of this assessment is to generate evidence-based information on the current status and functioning of the health facility concerning daily dietary food provision and patients’ satisfaction with caregivers and service provision delivered in a hospital during the particular staying time. 1.2. methodology and study design a cross-sectional design, with a mixed-method approach (both qualitative and quantitative methods), was conducted from february to may 2019. the qualitative data were collected from key informants and quantitative data were collected through a structured questionnaire. 1.3. study setting the study covered 13 selected government hospitals administrated under the regional and federal governments of ethiopia, i.e., (addis ababa, tigray, harari, somali, oromiya, amhara, snnp, benishangul gumuz, and gambella). the selected hospitals were two from the addis ababa city administration, two from federal referral hospitals, and nine from regional administrations. randomly and proportionally selected 400 patients have participated in the assessments. 1.4. sample size determination the sample size of 400 patients was determined using the single population proportion formula and proportional allocation to distribute the sample depending on the number of populations in each hospital. n = (𝐳𝛂/𝟐) 𝟐 × p(1 − p) (d)𝟐 assuming a zvalue of 1.96 at 95% ci and d of 5%, where, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(3): 65-69 67 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group n = sample size. p= prevalence. d= margin of error. z = level of confidence (1.96)2 and taking 10% non-response rate. the final sample size was 400 and data from these participants were collected from the medical, gynecology, and pathology wards. 1.5. sampling method and data collection techniques the patients were selected using the proportional sampling method. to adequately address the intended objectives, both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. therefore, patients and key informants were the sources of data for the assessment quantitative data were collected through a structured questionnaire. the data set has consisted of the following parts: hospital patients' nutritional food status, the attitude of health caregivers toward patients’ daily food services, and patients’ knowledge capacity and their feelings on the services delivered to them. to complement the quantitative data; qualitative data were collected from key informants. 1.6. data analysis the collected data were analyzed using stata software for descriptive and regression analysis. descriptive statistics were used to summarize the socio-demographic characteristics of the patients, satisfaction levels, and quality of food services. regression analysis was used to evaluate the effects of variables on the hospital's nutritional food service status. 1.7. ethical considerations to execute the assessment, standard questionnaires were prepared and submitted to the research ethical review committee of the ethiopian public health institute (ephi). the institutional review board (irb) has approved the proposal with the informed consent form made between the ephi and the respondents. all interviews were based on the full willingness of the participants as per the consent agreement signed by each respondent. figure 1. showing hospital patients by age group range. 2. results in this assessment, 400 hospital patients were involved. the minimum and maximum age range of the participants was 10 and 89 respectively. the mean age of the participants was 37.35 (±16.59). the participants were categorized into four age groups i.e., (10-25, 26-40, 41-60, and >60) years. the majority of the respondents were in the age ranges of 2640 and the minority age group was >60 years as indicated above figure 1. table 1. socio-demographic characteristics of the hospital patient (n=400). characteristics n (%) age 1025 years 118(29.50) 26-40 years 156(39.00) 41-60 years 79(19.75) >60 years 47(11.75) gender male 161(40.25) female 239(59.75) marital status single 273 (68.25) married 93 (23.25) divorced 17(4.25) widowed 17 (4.25) education illiterate 147 (36.75) primary school 119 (29.75) high school 73 (18.25) technical school 19(4.75) others 42 (10.50) occupation ngo 16 (4.00) government 47 (11.75) self 173 (43.25) other 163 (40.75) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(3): 65-69 68 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group as shown above table 1, the majority of the respondents were female 239(59.75%, illiterate 147 (36.75%), and unmarried (68.25%). table 2. hospital staying time and dietary food provision status of patients. characteristics n (%) hospital stay time 1-2 weeks 277 (69.25) 2-3 weeks 91 (22.75) >3 weeks 32 (8.00) food rating compared to your home unchanged 134 (33.50) less 54 (13.50) more 212 (53.00) type of diet you usually take high protein 31 (7.75) no restriction 266 (66.50) i don’t know 52 (13.00) with restriction 36 (9.00) standard 15 (3.75) as shown in the above table 2, 277(69.25%), 91(22.75%), and 32(8.00%) 1-2, 2-3, and > 3 weeks had been under hospital treatments respectively. nearly, half, or 212 (53.00%) of the participants responded that the hospital meal they used to get from their respective hospitals is more than what they consume at their own home. among the respondents, 266(66.50%) were on a non-restriction diet and of them, 52(13.00%) had no idea about the daily food provision services. 3. discussion the assessment study showed that the overall patients’ cumulative average satisfaction of the 13 governmental hospitals was 25.25%. this result is a good indicator for the government and others who have interested to conduct similar assessments to improve the nutritional service and health care system in hospitals. conducting such an assessment helps generate better information and evidence that will contribute to the formulation of nutrition policy and programs in the country. it is also important in raising the levels of nutrition service in governmental hospitals after providing the research output for policymakers and interested partners who have an intention to improve the current situation of the patients’ poor condition of nutrition services and its provision procedures at the hospital level. table 3 presents the knowledge capacity of the hospital patients on the daily diet provision and the comments they have on the service provided to them and how they are satisfied in the service. table 3. patients’ knowledge capacity level on hospital internal services characterization response n (%) hospital food is good agree 262 (65.5) disagree 138 (34.50) the dish and utensils are clean agree 336 (84.00) disagree 64 (16.00) the staff who deliver my meal are neat and clean agree 353 (88.25) disagree 47 (11.75) the hospital smell stops me from enjoying my meal agree 100 (25.00) disagree 300 (75.00) i am disturbed by the noise of finished meal trays agree 118 (29.50) disagree 282 (70.50) i can choose a healthy meal agree 86 (21.50) disagree 314 (78.50) the hot drink is at the right temperature agree 279 (69.75) disagree 121(30.25) the meal test is good agree 261(65.25) disagree 139 (34.75) the staff who take away the finished meal are polite agree 313 (78.25) disagree 87 (21.75) the hospital patients’ menu has enough variety agree 142 (35.50) disagree 258 (64.50) the meals have an excellent and distinct flavor agree 245 (61.25) disagree 155 (38.75 i receive enough food agree 245 (61.25) disagree 155 (38.75) i feel hungry between meal intervals agree 102 (25.50) disagree 298 (74.50) overall, the acceptability of the food is good agree 101(25.25) disagree 299 (74.75) some studies showed that many elderly hospitalized patients are still not being identified and are not having their nutritional needs (rasmussen et al., 2004). in the selected hospitals, the hospital menu preparation was not based on guidelines and principles of hospital patients' nutritional food needs and preferences. due to this limitation, hospital patients have been suffering from improper dietary intake provisions for a long time which could be a cause for late recovery. the assessments conducted by bahirdar felge hiwot private wing hospital research results showed much variation in hospital patients' satisfaction levels 57.8% (ambelie, demssie, & gebregziabher, 2014). the overall satisfaction level result obtained from the assessment conducted by the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(3): 65-69 69 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group ethiopian public health institute in collaboration with the federal mistry of health is 25.25%, which is the cumulative average of the 13 hospitals. this result is less than 50% from the felege hiwot private wing hospital. during the assessments, in-surfeit budget allocation, unskilled manpower, lack of menu preparation guidelines, less attention towards nutritional food when compared to clinical services and nationally. lack of clear guidelines and procedures which could equally guide all the government hospitals were the main problem that couldn’t be solved at the hospital level. each hospital administrator and general service manager have strongly complained about this issue. similar research conducted at zambia hospital by dansereau et al. (2015) showed the overall number of patients was 35.70%. in our study, 61.25% of the hospital patients were satisfied with the portion of food they obtained from the hospital and this is almost comparable with zambia’s result of 67.30%. there was no significant association between variables sex and education, education and hospital stay time (p>0.05), and a significant association between age and education (p<0.05). 4. conclusion and recommendation to improve the nutritional food services, from bottom to top or viscera the ministry of health and other partners should closely work together. necessary guidelines and procedures should be prepared by professional experts and dispatched to each hospital with clear budget allocation and close monitoring and evaluation. the allocated budget for food items should be at least revised twice a year due to the food items' price fluctuation from time to time. the lack of skilled manpower in the nutrition profession, food preparation, and patient caretakers should be solved in all hospitals references ambelie, y., demssie, a., & gebregziabher, m. (2014). patients’ satisfaction and associated factors among private wing patients at bahirdar felege hiwot referral hospital, north west ethiopia. science journal of public health, 2(5), 417-423.available at: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sjph.20140205.17. dansereau, e., masiye, f., gakidou, e., masters, s. h., burstein, r., & kumar, s. (2015). patient satisfaction and perceived quality of care: evidence from a cross-sectional national exit survey of hiv and non-hiv service users in zambia. bmj open, 5(12), e009700.available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009700. de aquino, r. d. c., & philippi, s. t. (2011). identification of risk factors for malnutrition in hospitalized patients. journal of the brazilian medical association, 57(6), 637-643. kenea, m. a., garoma, s., & gemede, h. f. (2015). assessment of adult nutritional status and associated factors among art users in nekemte referral hospital and health center, east wollega zone, ethiopia. journal of food and nutrition sciences, 3(2), 5663.available at: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jfns.20150302.15. kruizenga, h. m., seidell, j., de vet, h. c., & wierdsma, n. (2005). development and validation of a hospital screening tool for malnutrition: the short nutritional assessment questionnaire (snaq©). clinical nutrition, 24(1), 75-82.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2004.07.015. o’flynn, j., peake, h., hickson, m., foster, d., & frost, g. (2005). the prevalence of malnutrition in hospitals can be reduced: results from three consecutive cross-sectional studies. clinical nutrition, 24(6), 1078–1088.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2005.08.012. rasmussen, h. h., kondrup, j., staun, m., ladefoged, k., kristensen, h., & wengler, a. (2004). prevalence of patients at nutritional risk in danish hospitals. clinical nutrition, 23(5), 1009–1015. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 69 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 8, no. 3, 69-76, 2021 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2021.83.69.76 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group empirical investigation of omni-channel customer behavior: multiple mediation effects of website and mobile interactivity hai ninh nguyen1 thanh ha thi le2 ( corresponding author) 1,2school of international business and economic, foreign trade university, chua lang, dong da, ha noi, viet nam. abstract while existing retail research has focused on retail channels in isolation from a single or multichannel retailing perspective, there is a need to investigate shopping behavioral intention from an omni-channel and customer-centric retailing perspective. the main of this study is to analyze the customer omni-channel behavior under multiple mediating effects of website and mobile interactivity. data collected from valid 287 respondents via both online and paper form. partial least squares structural equation modeling (pls-sem) and smart-pls software have been used to test proposed hypotheses. the result underlined the significant positive effects of technology literacy, attitude towards website interactivity and attitude towards mobile device interactivity on customer’s behavioral intention. moreover, website interactivity and augmented reality have highest impact attitude towards website interactivity and attitude towards mobile device interactivity respectively. keywords: omnichannel customer behavior, technology literacy, mobile payment technology, live pop-up chats, augmented reality. jel classification: m10; m30; m37. citation | hai ninh nguyen; thanh ha thi le (2021). empirical investigation of omni-channel customer behavior: multiple mediation effects of website and mobile interactivity. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 8(3): 69-76. history: received: 17 june 2021 revised: 20 july 2021 accepted: 13 august 2021 published: 3 september 2021 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 70 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 70 3. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................... 71 4. main findings ................................................................................................................................................................................... 72 5. discussion and implications .......................................................................................................................................................... 74 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 75 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2021.83.69.76&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/3264 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1658-531x asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 69-76 70 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper contributes to the literature by underlining the impact of customer interactivity on website and mobile application on their behavior in omni-channel retail model. in which the technology literacy, mobile payment technology, live pop-up chats and augmented reality have identified as the main antecedents. 1. introduction omni-channel is an evolution of the multichannel customer approach, which has taken place over the last years across multiple industries (lazaris & vrechopoulos, 2014; verhoef, kannan, & inman, 2015). an omni-channel approach aims to create a seamless customer experience regardless of where in the purchase process the consumer is or which channel is used (piotrowicz & cuthbertson, 2014). verhoef et al. (2015) provides one of the most wellcited definitions of an omni-channel approach; “the synergetic management of the numerous available channels and customer touchpoints, in such a way that the customer experience across channels and the performance over channels is optimized”. through technology, retail firms may integrate all the information gathered through their different channels. this allows consumers to choose the most suiting channel for each situation in their interaction with the company and consumers increasingly seek out retailers that provide this type of seamless shopping experience. scholars argue that technology has made omni-channel retailing inevitable with in-store technologies, augmented reality, location-based services and mobile devices integrating the offline channels with online channels in the retail environment (lazaris, vrechopoulos, fraidaki, & doukidis, 2014). omni-channel retailing has further enabled firms to interact with individual consumers at various touchpoints along the purchase process in a more unique way. previous cosmetics retail-related findings have shown that females have a more positive attitude and shop more frequently in contrast to males. although these findings indicate that females are a key target market for cosmetics shopping, few studies have been explored from an omni-channel retail environment viewpoint. since technology facilitates interactivity in the retail world, technology is an important feature of this study. interestingly, research concerning the impact of technology advancement in the context of cosmetics in an omni-channel retail environment has not yet been investigated. nor has the possibility of a relationship between technology investment and omni-channel retailing. with relevance to literature based on interactivity, some studies have established a link between value and interactivity, while other studies have not. more importantly, the levels of interactivity have scarcely been researched and because shoppers respond differently to different types of technology, the application of these themes to an omni-channel retail environment would produce significant findings. 2. literature review 2.1. customer omnichannel beahviors “behavioral intentions are instructions that people give to themselves to behave in certain ways” (triandis, 1980). they are people’s decisions to perform particular actions. intentions can be inferred from participants’ responses that have the form, “i intend to do x”, “i plan to do x’, or “i will do x’. in psychological terms, a behavioral intention indexes a person’s motivation to perform a behavior. that is, behavioral intentions encompass both the direction (to do x vs. not to do x) and the intensity (e.g., how much time and effort the person is prepared to expend in order to do x) of a decision. the intention construct lies at the heart of theories of attitude-behavior relations and models of health-related behavior. according to the theory of reasoned action, intentions are the proximal predictors of behavior and mediate the influence of both the theory’s predictors (attitudes and subjective norms) and extraneous variables (e.g., personality) on behavior. likewise, protection motivation theory assumes that behavioral intentions mediate the relationship between the putative predictors (threat appraisal and coping appraisal) and behavior. the theory of planned behavior also assumes that intentions are the most important predictor of behavior but acknowledges that people may not always have sufficient control over performing the behavior to enact their intentions (ajzen, 1985, 1991). similarly, triandis (1980) suggests that “low facilitating conditions” could prevent performance of an intended behavior. triandis (1980) also points out that certain behaviors are more likely to be controlled by “habits” than by conscious intentions. in this case, we are yet to identify the behavior of customers buying cosmetics products. instead, we are trying to determine how intentional behavior is affected by attitudes towards different channel interactivity. 2.2. technology literacy searching for the term technology literacy is always related to information and communication technology (ict). markauskaite (2006) suggests that technological literacy is part of ict literacy that falls into the category of inter-literacy perspectives including the ability to use ict as an integral part of basic literacy. maryl and technology education state curriculum suggests that technology literacy is the ability to use, understand, regulate and assess an innovation that involves processes and knowledge to solve problems and expand one’s abilities. according to the national academy of engineering and the national research council of the national academics, literacy technology is an understanding of technology at a level that enables effective use in modern technology which consists of three main components, namely knowledge, ability and critical thinking, and decisionmaking. based on the above definition, technology literacy can be interpreted as an ability that consists of aspects of science, critical thinking skills, and decision-making in an effort to effectively utilize technology/innovation of human works. under the realm of omnichannel retailing which utilizes technology to enhance customer’s seemless experience, technology literacy play a crucial role in determining both customer’s attitude towards interactivity in different channels and customer’s behavioral intention in general. for such reasons, the hypotheses were developed as below: • h1: there is significant effect of technology literacy (te) on behavioral intention (beh). • h2: there is significant effect of technology literacy (te) on attitude towards website interactivity (awi). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 69-76 71 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group • h3: there is significant effect of technology literacy (te) on attitude towards mobile device interactivity (ami). 2.3. interactivity at omnichannel’s pos – website channel as a retail channel, online retailing which use internet-based technology is useful for improving the persuasion and comprehension competencies of websites. for this particular pos, the author chooses three main factor affecting customer’s interactivity which are (1) website atmospherics, (2) live pop-up chats, (3) technology excellence. 2.3.1. website atmospherics the classification of the atmospherics cues of a virtual shopping outlet into three groups: the structural factors, the atmospheric factors and the social factors. thus, navigation features (easiness of navigation, the internal search engine, the organization of menus and website structure and layouts) become the structural factors. whereas, the design characteristics, that affect the e-customers’ senses and shape their emotional states (music, color, videos, light, odor, entertainment, text and images), are associated with the atmospheric factors. as for the social factors, they are presented by the overall environment agents (baker, parasuraman, grewal, & voss, 2002). 2.3.2. live pop-up chats a live pop-up chat is a communicative tool that allows for a two-way dialogue to be created. the way it works is that a message bar will “pop up” at the bottom of the user’s screen when a retailer’s online store is visited and real salespeople will greet, address and assist consumers with their enquiries and problems via an “online chat” that takes place in real time. what is understood is that interactivity over the internet allows consumers to actively partake in the persuasion process, as users are able to control the messages they are exposed to in mediated environments (song & zinkhan, 2008; stewart & pavlou, 2002). users are also able to choose and, therefore, have control over the content, time and communication act that they participate in (li, daugherty, & biocca, 2002). this is known as active control. users achieve active control when they are more cognitively involved in an interactive online activity, which then generates engagement as it allows users to communicate in real-time (cho & leckenby, 1999; liu & shrum, 2002; mcmillan, 2000; stewart & pavlou, 2002). thus, the study proposes the following hypotheses: • h4: there is significant effect of attitudes towards website interactivity (awi) on behavioral intention (beh). • h5: there is significant effect of website atmospherics (wat) on attitude towards website interactivity (awi). • h6: there is significant effect of live pop-up chats (lpc) on attitude towards website interactivity (awi). 2.4. interactivities at pos – mobile device channel the development of new digital and more specifically, mobile channel has led to the consideration of smartphones as a separate sales channel. at this pos, the research mainly focuses on 2 separate factors for interactivity which are (1) mobile payment technology and (2) augmented reality. 2.4.1. mobile payment technology mobile payments commonly provide access to account-based funds, such as account transfers, direct online banking, debit or credit cards. the typical usage entails the user choosing to make a mobile payment, connecting to a server via the mobile device to perform authentication and authorization, and subsequently, the user is presented with confirmation of the complete transaction. a mobile payment service comprises of all technologies that are offered to the user as well as all the tasks that the payment service providers perform to commit payment transactions (rushabh, 2015). when we consider mobile payment technology at a pos which is mobile device, this method enables the consumer to pay for goods or services using their mobile device. overall, existing research concerning the effects of mobile payment technology is limited and this exposes a need to investigate this technology further and in an omni-channel retail environment. 2.4.2. augmented reality augmented reality (ar) is defined as “a real-time direct or indirect view of a physical real-world environment that has been enhanced/augmented by adding virtual computer-generated information to it carmigniani et al. (2011). ar technology is increasingly adopted by marketers as a tool of product display. ar based product display enables consumers to engage in computer-mediated communication and interact with the interface, which increase perceived interactivity. research has examined that perceived interactivity can further impact satisfaction, immersion, attitude of consumer (hoffman & novak, 2009; song & zinkhan, 2008). huang and liao (2015) concluded that, ar allows the user to interact with the virtual images using real objects in a seamless way. in this way, ar based display aligns real and virtual objects with each other in real time, which offers consumers both utilitarian and hedonic values and thus may enhance consumers’ attitudes towards the product displayed. • h7: there is significant effect of attitude towards mobile device interactivity (ami) on behavioral intention (beh). • h8: there is significant effect of mobile payment technology (mpt) on attitude towards mobile device interactivity (ami). • h9: there is significant effect of augmented reality (aur) on attitude towards mobile device interactivity (ami). 3. research methodology this study attempts to identify the influential factors concerned with attitude towards website interactivity and attitude towards mobile device interactivity on customer’s behavioral intention towards cosmetics product. the research aim at the customers who have used l’oreal’s cosmetics products. to conduct the survey, we co-operated with hanoi sme association to do surveying with employees working in their members. primary data was collected through 2 ways: direct interview at l’oreal cosmetics physical stores and online investigation through asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 69-76 72 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group facebook group from december 2020 to february 2021. the demographical variables such as age, gender, educational level was used to be moderating variables. a pre-test of questionnaire was conducted in december 2020 with 50 customers of different demographic traits and shopping channels. after collecting the pre-test data, the questionnaire was edited and adjusted to fit with the real condition. the collected data was analyzed smart pls 3.3.3 software program. 3.1. sample selection the total population of this study is customers buying l’oreal cosmetics products in different channels of omni channel retailing in hanoi city. there were around 100 people who were directly interviewed and 300 people who reply by google form in total of 400 surveyors. after elimination of cases having incomplete data and outliners, the final sample was 287 valid sampling unit for a total response rate of 71.75%. table 1 provides the demographical profile of the respondents. most respondents in the study were female (76,3%); the two highest percentage of respondents’ age are 26-35 and <25 with 41.1% and 25,4% respectively. the results of descriptive statistics also indicated that a large percentage of respondents has highest educational level of bachelor (58,9%). table-1. demographical profile of the respondents (n=287). demographic variables category frequency percentage (%) gender male 26 9.1% female 219 76.3% lgbt 42 14.6% age <25 73 25.4% 26-35 118 41.1% 36-45 41 14.3% >45 55 19.2% educational level high school or lower 20 7% undergraduate 42 14.6% bachelor 169 58.9% master or higher 56 19.5% 3.2 measurements the level of which each independent variable affects behavioral intention is measured from 1 (least effect) to 5 (greatest effect) as interval scale of likert. the measurement will have 5 scale: 1totally disagree, 2disagree, 3 neutral, 4agree, 5totally agree. the variables include: (1) behavioral intention; (2) technology literacy; (3) attitude towards website interactivity; (4) attitude towards mobile device interactivity; (5) website atmospherics; (6) live pop-up chats, (7) mobile payment technology and (8) augmented reality (appendix 1). 3.3. data analysis procedure this study used the smart pls to conduct descriptive statistics and inferential statistical techniques as: factor analysis and structural equation modeling. the structural equation modeling (sem) was conducted to identify the influential factors that may affect the behavioral intention of customer towards cosmetics product. in terms of analysis, anderson and gerbing (1988) stated that pls – sem is a two-step process involving assessment of the measurement and structural model. first, the measurement model was assessed by examining the cronbach anpha (ca), internal composite reliability (cr), convergent validity (cv) and discriminant validity (dv) (hair jr, sarstedt, ringle, & gudergan, 2017). 4. main findings the study is carried on by applying pls-sem technique for development of theoretical model and consequently the findings and the interpretation among the variables have been conducted accordingly. the data analysis was performed by smartpls 3.3.3. according to urbach and ahlemann (2010) plssem can be applied to the analysis of non-normally distributed data, does not demand a large sample size, and serves the purposes of exploratory study rather than theory testing. besides, worthington and whittaker (2006) argued that pls-sem is more suitable than cb-sem for theory development in the case of the number of valid cases fewer than the minimum required sample size – 300. thus, with the number of 287 valid cases, pls-sem is properly applied to this study. along with the instruction of conducting and reporting pls-sem analysis (hair, risher, sarstedt, & ringle, 2019) suggested 2 main steps: (1) evaluation of the measurement models and (2) the structural model. 4.1. measurement models to satisfy convergent validity, indicator outer loading should exceed 0.70 and both indicator reliability and average variance extracted (ave) should be higher than 0.50. discriminant validity was assessed by the fornell– larcker criterion and cross-loadings. the square root of ave of each latent construct should be higher than the ecorrelations with other latent constructs based on the fornell–larcker criterion. in addition, an indicator’s outer loading on the associated construct should be higher than its cross loadings with all other constructs (hair jr et al., 2017). composite reliability and cronbach’s alphas between 0.60 and 0.70 indicate acceptable internal consistency in exploratory research, with values between 0.70 and 0.90 indicating satisfactory to good reliability (hair et al., 2019). from the analysis result, it was found that the behavioral intention construct would be reliable and valid after deleting 1 item (wat1) from website atmospherics construct with the outer loadings equal to or less than 0.07. all the rest 24 items have satisfactory levels of convergent validity and reliability with outer loadings > 0.70 (significant); indicator reliability > 0.50 (good) and ave > 0.50 (acceptable). the composite reliability and cr asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 69-76 73 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group value of 8 factors have range from 0.817 to 1. the beh met the evaluation criteria of discriminant validity based on the fornell–larcker criterion and higher outer loadings, eight factors showed the different from each other and no construct is represented by other constructs in the model table 2. table-2. internal consistency reliability and convergent validity. constructs measurement item factor loadings ca cr ave augmented reality aur (3 items) 0.835 0.860 0.799 0.882 0.713 live pop-up chats lpc (5 items) 0.729 0.836 0.848 0.892 0.623 mobile payment technology mpt (5 items) 0.747 0.820 0.857 0.897 0.637 technology literacy te (4 items) 0.777 0.827 0.814 0.817 0.642 website atmospherics wat (5 items) 0.743 -0.860 0.845 0.896 0.684 note: all item loadings are significant at .001 (p < .001). ca = cronbach’s anpha, ave = average variance extracted, cr = composite reliability. wat1 was deleted due to low factor loadings. to depict the extent to which a construct is truly distinct from other constructs by empirical standards, hair jr et al. (2017) suggested the discriminant validity. henseler, ringle, and sarstedt (2015) suggested the heterotraitmonotrait ratio of correlations (htmt) approach to determine the discriminant validity of the constructs. in order to achieve the discriminant validity, the htmt value should not be greater than the htmt.85 value of 0.85 (clark, watson, & reynolds, 1995; kline, 2011) or the htmt.90 value of 0.90 (gold, malhotra, & segars, 2001; teo, srivastava, & jiang, 2008). moreover, fornell and larcker (1981) stated that for each variable, the square roots of the ave should be greater than any of the correlations involving the said variable. therefore, study use the square roots of ave coefficients to measure the validity of constructs. the results of table 3 indicate that the measures used in this research have discriminant validity. table-3. discriminant validity. aur lpc mpt te wat aur 0.845 lpc 0.299 0.789 mpt 0.422 0.413 0.798 te 0.219 0.253 0.218 0.801 wat 0.411 0.415 0.488 0.195 0.827 to examine the multicollinearity, study use the variance inflation factors (vif). a vif value greater than 5 indicates the multicollinearity (hair, sarstedt, hopkins, & kuppelwieser, 2014). the analysis results show that the lowest vif value is 1.000 and the highest value is 2.236 lower than 5 that indicating no multicollinearity issue. 4.2. structural models structural model was assessed to test the three causal relationships: (1) between attitude towards website interactivity, attitude towards mobile device interactivity and behavioral intention; (2) between technology literacy and attitude towards website interactivity, attitude towards mobile device interactivity, behavioral intention, (3) between attitude towards website interactivity and live pop-up chats, website atmospherics, technology literacy and (4) between attitude towards mobile device interactivity and mobile payment technology, augmented reality, technology literacy figure-1. measurement model. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 69-76 74 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group hair et al. (2014) stated the coefficient of determination (r2 values) and path coefficient ( values) were parameters to determine how well the data supported the hypothesized relationships. a bootstrapping process with 5000 interactions was performed to generate t-values and standard errors to confirm the statistical significance. in which, r2 is used to measure the predictive accuracy of the model and by gronemus et al. (2010), r2 represents the percentage of variance in the dependent variables as explained by the independent variables in the model. the path coefficients ( values) indicate the degree of change in the dependent variable for each independent variable (gronemus et al., 2010; pallant & tennant, 2007). along with r2, the effect size (f2) and predictive relevance (q2) for each path can be considered as weak to large effect (hair jr et al., 2017). the effect size f2 measures the changes in r2 when a specific exogenous variable is excluded from the model and evaluate whether substantial changes occur in the endogenous latent variable. cohen (1988) gives the guidelines to assess the f2 whereby 0.02, 0.15 and 0.35 indicate small, medium and large effects, respectively. hair et al. (2014) suggested using the blindfolding (a sample reuse technique that omits every dth data point in the indicators of the endogenous constructs) to assess the q2 – predictive relevance. the q2 value larger than 0 indicates that model has predictive relevance for a certain dependent construct (akter, d'ambra, & ray, 2011). moreover, the model fit was assessed by using srmr. due to hair jr et al. (2017) the srmr value below 0.10 indicating the acceptable model fit. the results of table 4 and figure 1 show that the path coefficients for the relationships that were statistically significant due to p values < 0.05. however, since the p values of 2 relationships > 0.05 (te → ami, te → awi) the relationship were not statistically significant and hence are not supported. table-4. hypotheses testing. hypotheses path o m stdev t p decision h1 te → beh 0.138 0.139 0.041 3.352 0.001 supported h4 awi → beh 0.605 0.607 0.044 13.865 0.000 supported h5 wat → awi 0.483 0.483 0.043 11.176 0.000 supported h6 lpc → awi 0.454 0.453 0.050 9.003 0.000 supported h7 ami → beh 0.227 0.226 0.053 4.280 0.000 supported h8 mpt → ami 0.387 0.388 0.054 7.198 0.000 supported h9 aur → ami 0.536 0.536 0.033 16.325 0.000 supported as shown in table 5, attitude towards mobile device interactivity and attitude towards website interactivity can be explained around 58% of variance explained of behavioral intention (r2=0.580), whereas 62% of variance of attitude towards mobile device interactivity explained by website interactivity, live pop-up chats and technology literacy (r2=0.620). in addition, 63.3% variance for attitude towards website interactivity was explained by mobile payment technology, augmented reality and technology literacy (r2=0.633). moreover, the three r2 values are over 0.1, thus the predictive capability is established. in order to assess the predictive relevance, we examine the q2 values. the results show that all q2 values of 0.571, 0.594 and 0.610 exceed 0 representing that the behavioral intention, attitude towards mobile device interactivity and attitude towards website interactivity demonstrating acceptable predictive relevance. additionally, the srmr value is 0.068 < 0.10 that indicates the acceptable model fit table-5. r2, q2, smrm. r2 q2 smrm behavioral intention 0.580 0.571 0.068 attitude towards mobile device interactivity 0.620 0.594 attitude towards website interactivity 0.633 0.610 5. discussion and implications the study utilized pls-sem to investigate the relationships of 8 variables: behavioral intention, attitude towards mobile device interactivity, attitude towards website interactivity, website atmospherics, live pop-up chats, mobile payment technology, augmented reality and technology literacy. the findings indicate that attitude towards website interactivity has the most significant effect on behavioral intention towards cosmetics product in omnichannel retail environments (h4). this indicates that in order for customer to intentionally behave positively when buying l’oreal cosmetics products, they firstly need to have positive attitudes (dominant, enjoyable, satisfied, …) especially in the website environment. the variable technology literacy and attitude towards mobile device interactivity were proven to also have positive effect on behavioral intention even though the impact is relatively small compared to attitude towards website interactivity. regarding the indirect effect, the structured model confirmed other relationships that website atmospherics and live pop-up chats have positive influence on attitude towards website interactivity (h5, h6). technology literacy seems to have no significant effect on this variable. specifically, among two kinds of interactivities, the website atmospherics plays the most important role, then the live pop-up chats. this is quite correct since cosmetics products are purchased a lot through e-commerce platforms nowadays. one of the most popular platforms in vietnam is shopee, which has good user interface and other mentioned website atmospherics. the current study also reveals that mobile payment technology and augmented reality having positive impacts on attitude towards mobile device interactivity (h8, h9). technology literacy was found to have very little effect on attitude towards mobile device interactivity. between mobile payment technology and augmented reality, the augmented reality has much larger effect than the mobile payment technology. this is quite interesting because augmented reality is a new concept in vietnam market. by looking at the great advantages augmented reality brings to customers, we can affirm that this technology has a lot for retailers to cultivate in the near future. there are some managerial implications that enterprises can apply to enhance customers’ attitude in different points of sale and most importantly, increase customers’ behavioral intention to purchase cosmetics products. in asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 69-76 75 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the short run, retailers or enterprises can focus on website interactivity first since it would bring instant and significant change to the overall behavioral intention of customers. references ajzen, i. 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(2006). scale development research: a content analysis and recommendations for best practices. the counseling psychologist, 34(6), 806-838. available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 69-76 76 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group appendix-1. scale of measurement. behavioral intentions – bei bei1 i intent to continue using l’oreal cosmetics products in the future website atmospherics wat wat1 the color is very well-blended wat2 the pictures of product are visually appealing wat3 the fonts are easy to read wat4 background music is pleasant wat5 product presentation is useful live pop-up chats lpc lpc1 live pop-up chats give me instant answers lpc2 live pop-up chats give me useful information lpc3 live pop-up chat is easy to use lpc4 live pop-up chats make me feel in control of conversation lpc5 live pop-up chats allow me to do different tasks at the same time online product reviews – opr opr1 online product review is useful to me opr2 online product review gives me abundant information about product opr3 online product review helps me compare different products’ prices opr4 online product review helps me compare different products’ quality mobile payment technology – mpt mpt1 mobile payment technology allows me to have continuous shopping experience mpt2 mobile payment technology is innovative mpt3 mobile payment technology is useful mpt4 mobile payment technology is easy to use mpt5 mobile payment technology is safe to use augmented reality aur aur1 augmented reality reflects the movement correctly when i move the product aur2 augmented reality helps me to visualize how it will be when i use products in real life aur3 augmented reality helps me to learn new information by matching with my life history asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 29 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 1, 29-36, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4447 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group inter-linkages between the stock exchanges of emerging economies: evidence from brics ashwini tubinakere krishnegowda1 tamizharasi durai2 suma sathyanarana3 ( corresponding author) 1,3department of mba and research centre, rns institute of technology, bengaluru, karnataka, india. 1email: ashwinitk.krishna16@gmail.com 3email: sumaiyer777@gmail.com 2rv institute of management, bengaluru, india. 2email: tamizharasi.d@gmail.com abstract the economic liberalization took place in the year 1991, opened up wide range of opportunities to the industries, service providers as well as to the investors. investors overcome the geographical boundaries to diversify their portfolio to foreign markets. so, it is highly important to understand the inter-linkages among the nations. the present study chosen the brazil, russia, india, china and south africa (brics) consortium’s stock market indices to analyze the connectedness among them, by taking the daily closing price levels, from 1st of feb 2015 to 31st of march 2021, applied descriptive statistics, unit root test, granger causality test and johansen co-integration tests are performed. the results unveil that, the data sample is stationary; there exists the interlinkages among the brics nations stock markets. india’s stock market has major impacts on brazil, china, south africa as well as russia, where as india will not receive major impacts from china, russia and south africa. study concludes that diversifying the portfolio to foreign countries stock markets benefit the investors with increased returns and reduced risk. the study results helps the investors to diversify their portfolios into foreign stock exchanges to get stabilized returns understanding the relationship among emerging countries stock exchanges. keywords: brics, co-integration, diversification, emerging economies, emerging markets, granger causality, inter-linkages, portfolio, stock markets. jel classification: g15. citation | krishnegowda, a. t., durai, t., & sathyanarana, s. (2023). inter-linkages between the stock exchanges of emerging economies: evidence from brics. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(1), 29–36. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4447 history: received: 4 november 2022 revised: 10 january 2023 accepted: 21 january 2023 published: 2 february 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 30 2. objectives of the study ................................................................................................................................................................... 31 3. review of literature ........................................................................................................................................................................ 31 4. methodology and data ................................................................................................................................................................... 32 5. results of the study......................................................................................................................................................................... 33 6. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 35 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 35 mailto:ashwinitk.krishna16@gmail.com mailto:sumaiyer777@gmail.com mailto:tamizharasi.d@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4447 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8088-8577 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9382-4214 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6220-6686 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 29-36 30 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the present study emphasizes on the countries in the brics consortium have scope for diversification, study identified that countries that have weaker correlation help investors to diversify their portfolios at times of high economic volatility to get stabilized returns, whereas not much literature stressed identifying countries with weaker integration of stock markets. 1. introduction the economic liberalization happened in the year 1991, which was led by prime minister p v narasimha rao and then finance minister dr. manmohan singh, gave rise to the equity markets expansion worldwide, especially the emerging markets grown at the faster rate than any other european markets over the period of time. alongside, a rapid development and availability of information technology provided our investors and traders think globally, diversifying their portfolios, through making investments in other developed and emerging countries stock markets to explore and boost their portfolio returns to the maximum. financial integration is the fizzy word in the financial terms. the correlation between the movements of share prices around the stock markets in the world due to the integration existed among the stock markets world wide. it is precedent that during the crisis time, stock markets collapse together. the global financial crisis of 2007 – 2008, was considered as most serious global crisis, since great depression. covid-19 carried out unprecedented impact on the stock markets leads to deep crash in the global stock markets. however, way back in 2001, goldmansach’s o’nill, forecasted the need of bric formation to overgrow the global gdp of 1.7% in 2002. o’nill colleagues wilson and purushothaman, authored in “dreaming with brics: the path of 2050”, brics economy will grow better than g7 in 20031. global financial crisis and the oil price crisis in the year 2008 gave a hit back to the brics economic growth. table 1 presents the gdp growth of bric countries since 1994 and forecasted till 2026. table 1. the gdp growth of bric countries since 1994 and forecasted till 2026. bric countries: growth rate of the real gross domestic product (gdp) from 1994 to 2026 (compared to the previous year) countries/year brazil china india russia 1994-2003 2.5 9.4 6 0.7 2006 4 12.7 9.5 8.2 2007 6.1 14.2 10 8.5 2008 5.2 9.6 6.2 5.2 2009 -0.3 9.2 6.6 -7.8 2010 7.5 10.4 10.6 4.3 2011 2.7 9.2 7.2 4.3 2016 -3.28 6.87 8.26 0.19 2017 1.32 6.95 6.8 1.83 2018 1.78 6.73 6.53 2.81 2019 1.41 5.82 4.04 2.03 2020 -4.06 2.27 -7.97 -3.06 2021* 3.66 8.44 12.55 3.76 2022* 2.57 5.57 6.93 3.75 2023* 2.14 5.44 6.82 2.1 2024* 2.02 5.27 6.69 1.8 2025* 2.02 5.12 6.62 1.8 2026* 2.02 4.86 6.54 1.8 note: source: * indicates the brics country’s gdp growth forecast. world economic outlook (2012) & international monetory fund (imf)@ statista 2021. figure 1.gdp growth of brics nations. note: * indicates the brics country’s gdp growth rate forecast. evidence from the figure 1, it is clear that, as these brics country’s stock markets (sharma, mahendru, & singh, 2013) are inter-linked, carries both positive and negative impact parallel. 2008 global crisis had unprecedented impact in 2009 leading decreased and negative growth in gdp (wenjie, mico, & malhar, 2019). in 2020, economic growth decelerated due to the impact of covid-19 pandemic and has carry forward ramifications asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 29-36 31 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group in the subsequent years too, other emerging countries and other developed countries too require some more years to recover from the negative impacts of covid-19 pandemic. the current efforts are directed to understand the level of relationship, indian stock market has with other countries in the brics consortium. the study flow follows as it mentioned in the below table: table 2 presents the flow of the study report table 2. table showing the flow of the study. section number content 1 2 3 4 5 6 introduction to the concept research objectives review of literature methodology and data results of the study descriptive analysis, unit root test, granger causality test, johanson co-integration test conclusion 2. objectives of the study the study aims to attain the following objectives (1) to study the return pattern of the stock markets, evident from brazil, russia, india, china and south africa. (2) to find out the connectedness between stock markets considered for the study. (3) to scrutiny the recall patterns in the justness markets of brics. 3. review of literature numerous studies already been carried out to understand and analyze the connectedness between the stock markets of india with that of developed as well as emerging countries. literatures on inter-linkages of global markets, emerging markets and brics stock markets are considered to review. sharma and bodla (2011) this research study has been conducted on the sample from benchmark stock exchange indices from india, pakistan and srilanka for 7 years long from 2003 to 2010 and concludes that national stock exchange (india) have aftermath effects on karachi stock exchanges (pakistan) and colombo stock exchange (sri lanka) and conversely not true. tripathi and sethi (2010) this paper investigated the connectedness of indian stock markets with that of us, china, united kingdom and japan stock market for a period of 1998 to 2008, applied johansen and granger’s causality test, culminates that, india’s stock market is inter-linked with us stock market but not with other sample variables (china, uk and japan). unifacial causality was observed. sharma and bodla (2010) despite small number of researches deduce, no compatibility between the global stock markets, there exists a connectedness and interdependency among each other stock markets and carries considerable importance due to the increased level of economic development. cenk and bibigul (2016) the study investigates the impact of global financial crisis on stock markets of india, china, usa and japan through exponentialgeneralized autoregressive conditional heteroscedastic (e-garch) model and also examines the volatility spillovers among the sample stock markets using granger’s causality test, the study concludes that precedence to impact of covid -19, global financial crisis too impacted usa stock market vulnerably with other stock markets in the sample except shanghai stock exchanges. granger’s causality test results in less volatility spill over experienced by japan, usa, indian stock markets received spill over from other stock markets, but china had received no effect. marfatia (2017) this research manuscript combines the advantages of parametric and non-parametric approaches to understand the integration and co-movements across the global market, with a sample of 22 leading stock exchange indices, observations been made 18 long years, applied garch and wavelet (a wave like oscillation with an ampltitude that begins at zero, increases or decreases and then reduces to zero one or more times) model, which concludes that there exists increasingly integration among the selected stock markets in terms of returns, still gives an opportunity to diversify the risk by international portfolio investments, as the study findings conclude that weaker degree of co movement exists at higher frequencies (rajani & suresh, 2020). the study has examined the inter linkages among the selected asian stock markets and remark on covid-19 impact for the time period of 1st december 2019 to 31st march 2020, concludes that shanghai stock exchange is negative correlated with other asian country stock markets, mainly with indian nifty. in mid of unexpected financial and health crisis hit stock markets across globe, but country like china and india have their own rebounding strategies, reached high the post recession. nandy and chattopadhyay (2019) vector auto regression (var) analysis, dynamic conditional correlation-multivriate-threshold autoregressive condi-tional heteroscedastic (dccmv—tarch) and granger causality tests been applied to study the interdependency among the financial markets at different time intervals, study resulted in, significant uneven volatility in domestic and foreign exchange markets as well as between domestic and asian stock markets. there exists a unifacial movement between the stock markets. kathiravan et al. (2018) the research manuscript, investigated and resulted that weather factors like, temperature, humidity and wind speed too have significant impact on the stock market returns, same has been proved with the statistical tools on the sample of indian stock market. babu, hariharan, and srinivasan (2016) the study was conducted for a time period from 2009 to 2014 taking the daily data on asia pacific stock markets like, bombay stock exchange (india), australian stock exchange, shanghai stock exchange (chennai), tokyo stock exchange (japan) and hong kong stock exchange to test the inter-linkages among these stock markets and witnessed that there exists a long relationship between asia pacific stock markets. singh and kishor (2017) the study was conducted for the time series return from indian stock markets and 4 four developed stock market like usa, uk, japan and hong kong stock market to investigate the inter-linkages and relationship among them. it is evidenced that, indian stock market is influenced by usa and uk, rather have significant effect on japan and hong kong stock markets. the existence of long run relationship among the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 29-36 32 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group selected stock markets was not found. sharma et al. (2013) study was conducted on the stock market of brazil, russia, india, china and south africa, statistical calculations witnessed the linkage among the stock markets which are picked up as sample, and are influenced by each other stock markets, gives scope for diversification to the investors spread over the brics countries. dua and tuteja (2016) in this research article, garch-bekk (named after baba, engle, kraft and kroner) framework was applied to examine the inter-linkages between india and us, foreign exchange and money markets to study the impact of global financial crisis on the handpicked samples. the study proves that regarding volatility spillover, indian financial markets reacts to the domestic as well as us financial market’s shocks, but have no much influence on us financial markets. kumar (2015) the study was conducted to examine the connectedness and co-integration among india and world economy (us, europe and other emerging markets) and evidenced that the absence of contagious effect on indian stock market and cointegration exists between indian and world economy at a low level, but global shocks can sabotage the indian stock market as well as the entire economy in the long run. sehgal, mittal, and mittal (2019) the study analyzed the vigorous cohesiveness between the brics and other emerging country’s stock markets, applied asymmetric dynamic. conditional correlation – exponential garch (adcc)-egarch and block aggregation technique, resulted in moderate integration within the brics stock markets and with other emerging stock markets too. adding mexico, chile, hungary, turkey and poland along with brics creates a better balance among emerging and developed stock markets, which in turn results in superior financial integration. mukhodobwane, sigauke, chagwiza, and garira (2020) the study constructed the volatility modeling for the brics countries, as it is a key factor for investors in diversifying the portfolio risk at an international level. ranking was made in the descending hierarchical order based on the volatility, chinese stock market stands first, as it is highly volatile, followed by south africa, russia, india and lastly brazil stock markets as it least volatile in brics community. the study has taken the daily closing levels of the benchmark indices of bric countries for a period of 5 years and through statistical tools like var model, granger’s causality test, evidenced that brics stock markets have effects on each other’s stock markets, but con not influence the chinese stock market. tripathi and kumar (2016) an extensive study was conducted to understand the long run relationship between the macro economic factors like inflation, interest rate, gdp, money supply, exchange rate and stock prices among the brics countries for a period of 19 years, evidenced that uni-facial causality exists in the long run from stock prices to inflation, interest rates and gdp. bi-lateral relationship was found between stock prices to oil prices and money supply in the long run. juneja (2017) the study was with regard to the objective of investigating the volatility amidst bric countries from 2007 to 2017 for 10 long years and found that indian stock market strongly cointegrated with russian stock market with 62% correlation and weak connectedness with chinese and brazilian stock markets with lesser correlation of 16 and 2% respectively. allimuthu (2019) it was found that there is interdependency between the stock markets. the study revealed that there was a co-movement of stock prices on an international platform. further investigation done by rajkumar (2015) revealed that there is an integration between indian stock market and 3 other markets namely malaysia, indonesia and singapore. a study conducted by umer, sevil, and kamişli (2015) proves that there exists the strong integration between stock prices and exchange rates of 0 emerging markets. analysis of the aforesaid literatures in the areas of inter-linkages and volatility spillover among the brics countries as well as developed and other emerging stock markets, evidenced that unprecedented pandemics and financial crisis like covid-19 and global financial crisis 2008 respectively influence the stock markets across the globe, but india and us economies have their own rebounding strategies to overcome the same. chinese stock markets are strong enough to absorb the global shocks but does not react and influence by the macro economic factors. expanding the brics consortium with few other emerging economies like chile, hungary, mexico, poland and turkey to the brics will ensure the emerging markets to over grow the developed countries economic growth. statistical tools like var model, granger’s causality test, adcc-egarch model, dcc-mv-tarch model and rarely johansen cointegration tests been applied to carry out the research studies earlier to 2019. hence the research paper has used descriptive statistics, unit root test, granger’s causality test and in addition johansen co-integration tests are used to arrive at the results, as study of brics stock markets been carried out till 2016, considered the time series secondary data from 2015 to 2021. 4. methodology and data in this research study, we examined the inter linkages between stock exchanges of brics countries, to expand, brazil, russia, india, china and south africa. we have used the secondary data, sourced from investing.com, moneycontrol.com and nse website. we have taken one major stock market index from each country in the sample. brazil stock market index (bovespa), the moscow exchange (moex), national stock exchange, shanghai stock exchange and johannesburg stock exchange are selected for the study from brazil, russia, india, china and south africa respectively. quarterly indices average returns are taken from the first quarter 2015 to four quarter of 2019 for a period of 5 years. the data has been collected for 6 years, as per the observations, average daily market index return is taken. data analysis is performed by examining their return patterns, descriptive statistics been applied to understand the relationship between the selected variables by calculating the mean, median, standard deviation, skewness, jarque-beta are calculated to check the normality of the data distribution. augmented dicky –fuller test under the unit root test been conducted to check the stationarity of the data. the below mentioned adf formula is applied: ∆𝑌𝑡 = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝑡 + 𝛾𝑦𝑡 − 1 + 𝛿1∆𝑌𝑡 − 1 + ⋯ + 𝛿𝑝 − 1∆𝑌𝑡 − 𝑝 + 1 + ɛ𝑡 where α is constant, β the co-efficient on the time series data, ρ the lag order of autoregressive process. the augmented dickyfuller test results are negative numbers, the greater the negative test values indicate strong rejection of the hypothesis, at some level of confidence, there a unit root. granger causality test (gct) is a non-parametric test used to check the hypothesis and to determine the time series data is enough to forecast the other variable. gct is used to test the reliability of the available data to predict the future using the past data removing the anomalies. the below formulas are used to arrive at the results: (∆𝑋𝑡 = 𝛼𝑥 + ∑ 𝛽𝑥, 𝑖∆𝑋𝑡 − 𝑖 + 𝑘 𝑖 = 1 ∑ 𝛾𝑥, 𝑖∆𝑌𝑡 − 𝑖 + ɛ𝑥, 𝑡) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 29-36 33 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group (∆𝑌𝑡 = 𝛼𝑦 + ∑ 𝛽𝑦, 𝑖∆𝑌𝑡 − 𝑖 + 𝑘 𝑖 = 1 ∑ 𝛾𝑦, 𝑖∆𝑋𝑡 − 𝑖 + ɛ𝑦, 𝑡) johansen’s co-integration test is used to determine the co-integration exists among time series data and to check the validity of co-integration relationship, using maximum likelihood estimates approach. the below mentioned formula is used to validate and check the co-integration among the multi-variables. 𝑋𝑡 = µ + ɸ𝐷𝑡 + п𝑝𝑋𝑡−𝑝 + … + п1𝑋𝑡−1 + 𝑒𝑡, 𝑡 = 1, … , 𝑇 for the data analysis, the above said statistical tools will be applied on the selected benchmark indices for the time period starts from the first quarter of 2015 up to fourth quarter of 2019. as many literatures were carried out up to the year 2016, chosen the study period from 2015 to conduct the extended study on understanding the connectedness among the brics countries. 5. results of the study we undertake the above-mentioned statistical tools to analyze and interpret the data to arrive at the results to frame the conclusion with respect to the inter-linkages between the brics countries. firstly, taken the daily close price levels, daily average returns of the benchmark indices from 1st of march 2015 to 31st march of 2021are taken and calculated mean, median, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis and other indicators to interpret the data to understand the return and risk trend among the brics nations stock market indices. table 3. descriptive statistics. index brazil (bvsp) russia (moex) india (nse) china (sse) south africa (jse) mean 0.066 0.047 0.003 -0.004 0.007 median 0.089 0.042 0.025 0.066 0.000 maximum 6.597 3.964 5.833 5.764 7.001 minimum -9.410 -8.344 -8.302 -8.491 -9.569 std deviation 1.414 0.960 0.971 1.493 1.647 skewness -0.331 -0.630 -1.068 -1.066 -0.065 kurtosis 6.450 8.435 14.300 9.324 5.125 jarque-beta 636.904 1605.708 6822.664 2297.444 233.745 probability 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 sum 81.919 58.328 3.483 -5.476 8.352 sum sq. dev 2471.883 1140.69 1165.282 2757.717 3355.124 observations 1238 1238 1238 1238 1238 note: bvsp (bovespa index), moex (moscow exchange), nse (national stock exchange), sse (shanghai stock exchange companies index), jse (johannesburg stock exchange). in table 3, referring to the mean values for the selected benchmark indices, 0.066170, 0.047115, 0.002813, 0.004423 and 0.006746 for brazil, russia, india, china and south africa respectively. brazil has the highest index average returns compared to other indices in the consortium; china has the negative average returns. standard deviation values explain the data spread over the mean values, russia has the std. dev. value of 0.960282, which is less compared to other indices, depicts the less risk and data spread out close to mean values, vice-versa with south africa has 1.646908, the highest std. dev. values shows the highest risk comparatively, results in less average returns. skewness helps in measuring the degree and direction data asymmetry. skewness of brazil and south africa are -0.33086 and -0.065069 respectively, which is between the reference value of -0.5 to 0.5, hence the data is fairly symmetrical, russia with the skewness value of -0.629600, the data is moderately distributed, but india and china’s data are highly skewed on the left side. all the sample indices have the kurtosis values higher than 3, denotes that the data sets have the heavier tails than the normally distributed data. 5.1. unit root test augmented dickey-fuller test, usually calculated in the time series data sample to know the data stationarity and non-stationary data status, before carrying out the granger causality test. the adf test statistic results will be in negative, higher the negative values, stronger the rejection of null hypothesis, means existence of unit root. from the table 3, t-statistics values are higher than the test critical values at different levels of confidence i.e., 1%, 5% and 10% of all the brics countries. therefore, in all five cases, null hypothesis is rejected, otherwise alternative hypothesis is accepted and that proves the data sample is stationary. the adf test results are presented in table 4 and table 5, the t-statistics and test critical values at 1%, 5% and 10% confidence level. table 4. unit root test for brazilbvsp return. sl. no. indices t-statistic value probability test critical values 1% level 5% level 10% level 1 brazil (bvsp) -40.05749 0 -3.435 -2.863 -2.568 2 russia (moex) -37.68531 0 -3.435 -2.863 -2.568 3 india (nse) -24.43402 0 -3.435 -2.863 -2.568 4 china (sse) -36.54019 0 -3.435 -2.863 -2.568 5 south africa (jse) -23.56307 0 -3.435 -2.863 -2.568 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 29-36 34 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 5. summary of unit root test. sl. no. indices level adf t-statistics p-value hypothesis 1 brazil (bvsp) -40.0575 0.000 accept h1 2 russia (moex) -37.685 0.000 accept h1 3 india (nse) -24.434 0.000 accept h1 4 china (sse) -36.540 0.000 accept h1 5 south africa (jse) -23.563 0.000 accept h1 note: hypothesis: ho: data not stationary. h1: data is stationary. 5.2. granger causality test table 6 implies the granger causality test (gct) is performed to understand the connectedness among the brics nations. gct is performed at 5% significance level, which determine whether a variable helps in forecasting the b variable, the probability value will be 0.05, which evidence that, brazil and russsia’s stock markets are interconnected to each other, ups and downs in each one’s market returns have carry forward effect on one another. similarly, india and brazil markets are connected with each other. india’s stock market has impact on china, south africa and russia, but will not be affected by the same. china holds influence on brazil, russia have impact on south africa’s stock market returns. other combination has the p-value more than 0.05, cannot reject the null hypothesis, means the remaining returns does not granger cause the other market returns. granger cause test explains the cause-and-effect relationship among the sample stock markets. table 6. pairwise granger causality tests. sample: 13/10/2015-31/3/2021 lags: 2 null hypothesis: obs. f-statistic probability jse does not granger cause bvsp 1476 0.091 0.913 bvsp does not granger cause jse 0.804 0.448 moex does not granger cause bvsp 1472 6.273 0.002 bvsp does not granger cause moex 4.580 0.010 nse does not granger cause bvsp 1476 30.139 0.001 bvsp does not granger cause nse 5.675 0.004 sse does not granger cause bvsp 1473 3.956 0.019 bvsp does not granger cause sse 0.813 0.444 moex does not granger cause jse 1479 4.560 0.011 jse does not granger cause moex 1.330 0.265 nse does not granger cause jse 1483 3.322 0.036 jse does not granger cause nse 0.591 0.554 sse does not granger cause jse 1477 0.295 0.745 jse does not granger cause sse 0.579 0.560 nse does not granger cause moex 1480 8.368 0.000 moex does not granger cause nse 0.609 0.544 sse does not granger cause moex 1473 0.422 0.656 moex does not granger cause sse 1.486 0.227 sse does not granger cause nse 1477 0.179 0.836 nse does not granger cause sse 3.915 0.020 hypothesis ho: there is no granger causality between variables. 5.3. johansen’s co-integration test co-integration test is suitable to study inter-connectedness in the long term under the time series data. both engle and trace co-integration test has been conducted on the data sample. table 7 and table 8 presents the test results, with reference to the same, trace statistics values are much lesser than the critical value, so suggest to reject the null hypothesis. under maximum eigen statistics test values are much higher than the critical values, states that reject the h0 means there exists the integration among the sample i.e., brics nations stock market returns are interconnected and sensitive to the changes in stock markets return of other member nations. the detailed johansen co-integration test results are shown as below: table 7. results of co-integration test. hypothesis eigen value trace statistics critical value 0.05 max eigen statistics critical value 0.05 prob. none 0.219 1414.941 69.819 361.058 33.877 0 at most 1 0.202 1053.883 47.856 329.053 27.584 0 at most 2 0.167 724.830 29.797 266.701 21.132 0 at most 3 0.159 458.129 15.495 251.977 14.265 0 at most 4 0.132 206.152 3.841 206.152 3.841 0 hypothesis: ho: there is no co-integration (no long run relation between variables). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 29-36 35 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 8. table showing johansen co-integration test results. sample (adjusted):10/3/2015 30/3/2021 included observations: 1460 after adjustments trend assumption: linear deterministic trend large interval (in first differences): 1 to 4 unrestricted cointegration rank test (trace) hypothesized no. of ce(s) eigen value trace statistic 0.05 critical value prob** none* 0.219 1414.941 69.819 0 at most 1* 0.202 1053.883 47.856 0 at most 2* 0.167 724.830 29.797 0 at most 3* 0.159 458.129 15.495 0 at most 4* 0.132 206.152 3.841 0 note: trace test indicates 5 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level. *denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level. **mackinnon, haug, and michelis (1999) probability-values. unrestricted co-integration rank test (maximum eigenvalue). hypothesized no. of ce(s) eigenvalue max-eigen statistic 0.05 critical value prob.** none* 0.219 361.058 33.877 0 at most 1* 0.202 329.053 27.584 0 at most 2* 0.167 266.701 21.132 0 at most 3* 0.159 251.977 14.265 0 at most 4* 0.132 206.152 3.841 0 note: max-eigenvalue test indicates 5 cointegrating eqn(s) at the 0.05 level. *denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level. **mackinnon et al. (1999) probability-values. 6. conclusion the research study is conducted to test and understand the inter-connectedness among the stock markets of brics nations. as a sample selected, bovespa from brazil, moex from russia, national stock exchange (nse) from india, shanghai stock exchange (sse) from china and jse from south africa for the time period 1st february 2015 to 31st of march 2021. average daily returns of the stock markets indices been taken to carry out the study. descriptive statistics has been calculated to know the average return and risk associated with the stock markets. among the brics nations, brazil evidenced the highest average returns, china having the negative returns on the sample time. russia ensured moderate return with moderate risk, india and south africa results in high market risk with low returns. unit root test has been carried out to check the stationary of the data set, before applying the grangers causality test. higher the negative values of adf test, stronger the rejection of null hypothesis, the t-statistics value are higher the critical value in all the given circumstances, hence alternative hypothesis is accepted, so the data is stationary at 1%, 5% and 10% of confidence level. granger causality test has performed and resulted that p-value less than 0.05 denotes that weak correlation exists between the countries stock markets and p value with greater than 0.05 are the countries have significant impact on other countries stock exchanges. hence h0 can be rejected, which evidence that, brazil and russia’s stock markets are interconnected to each other, ups and downs in each one’s market returns have carry forward effect on one another. similarly, india and brazil markets are inter-linked. johansen co-integration test also results in rejecting the null hypothesis, means, the existence of connectedness between brics nation’s stock market returns. it is proved from the time series statistical analysis that, brics nation’s stock market indices are inter-linked, the depth of connectivity flow varies between nations. india’s stock market has major impacts on brazil, china, south africa as well as russia, where as india will not receive major impacts from china, russia and south africa. references allimuthu, s. 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(2019). the global economy recovery 10 years after the 2008 financial crisis. retrieved from imf working paper-wp/19/83. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.21863/jcar/2015.4.1.005 https://doi.org/10.4236/tel.2019.97166 https://doi.org/10.1108/17574321111169821 https://doi.org/10.1504/ijttc.2017.10008571 https://doi.org/10.13140/rg.2.1.2833.8328 96 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 4, 96-106, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i4.6180 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group enhancing innovation in elementary dance classrooms through the learning community model tiwaporn akkaamnuai1 sureerat chenpong2 chanut poodej3 ( corresponding author) 1srinakharinwirot university, thailand. email: akkaamnuai900@reru.ac.th 2department of dance, srinakharinwirot university, thailand. email: sureeratc@swu.ac 3innovative learning center, srinakharinwirot university, thailand. email: chanutp@swu.ac.th abstract this study aimed to: (1) investigate current conditions and practices in developing dance classrooms using the learning community model for elementary dance teachers; (2) create a dance classroom using the learning community model with elementary dance teachers; and (3) assess the effectiveness of this development approach. the study includes 20 experts studying existing circumstances and making recommendations using questionnaires and interviews. there were 150 elementary school kids and six volunteer instructors among the participants. the research techniques comprised a dance classroom setting, a competency evaluation form for dance teachers, an assessment of students' innovation ability, and an opinion questionnaire. the data was analyzed using frequency, percentage, standard deviation, and t-tests. it found that creating a dance classroom required four steps: (1) surveying, (2) planning, (3) managing, and (4) applying. the main results were: (1) dance teachers' abilities significantly improved at .05; (2) students' average abilities increased during the study, with the experimental group performing significantly better than the control group; and (3) the experimental group demonstrated a significantly higher ability to create dance innovations than the control group at the.05 level. the results revealed that employing a learning community model in dance classrooms effectively improved students into innovation creators. keywords: dance classroom, diversified learning, integration of local wisdom, knowledge exchange, learning community, learning management in preforming arts education, professional learning community, teachers of preforming arts. citation | akkaamnuai, t., chenpong, s., & poodej, c. (2024). enhancing innovation in elementary dance classrooms through the learning community model. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(4), 96–106. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i4.6180 history: received: 4 june 2024 revised: 8 october 2024 accepted: 31 october 2024 published: 2 december 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the srinakharinwirot university, thailand has granted approval for this study on 19 july 2023 (ref. no. swuec-g-259/2566x). transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 97 2. objectives of the study ................................................................................................................................................................... 98 3. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 98 4. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 101 5. results .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 101 6. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 103 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 104 mailto:akkaamnuai900@reru.ac.th mailto:sureeratc@swu.ac mailto:chanutp@swu.ac.th https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i4.6180 https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9978-9235 https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6454-0465 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 96-106 97 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the study places a strong emphasis on converting dance classes into inventive, diversified learning settings that promote a love of learning and moral principles. a learning community method improves educational quality by encouraging student participation to their communities and fostering awareness and creativity through the integration of professional teacher engagement with local dance. 1. introduction classroom development is a concept that has been introduced previously the thai education system. by adhering to the educational principles that emphasize, every learner has the ability to learn and develop themselves. the classroom context is considered an essential foundation for knowledge development. problem-solving and thinking skills (fisher, 2018) should be promoted starting at the elementary level, believing that learners have the ability to think and work together with others to solve problems, which will support learning in other areas widely. knowledge of information is beneficial to both oneself and others (prachagool & nuangchalerm, 2019). learning management is in a changing social condition, so teachers play an important role in classroom management to create a good learning atmosphere and facilitate learners to have a habit of loving learning (anagün, 2018). classroom management is also one of the problems that reflects the ability of teachers (langstaff, 2024). although those who play an essential role in driving education have tried to push it into practice, including developing quality classrooms (wechayaluck, 2019) special ability classrooms (chowacha, 2022) and music classrooms (kuwasanon, 2017) suggestions tend to be general principles. there need to be an explicit agreement on the results of classroom development (nillapun, vanichwatanavorachai, & makjui, 2013; ounraun & onthanee, 2023; sankaburanurak, 2015). in addition, no guidelines have been found for classroom development that responds to the integration of learning resources, wisdom, environment, and local context. or an overview of the integration of education with the community to build understanding and familiarity with operations including elements of classroom management and classroom development under physical, social, and psychological limitations (chamniyon, 2021; chaweerut, 2022). however, education management in the past still needs to improve in thai education today. the results of the international standard student competency assessment showed that the thai education system has problems. there is still a gap between students at the primary level with developmental delays and learning recessions. the evaluation results indicated that ability in reading, mathematics and science decreased overall in all skills. compared to neighboring asean countries (oecd, 2023) it has lower creative skills because it emphasizes academic teaching (lima, 2018). in addition, thailand's international creativity index ranked 71 out of 81 countries, which lags behind countries in the same region. this index is the main factor of economic development, including technology, talent and tolerance, which is the main reasons that the indicators of thailand's international creativity index score are a relatively low (florida, mellander, & king, 2015). according to the pisa test results for creativity (grey & morris, 2024) thailand ranks 54th out of 64 nations, reflecting the development of a diverse variety of ideas. the use of letters to express oneself and address society problems remains at a low level (frederick & mcmahon, 2024; grey & morris, 2024). as a result, human capital development is still to cope with a changing world, and the entire curriculum is backward. however, there have been some adjustments to the curriculum in the past, but it is only a slight adjustment in some subjects. learning in the classroom emphasizes memorization. it has yet to be aimed at allowing students to apply knowledge in real life because children require appropriate knowledge, skills and attitude to be competent (tdri, 2023). from studying documents and research regarding classroom development and the development of creative thinking abilities, it found that the dance course is related to society, culture, traditions and develops creativity (lerkpatomsak & seekheio, 2023). the study of teachers' opinions found that teaching dance in the dance classroom is currently lecturing. teacher-centered teaching are not considered individual differences and the connection to teaching and learning consistent with the local context which is relatively low to moderate. as a result, students do not see the importance of learning dance. in addition, observing the learning context in the dance classroom, it was found that the effort in learning happiness at school age decreases. students show they do not dare to express themselves, have no confidence, or trust their own bodies. this is related to the results of international studies indicating that teachers from diverse cultures have different expectations when it comes to classroom management (cremata, 2017; talsik, 2015). the results of the teacher group discussion found that dance teachers from small and medium sized schools are responsible for teaching many subjects which results in ordinary learning content. there are quite a few applications of design that create innovation in dance. even though there is professional development, it still lacks a mechanism to drive it or group together into a learning community to solve student development problems. dance teachers from a large school with sufficient resources still have a problem that cannot be stimulated, motivated or create a good attitude, keep students interested, and see the importance of the subject of dramatic arts (akkaamnuai, chenpong, & poondej, 2024; frederick & mcmahon, 2024; hae, 2024; ross, 2019). it cannot be denied that this phenomenon indicates that management of dance learning can still not lead students to learn practical skills and create motivation, including achievement in studying dance. lack of belief, confidence, or decreased enthusiasm of students may be not the root cause. the results of a survey of thai children about their needs for thai education system were reinforced by the study surveys results and various activities. the students gave the reason that teaching of dance is not applied in real life, they want to cancel it with 59.02% of female followed by males at 36.89% (online, 2024). under the expectation of the quality of education improvement, it should begin with the classroom, which is the foundation of good beliefs and attitudes. these influence the development of creative thinking abilities, which develop teachers' ability to create innovations for students. from the educational lessons learned, it was found that building an understanding of theories and strategies for classroom development by creating an appropriate environment is a challenge. more than basic knowledge is required for organizing a learning environment (jayadi & adi, 2022). guidelines for developing educational quality start with a dance classroom and learning a dance to match the actual problem situation, consistent with context and dynamism. exchanging knowledge according to the concept of a learning community is considered an effective tool to promote professional development for teachers and learning toward student success (doğan & adams, 2018; hallam, smith, hite, hite, & wilcox, 2015; turner, christensen, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 96-106 98 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group kackar-cam, fulmer, & trucano, 2018). teachers should have a common purpose and goal in initiating, sharing, solving problems, and reviewing their performance to find ways to develop oneself. guidelines for solving student learning problems, results of knowledge exchange causing cultural processes and changing teaching and learning to classrooms and schools need to be considered (stoll, bolam, mcmahon, wallace, & thomas, 2006). the problem condition mentioned above reflects the need to develop dance classrooms and the abilities of elementary school dance teachers to solve problems and develop students in parallel. in addition, classroom development is an essential element in the teaching, learning, and professional teacher processes (toaquiza & romero, 2024). this research article airs to present the results of the development of the dance classroom by using the learning community model that promotes competency in creative innovation in the dance of primary school students to be a guideline for classroom development that integrates learning resources, wisdom, environment, and local context. the researcher hopes that it will be helpful to elementary school dance teachers, including those interested in applying the guidelines to create dance learning for all learners. 2. objectives of the study 1. to investigate present circumstances and methods for building dance classrooms utilizing the learning community model for primary dance instructors. 2. to work with primary dance instructors to create a dance classroom that follows the learning community approach. 3. to assess the efficacy of this development technique. 2.1. research questions 1. what are the components, methods, and actions for setting up a dance classroom utilizing the main dance teachers' learning community model? is this more or less appropriate? how much? 2. the effectiveness of creating dance classrooms utilizing the teacher learning community model for performing arts at the primary school level in terms of dance instructors' abilities and attitudes toward growth. what does the dancing classroom look like? 2.2. research significance 1. to encourage and facilitate the establishment of a model of a learning community in the dance classroom. 2. to enhance the learning environment in dance classrooms and dance instructors' capacity to plan high-quality instruction and resurrect the learning recession in order to raise educational standards. 3. literature review this is research and development under the study of concepts, theories, and good classroom management. creemers and tillema (1987); richardson and fallona (2001) and zola and zola (2024) alternative classroom (gabriel & matthews, 2011; suresh, 2023; tacuri, carter, shuman, harris, & blomkwist, 2024) positive classroom (digiulio, 2006; dong, huitsing, & veenstra, 2024; li et al., 2024; shamsematova, 2024; zohirovna, 2024) tpack model (carpenter et al., 2020; mishra & koehler, 2006) experiential learning theory (kolb, 2014; kolb, boyatzis, & mainemelis, 2014) social learning theory (bandura & walters, 1977; pereg, hertz, ben-artzi, & shahar, 2024) cooperative learning theory (davidson & major, 2024; kagan, 1994; khan, noreen, & hussaini, 2024; zhou & colomer, 2024) active learning (hite, jones, & childers, 2024; roberson, moore, & bell, 2024; settles, 2009; wang, xu, yuan, li, & kareem, 2024) constructivism (fadli et al., 2024; steffe & gale, 1995) learning theory (bloom, 1976) teaching dance innovation (hae, 2024; kahn, 2018; yuxing, 2024) learning community (bou & sales, 2024; dufour, 2007; olmo-extremera, fernández-terol, & domingo-segovia, 2024) action research (cohen, manion, & morrison, 2000; francisco, forssten seiser, & olin almqvist, 2024; mohammed, fatemah, & hassan, 2024). results from document review, concepts, theories, and a focus group of experts lead to guidelines for dance classroom as a study and analysis of basic information, importance, expectations, and needs for developing a dance classroom. the target group for studying and providing information includes experts, and dance teachers to analyze and synthesize guidelines for developing dance classrooms and classroom elements. the interview results found that the learning management environment affects the learning management process design and creates innovative learning management and measurement and evaluation; therefore, the framework for classroom development aims to develop by designing dance classrooms consistent with the local context, integrating learning resources, wisdom, culture, and local traditions. the interview results also reflected the need to develop a dance classroom consisting of steps, processes, and methods that can be implemented using the learning community. it is a tool for building relationships between teachers and the community, learners and the community, and teacher and student in developing learning management. principles for developing a dance classroom using the teacher-learning community model. the approach to developing dance classrooms for elementary school students involves the following principles: 1) teacher-focused development: enhances dance teachers' abilities in managing dance classrooms, designing, and creating performing arts innovations. establishes a setting that is favorable for teaching and learning dance, utilizing the process of learning communities to support students' experiential learning. 2) learning objectives and practical experiences: establishes learning objectives to advance the skills of fourthgrade students and instructors. places a strong emphasis on learning via practical experiences and group projects that follow learning theories and include local knowledge and community into dance activities. 3) development of critical skills: seek to enhance critical thinking, analytical reasoning, creativity, communication, methodical reasoning, and problem-solving abilities. emphasizes the utilization of technology and life skills for social cohabitation, self-learning, and innovative problem solving. 4) creativity and holistic development: promotes students' creativity via dancing exercises that support the development of their bodies, minds, emotions, and social and intellectual faculties as well as their self-confidence. 5) alignment with learning ideas: develops instructors' skills in running dance classes by using social learning and experiential learning ideas. takes into account local context and environmental factors to address. presenting asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 96-106 99 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group performing arts: create creative dance shows and presentations. integration with learning management: enhance dancing abilities by providing chances for free expression in line with the objectives of the learning units. encourage students to develop the qualities they need to become innovators and learners who will benefit society. fundamentals of instruction and learning in dance design. the following sub-steps are included in group activity organization in dance classroom designs that follow development guidelines: analyze, arrange, control, implement review procedure self-reflection: teachers consider the results of the development of the dance classroom, pinpoint areas in need of improvement, and investigate fresh avenues for advancement. goals the objective is to enhance elementary dance teachers' ability to manage dance classrooms by: design and implementation: in addition to creating cutting-edge performing arts and organizing the learning environment, teachers should be able to design, implement, and enhance classroom elements. make use of educational resources: searching for a variety of educational materials both locally and globally to promote collaboration and improve students' communication, critical thinking, problem-solving, life skills, and technological proficiency. development of dance classrooms. as shown in the picture figure 1. 100 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 1. an effective dancing arts classroom. 101 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4. methodology the study used a mixed methods approach that combined both experimental components with pre-post testing and qualitative and achievement outcomes. the researcher asks the human study ethics committee for permission to perform human study which received srinakharinwirot university research project code swuec-g-259/2566x confirmation date 19 july, 2023. and research with exemption from swuec. the study places a strong emphasis on converting dance classes into inventive, diversified learning settings that promote a love of learning and moral principles. a learning community method improves educational quality by encouraging student participation to their communities and fostering awareness and creativity through the integration of professional teacher engagement with local dance. and conduct research strictly according to the regulations. the first step is gathering qualitative information. through setting up a process of group discussions for dance instructors and conducting in-depth interviews with experts. 4.1. research design using a mixed methods approach, the study included pre-post testing, achievement results, and qualitative elements in addition to experimental components. the researcher planned the research methodology after obtaining a confirmation letter of exemption from the ethics committee for consideration of research projects involving human subjects. a pretest-posttest control group design and a quasi-experimental paradigm were employed with various groups in a quasi-experimental design: medium-sized schools, large schools, and little school groups. the researcher managed the development of the dance classroom, which was tested out with a target group. the researcher defines the characteristics as a volunteer dance instructor who instructs grade 4 utilizing the core curriculum for basic education. to understand professional learning communities utilizing the convenience sampling approach, a professional learning community (plc) must be created in a certain number of hours. three dance instructors from small schools, two from medium-sized schools, and one from major schools made up the target group of six individuals. data were examined, and the skills of dance instructors were compared before and after they experimented with creating a dance classroom. 4.2. research collection an experiment in teaching by organizing the learning process according to the guidelines for developing a dance classroom. the target comprises volunteer teachers from small school groups, medium-sized school, large schools and six students selected based on convenience. the teacher must homeroom or a dance teacher at the grade 4 level, under the office of primary education, have experience in organizing dance at least 5 years and understand the concept of professional learning communities. the researcher contacts the coordinator, introduces himself, and explains the objectives. when volunteer teachers consider and agree to participate. the researcher arranged a meeting, explained the steps and processes, inspected activity plans and teaching methods, and considered differences in learning management. it was found that the objectives of activity plans were in standard format. teaching emphasizes the teacher’s importance, lecturing, leading to practice, rather than giving students hands-on activities for learning. the tool used to collect data was a self-assessment form consisting of classroom management abilities. organizing the teaching and learning environment designing and creating innovation in performing arts learning management process, learning community and measurement and evaluation by using a five-level estimation model, the index of concordance (ioc) was between 0.86 1.00. the outcomes of the creation of the dance classroom are the main subject of the research. 150 grade 4 pupils were the target group; they were chosen based on convenience. the average, standard deviation, and t-test were computed using statistical analysis of the data as an overview of the outcomes of the dance classroom development. when compared to a control group that was taught in a typical manner, the experimental group's capacity to produce creative dance was made available by the volunteer instructors' organization of the learning process in accordance with the principles to create a dance classroom. the instruments consist of an assessment form, an interview form, and an observation form. 5. results results of this study presented the first phrase which was analysis and synthesis of dance classroom by descriptive methods for characteristics. for phrases 2 and 3, statistics data analysis and qualitative analysis were carried out to compare between pre-posttest the experiment. 5.1. experimental results the results the volunteer teacher’s ability before and after the experiment in organizing the learning process according to the guidelines for developing a dance classroom are shown in the table 1 table 1. mean, standard deviation and p-value pre-post for teachers’ ability. details pre interpret mean difference post interpret t df p-value s.d. s.d. dance classroom management 2.30 0.57 medium 2.23 4.53 0.53 most -18.582 10 <0.001 setting up an environment for teaching and learning dramatic arts 2.67 0.52 medium 1.80 4.47 0.53 most -19.902 10 <0.001 learning management process 1.97 0.57 low 2.43 4.40 0.57 most -20.247 10 <0.001 design and create innovation in performing arts 2.03 0.48 low 2.40 4.43 0.54 great -21.140 10 <0.001 learning community 2.07 0.49 low 2.53 4.60 0.50 most -20.068 10 <0.001 measurement and evaluation 2.13 0.43 low 2.30 4.43 0.52 great -25.365 10 <0.001 note: after the creation of the dancing classroom, teachers' abilities are statistically significant at the.05 level. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 96-106 102 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 1 shows volunteer teacher’s abilities after the development of the dance classroom are statistically significant at the .05 level. the results of data analysis using statistics. the study on the volunteer teacher’s abilities indicates that they demonstrated higher proficiency in classroom development following the implementation of the learning process. specifically, teachers exhibit enhanced skills in designing and creating dance innovations, which is reflected in the integration of environmental, philosophical, traditional, and community elements into dance learning. qualitative data from professional learning community exchanges further elaborate on the benefits of this approach: 1. survey and review: volunteer teacher number 1 emphasized the importance of conducting surveys before implementing activities, providing teachers with essential information to effectively manage their classrooms. this flexibility allows teachers to adjust activity plans to suit the context of dance teaching. 2. future-oriented teaching: volunteer teacher number 2 highlighted the importance of reviewing teaching practices with future benefits in mind, ensuring that dance education remains relevant and impactful. 3. skills development: volunteer teacher number 3 emphasizes that dance education should focus on preservation and providing students with skills that are beneficial for their future careers and national needs. 4. facilitative teaching: volunteer teachers 4, 5, and 6 noted a shift from traditional teaching roles to facilitative roles, where teachers support student learning and experimentation. this shift fosters student confidence, autonomy, and collaboration. table 2. descriptive analysis. group n mean s.d. mean difference t df pvalue mean s.d. mean difference t df p-value ability to perform activities between after development of a dance classroom small school experimental group 25 29.20 2.75 5.12 5.300 48 <0.001 31.80 6.63 5.08 4.118 48 <0.001 control group 25 24.08 3.97 26.70 4.99 medium sized school experimental group 25 28.16 2.84 4.52 4.255 48 <0.001 28.20 4.49 1.65 4.225 48 <0.001 control group 25 23.64 4.49 23.60 2.84 large school experimental group 25 26.16 6.63 1.64 3.522 48 <0.001 32.70 5.10 4.44 3.436 48 <0.001 control group 25 24.56 4.99 28.20 3.96 note: analysis of average score capacity to carry out tasks during and following the creation of a dance classroom for elementary school pupils. proving the viability of putting development standards for dance classrooms into practice. additionally, it was discovered that, on average, the students in the experimental and control groups had improved their abilities from before they started studying. when the dancing classroom was being developed, the ability of the pupils in the experimental group was higher than that of the control group. the results of the development of the dance classroom with students in the experimental group, who followed the guidelines for classroom development, are compared with those of a control group that received normal teaching. the abilities of students in both groups were assessed before and after the teaching process, demonstrating the effectiveness of implementing guidelines for developing a dance classroom. and the results of the student’s abilities were found to be that the students in the experimental and control groups had an average increase from before studying. the students, ability in the experimental group were higher than those in the control group during and after the development of the dance classroom as shown in the table 2. from table 2, shows the results of primary school student’s abilities to perform activities. after teaching by organizing the learning process according to the guidelines for developing a dance classroom, the experimental group students had a statistically significant higher ability to perform activities than these in the control group at the .05 level. the results of the ability to create dance innovation of primary school students shown in the table 3. table 3. the descriptive analysis and interpretation of the mean, standard deviation, and pvalue the school's size. group n mean s.d. t df p-value small school experimental group 25 50.32 2.38 -27.014 48 <0.001 control group 25 32.88 2.19 medium sized school experimental group 25 50.56 2.12 -27.291 48 <0.001 control group 25 31.76 2.71 large school experimental group 25 51.60 2.35 -14.274 48 <0.001 control group 25 42.12 2.35 note: a study on primary school kids' capacity for innovative dance creation. the capacity to innovate in dance. following instruction in accordance with the instructions for creating a dance classroom, students in the experimental group were statistically significantly more adept at creating dance innovations than students in the control group at the.05 level. table 3, shows the results of primary school students’ abilities to create innovation in dance. after teaching by organizing the learning process according to the guidelines for developing a dance classroom, the experimental group students had a statistically significant higher ability of create innovations in dance than those it the control group at the .05 level. the results of comparison of the ability to create innovation in dance based on school size group are shown in the table 4. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 96-106 103 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 4. descriptive statistics for study variables one-way anova (fisher's) f df1 df2 p-value score 3.08 2 72 0.052 tukey post-hoc test – score small school medium sized school large school small school mean difference — 1.28 2.88 p-value — 0.516 0.041 medium sized school mean difference — 1.6 p-value — 0.359 large school mean difference — p-value — note: outcomes of the primary school pupils' ability analysis. from all three sizes of school groups. when taking into account the school size factor, the overall f statistic was estimated as 3.08 with a corresponding p-value of 0.052, suggesting that there was no statistically significant difference seen across the groups. but after doing a tukey post-hoc test and examining every pair separately, it turned out that there was a substantial difference in one particular pair. in particular, a statistically significant difference at the.05 level was found when comparing the dancing classroom groups from small schools and large schools. this implies variations in the general evolution of dance classes, specifically in supporting the creative development and the capacity to produce inventive dance among elementary school pupils, based on the size of the school. from table 4, the overall f statistic was calculated as 3.08 with a corresponding p-value of 0.052, indicating no statistically significant difference observed among the groups when considering the school size factor. however, upon conducting a tukey post-hoc test and analyzing each pair individually, it was found that one specific pair exhibited a significant difference. specifically, the comparison between the dance classroom group from small schools and the dance classroom group from large schools revealed a statistically significant difference at the .05 level. this suggests differences in the overall development of dance classrooms, particularly in fostering creative development and the ability to create innovative dance among primary school students, based on the size of the school. overall, this analysis indicates that while there may not be significant differences observed across all groups when considering school size, there are notable distinctions between dance classrooms in small and large schools in terms of their impact on creative development and innovative dance creation among students. 5.2. qualitative results the observations from the group discussions of volunteer teachers provided valuable insights into the impact of various strategies on student engagement and learning outcomes within the dance classroom: exchange of knowledge: volunteer teacher number 1 highlighted the effectiveness of exchanging knowledge based on guidelines. students demonstrated increased enthusiasm for learning, as evidenced by their willingness to think critically, ask questions, and actively participate in activities. integration of local wisdom: volunteer teacher number 2 emphasized the importance of integrating local wisdom into classroom activities. this approach fostered strong familial and community relationships and boosts students' confidence in their cultural heritage. students become more engaged in learning when they relate it to their experiences and traditions. role-playing: volunteer teachers 3 and 4 discussed the benefits of incorporating role-playing activities. such activities encouraged students to take on different roles, plan collaboratively, and assume responsibilities, promoting confidence and leadership skills. promotion of empathy: volunteer teacher number 5 noted that dance classroom activities promote student empathy. by connecting experiences from everyday life and local traditions, students develop innovative stories and engaged in productive work, fostering compassion and understanding of others' abilities. enthusiastic learning environment: volunteer teacher number 6 highlighted the positive impact of an enthusiastic learning environment on student engagement. when students are excited and eager to participate, teachers feel more supported in designing activities, and the learning community becomes a valuable resource for developing relevant arts and sciences within the local context. these observations underscore the importance of creating a dynamic and culturally relevant learning environment within the dance classroom. by incorporating strategies such as knowledge exchange, integration of local wisdom, role-playing, and promoting of empathy, teachers can enhance students’ engagement and foster meaningful learning experiences. 6. conclusion the development of the dance classroom has led to significant improvements across various dimensions, highlighting positive progress. key elements include: collaboration with learning communities: engaging groups who understand and value the importance of development fosters progress. activities rooted in local arts and community values make the classroom a platform for creating relevant art. promoting creativity and learner autonomy: strategies focus on gradual learner independence and exploring surrounding environments. teachers play a crucial role in encouraging independent thinking, viewing mistakes as learning opportunities, and facilitating local arts exploration. empowerment and identity recognition: teachers help students recognize their potential and unique identities, fostering a sense of closeness to the subject matter and enhancing the learning process. teacher's role in stimulating creative thinking: by providing guidance and encouraging innovative thinking, teachers influence students' capacity to create meaningful work. various learning approaches, including self-learning, contextual learning, and real-world scenarios, support this development. overall, the results emphasize the importance of community collaboration, creativity, and teacher support in fostering a dynamic and effective dance classroom environment. positive success has been highlighted by the establishment of the dance classroom, which has resulted in considerable gains across multiple dimensions. important asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 96-106 104 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group components consist of: working together with learning communities: advancement is fostered by involving organizations that recognize and appreciate the significance of development. the classroom serves as a venue for the creation of contemporary art through activities based in neighborhood values and local arts. encouraging creativity and learner autonomy: these strategies emphasize the eventual independence of learners and their exploration of their surroundings. instructors are essential in promoting self-directed thinking, seeing errors as teaching moments, and assisting with local artistic development. empowerment and identity recognition: by assisting students in realizing their own identities and potential, teachers improve the learning process and create a feeling of intimacy with the material. the function of teachers in fostering creative thought: by offering direction and motivation 6.1. discussion the effectiveness of developing a dance classroom demonstrates the important abilities to organize a learning environment and learning management process that affects design and innovation including classroom management and measurement and evaluation through learning communities towards the success of developing a dance classroom that facilitates and supports meaningful learning for primary school students. reflected through the development of the dance classroom. with the learning community model, developing the abilities of teachers to students in linking knowledge through the integration of learning resources, traditions, culture and wisdom with the subject of dance. so that students can connect the knowledge and be able to apply that knowledge in real life with a familiar context that is worthwhile and meaningful. in addition to producing creative works of innovative dance, student can compare, analyze and edit their own and group dance innovations, and be enthusiastic about developing work successfully (bundura, 1986). the results of the development of the dance classroom reflect the abilities of primary school students through the integration of learning resources such as booklets isaan tales presented with the character masks of once upon a time little kong khao killed his mother. creation of folk tales through presenting different characteristics. combining characters from the vessantara jataka with characters from the folk tale "phu khai lan", creates a new character and episode title: kanha charlie invites mangod jee to run in a race. role play about ponies in the enchanted forest dance music performance, ham hian and long drum master. these things ensure that the student are the learners through the process of using knowledge, skills, and participation in performing dance classroom activities. the results beyond the ability to innovate students also succeed in learning, with the right attitude towards the subject of dance, having aesthetics and challenges in learning. including creating a learning identity according to one's potential consistent with the theory of intellectual development. that explains this development, which is the development of thinking in the stage of using abstract reasoning (inhelder & piaget, 1958). students can think more complexly and work systematically, carefully and comprehensively. in addition, expressing yourself, thoughts, dreams, imagination, all matters related to life. when observing students’ behavior within the dance classroom, it was found that the products, pieces, and works reflect a mixture of concrete and abstract ideas. the steps of studying the ability to create dance innovations including problem identification, planning, processing designing. and producing the dance innovation, help students to create works and pieces systematically. including linking activities, students are able to apply, create and develop innovative works in the dance classroom with local arts, culture, traditions, and literature and environment in the community. 6.2. challenges and limitations of the study the research findings highlight the transformation of the dance classroom into a prototype for diverse learning experiences, especially amidst the new everyday educational landscape. through innovative lesson prototypes and varied perspectives on dance, the classroom fosters a love for learning and instills positive values and social-emotional skills in students. integrating dance from local areas enriches the learning environment with diversity and facilitates understanding across various subjects, not just dance. professional dance teachers play a crucial role in expanding students' perspectives through questioning and reflection, a process enhanced by discussion groups within learning communities. by observing students’ behavior and decoding it through reflection, teachers gain insight into broader issues and opportunities within the classroom. this approach encourages the integration of local knowledge and performing arts into student development, turning them into creators who contribute to their communities. the study's recommendations emphasize the importance of activities that promote planning and knowledge exchange among students, ensuring the creation of meaningful work. clear activity time limits are essential to prevent delays and excessive group activity. additionally, surveys and inspections are vital for gathering information, identifying needs, and laying the groundwork for educational quality development. collaboration among professional groups and critical reflection further enhances teachers' abilities to create innovative classroom activities tailored to students' needs. in conclusion, the research offers guidelines for developing educational quality within the dance classroom, emphasizing the importance of a learning community approach. it provides teachers with opportunities to showcase their abilities, experiment with designs, and create new activities that enhance student learning experiences. references akkaamnuai, t., chenpong, s., & poondej, c. 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(2024). teaching as if students matter: a guide to creating classrooms based on relationships and engaged learning. albany: state university of new york. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778004241229063 https://tdri.or.th/2023/12/pisa-2022/ https://doi.org/10.1080/10508406.2017.1381962 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2023.109670 https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14060567 9 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 1, 9-18, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4391 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group effect of reward systems on workers' performance at the university of abuja innocent. u. duru1 millicent adanne eze2 abubakar yusuf3 akpan aaron udo4 abubakar sadiq saleh5 ( corresponding author) 1department of economics, rhema university nigeria, aba, abia state, nigeria. email: iud3x@yahoo.com 2school of business, law and social sciences, abertay university, dundee, united kingdom. email: ezemillicent@gmail.com 3national metallurgical development centre, jos, plateau state, nigeria. email: bbkr_yusuf2000@yahoo.com 4department of business administration, akwa ibom state university, nigeria. email: aaron4me2012@yahoo.com 5department of banking and finance, university of abuja, abuja, nigeria. email: abubakar.saleh@nileuniversity.edu.ng abstract this study examined the effect of reward systems on workers' performance at the university of abuja. it utilized descriptive and inferential statistics on a sample of 337 workers’ derived from 2145 workers through the random sampling technique. the results showed that employees are contented with the recognition accorded to them for executing good works, supervisors are open to assist or direct employees, supervisors encourage the ideas of employees’ and their styles of accomplishing things, supervisors’ expectations from employees in terms of job done are unclear to them and promotions and pay increases depend on the attainment of known performance goals exerted a positive effect on workers’ performance. however, this university does not automatically reward good performance, exceptional incentives and rewards are provided by management to all employees and the process of performance appraisal is connected to the reward system had a negative impact on workers' performance. the study recommends that the university of abuja management should ensure that rewards are based on merit and matched with performance to inspire workers to perform optimally. in addition, reward management practices on rewards for good performance, promotions going to people that deserve them and celebration of excellent service should be reviewed and strengthened. keywords: financial rewards, nigeria, non-financial rewards, reward systems, university of abuja, workers’ performance. jel classification: m52; m12; i20; i22. citation | duru, i. u., eze, m. a., yusuf, a., udo, a. a., & saleh, a. s. (2023). effect of reward systems on workers’ performance at the university of abuja. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(1), 9–18. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4391 history: received: 19 october 2022 revised: 13 december 2022 accepted: 26 december 2022 published: 3 january 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 10 2. literature review and theoretical framework ........................................................................................................................ 11 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 4. data presentation, analysis and discussion of results ........................................................................................................... 14 5. conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................... 17 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 18 mailto:iud3x@yahoo.com mailto:ezemillicent@gmail.com mailto:bbkr_yusuf2000@yahoo.com mailto:aaron4me2012@yahoo.com mailto:abubakar.saleh@nileuniversity.edu.ng https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4391 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8958-0686 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2951-4027 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3773-8183 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1790-6330 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2063-9621 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 9-18 10 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study was the first to the best of our knowledge to utilize 13 items of reward management systems to investigate the influence of reward systems on workers’ performance at the university of abuja. 1. introduction in the competitive environment of business of the twenty-first century where universities are facing severe competition and workers' retention questions, reward systems act as a management catalyst for the attraction, retention and motivation of high-performance workers that give it a competitive advantage in the realization of the vision, mission and overall improvement in terms of performance. no wonder brewster, mayrhofer, and farndale (2018) maintained that a best-performing workforce is a sine qua non for the realization of an organization's vision, mission and goals spelt out on its strategic plan. thus, the foundation stone of thriving organizations is workers that are rewarded. the university of abuja is one of the public universities in nigeria. universities are crucial in the provision of quality human resources, particularly manpower requirements in the private and public sectors, advances in science and technology and economic growth and development of economies of the world. however, this can only be realized when the university workers' are adequately rewarded to attain their goals. the enrolment of students had continued to increase in the public universities without an equivalent increase in infrastructural facilities, the number of workers and funds. owing to this expansion, the universities faced challenges ranging from heavy workload, inadequate physical facilities, overcrowding, poor working conditions, poor and uncompetitive salaries and disenchanted workers' among others. this partly explains the reasons behind the eight months of industrial action embarked upon by the academic staff union of universities (asuu) for partial implementation of its 2009 agreement with the federal government of nigeria for better conditions of service, better remuneration and to save public universities that started on 14th february 2022 and ended on 17 october 2022. these ugly scenarios resulted in the exodus of some of the best certified academic staff to the private sector or overseas in pursuit of better opportunities notwithstanding that these institutions invested a lot in training some of them. this demands rewards for workers so that they could be retained at public universities. kathombe (2018) maintained that a good system of reward with emphasis on rewarding workers and their teams acts as a vehicle for workers to attain higher performance and accomplish organizational objectives. furthermore, barber and bretz (2000) contended that the greatest impact of reward systems is felt through the ability of organizations to catch, motivate and retain a high calibre of workers and getting high levels of performance in return. this study could inform the development of competitive and comprehensive reward policies in the universities that are consistent with not only the objectives of the universities but mindful of the competitive realness of the labour market. furthermore, the results would assist the employees' union, the international labour organization, the human resource planners in the universities and other organizations of government to initiate a reward management structure that meets the desires of the workers. armstrong (2013) and hafiza, shah, jamsheed, and zaman (2011) maintained that reward systems could be formal and informal, monetary and non-monetary, and tangible and intangible. furthermore, mahaney and lederer (2006) contended that the reward practices of several organisations are of two types. these are intrinsic (non-monetary) and extrinsic (monetary) rewards. extrinsic rewards are tangible. in contrast, intrinsic rewards are intangible or psychological. intrinsic rewards include achievement, appreciation, autonomy, attractive and challenging job, career development, empowerment, feeling of accomplishment, participation in decision-making, personal growth, praise, recognition, responsibility, training opportunities and vacations. on the other hand, extrinsic rewards include fringe benefits, bonuses, incentives, promotions, salary, supervision and working conditions. rewards could either be extrinsic or intrinsic or a mixture of both. no wonder, kabuki (2019) contended that the pronounced performance of employees ultimately would result from a correct mix of strategies of reward management like developmental rewards, financial rewards, intrinsic rewards and social rewards. furthermore, armstrong (2009) maintained that rewards had been documented as a critical management tool that propels workers' to realise the objectives of organizations. dewhurst, guthridge, and mohr (2009) emphasized that a total reward system is an efficient tool of management for the motivation of lowperformance workers, and for boosting the job satisfaction of great achievers. in a research conducted in asia, gohari, ahmadloo, boroujeni, and hosseinipour (2013) opined that demographic characteristics of employees like age, marital status and gender had inconsequential significance on their performance. however, factors such as bonuses, empowerment, fringe benefits, pay, promotion and recognition had an enormous significance on their performance. furthermore, ndung’u and kwasira (2016) stressed that the implementation of reward management practices for the boosting of competitiveness, employee satisfaction and profitability is no more a philosophy that institutions can ignore since today's world is now lively with unceasing demands on institutions. the objective of the university of abuja is to have contented, productive and fulfilled workers. however, these goals have not been realized and the workers' have been displaying numerous trials that impact their performance and indirectly on the realization of the university's vision and mission. these include demanding working conditions, frequent labour-management crises, irregular structure of promotion, irregular payment of workers' salaries, inadequate staff development, lack of recognition of employees' achievements, lower workers' motivation, low workers' morale, low salaries, neglect of legislation of employment by the university, neglect of labour laws and edicts, numerous industrial strikes, partial implementation of asuu's 2009 agreement with the federal government of nigeria, poor working environment, shallow skills training not aligned with the career path of workers', unhealthy competition between workers', unnecessary deductions from salary without prior consultations, the unpleasant and tough economic condition in nigeria and high turnover of staff. this poor performance had been blamed on management's inability to pay sufficient attention to the needs of the workers. as a result of these challenges, this study consequently intends to investigate the effect of reward systems on workers' performance at the university of abuja. the question then is: what is the effect of reward systems on workers' performance at the university of abuja? the rest of this paper is organized as follows: the literature review and theoretical framework would be presented in section two. section three focuses on the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 9-18 11 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group methodology. section four would dwell on data presentation, analysis and discussion of results while the conclusion and recommendations would be displayed in section five. 2. literature review and theoretical framework 2.1. empirical literature numerous studies have been executed on reward systems and workers' performance in both developing and developed economies of the world. some of these empirical studies are as follows: eze (2012) examined the role of reward management in the performance of the organization with a focus on the university of nigeria, nsukka, enugu state, nigeria. employing a descriptive research design, descriptive statistics and chi-square methodology on a sample of 364 employees obtained from 4000 employees through the simple random sampling procedure, the findings indicated that there was a positive and significant relationship between monetary rewards and employee performance. in addition, the findings showed that non-monetary rewards had a significant impact on employee performance. again, the results indicated that there was a positive link between reward and employee motivation. furthermore, the results revealed that there was a positive association between total rewards systems and job satisfaction. similarly, sajuyigbe, olaoye, and adeyemi (2013) investigated the effect of reward on employees’ performance with emphasis on chosen manufacturing firms in ibadan, oyo state, nigeria. utilizing a survey research design and multiple regression methodology on a sample of 100 participants obtained through the purposive sampling technique, the findings showed that performance bonuses as an element of reward had a positive impact on employees' performance. however, other elements of reward like pay, recognition and praise exerted a positive and insignificant impact on employees' performance. in another similar study, arikwera (2015) examined the influence of reward management on employee performance with a focus on integrated community based initiatives (icobi). using survey research design, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics on a sample of 100 employees selected from 120 employees through the purposive and simple random sampling methods, the results showed that pay, promotion opportunities and training had a positive and significant impact on employees’ performance at icobi. in kenya, rugami, wambua, and mwatha (2016) examined the influence of reward systems on employees’ performance in kenya’s media industry. employing a survey research design, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics on a sample of 105 employees of daily nation, standard, people daily and the star derived from 980 employees, the findings showed that both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards had a positive impact on employees' performance in kenya’s media industry. furthermore, ndichu (2017) investigated the effects of incentives and rewards on employee productivity in small banks in kenya. employing a survey research design, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics on a sample of 164 employees of first community bank in nairobi selected through a simple random sampling procedure, the results showed that financial incentives exerted a positive and insignificant impact on employee productivity. however, non-financial incentives had a positive impact on employee productivity. furthermore, reward systems had a positive impact on employee productivity. moreover, in another related study, agbenyo (2018) examined the effect of reward systems on employee performance at the university of ghana. using a survey research design, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics on a sample of 169 employees’ out of 300 senior employees of the college of basic and applied sciences of the university of ghana selected through the simple random sampling technique, the results showed that intrinsic and extrinsic rewards exerted a positive and significant impact on employee performance. likewise, kathombe (2018) employed a descriptive research design to examine the influences of reward management strategies on employees’ performance in chosen universities in nakuru county, kenya. the study used regression methodology on a sample of 242 employees obtained from 620 employees of egerton and kabarak universities through purposive and proportionate stratified sampling procedures. the statistical package for social sciences (spss) was employed for the analysis of data. the findings indicated that financial and non-financial rewards had a positive and significant effect on employees' performance. relying on the survey research design, rashid, hamza, and said (2018) examined the effect of promotions, rewards and supervisor support on academic employee performance at malaysian universities. using regression techniques on a sample of 200 employees derived from the university of malaya and the national university of malaysia through purposive and simple random sampling procedures, the findings revealed that promotions, rewards and supervisor support had a positive impact on employee performance at malaysian universities. in a like manner, kabuki (2019) utilized survey research design and inferential statistics to examine the influence of reward management strategies on employees' performance in kenya's impact sourcing firms. using a sample of 45 permanent employees of cloud factory kenya limited, the results revealed that financial reward, developmental reward, social reward and intrinsic reward had a strong positive link with employee performance at cloud factory kenya limited. mudey (2019) examined the influence of reward management on employee performance in private universities in mogadishu, somalia. using survey research design, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics on a sample of 273 employees derived from 862 employees of universities of jaamacada simad, jaamacada banaadir, jaamacada muqdisho, jaamacada plasma and jaamacada jamhuriya employing the slovene’s formula, purposive and simple random sampling techniques, the findings showed that financial reward, non-financial reward and reward management had a positive and significant relationship with employee performance at the private universities in mogadishu, somalia. in nigeria, ejikeme, ifedioranma, onyemaechi, and donatus (2020) investigated the effect of reward management on employees’ performance in chosen manufacturing companies in enugu state. using a survey research design, descriptive statistics and t-statistics on a sample of 350 employees obtained from 2821 employees utilizing the yamane (1967) formula, the findings showed that intrinsic and extrinsic rewards had a positive impact on employees’ performance. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 9-18 12 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group agbaeze and ebirim (2020) in another similar study examined the relationship between reward systems and organizational performance in the manufacturing industry in south-south nigeria. employing a descriptive research design and inferential statistics on a sample of 257 employees obtained from 450 employees of the five chosen manufacturing firms from bayelsa, delta, and rivers states through gordon's formula, the results disclosed that financial rewards had a positive and significant influence on employees' performance. in addition, non-financial rewards had a positive and significant influence on employees' performance. in a similar study, ogbu, ewelike, and udeh (2020) investigated the influence of rewards management on the performance of employees utilizing selected private sector organizations in anambra state. using survey research design, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics on a sample of 286 employees' derived from 1009 employees' of every registered private sector establishment in anambra state that hired from 20 persons and over using the (yamane, 1967) formula, the results revealed that extrinsic and intrinsic rewards exerted a positive and significant impact on employees' performance. kampororo, wafula, and mwangi (2021) investigated the influence of reward systems on employees’ performance in public institutions in rwanda with a focus on the rwanda housing authority. utilizing a descriptive research design and inferential statistics on a sample of 85 employees obtained from 108 employees using the yamane (1967) formula, purposive and stratified sampling techniques, the findings showed that compensation, performance recognition, career development opportunity and employee benefits had a positive and significant relationship with employee performance. in another related study, noorazem, sabri, and nazir (2021) examined the influence of reward systems on employees’ performance at mcdonald's. using a survey research design and inferential statistics on a sample of 132 employees’ from mcdonald's in perlis and penang province obtained through convenience sampling procedure, the results indicated that appreciation, bonuses, medical benefits and salary exerted a positive and significant impact on employees’ performance. utilizing survey research design and inferential statistics, pradhan (2022) explored the influence of reward systems on performance of employees’ of service oriented organizations of nepal. using correlation and regression methodologies on a sample of 425 employees, the findings showed that achievement, appreciation, bonus, empowerment, promotion and salary had a positive and significant impact on employees’ performance at eserviceoriented organizations of nepal. after a comprehensive and up-to-date review of important literature, we discovered that several studies have been executed on the nexus between reward systems and workers’ performance in both the developing and developed countries of the world. numerous studies outside nigeria probed the relationship between reward systems and workers’ performance in universities (afriyie, twumasi, sarpong, & darko, 2020; agbaeze & ebirim, 2020; kathombe, 2018; kawara, 2014; mudey, 2019; nalweyiso, 2012; rashid et al., 2018). to the best of our knowledge, eze (2012) was the only study conducted in the university in nigeria that investigated the effect of reward systems on the performance of organizations. he examined the role of reward management in the performance of organization with focus on the university of nigeria. however, the focus was on university of nigeria rather than the university of abuja. contrariwise, some of the studies on reward systems executed in nigeria focused on the relationship between reward systems and employees’ performance (agwu, 2013; akpoviroro, akanmu, olalekan, & alhaji, 2018; akpuruku, 2019; emejulu, 2020; francis, zirra, & mambula, 2020; muogbo & chineze, 2018; ogbu et al., 2020; sajuyigbe et al., 2013). some dwelt on the effect of reward systems on organizational performance (agbaeze & ebirim, 2020; eze, 2012). the rest were on the effect of reward systems on employees’ attitude and motivation (ekeoma, 2014). previous studies conducted in nigeria indicated that most of the scholars have addressed the effect of reward systems on employees’ performance. only few investigations were done on the educational sector in nigeria regarding the dimension of reward system. furthermore, only a few studies have been executed on the influence of reward systems on employees’ performance in universities in nigeria. this study is required to bridge this gap by examining the relationship between reward systems and workers’ performance at the university of abuja. 2.2. theoretical framework this study would be shepherded by the herzberg’s two factor theory. the theory was created by herzberg (1964). this theory is a yardstick for explaining the factors that affects performance at the workplace. again, an organization decision on the strategy and administration of contingent pay is based on it. this study was anchored on this theory because motivators and hygiene factors connect precisely to intrinsic and extrinsic reward systems. herzberg (1964) made a distinction between the factors that leads to job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction at the work station. the factors that lead to job satisfaction were identified as motivators (satisfiers) whereas the factors that lead to job dissatisfaction were pinpointed as hygiene factors (dissatisfiers). motivators are also known as intrinsic factors. when motivators are in a workplace, it would inspire workers to work harder (herzberg, 1966). they comprise achievement, advancement, autonomy, chance to do something important, challenging work, feeling of importance to an organization, growth, participation in decision making, recognition, responsibility and the work itself. in contrast, hygiene factors cannot inspire workers to work harder but if they are not present in the workstation, would result in the demotivation or dissatisfaction of workers’. hygiene factors are also regarded as extrinsic factors. these factors comprise administration, fringe benefits, good pay, interpersonal relations, job security, level and quality of supervision, organizational policies, paid insurance, salary, status, supervisory practices, vacations and working conditions. motivators deals with the actual work (guest, 1995). this entails the level of attractiveness of the work and the opportunities for extra responsibility, promotion and recognition. on the other hand, hygiene factors deal with the factors surrounding the work rather than the work. for instance, in the contention of guest (1995) if a working condition that is safe and a satisfactory salary were offered by the management, workers would come to work. however, these factors would not inspire them to work harder. hence, financial and non-financial strategies of reward can encourage workers performance or work against the needed motivation. thus, the two-factor theory of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 9-18 13 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group herzberg elucidates how monetary and non-monetary strategies of reward or by implication motivators and hygiene factors affect workers’ performance. herzberg (1964) claimed that the factors resulting in work satisfaction are detached from those that result in work dissatisfaction. thus, administrators pursuing the elimination of work dissatisfaction factors may achieve peace but certainly not motivation. their workforce may be pacified rather than being motivated. furthermore, the relevance of this theory for this study is based on the ground that it stated the two elements that influence work performance. these are intrinsic and extrinsic reward systems. the extrinsic factors comprise promotion and salary. in contrast, the intrinsic factors comprise praise and recognition. thus, when workers at the university of abuja are rewarded through intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, workers’ performance would be affected. this confirms the contention of blinder and choi (1990) that when certain conditions subsist, rewards motivate performance. the management of university of abuja can thus enhance their workers’ performance by influencing them through numerous reward management policies, strategies and processes. however, this theory proposes that managers should utilize both motivators and hygiene factors for the improvement of workers’ attitudes and productivity and not think that boosting satisfaction would results in a decline in dissatisfaction. no wonder, robbins (2001) argued that herzberg two-factor theory gives a better knowledge that a person’s connection to job is fundamental and that one’s attitude to job can actually decide success and failure. notwithstanding the benefits of this theory, it has a few limitations. first, the link between satisfaction and performance was not estimated. second, there was no evidence to show that productivity would result from factors of motivation. third, the underpinning assumption that everybody’s needs were alike was unproven. 3. methodology a survey research design was employed for this study. the 2145 employees’ of the university of abuja would constitute the population for this study. this comprises of the 640 academic staff and 1505 non-academic staff of the university. the sample size was established with a 95% confidence level utilizing yamane (1967) formula. 𝑛 = 𝑁 1 + 𝑁(𝑒)2 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒. 𝑁 = 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝑒 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (%). substituting into the formula: 𝑛 = 2145 1 + 2145(0.05)2 𝑛 = 2145 1 + 2145(0.0025) 𝑛 = 2145 1 + 5.3625 𝑛 = 2145 6.3625 𝑛 = 337.13 based on this formula, a sample size of 337 was realized. the probability and non-probability sampling methods were used in the study. the purposive and random sampling methods were employed in this study. the university of abuja was chosen due to the gap in the literature and because lecturers and students from the whole federation plus the federal capital territory (fct) are there. thus, their views on this issue could approximate that of the country. the simple random sampling technique was utilized to choose 337 workers’ from the academic and non-academic staff. the simple random sampling method was utilized because it ensures that all workers’ have equal chances of being selected. furthermore, it prevents bias in the process of selection. hence, 337 questionnaires were administered to workers’ in the university of abuja. the study used primary and secondary data. the structured questionnaire formed the basis for the derivation of the primary data. conversely, existing and systematic works on the effect of reward systems on the performance of employees’ in form of books, internal and external reports of government, journal articles, magazines, newspapers, reports and publications of development partners and ministries, international organizations, non-governmental (ngos), and ministries, departments and agencies (mdas) constituted the secondary data. we utilized 13 items for the measurement of reward management systems. the thirteen items of reward management systems established by husin, chelladurai, and musa (2012) would be used for this. the performance of workers’ was measured through 11 items. the performance of workers’ was proxied by productivity. this was due to the fact that it was usually employed in the literature by scholars to measure performance. the validity and reliability of the instruments of measurement and the existence of unique elements in the data was determined through the principal components analysis (pca) and cronbach-alpha coefficients. a cronbach-alpha coefficient of 0.70 and above is deemed acceptable. hence, the certainty, reliability and stability of the measurement instrument would not be in doubt if cronbach-alpha coefficient falls within this range. we employed descriptive and inferential statistics for the analysis of the collected data. the international business machines corp (ibm) statistical package for social sciences (spss) was used for data analysis. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 9-18 14 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4. data presentation, analysis and discussion of results three hundred and thirty seven questionnaires were administered to workers’ at the university of abuja. however, we recovered 300 questionnaires. the response rate was 89%. in contrast, 11% of the employees’ did not answer to the questionnaire. we realized a cronbach-alpha reliability score of 0.916 and 0.969 for the reward management systems construct and measures of work performance respectively. the instrument revealed an overall cronbach alpha value of 0.883. this coefficient was considered reliable for this study. the demographic characteristics of respondents are depicted in table 1. table 1. demographic characteristics of respondents. variable items frequency percentage (%) type of staff academic staff non-academic staff total 220 80 300 73.3 26.7 100.0 number of years worked less than 5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16-20 years 21-25 years 26 years and above total 40 49 116 29 40 26 300 13.3 16.3 38.7 9.7 13.3 8.7 100.0 marital status married single widowed separated never married divorced engaged to be married total 225 75 0 0 0 0 0 300 75.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 gender male female total 235 65 300 78.3 21.7 100.0 age 21-25 years 26-30 years 31-35 years 36-40 years 41-45 years 46-50 years 51-55 years 56-60 years 61-65 years 66-70 years total 4 41 124 14 42 15 45 15 0 0 300 1.3 13.7 41.3 4.7 14.0 5.0 15.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 education no education primary education secondary education polytechnic education tertiary education total 0 0 16 12 272 300 0.0 0.0 5.3 4.0 90.7 100.0 source: field survey, 2022. the demographic features of the respondents are shown in table 1. it indicated that 220 or 73.3% were academic staff while 80 or 26.7% were non-academic staff. the findings revealed that a mass of them (73.3%) were the academic staff. it indicated that 116 or 38.7% had been employed at the university of abuja for a time of between 11-15 years. on the other hand, the rest (61.3%) were distributed between the periods of less than 5 years, 6-10, 11-15, 16-20, 21-25 and 26 years and beyond. consequently, the years of experience of majority of the workers’ qualifies them to pass judgment on the matter under study. also, their marital status showed that 225 or 75% of them were married, 75 or 25% of them were single. the divorced, engaged to be married, never married, separated and widowed equally shared 0 or 0%. the results indicated that the majority of the respondents (78.3%) were male and the remaining (21.7%) were female. furthermore, 124 or 41.3% were in the age category of 31-35 years. however, the rest (58.7%) were distributed between the age categories of 21-25, 26-30, 36-40, 41-45, 46-50, 51-55 and 56-60 years. from the perspective of education, 272 or 90.7% had tertiary education. those with secondary education trailed with 16 or 5.3%. on the other hand, 12 or 4% had polytechnic education. to determine the effectiveness of the reward management practices at the university of abuja, we employed a five-point likert tool. this was depicted in table 2. the reward management practices were obtained due to an indepth literature review, interviews and participant observation. we pinpointed thirteen reward management systems created by husin et al. (2012) and built it into the questionnaire and the employees of the university of abuja were demanded to specify the choice that matches their view. the decision on each view was based on 3.00, the mean of a five points rating scale. since the average of a five points rating scale tallies with the agreed view, 3.00 was employed to determine the effectiveness of each element of reward management systems at the university of abuja. an opinion with a mean rating of 3.00 and above was deemed as agreed. in contrast, opinions with a mean rating of less than 3.00 were deemed as not agreed. to a great degree, most of the respondents agreed that this university does not automatically reward good performance. it was ranked first among the reward management practices under consideration. this was because it had the highest frequency of 944 and a mean score of 3.15. it was the only reward management practice rated above a mean score of 3.00. however, most of the respondents concurred that the remaining reward management practices were not effective at the university of abuja. this was premised on the fact that views on all these reward management practices were rated below a mean score of 3.00. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 9-18 15 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 2. distribution of respondents based on reward management systems at the university of abuja. code opinion strongly agree (x5) agree (x4) undecided (x3) disagree (x2) strongly disagree (x1) sum mean std. dev. rank rm1 this university does not automatically reward good performance. 265 356 168 106 49 944 3.15 1.35 1st rm2 employees are contented with the recognition accorded to them for executing good works. 145 316 177 176 45 859 2.86 1.24 3rd rm3 this university gives promotions to the individuals that merit them. 70 340 105 186 73 774 2.58 1.26 4th rm4 exceptional incentives and rewards are provided by management to all employees at each level. 50 252 123 160 106 691 2.30 1.24 6th rm5 excellent service is remarkably celebrated by this university. 30 300 129 128 112 699 2.33 1.26 5th rm6 supervisors acknowledge employees for executing jobs of highquality. 40 288 114 124 120 686 2.29 1.29 7th rm7 supervisors are open to assist or direct employees. 55 64 276 110 126 631 2.10 1.12 10th rm8 supervisors encourage the ideas of employees’ and their styles of accomplishing things. 50 100 258 134 112 654 2.18 1.12 9th rm9 supervisors utilize the rewards at their disposal to show employees that they have executed good jobs. 0 84 222 122 144 572 1.91 1.00 11th rm10 supervisors’ expectations from employees in terms of execution of job are not always clear to them. 70 368 243 200 13 894 2.98 1.00 2nd rm11 the process of performance appraisal is connected to the reward system. 0 136 222 246 69 673 2.24 0.94 8th rm12 promotions and pay increases depend on the attainment of known performance goals. 0 188 198 200 87 673 2.24 1.04 8th rm13 the standards for job performance evaluation are regularly revealed to employees by the managers. 30 120 144 112 160 566 1.89 1.13 12th note: rm represents reward management systems. source: field survey, 2022. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 9-18 16 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 3. principal component analysis results of the construct of reward management systems. code factors and observed variables loadings eigenvalues percentage of variance factor: reward management systems rm1 this university does not automatically reward good performance. 0.397 6.841 52.626 rm2 employees are contented with the recognition accorded to them for executing good works. 0.508 1.913 14.719 rm3 this university gives promotions to the individuals that merit them. 0.877 1.345 10.347 rm4 exceptional incentives and rewards are provided by management to all employees at each level. 0.839 0.809 6.225 rm5 excellent service is remarkably celebrated by this university. 0.877 0.557 4.283 rm6 supervisors acknowledge employees for executing jobs of high-quality. 0.904 0.358 2.754 rm7 supervisors are open to assist or direct employees. 0.814 0.288 2.217 rm8 supervisors encourage the ideas of employees’ and their styles of accomplishing things. 0.850 0.213 1.640 rm9 supervisors utilize the rewards at their disposal to show employees that they have executed good jobs. 0.884 0.209 1.611 rm10 supervisors’ expectations from employees in terms of execution of job are not always clear to them. 0.494 0.178 1.369 rm11 the process of performance appraisal is connected to the reward system. 0.587 0.112 0.860 rm12 promotions and pay increases depend on the attainment of known performance goals. 0.538 0.104 0.799 rm13 the standards for job performance evaluation are regularly revealed to employees by the managers. 0.569 0.071 0.549 total variance explained by reward management systems 100 note: extraction method: principal component analysis. kmo measure of sampling adequacy = 0.847, bartlett’s chi-square 3564.32 with 78 d.f., p < 0.05, and bartlett’s test of sphericity = 0.000. table 3 depicts the items and factor loadings of the construct of reward management systems. to ascertain the number of items under this construct that would represent it best, a pca was conducted. to improve clarity, the proposition that loadings less than 0.40 should be ditched from the analysis was implemented. this was because a factor loading with a value of 0.4 and beyond was considered valid. once more, factor loadings lower than 0.30 were deemed to be low while loadings more than 0.40 were deemed to be high. the results indicated that all the loadings were valid for further analysis. a check was carried out to confirm that the variables were correlated at a moderate level and that minimum conditions were satisfied. we realized the kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) measurement assumption. the kmo estimate of 0.847 indicated the relevance of the investigation. this was because it fulfilled the first assumption for factor analysis. the significance of the bartlett test of sphericity (chisquare with degrees of freedom 78 = 3564.32, p=0.000) further showed that it was right to conduct factor analysis. these elements were subjected to final analysis. table 4. principal component analysis results of the factors of work performance. code factors and observed variables loadings eigenvalues percentage of variance factor: work performance wp1 quality services 0.770 8.520 77.454 wp2 effectiveness 0.850 0.985 8.952 wp3 service delivery 0.884 0.427 3.880 wp4 productivity 0.918 0.291 2.643 wp5 mental production (decisions) 0.750 0.228 2.077 wp6 return to government 0.891 0.146 1.323 wp7 investment in research 0.902 0.117 1.063 wp8 web ranking 0.902 0.104 0.947 wp9 task done 0.931 0.082 0.749 wp10 observable action 0.931 0.061 0.558 wp11 rate of innovation 0.931 0.039 0.355 total variance explained by work performance 100 note: wp denotes work performance. extraction method: principal component analysis. kmo measure of sampling adequacy = 0.924, bartlett’s chi-square 4800.98 with 55 d.f., p < 0.05, and bartlett’s test of sphericity = 0.000. in table 4, a pca was conducted on work performance to derive information on the number of elements that represents the data best. however, no element was rejected from it. all the elements revealed good internal reliability and were endorsed for further analysis. a check was carried out to confirm that the variables were correlated at a moderate level and that minimum conditions were satisfied. we realized the kmo measurement assumption. the kmo estimate of 0.924 indicated the relevance of the investigation. this was because it fulfilled the first assumption for factor analysis. the significance of the bartlett test of sphericity (chi-square with degrees of freedom 55 = 4800.98, p=0.000) further showed that it was right to conduct factor analysis. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 9-18 17 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 5. regression results. factor/model unstandardized coefficients standard error tstatistic sig. constant 0.301 0.227 1.326 0.186 this university does not automatically reward good performance. -0.214 0.067 -3.212 0.001 employees are contented with the recognition accorded to them for executing good works. 0.715 0.080 8.917 0.000 this university gives promotions to the individuals that merit them. 0.174 0.109 1.592 0.112 exceptional incentives and rewards are provided by management to all employees at each level. -0.263 0.104 -2.539 0.012 excellent service is remarkably celebrated by this university. -0.172 0.117 -1.476 0.141 supervisors acknowledge employees for executing jobs of high-quality. -0.106 0.130 -0.821 0.412 supervisors are open to assist or direct employees. 0.333 0.092 3.633 0.000 supervisors encourage the ideas of employees’ and their styles of accomplishing things. 0.372 0.099 3.767 0.000 supervisors utilize the rewards at their disposal to show employees that they have executed good jobs. 0.130 0.115 1.134 0.258 supervisors’ expectations from employees in terms of execution of job are not always clear to them. 0.134 0.073 1.847 0.066 the process of performance appraisal is connected to the reward system. -0.286 0.094 -3.047 0.003 promotions and pay increases depend on the attainment of known performance goals. 0.177 0.101 1.757 0.080 the standards for job performance evaluation are regularly revealed to employees by the managers. 0.020 0.093 0.218 0.828 parameters of the model r2 0.561 adjusted r2 0.542 f-statistic (sig.) 28.164 (0.000) dependent variable: workers’ performance table 5 revealed the results of the regression analysis. the results showed that this university does not automatically reward good performance, exceptional incentives and rewards are provided by management to all employees at each level and that the process of performance appraisal is connected to the reward system had a negative impact on workers’ performance at the university of abuja. in contrast, employees are contented with the recognition accorded to them for executing good works, supervisors are open to assist or direct employees, supervisors encourage the ideas of employees’ and their styles of accomplishing things, supervisors’ expectations from employees in terms of execution of job are not always clear to them and promotions and pay increases depend on the attainment of known performance goals exerted a positive effect on workers’ performance at the university of abuja. the plausible reason for the positive and significant relationship between supervisors’ expectations from employees in terms of execution of job are not always clear to them and their performance could be explained by the extra effort devoted by them to knowing what the supervisors want. in addition, the plausible reason for the negative and significant relationship between the process of performance appraisal is connected to the reward system and workers’ performance could be explained by the nepotism that characterizes the process of performance appraisal in most economies of the world, particularly the developing ones. thus, people get rewarded for doing nothing. furthermore, the plausible reason for the negative and significant relationship between exceptional incentives and rewards are provided by management to all employees at each level and workers’ performance at the university of abuja could also be partly explained by nepotism. if nepotism is allowed a place in the reward system, no objectives would be attached to these excellent incentives and rewards by the university management. hence, employees would be rewarded despite their levels of performance. furthermore, it explains why good performance does not automatically get rewarded at the university of abuja. the results showed that 56% of workers’ performance at the university of abuja could be explained by reward management systems. the fstatistic of 28.164 and its significance value of 0.000 revealed that the model had a good fit. 5. conclusion and recommendations based on the results, this university does not automatically reward good performance, exceptional incentives and rewards are provided by management to all employees at each level and that the process of performance appraisal is connected to the reward system were the reward management practices that affected workers’ performance negatively at the university of abuja. in addition, employees are contented with the recognition accorded to them for executing good works, supervisors are open to assist or direct employees, supervisors encourage the ideas of employees’ and their styles of accomplishing things, supervisors’ expectations from employees in terms of execution of job are not always clear to them and promotions and pay increases depend on the attainment of known performance goals were the reward management practices that affected workers’ performance positively at the university of abuja. the study recommends that the university of abuja management should ensure that rewards are based on merit and matched with performance to inspire workers to give their best. in addition, the university management should sustain their reward management practices on recognition of workers for doing good jobs, supervisors’ assistance to workers, supporting of workers’ ideas and ways of getting things done by supervisors and linkage of promotions and pay increases to attainment of documented performance objectives. furthermore, reward management practices on rewards for good performance, promotions going to people that deserve them, celebration of exceptional service, recognition of workers by supervisors for doing high-quality work, use of rewards by supervisors to let workers know when they have done fine jobs, linkage of performance 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(1967). statistics: an introductory analysis (2nd ed.). new york: harper and row. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.20431/2349-0349.0806005 https://doi.org/10.20431/2349-0349.0806005 https://doi.org/10.9734/bjesbs/2013/2529 https://doi.org/10.21272/sec.2(4).114-122.2018 https://doi.org/10.2307/2937882 https://doi.org/10.9734/ajeba/2020/v15i230209 https://doi.org/10.14738/abr.86.8403 https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.26.2.143 https://doi.org/10.1177/875697280603700405 https://doi.org/10.3126/batuk.v8i2.47008 https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v8-i9/4877 10 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 12, no. 1, 10-19, 2025 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6635 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group higher education at the crossroads: what it takes to lead in an era of disruption halimah mohamed ali universiti sains malaysia, malaysia. email: halimah@usm.my abstract this is the era of the industrial revolution; an era where disruptive technologies reign. challenges within higher education have come to a crossroads due to disruptive technologies, 21st-century skills, globalization, and global competition. thus, higher education needs to be redeveloped to improve the educational system in the era of disruption. the method used in this research is a qualitative method that consists of the study of literature in the field. the purpose of this research is to identify and analyze the disruptive technologies, such as artificial intelligence and virtual reality, that are challenging education and to rethink the way to design educational products, satisfy customers, and generate revenue for higher education to reap bottom-line benefits. to reinvent higher education, this research suggests that the management and the educators at higher education embrace a culture that promotes constant transformation, invest in manpower that will play a strategic role in managing disruption, and design workspaces that inspire creativity for the educators and the students as well as lead their innovation. this research incorporates the triple bottom line theory, introduced to measure performance. the theory's idea is to promote sustainability as well as gain profits from business ventures. thus, higher education is to be viewed as a business venture, and its human capital (manpower and students) needs to be sustained in a sustainable environment. this research outlines how we should manage and utilize disruptive technologies against human capital to reap benefits in higher education and achieve bottom-line benefits. keywords: bottom line, creativity, crossroads, disruptive technologies, higher education, sustainability. citation | ali, h. m. (2025). higher education at the crossroads: what it takes to lead in an era of disruption. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 12(1), 10–19. 10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6635 history: received: 25 october 2024 revised: 7 april 2025 accepted: 22 april 2025 published: 2 may 2025 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: not applicable. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 11 2. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 3. summation of ideas, concepts and perceptions ........................................................................................................................ 18 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 18 mailto:halimah@usm.my https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6635 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0643-3443 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 10-19 11 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper is a critical analysis of literature on higher education and the triple bottom line theory. it is novel because it addresses the role of disruptive technologies in higher education and applies a business theory and model on higher education to promote it as a business venture. 1. introduction this is the era of the industrial revolution; an era where disruptive technologies reign. challenges within higher education have come to a crossroads due to disruptive technologies, 21st-century skills, globalization, and global competition. thus, higher education needs to be redeveloped to improve the educational system in the era of disruption. the method used in this research is a qualitative method that consists of the study of literature in the field. the purpose of this research is to identify and analyze the disruptive technologies such as artificial intelligence and virtual reality that are challenging education and to rethink the way to design educational products, satisfy customers, and generate revenue for higher education to reap bottom-line benefits. to reinvent higher education, this research suggests that the management and the educators at higher education embrace a culture that promotes constant transformation, invest in manpower that will play a strategic role in managing disruption, and design workspaces that inspire creativity for the educators and the students as well as lead their innovation. this research will incorporate the triple bottom line theory introduced by elkington (1997) to measure performance. his idea was to promote sustainability as well as gain profits from business ventures. higher education is to be viewed as a business venture, and its human capital (manpower and students) needs to be sustained in a sustainable environment. it will outline how we should manage and utilize disruptive technologies against human capital to reap benefits in higher education and achieve bottom-line benefits. 1.1. literature review marginson and van der wende (2007) state that globalization, economics, and culture have instigated a new era in higher education. higher education has always been more international than other fields and sectors, and its immersion in knowledge has never known boundaries. higher education institutions have become more important than ever in global knowledge economies. thus, higher education and its policies are being reinvented. every research university is part of a single worldwide network, and it lends power to world leaders at a global level in their respective fields. this research explores the issues for national policy for individual institutions. it discusses, amongst other things, globalization, policy, europeanization, rankings, typologies, and cross-border mobility. however, it does not have a business framework that can support its ideas to expand education as an industry, as this current research has. yang, shen, and fan's (2024) essay titled "global aspirations of chinese universities: towards a worldcentered tianxia (all under heaven) imaginary of global higher education?" explores the global aspirations of chinese universities by examining the chinese scholarly conceptualization of guoji yingxiangli (literally meaning international influence) and its connection to the world-centered idea of tianxia. in addition to conducting a documentary study of pertinent chinese academic papers, the researchers spoke with 22 chinese education specialists. the results indicate that the chinese term guoji yingxiangli of universities, which refers to both the internal capabilities of universities as well as their external reputation and relationships, has no english equivalent. the agential pursuit of guoji yingxiangli by chinese colleges reflects their dedication to the common welfare of the world as well as their national aspirations. the paper then makes the case that methodological globalism or nationalism is less successful than the world-centered tianxia imaginary, which is defined by interdependency, reciprocity, and variety, in understanding higher education practices and relations in china and around the world. it also calls for diversified and mutually beneficial cooperation while highlighting the need for more investigation and critical analysis of the tianxia imaginary. although this research is on chinese universities and the idea of internationalization, it does not discuss the influence of technologies on higher education. neither does it offer a business plan to reap economic benefits from higher education. kallo and välimaa (2024), in their special issue essay, "higher education in nordic countries: analyzing the construction of policy futures," examine how civilizations around the world have dealt with and are still dealing with the reality that the future is and has always been uncertain and unpredictable. the understanding that the existing and prospective global difficulties have made the international situation more complex than ever before serves as the foundation for this research. natural disasters, climatic crises, and habitat degradation are the most severe of these dangers and difficulties. societies worldwide are placing more demands on research and higher education in order to handle the growing uncertainties brought on by these issues. they are also taking proactive steps, such as using various foresight methodologies, to increase their readiness and long-term resilience. their goal in this special issue is to offer new perspectives. however, their view of higher education is not holistic, as this current research is. santos (2012) addresses the issue discussed in this paper by posing questions. the author presents a set of twelve "strong questions" regarding the modern university within the framework of the european bologna process, which was named after the bologna declaration, recognizing that the university as a whole is at a critical historical and global crossroads. go to the roots of the historical identity and vocation of the university in order to question whether the university, as we know it, indeed has a future. the author describes the questions that are explored. the questions seek to ascertain, among other things, whether the university can successfully reimagine itself as a center of knowledge in a globalizing society with numerous other centers; whether the university of the future will have space for "critical, heterodox, non-marketable knowledge," respectful of cultural diversity; whether the situation of a widening gap between "central" and "peripheral" universities can be avoided; and whether market imperatives can be relativized as a criterion for successful research, while the needs of society, especially those that cannot be reduced asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 10-19 12 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group to market needs, are sufficiently taken into consideration. the european higher education area (ehea) was established in 1999 with the goal of revamping higher education throughout santos, 2012). however, this research does not address higher education and disruptive technologies. it provides a good grounding for the problems faced by higher education and sets the tone for this current research. scarlat, 2021 in today’s higher education at a crossroads: the critical point and paradigm shift in the educator’s role in education argues that we are currently witnessing a true paradigm shift in education by observing the varying rates of advancement of the available data, information, and knowledge (on the one hand) and the human capacity to process this available data, information, and knowledge (on the other). the author becomes aware of the higher pace of the first, amid the impetus of new communication and information technologies. the education system is at a turning point (also known as the critical point in education, or cpe) where the role of the educator must shift from being a repository of knowledge to being a skilled, expert knowledge explorer and identifier. this means that instead of teaching the subject, educators must now teach students how to choose the pertinent and appropriate information about the subject from the vast amount of information. according to the author, this question was made more pressing by the ongoing coronavirus crisis, which had begun by the time the concepts for this chapter were developed. he calls for a reconsideration of the educational system and the role of educators. the paradigm shift in education is introduced in this chapter regarding the role of the educator in the foreseeable future, to spark debate and pave the way for future research for academics, policymakers, educators, and higher education strategists. (scarlat, 2021). however, cezar’s research does not analyze higher education from a business point of view and does not use a business model like the current research does. liu and gao (2022) in their paper titled "higher education internationalization at the crossroads: effects of the coronavirus pandemic" argue that nearly every element of people's lives has been impacted by the covid-19 pandemic, which has also created new circumstances for how universities conduct their internationalization initiatives. the global environment is changing quickly, and the internationalization of higher education has reached a turning point. this study examines experts' opinions regarding the impact of the coronavirus crisis on the internationalization of higher education and its future course, taking into consideration various national and regional contexts, using a constructivist grounded theory design. according to interviews with twenty of the world's top experts in the field, covid-19 has had complicated effects on university internationalization, and these effects should be considered in addition to the obvious differences between opportunities and challenges. while the logic of capitalism is still strong, new ways of conceptualizing and implementing internationalization are crucial. the coronavirus is not the only factor that will have an impact in the future. to keep internationalization relevant and sustainable, new knowledge is required because new circumstances have created new demands for it (liu and gao, 2022). while this research analyzes higher education and covid-19 and its effects, this current research is aware of the impact of covid-19 and goes further to show how this kind of emergency can be handled using disruptive technologies. yadav (2019), in her essay "disruptive innovative technologies in higher education," argues that the rapid development of information and communication technology has changed education and the structures of colleges and universities in several ways. according to yadav, the educational system is changing rapidly. the theory of disruptive innovation, which essentially explains that established organizations are driven out of their industries due to their resistance to embracing new innovations, can be used to explain these dynamic changes. the goal of this study is to help readers, especially practitioners in the education sector, understand the characteristics of disruptive innovation and how it is changing the educational landscape. the function of "disruptive" innovative technologies in higher education is examined in this paper. higher education institutions (heis) have made large investments in learning technologies in most countries, but staff and students have not always embraced and utilized these technologies. rather, learning and teaching are supported by a wide range of technologies that are not owned or controlled by heis. these disruptive technologies have educational potential but are not specifically designed to support teaching and learning in higher education, according to christensen's theory of disruptive innovation. this study analyzes data about the effects of disruptive technologies using expansive learning and activity theory. this study finds a discrepancy between the learning technologies that heis provide and the technologies used in practice (yadav, 2019). while yadav’s research analyzes and criticizes disruptive technologies in higher education, this current research explains what disruptive technologies are and their importance to higher education. flavin (2021) in "disruptive innovation, the episteme, and technology-enhanced learning in higher education" looks at disruptive technologies from a foucauldian point of view. to analyze how much the incorporation of foucauldian analysis clarifies understandings of disruptive innovation, the process by which innovation occurs, and its applications in higher education, this paper combines the theory of disruptive innovation with foucault's concept of the episteme. a summary of the disruptive innovation theory, the episteme, and the idea of skeuomorphic design is used to link disruptive innovation and the episteme, showing how innovation can happen. by connecting disruptive innovation and the episteme, the concept of skeuomorphic design demonstrates how innovation can occur. three distinct technologies, second life, massive open online courses, and virtual learning environments, are subjected to disruptive innovation (flavin, 2021). while this research uses foucauldian philosophy to make sense of and explain the importance of disruptive technologies, the current research uses a business model to highlight the impact of disruptive technologies in higher education and the need for it, especially during emergencies like covid-19. rossouw (2022) states that in most, if not all, facets of life, including education, a new era for humanity has begun. whether or not the new era that began with the start of the covid-19 pandemic, often referred to as the "new normal," is and will be marked by less favorable educational conditions is the question that needs to be addressed. this essay examines several external disturbances, some linked to the pandemic, as potential drivers of a better system of higher education. the role and necessity of internal disruption for sustained innovation and student mobility are taken into consideration simultaneously. even though disruption is frequently hostile, it can result in long-awaited or much-needed innovation. the mobility of international students and alternative methods of delivering university programs are the two disruptive forces that are being discussed. thirdly, policymakers must adopt a new perspective due to the importance of micro-credentialing as a disruptive force for traditional universities. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 10-19 13 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group notwithstanding the strength of the external force, it is reasonable to assume that all three of these potential innovations will encounter some degree of opposition within the framework of a higher education institution (216223). while rossouw concentrates on the pandemic, this current research mentions it, is aware of the effects of the pandemic, and suggests ways and means for a better contemporary higher education system in the wake of the pandemic and post-pandemic. purcărea (2023) argues that fast-growing higher education institutions use digital transformation strategies to manage the transition to a more resilient and sustainable future, improve overall efficiency and value, develop and manage financially sustainable business models, and overcome financial challenges. universities are crucial in creating a more ambitious digital agenda by incorporating disruptive technologies into their operations. this allows students to reach their objectives and increase their opportunities while also rethinking and reprioritizing budgets in the knowledge-intensive sector. higher education institutions must remain relevant in a rapidly evolving digital environment, implement new innovations to engage, support, and train students, and more effectively deliver flexible and accessible tailored products and services to educational consumers in the face of rapidly accelerating technological advancements, potential crises, and opportunities. in this case, e-commerce takes place at the convenience of both the university and the students, enhancing and broadening the ways in which expectations are fulfilled and pinpointing important elements that contribute to student retention and satisfaction (purcărea, 2023). purcărea emphasizes the importance of digital transformation in higher education and also the value of students at higher education institutions. however, the current research emphasizes four main factors: business, technology, students, and lecturers. the research outlines that lecturers are the most important assets in higher education, more important than technology and students. putri, yuhana, and siahaan (2024) discuss the possible effects of disruptive technologies on higher education. they examine that idea in this essay, focusing on the question of whether technology will eventually replace lecturers. two brief experimental sessions were carried out. in the first session, traditional in-person lectures were given in a classroom setting. using an lms (learning management system) and digital content that students could access at any time, the second session was self-paced learning. the findings demonstrate that both interventions significantly improved post-test scores, demonstrating the effectiveness of both conventional lecturing and the use of technology to deliver instructional strategies. in contrast, the self-paced learning approach produced a statistically significant increase in post-test scores over pre-test scores when comparing the two approaches. this study's initial findings support the idea that lecturers can be replaced by technology. however, when choosing learning approaches, it's also critical to consider elements like learner preference, digital literacy, and institutional resources. the longterm retention of knowledge, efficacy across a range of academic disciplines, and the influence of individual differences on technology-mediated learning experiences should all be investigated further. in higher education, these findings support improving instructional strategies and maximizing student learning (putri et al., 2024). the current research emphasizes the importance of disruptive technologies, but at the same time, it highlights the role of lecturers in higher education, their significance, and their roles at the tertiary level. this research puts to rest putri’s doubts about the issue of disruptive technologies taking over human roles as educators in higher education. valavanidis (2020) athanasios, in the essay titled "universities as innovation drivers for major disruptive technological transformations and economic development," argues that the world has seen globalization and the unstoppable development of disruptive technologies (or innovations) in recent decades. examples include the democratization of knowledge, the rapid digitization of information and data access, the explosion of automation and robotics applications, and the acceleration of the digital revolution. from healthcare to transportation to energy to advanced materials and beyond, all these developments bring with them new economic, societal, and technological challenges that are revolutionizing every aspect of the global economy and daily life. the most disruptive innovations are described in this review: the internet of things (iot), blockchain technology, 3d printing, and artificial intelligence (ai), to name a few. the human talent that generates disruptive innovations, revolutions, and new methods of economic development is one of the ways that university research labs and institutes spread new knowledge. in an effort to support disruptive technologies, new research initiatives, graduate-led start-ups, and recently funded technological enterprises, renowned universities in the most developed nations—the united states, the united kingdom, germany, china, india, and france—present the most recent developments in their fields. world-class science research innovation programs, high-tech startups, and leading hubs for disruptive technological companies are being spun out by numerous universities (valavanidis, 2020). valavanidis' research outlines the types of disruptive technologies, their use in higher education, and their contribution towards education. the current research concentrates on the impact of disruptive technologies on the economy of higher education and how disruptive technologies can be employed for economic gain in higher education. 1.2. theory this research will incorporate the triple bottom line theory introduced by elkington (1997) to measure performance. his idea was to promote sustainability as well as gain profits from business ventures. the triple bottom line theory believes that social and environmental factors are as important as profits, i.e., profit, people, and the planet. tbl postulates a corporation’s commitment towards society and its impact on the environment. it argues that if a company only concentrates on profits while ignoring humans and the planet, it will not earn as much as it could if it uses the triple bottom line concept (kenton, 2021). in business terms bottom line means profits. according to kenton, “elkington's tbl framework advances the goal of sustainability in business practices, in which companies look beyond profits to include social and environmental issues to measure the full cost of doing business” (kenton, 2021). tbl can easily be interpreted as people + planet = social + environmental responsibility. it argues that companies should work on three aspects simultaneously: profit, people, and planet. profit refers to how much the company earns, its net earnings; people encompasses the manpower, clients, and society; and planet signifies the environment. all three aspects work hand in hand for a company to become successful. the triple-bottom-line theory https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/costofcapital.asp asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 10-19 14 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group states that companies should focus as much attention on social and environmental issues as they do on financial issues (kenton, 2021). there are challenges in applying the triple bottom line and measuring the tbl for a company. elkington states that the major challenge is measuring the social and environmental bottom lines. profits are easy to measure because they involve financial figures and are quantitative. social and environmental responsibilities are subjective (kenton, 2021). a business has to maximize financial returns without mixing inverse elements. tbl advocates this philosophy. there has to be a balance between the three tbl elements. if tbl is ignored, then profits might suffer. consumers might choose companies that respect the climate and manpower over those that do not. according to kenton: consumers want companies to be transparent about their practices and to be considerate of all stakeholders. many consumers are willing to pay more for clothing and other products if it means that workers are paid a living wage and that the environment is respected in the production process (kenton, 2021). the examples of companies that subscribe to tbl or similar concepts are axion structural innovations llc (limited liability company), ben & jerry, the lego (leg godt) group, mars, incorporated, and starbucks corporation. most of these companies respect the environment and sustain it, as well as treat their manpower according to the law and give them their legal rights as labor. hubbard (2009) argues that tbl is based on stakeholder theory. hubbard states that tbl emerged in 1997 as a new tool to measure performance (179). according to hubbard (2009). it is based on the idea that a firm should measure its performance in relation to stakeholders, including local communities and governments, not just those stakeholders with whom it has direct, transactional relationships (such as employees, suppliers, and customers). the tbl is an unsettling concept for many organizations because it implies that the firm’s responsibilities are much wider than simply those related to the economic aspects of producing products and services that customers want, to regulatory standards, at a profit. the tbl adds social and environmental measures of performance to the economic measures typically used in most organizations. figure 1. hubbard’s. hubbard’s figure 1. hubbard explains his figure 1 as follows, environmental performance generally refers to the amount of resources a firm uses in its operations (e.g., energy, land, water) and the by-products its activities create (e.g., waste, air emissions, chemical residues, etc.). social performance generally refers to the impact a firm (and its suppliers) has on the communities in which it works. measuring performance against these measures is not a straightforward task. shareholder value, market share, customer satisfaction, and even employee well-being are relatively easy to quantify, and measures developed by one organization are readily transferable to others. however, social and environmental performance are almost certainly unique to each organization, or at least each industry, and they are often very difficult to quantify. unlike the bsc, the tbl has not been successful in penetrating organizational performance systems. it has been seen as too complex and perhaps too confronting for managers mired in economically dominated ways of thinking (hubbard, 2009). first, we have to explain what bsc (balanced scorecard) is. bsc, according to junior, de oliveira, and helleno (2018) in their essay titled "sustainability evaluation model for manufacturing systems based on the correlation between triple bottom line dimensions and balanced scorecard perspectives" (2018, pp. 84-93), is the balanced scorecard. they argue that bsc is a matrix that can be used for a comprehensive and detailed evaluation since it involves the tbl. thus, there is a correlation between the tbl and bsc, and they support each other in measuring asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 10-19 15 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group performance; both are performance indicators. they are models that can be used for sustainability assessments to improve an organization’s performance and sustainability. these sustainability assessment models can be integrated into multi-criteria decision methods to improve organizational sustainability and performance. hubbard’s model is appropriate to be used in higher education for us to lead in the era of disruption. it is easier to use this model in higher education because, unlike most fields or firms, higher education does not create harmful by-products or residues like waste, air emissions, or chemical residues. it is argued that social and environmental performance are unique to each organization or each industry, and they are difficult to quantify. however, if we look at higher education, which is an educational organization, as an industry, it is easier to measure its social performance. a university that represents higher education supplies human capital to the industry; thus, higher education emits the least waste and residue. the human capital produced by higher education is easily transferable to other fields. higher education does not only produces human capital; it also produces research. the research that a university produces is often easily transferable to industry, just like human capital. normally, one research project can be applied in many fields, which involves multitasking, an area in which a university’s research group excels. thus, we can straddle many fields with one research project if there is ingenuity in higher education. tbl is a good model for measuring achievement and for production. however, tbl has its weaknesses and limitations. according to pava (2007), a response to "getting to the bottom of 'triple bottom line,'" its major limitation is its "inability to measure and track social and environmental performance in a meaningful, consistent, and comparable way" (p. 108). that is why the model created by hubbard, which blends tbl and bsc, helps in solving the problem mentioned by pava that is present in tbl. higher education needs tbl and bsc to manage multiple dimensions, i.e., environmental, social, and economic. according to ozanne et al. (2016), "companies are increasingly evaluated within the public sphere, and within their own organizations, according to the degree to which they are perceived to simultaneously promote this nexus of virtues" (p. 249). ozanne et al. (2016) also argue that certain tensions arise in organizations that tbl is equipped to solve. one of these is labeled as belonging to tensions. these tensions refer to identity issues and the need to appease multiple stakeholders, i.e., the stakeholders in a university. tensions exist at both the individual and group levels due to the competing objectives of stakeholders and conflicts of priorities between and among themselves. there are also performing tensions, which involve an institution’s or a company’s need to meet competing strategies and goals. there are also paradoxical tensions that are unique to tbl firms. firms that practice tbl have to accept the fact that paradoxical tensions exist, and they have to learn to understand and accept them. the advantage of the paradox lens is that it provides opportunities for innovation because the lens highlights opportunities to manage paradoxes across the tbl. this lens accepts low performers on lower-priority goals; however, one or two goals have to be prioritized over the others, and management has to accept paradoxical tensions and manage them effectively. the tensions are for an institution to comply with set pressures and practices, and call for innovation and sustainable business practices. these businesses normally resist change but produce innovation against challenges that confront established business practices, which higher education needs to emulate, since there are some practices in higher education that cannot be changed (ozanne et al., 2016). 2. discussion this is the era of the industrial revolution; an era where disruptive technologies reign. challenges within higher education have come to a crossroads due to disruptive technologies, 21st-century skills, globalization, and global competition. what are these, and how are they connected to each other? first, let us understand disruptive technologies. disruptive technologies produce products such as the internet. according to danneels (2004). the products based on disruptive technology initially only satisfy a niche market segment, which values dimensions of performance on which the disruptive technology excels. over time, as research and development (r&d) investments are made and the technology matures, the performance provided by the disruptive technology improves to the point where it can also satisfy the requirements of the mainstream market. incumbent firms, which focused r&d attention on improvements to existing technologies (i.e., sustaining technologies), have a hard time catching up with the lead of the entrants that emerged based on disruptive technologies. therefore, disruptive technologies tend to be associated with the replacement of incumbents by entrants. (p. 247) the internet was initially only for a niche market. it was used mostly by academics and young people. today, the market has expanded. this technology has caught up and taken over incumbents like the post office and the telephone. danneels (2004) gives a core definition of disruptive technologies. according to him, a disruptive technology is a technology that changes the basis of competition by altering the performance metrics along which firms compete. customer needs drive customers to seek certain benefits in the products they use and form the basis for customer choices between competing products. benefits sought by customers determine which product attributes they value, and different customer groups (i.e., market segments) may value different attributes (mcgrath & macmillan, 2000). competing products (or, more broadly, offerings, which are constituted by physical goods and/or services) offer differing levels of performance on varying dimensions. these performance levels of the product, or attribute sets (mcgrath & macmillan, 2000), are possible because of the technology embedded in the product. customer needs determine which performance dimensions form relevant bases of competition—i.e., differentiate meaningfully between competing offerings. however, the performance that technology enables increases over time, and eventually, the performance levels offered by a disruptive technology meet or exceed the minimum levels demanded by the mainstream market. disruptive technologies change the basis of competition because they introduce a dimension of performance along which products did not compete previously. (p. 249). thus, the example given above of the internet against the post office and the telephone can be used to explain and support the above statement. the internet introduced to the world and the field of communication technology a dimension of performance that was unimaginable. the inventors of the internet and later social media that transpired asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 10-19 16 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group from it thought outside the box, like the man who created the telephone, graham bell. the internet, a disruptive technology, has taken over the cell phone, which was at one time thought to be a technological ingenuity, which was also disruptive technology. kostoff, boylan, and simons (2004) explains disruptive technologies well. their explanation supports the above definitions. according to them, disruptive technologies can be either a new combination of existing technologies or new technologies whose application to problem areas or new commercialization challenges (e.g., systems or operations) can cause major technology product paradigm shifts or create entirely new ones. management researchers have studied the commercial potential for disruptive technologies for nearly a century. kondratieff and schumpeter were among the early researchers in the field, suggesting "long waves of technological change and the process of creative destruction caused by new technologies and new skill sets either creating or redefining firms and existing markets" (p. 142). thus, disruptive technologies influence the business markets. when applied to higher education, it enhances the value of higher education due to its innovative factors and creates new niches for the industry. figure 2. the partnership for 21st century skills framework for 21st century learning. source: partnership for 21st century skills, 2009 reprinted with permission. figure 2 kay (2010). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 10-19 17 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 2 in kay’s work shows the framework of 21st-century learning. kay defines 21st-century skills as opposed to other definitions. he states, we aren’t rigid about the language used to describe 21st-century skills, either. we say adaptability, for instance, while others prefer resiliency. we say critical thinking; others say systems thinking. no matter— we’re all talking about the same concepts. on the other hand, the term 21st-century skills is not a vague and squishy catchword that can mean anything. every element of our model has been defined, developed, and vetted by leading experts, scholars, educators, businesspeople, parents, and community members (p. xvi). thus, the model of the skills that kay and his team have put forward is relevant for many purposes and fields. it has been created by a team of people from various fields and can be applied to education and business. therefore, higher education can use this model to enhance its niche in the business arena in the 21st century, since higher education has always been a commodity in the field of education and the nation. 21st-century skills cannot survive without globalization. it has been defined by robertson and white (2007). according to them, this more general view of globalization had its roots in a different set of premises. in the background of the rise of globalization theory was the relatively simple observation that the world was increasingly becoming a ‘single place’. this emphasis upon the world as becoming singular, as characterized by unicity (robertson & white, 2007), was to have important ramifications in the development of various social sciences. in one way or another, it has greatly affected the intellectual trajectory of the disciplines of sociology, political science, and anthropology. for example, the idea of the world as a single place has brought into great question the sociological tendency to conceive of the basic and largest unit of sociology as being society (mann, 1986; urry, 2000). in political science and international relations, the rapid growth of interest in globalization has led to an increasing questioning of such heretofore central themes as sovereignty and territory (robertson & white, 2007). the idea that the world is becoming a single space is important in higher education. we have faced tremendous challenges during the era of covid-19 since 2020. higher education had to become the testing ground for education. without disruptive technologies, higher education, the business world, and humanity in general could never have survived the problems created by the killer pandemic that has caused millions of deaths worldwide. the world indeed became a single space. there has been rapid growth with the help of disruptive technologies and globalization in the medical field, especially to combat the virus. higher education and the medical field worked hand in hand and have benefited in these trying times from disruptive technologies. we managed to find a vaccine in record time. it is hoped that the disruptive technologies that we used in higher education and research, as well as in medicine, will help us to solve other medical problems and innovate higher education. a composite definition, therefore, might be that, “globalization is an accelerating set of processes involving flows that encompass ever-greater numbers of the world’s spaces and that lead to increasing integration and interconnectivity among those spaces” (p. 1). if the need to define globalization indicated a lack of consensus, most of the definitions proffered used similar ideas and demonstrated more consensus than is usually assumed (including by the authors represented here). among the terms usually included in the definitions offered were, in order of frequency, speed and time (accelerating, rapidly developing, etc.), processes and flows, space (encompassing ever greater amounts of it), and increasing integration and interconnectivity. thus, robertson and white's (2007) ideas on globalization can be used to explain the situation. according to them, "a composite definition, therefore, might be: globalization is an accelerating set of processes involving flows that encompass ever-greater numbers of the world’s spaces and that lead to increasing integration and interconnectivity among those spaces" (p. 1). higher education, due to covid-19 and globalization with the use of disruptive technologies, has integrated and interconnected with many spaces [fields], i.e., the medical field, the business field, research and development, and education, to name a few. the destruction that has been created by the pandemic is unbelievable. we have to be thankful for disruptive technologies and globalization for handling the destruction in the myriad fields in this country and globally. disruptive technologies and globalization worked hand in hand and constructively to solve the inadequacies created by the destructive virus. globalization initially was created to deal with the economic world. however, the boom of globalization has helped us in higher education to handle the emergencies created by the pandemic and has given disruptive technologies niches in many domains and spaces. george ritzer, in his introduction to the book the blackwell companion to globalization (ritzer, 2007), argues that globalization has generated dramatic changes to the social world and social structures. however, he argues that the global is a difficult world to master due to the fact that our intellectuality is inadequate to handle the innovations in globalization. globalization seems ephemeral because technologies like the internet are beyond an average person’s normal thinking capability. thus, it is difficult to comprehend the power of globalization and to handle it. however, due to the emergencies created by covid-19, the world has had to grapple with globalization and use disruptive technologies to master it, and thus far, it has helped us handle the pandemic and save millions of lives. there are inequalities within higher education that need to be addressed. the tool to measure these inequalities is tbl with the help of bsc. higher education cannot be handled like the state is handled. it has to be broken into a smaller entity than the state or the nation-state and be measured as a distinct unit. higher education, then has to be broken down into smaller entities, i.e., the universities that exist in this country. these will then have to be separated into public universities and private universities before tbl and bsc are employed on them to enhance productivity with the use of disruptive technologies. disruptive technologies have triggered a paradigm shift; the shift is from higher education to globalization. however, it becomes global. thus, the emphasis is on both a local education system and a globalized education system. malaysian higher education has to work on the praxis of reflecting or characterizing education with both local and global considerations. ritzer (2007) argues that, related to, but more general than the various global-local issues, is the idea that globalization is a contingent phenomenon. in the case of the global/local relationship, the contingency is, in effect, the local (although it is also possible to see the global in contingent terms). that is, the nature of the impact of the global depends on, and is contingent upon, the nature of the local (and the agents involved, see below), as well as the ways in which the global and local interact. since no two local settings are exactly alike, the impact of globalization asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 10-19 18 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group will vary from one local setting to another. however, this is far from the only contingency of interest and importance in globalization in general and in the global-local relationship in particular (p. 7). taking up ritzer’s argument that no two local settings are exactly alike, we have to handle the different universities and institutions in higher education in different ways because each is unique within its own aspect, with its own tradition, style, customs, and disciplines. however, we cannot deny the fact that globalization is connected to americanization and involves perennial issues, as discussed by ritzer (2007). thus, these two elements will also have to be handled by tbl with the aid of sbc to enhance productivity in higher education. we should not ignore the fact that higher productivity normally yields more economic and financial benefits by way of student enrollment and research and development. in order to understand globalization better, we have to discuss global competition. this essay incorporates ideas from simon marginson (2006). marginson argues, “higher education is now situated in an open information environment in which national borders are routinely crossed and identities are continually made and self-made in encounters with diverse others” (p. 1). higher education is seen by him as a complex system, a flow of networks and ideas at a global level. the national education system is shaped by the systems in a country as well as finances, and institutions function at three levels – the local, the national, and the global. cooperation and competition structure and influence relationships between higher education institutes and countries, as well as governments. higher education is competitive and has a hierarchy, especially a hierarchy of power. it is controlled by certain rules and regulations. thus, in the era of disruptive technologies, it is important for us to employ regulators like tbl and sbc to help manage and discipline, as well as help higher education to produce and run more effectively without going out of bounds or being derailed from the mission of education and the policies that have been set by the state. the dynamics of higher education have to be explored, with national competition and global competition in view. what kind of goods does higher education offer to the market? this is a relevant and most pertinent question to ask when we use tbl as a tool to promote higher education and bsc as a measuring tool. how do we maximize productivity with the help of tbl and bsc at the national and global levels and remain competitive at both levels to attract as much revenue as possible into our universities? this is another question that needs to be confronted. our research capacity controls our performance in higher education. we should use this expertise to the maximum level to solve problems in higher education with the help of tbl and bsc. what dominates higher education are the western markets, i.e., the united kingdom and the united states, as well as english as a lingua franca. this is argued and discussed by marginson in detail. thus, higher education has to have comprehensiveness in its research universities and should be framed by a teaching-research nexus that integrates the missions of the university and shapes its institutional culture as well as leadership. global higher education exists within the praxis of a worldwide university hierarchy that is part of higher education globally and between nations. what is important in higher education is not only disruptive technologies but also human capital. without human capital, a university will cease to exist. the most important human capital consists of the educators in an institution, followed by the students. there will not be enough student enrollment or enough research produced by a university without the existence of good educators and researchers. by 'good,' it is meant well-educated and well-trained lecturers and researchers. only then will higher education have a niche, be competitive at any level, and lead. 3. summation of ideas, concepts and perceptions thus, higher education needs to be redeveloped to improve the educational system in the era of disruption. the method used in this research is a qualitative method, which consists of the study and analysis of literature in the field. the purpose of this research has been to identify and analyze the disruptive technologies, such as artificial intelligence and virtual reality, that have been mentioned generally as the internet, which are challenging education and prompting a rethinking of how to design educational products, satisfy customers, and generate revenue for higher education to reap bottom-line benefits in order to lead. to reinvent higher education, this research suggests that the management and the educators at higher education embrace a culture that promotes constant transformation, invests in manpower that will play a strategic role in managing disruption, and designs workspaces that inspire creativity for both educators and students, as well as lead their innovation. this research has incorporated the tbl theory introduced by elkington (1997) to measure performance. his idea was to promote sustainability as well as gain profits from business ventures, which higher education should aim to benefit from. higher education is to be viewed as a business venture, and its human capital (manpower and students) needs to be sustained in a sustainable environment. this essay has outlined how we should manage and utilize disruptive technologies against human capital to reap benefits in higher education and achieve bottom-line benefits. it has also included ideas on how organizational performance should be measured by the use of bsc for the purpose of reaping maximum revenues from the market and the human capital in order to lead. references danneels, e. 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(2024). global aspirations of chinese universities: towards a world-centred tianxia (all under heaven) imaginary of global higher education? higher education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-024-01340-9 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0040-1625(03)00048-9 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11233-021-09082-4 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-004-7649-x https://doi.org/10.1787/173831738240 https://epublications.marquette.edu/market_fac/201 https://doi.org/10.5840/beq200717116 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-024-01340-9 295 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 4, 295-300, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.295.300 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group digitalization of public service delivery: a case of immigration and emigration department of sri lanka l. a. pavithra madhuwanthi1 aruna muthulingam2 ( corresponding author) 1,2department of public administration, university of sri jayewardenepura, sri lanka. abstract adaptation of digital technologies leads public sector organizations to innovate and tap their potentials. the immigration and emigration department of sri lanka (iedsl) has commenced digitalization of its functions during the last decade. it is one of most efficient “one-stop” service centers that cater the requirements of 2,500 citizens on a daily basis. therefore, this paper intends to explore the adoption of digitalization in the immigration and emigration department of sri lanka and to identify the lesson learnt from digitalization process at iedsl. this is a qualitative study which employs the case study approach. the study uses both the primary and secondary data sources. primary data are collected through the in-depth interviews with five senior officials involved in digitalization process at iedsl and secondary data sources are annual performance reports, other publications and the website of the organization. the iedsl has digitalized the entire cycle of passport issuing process. this initiation enabled the iedsl to provide efficient service delivery by reducing public waiting time and transaction cost for the public, maintaining an equal access to the service, and making information freely available. also, it enabled inter-link between the immigration and emigration department and the airport authority. this paper highlighted on the lessons learnt from digitalization experience of iedsl as robust leadership, promote employee engagement, perceive continuous development through collaborations, improving the services through introducing value added services. keywords: digitalization, public service delivery, department of immigration & emigration of sri lanka. citation | l. a. pavithra madhuwanthi; aruna muthulingam (2020). digitalization of public service delivery: a case of immigration and emigration department of sri lanka. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(4): 295-300. history: received: 23 september 2020 revised: 16 october 2020 accepted: 2 november 2020 published: 18 november 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 296 2. literature review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 296 3. research method ........................................................................................................................................................................... 297 4. results .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 297 5. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 300 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 300 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.295.300&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2337 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5796-911x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2123-5832 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 295-300 296 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the contribution of this paper can be explained in two ways; sharing the experience of implementing the digitalization process in a public sector institute in a developing country and the lessons gained through the digitalization process. 1. introduction harshly impacted covid-19 pandemic today insists the organizations and citizens across the globe to restrict their physical contacts with others. alternatively, it encourages people to continue their personal and professional work through the digital platforms. for examples work from home, online shopping, virtual meetings, webinars have become common digital platforms which people are interacting with their fellow workers and organizations. not only the private sector institutes but also the public sector can make use this given opportunity by lunching digitalization initiatives under its e-government agenda. these emerging digital technologies improve service efficiency and quality which are the primary goals of digital government (layne & lee, 2001). further, the adaptation of digital technologies in recent decades leads public sector organizations to innovate and tap potentials. hence, researching on public sector digitalization initiatives and revisiting the lessons learnt has become an ardent need today, particularly in the developing country context. the digital transformation in sri lanka dated back to 1980s along with the use of personal computers in the offices. consequently, rapid use of mobile phones in the country accelerated this process at a higher pace in last decade. the government of sri lanka was planning to re-engineer the public sector by adopting information communication technology under the ‘e-sri lanka’ project. the information and communication technology agency in sri lanka has served as the data collector for many public sector organizations up until recent and then realized the strategic importance of having an integrated e-government system for public sector organizations such as registering people, immigration and emigration, elections, census and statistics, and pensions (gunawardene, 2017). 1.1. problem statement the immigration and emigration department of sri lanka (iedsl) is one of the government organizations which has successfully implemented an end-to-end digitalization and sustain service efficiency. the need for digitalization in iedsl identified by its leadership in 2002 with a dual intention of curbing the corruptive practices that results inefficiency as well as meeting the international standards of service quality. previously, the iedsl operated through a decentralized channel in which the divisional secretariats located in districts served as the agent of receiving passport applications from citizens. it has been forwarded to the iedsl to register and issue the passport. it is a time-consuming lengthy process and rate of application rejection is quite higher due to incomplete application. further, the submission of the applicants’ photographs was a manual process. it leads to forgeries in passport applications and challenging to trace the falsification by iedsl. these challenges were more complicated along with the prevalence of overlapping yet defragmented authorities of public sector organizations. for instance, the iedsl has to verify the registration of birth of applicants and their national identity card. these details are administrated by two different public organizations namely, registrar general's department and department for registration of persons. it calls for high level of coordination between these organizations, in order to minimize forgeries. the manual administration of applicants’ photographs was misused by certain local groups to facilitate criminals and culprits to obtain forged passports. at the very beginning, it was challenging the transformation of traditional public service into digitalization. the adoption of digitalization process enabled the iedsl to use new technologies to serve citizen and businesses efficiently and open-up convenient access to government information (dissanayake, 2011). adapting of electronic governance (e-governance) practices in sri lanka played a vital role in restoring the lost public trust and reenergizing transparency (irfan, 2017). further, the continuation of process improvement has strengthened by the ‘e-sri lanka’ program, national development initiative of the government of sri lanka to improve the public services and thereby uplift the quality of life of citizens (karunasena & deng, 2012). accordingly, iedsl is the one of the efficient “one-stop” service centers in the public sector that caters the requirements of 2,500 citizens on a daily basis. therefore, the objective of this paper is to explore the adoption of digitalization in the immigration and emigration department of sri lanka and to identify the lesson learnt from digitalization process at iedsl. the global e-government survey reveals that, in leading countries e-government has reached sophistication, while in other countries, going digital remains relatively new (united nations, 2020). however, sri lanka is striving hard to implement digitalization in public sector organizations where iedsl is one such successful example. the remaining sections of the paper are organized as follows. subsequent section described the literature review, followed by the research method. successively, results of the study are presented and concluded. 2. literature review distinguishing the terms ‘digitization’ from ‘digitalization’ is crucial in the contemporary information era. digitization is the process of converting analogue streams of information into digital bits (1 and 0) while digitalization is adoption of digital technologies into the domains of social and human activities and making the people restructured around digital communication and digital media infrastructures (gunawardene, 2017). as authors have mentioned the scope of digitization deals at micro level, analogue and digital signals, binary states, signal sampling, algorithms, signal interpretation; signal storage material, electrical components yet digitalization is much broader area that works at macro level, digital media infrastructure, communication platforms, social structure, cultural aspects, networked society; human-centered, knowledge production and management (schumachera, erolb, & sihna, 2016). briefly it can be stated that digitizing is a technical process of converting analogue signals into a digital form whereas digitalization is a socio-technical process of applying digitizing technologies to broader social and institutional contexts (tilson, lyytinen, & sørensen, 2010). hence, the digitalization can change a business model and generate more value producing opportunities with new revenue sources (schumachera et al., 2016). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 295-300 297 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group emerging digital technological advancements may lead to facilitate digital government via improving efficiency and service quality by reducing service lead times, increasing transparency, and offering seamless service provision across organizations (layne & lee, 2001). also, web-based technological development of government organizations and large-scale use of emails for external communication avoided physical encounter of citizengovernment agency and changed the nature and shape of citizen-government agency relationship. earlier public service provision was obtained by the citizens in person, by letter or over the phone, whereas digitalization replaced that encounter via various channels such as e-mail, mobile applications, searching for information, online forms for data submission, video-based meetings with public officials (lindgren & jansson, 2013). hence, it can be stated that the conventional bureaucratic public service has been completely transformed into digital screen level bureaucracy, enabling a fast, secured and corruption-free service provision. as jansson and erlingsson (2014) argued that digitalization promotes democratic values like rule of law in weberian model performing the tasks neutral and predictable manner though standardized and clearly defined rules and regulations. however, the double nature of digitalization in public service delivery appears to have some problematic areas as well. though policy makers and administrators are often in the view of that information and communication technology reduces bureaucratic systems, cuts down costs and provides equal treatment to citizens, such technology generates several issues such as requirements of it skills for users, physical access, unequal outcomes to the citizens and also excessive computerization may cause to digital rigidity fear among the citizens (hansen, lundberg, & syltevik, 2018). further, digitalized bureaucratic transformation has been criticized for fully replacing human judgement with software and predefined algorithms, front line bureaucrats are disappearing completely from the organizations, diminishing of discretionary power of bureaucrats, policy making power of bureaucrats is shifted to a new set of actors such as system designers, legal policy staff and it experts (buffat, 2015). hence, it could be comprehended that in the information era digitalization extends multiple benefits for the citizens but the adoption of that technology should carefully handle in order to obtain said benefits from the digitalized bureaucratic system. 3. research method to make an exploratory study on adoption of digitalization in public service delivery a case study approach is used. since the iedsl has successfully implemented digitalization in public service delivery, the chosen organization would be an informative case study. the case study was carried out in 2019. the study used both the primary and secondary data sources for the analysis. primary data were collected through the in-depth interviews with five senior officials involved in digitalization process at iedsl. the main purpose was to capture the process of digitalization in the organization and to get their perspectives on lessons learnt lessons from that implementation. the secondary data sources were annual performance reports, other related publications and the website of the iedsl. 4. results 4.1. functional scope of iedsl the iedsl has committed to be the best immigration service in the region. it was established in 1949 to implement the newly enacted immigrants and emigrants act no. 20 of 1948 after gaining independent from british. initially the department operated in colombo fort and regulated the departure of ceylon citizens and others, entry of non-ceylonese to the country. the issuance of new ceylon passport has commenced to the ceylonese. the immigrants and emigrants act no. 20 of 1948 entrusted power to the department to regulate immigrants and emigrants of citizens and non-citizens in sri lankan territory. the core functions of the departments include the tasks of issuing passports for sri lankans, issuing visas for foreigners, granting sri lankan citizenship, and border control. the expert service of this department is not merely regulating immigration, but it is inevitable to safeguard national security and facilitate development of the economy. more importantly, its commended performance is core for the development process aimed at transforming sri lanka in to an economic hub in asia. the digitalization process adopted by the department streamlined the functions and remarkably contributed lkr 17,259 million to the national income in the recent year (performance report of iedsl, 2018). the organization is headed by the controller general and responsibilities of divisions are entrusted to an additional controller general. five controllers, a chief accountant and an internal auditor serve under the direction and supervision of additional controller general. the travel division of the department is the largest in terms of its functional scope and it serve closer to the public to operationalize the vested authorities. on average, 2,500 customers visit the department daily to get the service. the passport is issued under expedited one-day service and ordinary service. sri lanka is one of the five countries in the world where a passport could be processed in a day (dissanayake, 2011). as per the performance report of the department, it has issued 603,732 new passports in 2018. it is approximately 17% increase in past five years. further, the demand for one-day service is higher which emphasizes the necessity of efficient and errorless service. the adoption of digitalization in iedsl covered the set of key functions including, issuing of passports and granting of visas. at present, the entire cycle of passport issuing process is digitalized. according to the interviewees, this initiation enabled the department to provide efficient service delivery by curbing public waiting time and transaction cost for the public, maintaining an equal access to the service and making information freely available. on the other hand, this digitalization process decreased operation cost for the organization, ensure corruption-free environment which enhances the image of the organization. also, it enabled inter-link between the iedsl and the airport authority. further, in aligning with the country’s development agenda, the department facilitates the promotion of local and foreign investments through streamlined process management while meeting the global standards. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 295-300 298 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.2. digital initiatives of iedsl as an initial prevention mechanism, iedsl registered the photo studios located island-wide, and enlisted those as the authorized studios to get the passport photographs. later, it developed the digital platform to connect the authorized studios and enabling online submission of photos directly to iedsl. at present, the department will no longer accept printed photographs. all applicants should obtain their photographs from authorized studios located island-wide or from studios established at the head office and regional offices of the department. the applicant receives an acknowledgement note containing photo which should be submitted along with their application. the photograph submitted through online is used to identify the applicant in the queue system practiced in iedsl. further, the details of authorized studios are openly accessible for the general public. conforming to standards of the international civil aviation organization, acquiring biometric data of applicants into the passport system is in practice from 2015. as per the interviewees, it is a milestone of the evolving digitalization process in iedsl. this initiation validates the sri lankan passport as a standardized travel document with the international recognition. accordingly, amendments had been made to the provisions of the immigration and emigration act in 2015 enabling every applicant above 16 years of age and below 60 years of age must provide his or her fingerprints while applying for passport. obtaining fingerprints is administrated only at the head office and four regional offices of iedsl. the digitalization is not merely the development of computer systems and upgrading the technological infrastructures. in this evolution, the unseen influential factor is the development of human resources and change management adapted by the iedsl. mainly, it revised the practice by centralizing the process under the head office and four regional offices. in other words, it withdrawn the power delegated to divisional secretariats. the front-officers and the middle-level officials of the head office and regional offices of iedsl are empowered with widen decision-making powers to expedite the service delivery. however, interviewees revealed that, centralization of the passport issuing process is accelerating the service and benefiting general public, it accumulates workload on existing staff of iedsl. therefore, apart from enhancing decision-making powers, the officials of iedsl has to be motivated to be committed. the department is introduced lucrative financial benefits for its staff based on their performance. thus, resistant to change and reluctant to adopt digitalization is prudently managed by the top-management of iedsl. the milestones of adaptation of digitalization of passport issuing process is exhibited in the figure-1. figure-1. adoption of digitalization of passport issuing process. source: interview data (2019). 4.3. process of issuing passport the issuance of passport commences with the acceptance of application. prior to the submission of application, the applicant is guided through several sources. the information on how to apply is openly accessible by any citizens and citizens can obtain the paper-based application in head office, regional offices, divisional secretariat or in overseas sri lankan missions. the printable version is freely available in the department website. the process is managed by a queue system initiated through issuing a token subject to initial verification by a front-officer. the department uses the applicants’ photograph directly received from the authorized studio along with the token no. to guide the applicant over service counters. the assistant controllers serve at the receiving points verify the supporting documents which denote the acceptance of application. acquiring biometric data into the passport system is a novel initiation of iedsl implemented in 2015. accordingly, it obtains fingerprints of applicants above 16 years of age and below 60 years. conforming to standards of the international civil aviation organization, obtain applicant photograph through the data system and capturing fingerprints promote the status of sri lankan passport as an internationally recognized travel document. in order to reduce the cycle time, the simultaneous processes operated upon receiving application. the backoffice operation is commencing while the applicant provides fingerprints and then make payment. according to an interviewee, the average time taken for processing a passport under same-day service is four hours. it takes fourteen working days to issue a passport under normal service in which the passport is either sent through post or issued through foreign missions. it involves primary entry of data, validation, printing the detail page of passport and executing quality assurance and control. the use of digitalization in back-office processes facilitates to digital capturing of citizenship details and storage. thus, the stored information is retrieved upon receiving renewal or amendment requests that lead to cut-down paper-based revalidation. the iedsl has encountered several challenges in adopting the digitalization of passport issuing process. in order to manage the identified challenges, the department is inculcated the culture of continuous process improvement. it enables the identification and application of strategies to successfully support the digitalization process over the period. the table 1 summarizes such challenges and strategies applied by the iedsl. 4.4. process of issuing visa managing the process of issuing visa is vital as it regulate the legal entry of non-sri lankans into the country and facilitates border management. sri lanka is an early adopter of online visa issuance that has surpassed several developed countries. the conventional visa process is hassle prone and time-consuming process. the current mechanism of visa issuance by iedsl is a digitalized process that enable a foreigner to apply online, make online payment of visa fee and receiving online approval of visa. as highlighted in the performance report of the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 295-300 299 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group department, this system immensely promoted the arrival of tourist to sri lanka and recorded as 2.3 million in 2018. table-1. challenges faced in digitalization of passport issuance and applied strategies. challenges applied strategies status rejection rate of applications due to incompleteness and other processing delays in the decentralized system of service delivery centralization of the process and establish the system of administration supported by integrated ict systems in the department implemented difficulties in verifying citizenship details (caused by fraudulent birth certificates and identity cards) interlink with third party systems which enable coordination between registrar general's department and department for registration of persons in progress potential reluctance of employee to adopt the new digitalized environment utilization of human resource management system for fair work allocation and measure performance; introduce the performance-based incentive scheme implemented provision of skills development programmes continue reducing waiting time and processing time amidst of increasing demand for services periodical review of process, time analysis and physical observation continue introduced the application reservation system (it reduces 30 minutes on average, the time taken for the submission of application) implemented introduce the interconnected systems that could be reduce the time taken for the data entry by 30 minutes on average in progress authentication issues related to printed photographs of applicants and prevent counterfeiting of passport introduce studio management system through registering studios, provide authentication and openup details of registered studios, connect through internet based digital platform implemented maintain the responsive interactions with citizens and uphold accountability reach applicants through short message service (sms) to inform the status of processing of passport; introduce the tracking system activated by using the barcode of payment receipt that enables to check each step of processing a passport implemented source: prepared by the authors based on the interview data (2019). the department introduced electronic travel authorization (eta) in 2012 with the intention of providing an efficient, reliable and simplified service to those who visit sri lanka for a short stay. the whole process is handled through an online portal. further, status tracking system is included in the portal. moreover, the data collected through eta portal serve as a data source to analyze the tourist arrivals and facilitate policy decisions. 4.5. lessons learnt from digitalization in iedsl the success of the digitalization of public services are not limited to the automation. machine intensive office work enabled through digital systems can be merely the infrastructure. infusion of qualities of man and the digital infrastructure results the effective service delivery. thus, the ongoing discussion on digitalization of public services must also be discussed in terms of division of tasks between technology and humans particularly their characteristics and qualities (lindgren, madsen, hofmann, & melin, 2019). accordingly, the digitalization in iedsl has been predominantly succeeded through thoughtful blend of technological and human capacities. the proceeding section highlights the lesson learnt from the iedsl digitalization process. 4.5.1. robust leadership digitalization can be viewed as the change management which calls for holistic management. thus, the leader has to manage the people, knowledge and other resources. the leader has to envisage the process developments and inspire the staff to feasibly operationalize the plans. the visionary leaderships of the controller generals of last two decades been proven success in creating the high-tech environment in the iedsl. they inculcated the culture of continuous review of current practices, identify the gaps or need for development, learn the local and global trends, connect with public as well as private agencies to sustain the digitization process. however, in many public organizations the change of leadership leads to revisal of exiting transformation process. in contrary, the iedsl able to progress despite of change in leadership. it could have failed if it invested only on it infrastructure. initially the leaders embedded the innovation driven culture and continually invest on process improvements. 4.5.2. promote employee engagement the resistance to change is the toughest deal in adaptation of technologies in public sector. the iedsl introduced the digital technologies not only to ensure the improvement of service quality, but also meet the employees’ expectations. in other words, the adaptation of digital systems ensured benefits to the clients as well as its employees. the iedsl incorporated the human resource management system to measure employee performance on daily basis. the measured performance is used to provide financial incentives. thus, system enabled, transparent incentive scheme helped to manage the resistance to change. further, at the initial stage, iedsl trained the employees those who are willing to change. the second group of employees those who are unwilling to change has given the time to observe the transformation. later, they too realized the success of new systems and gradually joined the first group. according to the official, it is emphasized that, patience and understanding is needed to tap employees’ potential in order to adopt technologies. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 295-300 300 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the iedsl invested to sharpen the skills of people through series of training and development programmes. those focuses on improving ict literacy, attitudinal change and knowledge enhancement. 4.5.3. perceive continuous development through collaborations generally, the digitalization of public service is administered as the gigantic step at a planned period. it demands for massive investment in terms of technological infrastructure and development of systems. it is perceived as a best destination to be, whereas in reality digital technologies become obsolete in due course. it requires continuous development and upgrade along with the novel trends. therefore, the iedsl exercises process improvements by analyzing the current practices and identifying the performance gaps. rather than taking giant steps, it generally focuses on gradual improvement of processes and innovate to improve its stages. it has been realized through third party collaborations. for instance, iedsl is in partnership with private sector to support the in-house development of systems. it adopts the general data protection regulation (eu) to protect the privacy of data and ensure healthy collaboration with third party. further, it promotes inter-organizational coordination between local and international authorities to enable the efficient and effective service delivery. the continuity of process improvement in iedsl supports to upheld the integrity of national passport and confirm to the international standards. for instance, capturing biometric fingerprint data from all passport applicants will address concerns related to multiple identities to implement “one person, one passport” policy. in 2020, the preliminary activities related to introducing an e-passport that includes the high standard bio metric information to meet the standards of international civil aviation organization is in progress. the epassports will ease the foreign travel as smart machines (e-gates) at airport immigration counters could do the verification by retrieving biometric information. the traveler has to input passport data, boarding pass number and fingerprint. it will be the breakthrough in sri lankan public service. 4.5.4. improving the services through introducing value added services the demand for passport services had been increase constantly along with the frequent foreign travel by sri lankans. on average the iedsl received 1,200 passport applications on daily basis in 2004. at present, it has been doubled and issuance of passports recorded the 34% increase from 2014 to 2018 (performance report of iedsl, 2018). similarly, the demand for one-day service is on rise. these trends emphasize further improvements in the passport issuing process to uphold the efficiency and manage the increasing workload. the current process depends on paper-based application and documents submitted by citizens. thus, the authorities are focusing on enabling online submission of application to accelerate the service. in addition, iedsl is stepped to introduce value added services which shrink the cycle time. for instance, feed priority lane that facilitates citizens to reserve an appointment at their convenient and make online payment in advance. however, establishing inter-organizational coordination is a prerequisite to enable remote authentication of citizens details in support of process development. 5. conclusion the iedsl as a pioneer of digitalizing services in sri lankan public sector, progresses towards the conversion of its core functions to be delivered in web-based integrated systems. in order to sustain the success of digital initiations the iedsl, prioritizes the continuous process development, viable collaborations and inclusion of valueadded services. for this institution, digitalization is not merely the development of systems and technologies but embed the innovation driven culture to ensure continuity of the process improvement. thus, robust leadership and employee engagement are the other crucial factors of digitalization. references buffat, a. (2015). street-level bureaucracy and e-government. public management review, 17(1), 149-161.available at: 10.1080/14719037.2013.771699. dissanayake, d. m. r. (2011). information communication technology policy of sri lanka and its impacts to socioeconomic development: a review of sri lankan experience. journal of education and vocational research, 1(2), 53-59. gunawardene, n. (2017). digital transformation in sri lanka: opportunities and challenges in pursuit of liberal policies. sri lanka: friedrich naumann foundation. hansen, h. t., lundberg, k., & syltevik, l. j. (2018). digitalization, street-level bureaucracy and welfare users’ experiences. social policy and administration, 52(1), 67-90. irfan, m. i. m. (2017). the role of e-governance in administrative efficiency and combating corruption: case of sri lanka. global journal of management and business research, 17(2), 38-50. jansson, g., & erlingsson, g. ó. (2014). more e-government, less street-level bureaucracy? on legitimacy and the human side of public administration. journal of information technology & politics, 11(3), 291-308.available at: 10.1080/19331681.2014.908155. karunasena, k., & deng, h. (2012). critical factors for evaluating the public value of e-government in sri lanka. government information quarterly, 29(1), 76-84.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2011.04.005. layne, k., & lee, j. (2001). developing fully functional e-government: a four stage model. government information quarterly, 18(2), 122–136. lindgren, i., & jansson, g. (2013). electronic services in the public sector: a conceptual framework. government information quarterly, 30(2), 163-172.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2012.10.005. lindgren, i., madsen, c. ø., hofmann, s., & melin, u. (2019). close encounters of the digital kind: a research agenda for the digitalization of public services. government information quarterly, 36(3), 427-436. performance report of iedsl. (2018). immigration and emigration department, governmnet of sri lanka. retrieved from: http://www.immigration.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=331&itemid=218&lang=en. schumachera, a., erolb, s., & sihna, w. (2016). a maturity model for assessing industry 4.0 readiness and maturity of manufacturing enterprises procedia cirp, 52(1), 161-166. tilson, d., lyytinen, k., & sørensen, c. (2010). research commentary—digital infrastructures: the missing is research agenda. information systems research, 21(4), 748-759. united nations. (2020). e-government survey: digital government in the decade of action for sustainable development. usa, new york. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.immigration.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=331&itemid=218&lang=en http://www.immigration.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=331&itemid=218&lang=en 116 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 4, 116-120, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i4.5041 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group operation of unified financial assistance system for tertiary education in selected private institutions in santiago city, isabela jayron concepcion bartolome1 ma rita alindada reario2 jose p. gallena3 ( corresponding author) 1college of arts and sciences, isabela state university, echague, isabela , philippines. email: jayronbartolome0@gmail.com 2institute of public administration & governance, college of business, accountancy and public administration, isabela state university, echague, isabela, philippines. email: ma.rita.a.reario@isu.edu.ph 3isabela state university, echague, isabela, philippines. email: josegallenajr@gmail.com abstract this study examines the implementation of the tertiary education subsidy as mandated by republic act no. 10931. a descriptive-comparative research design was used for the investigation. it polled 347 student-grantees chosen purposefully from northeastern college and the university of la salette, inc., sampled using the proportional stratification technique. the respondents believed that the tertiary education subsidy (tes) should be implemented in order to encourage student perseverance, academic achievement, and administrative capacity. regarding financial ability, the respondents overwhelmingly concurred that the subsidy reduced their financial stress while attending school, helped them pay their tuition on time, and helped them purchase supplies for their studies. the respondents also concurred that tes provided advantages such developing responsibility and money management skills, aiding in the understanding of the worth of money, and providing motivation to spend prudently. regardless of their profiles, all of the respondents generally agreed on how well the tertiary education subsidy (tes) had been implemented. when categorized according to their profiles, certain specific indications were found to be considerably different. finally, the respondents felt that the late delivery of essential money and severe deadlines for the criteria were the most frequently encountered issues in the implementation of tes. keywords: assessment, implementation, operation, republic act no. 10931, student-grantees, tertiary education subsidy. citation | bartolome, j. c., reario, m. r. a., & gallena, j. p. (2023). operation of unified financial assistance system for tertiary education in selected private institutions in santiago city, isabela. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(4), 116–120. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i4.5041 history: received: 5 june 2023 revised: 21 august 2023 accepted: 25 september 2023 published: 12 october 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the isabela state university, philippines has granted approval for this study on 24 may 2022 (ref. no. 2022-05-1). transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................................117 2. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................................118 3. results and discussion .............................................................................................................................................................................119 4. conclusion and recommendation .........................................................................................................................................................119 references .........................................................................................................................................................................................................120 bibliography .....................................................................................................................................................................................................120 mailto:jayronbartolome0@gmail.com mailto:ma.rita.a.reario@isu.edu.ph mailto:josegallenajr@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i4.5041 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 116-120 117 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper examines the administrative capacity of schools in assessing the implementation of the unified student financial assistance system for tertiary education (unifast), ensuring efficient resource allocation, equitable access, program effectiveness, transparency, and timely benefits disbursement. it fosters data-driven decision-making, accountability, and continuous improvement, optimizing program outcomes and student success. 1. introduction according to article 26 of the universal declaration of human rights, recognized by the united nations (un), education constitutes a fundamental human right. the united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization (unesco) aims to advance sustainable development, alleviate poverty, and foster peace. correspondingly, the 2030 agenda for sustainable development, endorsed at the 2015 united nations sustainability summit, encompasses 17 goals, including global education (sdg 4). by 2030, sustainable development goal 4 aspires to "provide inclusive and equitable quality education and encourage lifelong learning opportunities for all." as stipulated in article xiv, section 1 of the 1987 philippine constitution, the government is obligated to provide quality education, ensuring filipinos' degree completion and accessibility. responding to this constitutional mandate, the government enacted republic act no. 10931 on august 13, 2017. this legislation, entitled "an act promoting universal access to quality tertiary education by providing for free tuition and other school fees in state universities and colleges, local universities and colleges, and state-run technical-vocational institutions," establishes the tertiary education subsidy (tes) and student loan program, aiming to cultivate a more educated and accessible society. in accordance with the guidelines outlined in section 24 of the implementing rules and regulations (irr), the scope and magnitude of the tertiary education subsidy (tes) are delineated . tertiary education subsidy (tes) grants amount to forty thousand pesos (php 40,000.00) for state universities and colleges (sucs) and local universities and colleges (lucs) accredited by the commission on higher education (che), and sixty thousand pesos (php 60,000.00) for private higher education institutions (heis) per academic year. eligibility criteria encompass filipino citizenship, enrollment in recognized institutions, and admission into the first undergraduate post-secondary program. the enactment of republic act no. 10931 financially supports filipino students from the most underprivileged households in both public and private higher education institutions (heis). evaluating the law's impact on achieving high-quality education necessitates the collection of beneficiaries' sentiments, opinions, and insights. this assessment serves as a tool for gauging the implementation of the tertiary education subsidy (tes) under of republic act no. 10931, fostering a constructive partnership for their productive development. purigay (2020) reveals that tertiary education subsidy (tes) positively influences students' persistence and academic performance. moneva and tuñacao (2020) indicate that financial support correlates with academic success. this underscores the importance of beneficiary assessment to measure policy effectiveness and apprise policymakers of outcomes. consequently, this study will assess the operation of the tertiary education subsidy (tes) program under the "universal access to quality tertiary education act" (ra 10931). specifically, it aimed to: 1. describe the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of: 1.1. age. 1.2. gender. 1.3. monthly family income. 1.4. father’s occupation. 1.5. mother’s occupation. 2. determine the assessment of the respondents on the operation of the tertiary education subsidy (tes) in the selected private higher education institutions in santiago city, philippines in terms of: 2.1. student’s persistence. 2.2. academic performance. 2.3. financial capacity. 2.4. administrative capacity. 3. analyze the difference of the respondents’ assessment on the operation of the tertiary education subsidy (tes) when grouped according to their demographic profile. 4. determine the problems encountered by the respondents on the operation of the tertiary education subsidy (tes) in the selected private higher education institutions in santiago city, philippines. the depicted conceptual framework in figure 1 elucidates the interconnection of study variables, encompassing data collection. the input variables encompass respondents' demographic attributes: age, gender, monthly family income, and parental occupation. process variables include respondents' evaluation of tertiary education subsidy (tes) operation, covering student persistence, academic performance, financial capacity, administrative capacity, and encountered implementation problems. the study examines disparities between assessment and demographic profiles, ultimately scrutinizing overall respondent program evaluation. the diagram illustrates the integration of these variables in evaluating program operation. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 116-120 118 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 1. the paradigm of the study. 2. methodology the researcher utilized a descriptive-comparative research design. this study was conducted in the selected private higher education institutions (heis) in santiago city, philippines namely: northeastern college and university of la salette, inc. the researcher purposively chose the hei with more than one thousand grantees/beneficiaries of the tertiary education subsidy (tes). the study surveyed 347 respondents from the list of tertiary education subsidy (tes) grantees in northeastern college and university of la salette, inc., who were currently enrolled in the 2nd semester of school year 2021-2022. the researcher used the formula used by krejcie and morgan to calculate the sample size. moreover, to obtain the sample size, the researcher used proportionate stratified random sampling with a 95 percent level of confidence and a 5 percent margin of error. table 1. proportional allocation of the respondents. university/college population sample percent northeastern college 2235 215 61.96 university of la salette, inc. 1373 132 38.04 total 3608 347 100.00 table 1 illustrates the distribution of respondents in proportion to the total population. the research encompassed two academic institutions: northeastern college and the university of la salette, inc. out of a total population of 3608, a sample size of 347 is selected. northeastern college accounted for the majority, constituting 61.96% of the sample, with a population of 2235 and a sample size of 215. the university of la salette, inc., on the other hand, represented 38.04% of the sample, with a population of 1373 and a sample size of 132. this study utilized a modified survey questionnaire, based on the study of purigay (2020) "assessment on the implementation of the unified student financial assistance system for tertiary education (unifast): basis for a proposed action," joint memorandum circular no. 04 s. 2020 "enhanced guidelines on the tertiary education subsidy (tes) program," and memorandum circular no. 2018-0004 "guidelines on the implementation of the tertiary education subsidy (tes) for filipino students." for data collection, a structured close-ended questionnaire was employed, comprising three distinct sections. the initial segment encompassed respondents' personal details, including age, gender, monthly family income, and parents’ occupation. the second part is split into four sections, each assessing different aspects of the tertiary education subsidy (tes) program: a) student commitment; b) academic achievements; c) financial capability; and d) administrative efficiency. the final part of the survey contains queries regarding problems the respondents commonly face. table 2. descriptive values for the interpretation for the weighted mean. evaluation on the implementation of tes common problems encountered range verbal interpretation range verbal interpretation 4.50-5.00 strongly agree 4.50-5.00 very frequently 3.50-4.49 agree 3.50-4.49 frequently 2.50-3.49 moderately agree 2.50-3.49 occasionally 1.50-2.49 disagree 1.50-2.49 rarely 1.00-1.49 strongly disagree 1.00-1.49 very rarely table 2 provides interpretive ranges for weighted mean scores in the evaluation of tertiary education subsidy (tes) implementation and the identification of common problems. in the assessment of tes, scores between 4.505.00 indicate strong agreement, 3.50-4.49 reflect agreement, 2.50-3.49 suggest moderate agreement, 1.50-2.49 imply asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 116-120 119 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group disagreement, and 1.00-1.49 convey strong disagreement. concerning common problems, 4.50-5.00 represents very frequent occurrences, 3.50-4.49 denotes frequent incidents, 2.50-3.49 signifies occasional issues, 1.50-2.49 indicates rare instances, and 1.00-1.49 portrays very rare occurrences. the researcher considered the following procedures in gathering data. the researcher sought for the approval of the university/college presidents through their respective scholarship coordinators to conduct the study and to administer the survey questionnaire to student-grantees of tes. during the survey administration, the researcher sought permission and consent from the respondents. due to the inherent risks associated with face-to-face interviews and in adherence to covid-19 safety protocols, questionnaires were administered using the google form platform while upholding the provisions of the data privacy act of 2012. prior to disseminating the questionnaires, the researcher ensured that respondents were comprehensively informed about the study's purpose and data collection procedures. the researcher guaranteed the maintenance of anonymity, confidentiality, and cost-free participation throughout the study. subsequently, the questionnaires were collected online and subjected to analytical scrutiny. to effectively interpret the data, the researcher employed distinct statistical tools. frequency distribution and percentage were utilized for depicting respondents' demographic profiles. the mean was employed to assess respondents' assessment on tertiary education subsidy implementation concerning student persistence, academic performance, financial and administrative capacity, and to identify problems encountered in the tertiary education subsidy (tes) implementation. furthermore, kruskal-wallis h test was applied to ascertain significant differences in respondents' assessments of tes implementation relative to their demographic attributes. the predetermined significance level was set at 5%. 3. results and discussion the findings revealed that most of the respondents were 18-20 years old. on average, the age of beneficiaries was 21 years old. the majority of the respondents were males. most of the respondents had a monthly family income of ₱22,000 and below and majority of the occupation of the father and mother of the respondents were classified as “blue-collar jobs.” the study revealed that the beneficiaries had agreed on the operation of the tes in terms of student persistence, academic performance, and administrative capacity. on the other hand, the respondents strongly agreed that in terms of financial capacity, the scholarship relieved their financial burden, assisted them to pay their school fees on time, and aided them to buy their educational needs. similarly, the respondents agreed that the tes taught them to become accountable and manage their finances, helped them to realize the value of money, and gave them reason to spend wisely. the findings of the study as well revealed that there were no significant differences in the operation of the tes in terms of student persistence, academic performance, financial capacity, and administrative capa city across the profiles of respondents. however, there were some specific indicators that were significantly different to profiles. under student persistence, the respondents with a monthly family income of ₱22,001₱44, 000 more likely agreed and observed that the tes gave them a source of inspiration to finish their studies while the respondents with a monthly family income of ₱22, 000 and below more likely observed that the tes promoted confidence to pursue their studies and able to finish them, and encouraged them in making their future decisions and to add, the respondents with a monthly family income of ₱22, 000 and below and from ₱22, 001-₱44, 000 more likely observed that the tes reclaimed their integrity in school. in terms of academic performance, the respondents with a monthly family income of ₱22, 001-₱44, 000 more likely agreed and observed that the tes enabled them to engage in activities and lessons by providing necessary resources, allowed them to participate in any school activities, and made them feel at ease in doing their lessons and projects. further, the results implied that the respondents with a monthly family income of ₱22, 000 and below more likely agreed that the tes motivated them to explore their new knowledge and skills, helped them to focus on their lessons and projects, encouraged them to aim for high grades and seek new knowledge and skills, influenced them to attend their classes regularly, made them feel at ease in doing their lessons and projects and satisfied on whatever grades they received, and does not give them worries about missing their class schedules. in terms of financial capacity, the female respondents more likely observed that the tes taught them to become accountable and manage their finances while the respondents with a monthly family income of ₱22,000 and below more likely observed that the tes assisted them to pay school fees on time, aided them to buy their educational needs, helped them realize the value of money and not to borrow money, and gave them reason to spend wisely. in terms of administrative capacity, the respondents with an age range of 24-26 years old more likely perceived that their schools had provided an adequate number of staff/personnel qualified to handle and supervise the tes program and lastly, the respondents with a monthly family income of ₱22,001-₱44,000 more likely perceived that their schools had provided sufficient time for student to complete the requirement needed in applying and renewing, monitored and facilitated timely the allocation of allowances, and provided them with an accessible location for the distribution of allowances. the study further revealed that the most frequently encountered common problems by the respondents on the implementation of the tes were the late releasing of necessary funds and strict deadlines for the said requirements. 4. conclusion and recommendation based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn: 1. most of the respondents were 18-20 years old. most of the respondents were males who had a monthly family income of ₱22,000 and below, and the occupations of the father and mother of the respondents were classified as “blue-collar”, respectively. 2. the respondents had agreed on the implementation of the tes in terms of student persistence, academic performance, and administrative capacity. under financial capacity, the respondents strongly agreed that the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 116-120 120 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group subsidy relieved their financial burden in school, assisted them to pay their school fees on time, and aided them to buy their educational needs. also, the respondents agreed that the tes taught them to become accountable and manage their finances, helped them to realize the value of money and gave them reason to spend wisely. 3. generally, the respondents had the same assessment on the implementation of the tes regardless of their profiles. however, there were some specific indicators which were observed significantly different when grouped according to their profiles. 4. late release of necessary funds and strict deadlines for the requirements were the common problems frequently encountered by the respondents on the implementation of the tes. based on the findings of the study, the following are recommended actions to the research beneficiaries: 1. student-grantees are advisable to continue to using the subsidy to provide them the opportunity to dream and believe in their abilities, encourage them to aim for high grades, and to relieve their financial burden in school. 2. parents of the grantees are also recommended to continue supporting their children on whatever means to motivate them to strive, pursue, and finish their studies. 3. schools offering the tes are suggested to conduct an orientation or assembly with the student-grantees and to have a proper dissemination of information to address frequently encountered problems, especially the late releasing of necessary funds and strict deadlines of requirements. 4. the researcher is advised to present the action plan to the appropriate authorities in collaboration with the concerned stakeholders to measure the level of acceptability and to evaluate the action plan to further improve the implementation of the tes. 5. future researchers are envisioned to duplicate the current study with a larger group of respondents. they might add other relevant variables to cross-validate the results of this study. references moneva, j., & tuñacao, m. (2020). students' level of financial support satisfaction towards their daily allowance. ira international journal of education and multidisciplinary studies, 16(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.21013/jems.v16.n1.p4 purigay, g. d. (2020). assessment on the implementation of unified student financial assistance system for tertiary education (unifast): basis for a proposed action. journal of business and management studies, 2(3), 54-63. bibliography implementing rules and regulations of republic. (2017). act no. 10931, known as the “universal access to quality tertiary education act of 2017. retrieved from http://wmsu.edu.ph/_resources/irr%20for%20distribution%20032218.pdf national economic and development authority. ambisyon natin 2040. retrieved from https://2040.neda.gov.ph/about-ambisyon-natin2040/ national economic and development authority. updated philippine development plan 2017-2022. retrieved from https://pdp.neda.gov.ph/updated-pdp-2017-2022/ official gazette. the constitution of the republic of the philippines. retrieved from https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987constitution/ official gazette. joint memorandum circular no. 20-04-a, s. 2020. retrieved from https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2020/08/15/jointmemorandum-circular-no-20-04-a-s-2020-2/ official gazette. republic act no. 10931. retrieved from https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2017/08/03/republic-act-no-10931 rappler philippines. (2017). tuition, fees increases in 268 colleges and universities approved by ched. retrieved from https://www.rappler.com/nation/171282-ched-approves-tuition-increase-colleges-universities-2017-2018/ unesco. education transforms lives. retrieved from https://www.unesco.org/en/education united nations development programme. what are the sustainable development goals? retrieved from https://www.undp.org/ asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.21013/jems.v16.n1.p4 http://wmsu.edu.ph/_resources/irr%20for%20distribution%20032218.pdf https://2040.neda.gov.ph/about-ambisyon-natin-2040/ https://2040.neda.gov.ph/about-ambisyon-natin-2040/ https://pdp.neda.gov.ph/updated-pdp-2017-2022/ https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/ https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/ https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2020/08/15/joint-memorandum-circular-no-20-04-a-s-2020-2/ https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2020/08/15/joint-memorandum-circular-no-20-04-a-s-2020-2/ https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2017/08/03/republic-act-no-10931 https://www.rappler.com/nation/171282-ched-approves-tuition-increase-colleges-universities-2017-2018/ https://www.unesco.org/en/education https://www.undp.org/ 180 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 3, 180-187, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.180.187 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group measuring instruments for human resource management and employee happiness k.i. uresha1 h.h.d.p.j. opatha2 ( corresponding author) 1,2department of human resource management, university of sri jayewardenepura, sri lanka. abstract a contextual endeavor is made to discover trending and highly focused sector on measuring human resource management (hrm) functions together with employee happiness. although in the present-day human resource professionals accept the essentiality of sound human resource management and employee happiness in achieving organizational strategic objectives successfully, they are continuously struggling to assess these two areas as there is a knowledge gap on measuring instruments. this study was carried out to address the contextual niche on measuring human resource practices along with employee happiness and aimed to answer three research questions as there is a significant need to assess these areas practically. an extensive inspection of literature has done to answer the research questions of the study i.e. (1) what is hrm? (2) what is employee happiness? (3) how to measure hrm and employee happiness? the desk research strategy was adopted to answer these research questions. as a response, two comprehensive research instruments were developed to assess human resource management practices in an organization together with employee happiness. keywords: instrument, hrm, employee happiness, measure, organization, hr professionals. jel classification: m10 business administration: general. citation | k.i. uresha; h.h.d.p.j. opatha (2020). measuring instruments for human resource management and employee happiness. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(3): 180-187. history: received: 16 april 2020 revised: 19 june 2020 accepted: 23 june 2020 published: 3 july 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 181 2. research questions and objective ............................................................................................................................................. 181 3. method ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 181 4. literature review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 181 5. conceptualization of constructs ................................................................................................................................................ 182 6. discussion and conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................... 184 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 185 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.180.187&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1832 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0532-355x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5243-0868 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1832 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0532-355x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5243-0868 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1832 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0532-355x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5243-0868 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1832 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0532-355x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5243-0868 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 180-187 181 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study adds two measuring instruments to measure human resource management and employee happiness to the existing literature on human resource management and employee happiness. 1. introduction happy employees are considered as the key input to achieve organizational success. employee happiness leads to employee job satisfaction and employee wellbeing which are considered as major organizational outcomes. amidst the busier work environment, individuals are engaging in multitasking in both their work life and family life at once which results in contradictory performances. this would cause work stress among employees which may affect the successful performance of their job tasks. to mitigate this contradiction standardized human resource practices must be conducted by the organization in order to make employees feel less pressure. proving the fact (wickramasinghe & perera, 2012) assert right hrm practices keep employees unified and allow them to perform their job peacefully. hence hrm is treated as an investment rather than considering it as a cost due to the high impact of hrm towards the achievement of organizational strategic objectives. with the discovery of the significance of employee happiness towards organizational success, employee happiness has become a prime trend among human resource practitioners to set up a satisfied and committed labor force. perera and madagamage (2018) say that it is the obligation of the management, particularly top managers to consider improving the job satisfaction of employees. very few researches have been conducted in this area that acknowledge the impact of the right hrm practices on employee happiness. when investigating the literature, there are several measurements presented by different authors to measure human resource practices in organizations. moreover, although happiness index is one of the well-known measurements of appraising happiness, that does not specifically reflect employee happiness in the workplace. therefore, literature does not present proper measurement instruments or questionnaires to measure the degrees of right hrm practices and employee happiness. hence this study addresses the niche in literature by presenting two standardized instruments to measure the degrees of appropriate hrm practices and employee happiness. these instruments will mainly contribute to research studies which are aiming at investigating the impact of hrm practices on employee happiness, finding the relationship between hrm practices and employee happiness, and measuring the degrees of right hrm practices and employee happiness. 2. research questions and objective following are considered as the research questions focused in this study. 1. what is hrm? 2. what is employee happiness? 3. how to measure hrm and employee happiness? this research paper has its objective to find answers for the above mentioned three specific research questions. 3. method this study explored to give contribution to the existing knowledge on human resource management and employee happiness which are trending and essential topics in the present business context. to address above mentioned research questions systematically, a comprehensive literature survey is conducted by using desk research strategy along with logical beliefs. 4. literature review 4.1. hrm employees are considered as the key to achieve organizational goals successfully. the organization cannot achieve an excellent workforce which fully contributes to the success of the organization without having good human resource management within the organization. human resource management plays a strategic role in managing the exclusive resource of “humans” in the workplace. human resource management acts as a moderator who links employees with the achievement of organizational objectives which reflects the gravity of human resource management function in the organization. human resource management contributes to the development of business organizations (arachchige & robertson, 2015). an extensive definition of human resource management which reflects the organizational strategic aspect is presented by opatha (2009) as; “effective and efficient utilization of human resources to achieve goals of an organization”. as per eneh and awara (2016) define hrm as; managing individuals who devote for the achievement of organizational goals personally or inclusively in a systematic and strategic procedure. hrm directed towards gaining a competitive edge through a personal, economic, and systematic approach, employing a fully committed and qualified labor pool (storey, 2007). further, according to wilton (2016) hrm aimed at managing employer and employee relationships by utilizing appropriate fundamentals, processes, and actions. based on the above details following definition is developed for hrm; “hrm is directing employee actions towards the achievement of organizational strategic objectives and employee objectives productively by maintaining strong employer and employee relationship”. 4.1.1. human resource management functions in the modern dynamic business environment, to face the continuous challenges successfully organizations tend to become more employee oriented. having a satisfied and motivated workforce is one of the main targets of employee orientation. marescaux, de winne, and forrier (2018) assert employees get the signal through hrm, that they are being valued and cared by the organization and, organization focuses on their happiness and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 180-187 182 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group development. human resource functions are utilized to create and maintain a satisfied and motivated workforce. thus, activities used to administer employee actions can be identified as human resource management functions. opatha (2009) has identified a comprehensive set of human resource functions that cover all the employee related activities widely. those functions are; job design, job analysis, human resource planning, recruitment, selection, hiring, induction, performance evaluation, training and development, career management, pay management, welfare management, management of incentives, employee movements, health and safety management, discipline management, grievance handling, and labor relations. human resource management literature suggests different views on human resource functions. itika (2011) states human resourcing, managing performance appraisal, personal training and development, compensation/ reward management, personnel relations and other administrative functions such as health and safety, pensions, personal information systems are vital to manage employees. recruitment, selection, training, and development are the central human resource functions that hr practitioners tend to outsource in the present context anthonia and omotayo (2012). as per ahammad (2017) learning and development, recruitment and selection, professional development, performance appraisal, benefits, and compensation, ensure legal compliance, equality, and diversity, and strategic hr outline activities that are essential to manage employees. recruitment, training and development, performance appraisal, rewarding and industrial relations are the fundamental affairs that directly relate with managing employees (tubey, rotich, & kurgat, 2015). moreover, obedgiu (2017) declares that adjust and direct employees towards the business strategy, reengineer organizational processes match to organizational change, admit and acknowledge employee ideas and most importantly attracting and select most suitable employees, deliver sufficient training for their development, appraise employee performance and compensate them based on their talent are identified as key functions to maintain a better employer-employee relationship. wilton (2016) declared human resource functions under two categories namely; basic functions and support functions. he recognizes personal resourcing, managing rewards, managing performance, employment relations, and human resource development as basic functions and employee wellbeing, equality and diversity management, health, and safety as support functions. 4.2. employee happiness happiness is the ultimate objective of an individual that he/she wishes to be achieved in life. happiness brings peace to the lives of people. in buddhism, it is said that “santhutti paraman dhanan” which means that contentment or happiness is the greatest wealth. a happy person in terms of his various life aspects works happily and produces better results. for example, a happy employee works efficiently and effectively and produce what the organization expects him/her to produce. sometimes happy employees have the possibility of promoting organizational citizenship behaviour, job involvement, job commitment, and job satisfaction. these are known as employee-related attitudes (opatha & opatha, 2019). kaczmarek (2017) has defined happiness as: “happiness in psychology has two references. first, happiness is an umbrella term for several theories of well-being. these theories cover intrinsically rewarding and valued experience, positive beliefs about self and the world, or positive psychological functioning. second, happiness has been considered a basic emotion by most theorists within the psychology of emotions”. opatha. (2019) has defined happiness as a feeling of pleasure, satisfaction, or becoming pleased. veenhoven (2017) defines happiness is the degree to which an individual evaluates the overall quality of his/her life positively or how much one prefers the life one lives. if you are a happy person you love the life you live and love the things, persons, etc. around you that support you to be happy. it is found that human beings can provide companies with a competitive advantage through their creativeness and innovativeness (kowalski & loretto, 2017). it can be believed that happy employees derive more innovative and creative ideas, opinions as their minds are filled with positive feelings and thoughts. supporting to enhance employee subjective and objective well-being of the employee is one of the major hr strategies in the twenty-first century (kowalski & loretto, 2017). happiness can be divided into hedonic happiness and eudaimonic happiness (opatha, 2019). hedonic happiness is defined as subjective wellbeing and according to opatha (2019) hedonic happiness is categorized as affective hedonic happiness and cognitive hedonic happiness. affective hedonic happiness has two major components i.e. emotions and moods (opatha, 2019) and it refers to the degree to which people can enhance pleasure over pain in their lives through positive emotions and moods. cognitive hedonic happiness is composed with two factors i.e. global life satisfaction and dimensional life satisfaction (opatha, 2019) and it refers to the degree to which people think that they are spending a happy life as a whole and in terms of different aspects of life (eg; family, work, religious, etc.). eudaimonic happiness derives from one‟s living according to virtues and self-fulfilment and when someone‟s life becomes meaningful (opatha, 2019). hedonic happiness is derived from the experiences of pleasure and enjoyment while eudaimonic happiness is derived from experiencing meaning and purpose (vinney, 2020). considering the above details relating to happiness, the following definition was developed for the term happiness. “happiness is the sense of joyfulness and meaningfulness relating to the aspects of an individual‟s life.” 5. conceptualization of constructs 5.1. measuring hrm the effective functioning of hrm leads to employee satisfaction and most importantly determines the level of employee happiness which is related to their work life. happy employees are more productive workers who are essential to an organization in accomplishing their business targets. hence, measuring human resource practices is imperative in determining employee happiness. hrm literature suggests different parameters to measure hrm. as per (kottawatta, 2015) numerous criteria are considered in past studies to measure human resource activities but the strong suit is those criteria are distinct from one to another. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 180-187 183 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group different authors have present various dimensions, indicators, and statements aimed at measuring human resource practices. after a rigorous analysis of past literature, authors have presented some effective parameters in measuring human resource practices. referring to opatha (2009) and kottawatta (2015) dimensions and indicators were identified and considering to diverse studies such as; demo, neiva, nunes, and rozzett (2012); mabaso (2012); hirschi, freund, and herrmann (2014); chaubey and rawat (2016); itang (2015); biggs, swailes, and baker (2016) and gomathi (2014) authors have developed the statements for each dimension and indicator which are presented in table 1. the instrument for measuring hrm is depicted in table 3. table-1. statements for each dimension and indicator for measuring hrm. dimension indicator statement employment planning job design my job is highly enriched (i have the ability to plan, do, and control my job). job analysis i know clearly what duties need to be performed by myself. hrp hr department of my organization analyzes future employee demand and supply yearly. staffing recruitment the organization i work for widely disseminates information about both external and internal recruitment processes. selection the organization i work for uses various selection instruments (e.g. interviews, tests, etc). hiring appointment letter given by my organization when hiring an employee contains all the necessary information in a detailed way. induction induction training programs in my organization provide an excellent opportunity for newcomers to learn comprehensively about the company and job. human resource development performance evaluation the organization i work for periodically conducts competency-based performance appraisals and disseminates results to its employees. training and development the organization i work for invests in my development and education, promoting my personal and professional growth in a broad manner. career management hr department of my organization provides counselling and career education for its employees to develop their future career plans and goals. rewards management pay management the organization i work for offers me a fair salary that is compatible with my skills, training, and education. incentive management in the organization where i work, i get incentives such as promotions, commissioned functions, awards, bonuses, etc. welfare management the organization i work for provides various welfare facilities like medical facilities, transportation facilities, feeding facilities, loan facilities etc. employee & labor relations employee movements employee movements such as promotions, transfers etc are not encouraged by personal biasness and favoritism but by performance of employees in my organization. health and safety management the organization i work for has programs or processes that help employees to cope up with hazardous incidents and prevent workplace accidents. discipline management hr department implements preventive and corrective disciplinary procedures to maintain the discipline of employees. grievance handling in my organization, there are methods to identify the root causes of the grievances of employees and provides suitable solutions. labour relations a culture of harmonious working relationships is encouraged in my organization. source: opatha and uresha (2020). the level of the instrument was interval and the summated rating received on an 18-item, 5-point likert scale of hrm was the relevant operational definition. concerning each of the statements mentioned above, respondents can be asked to rate on a 5-point likert scale, and the act of transforming into a different variable (with new values from 1 to 5) can be done after calculating the composite indexing. the transforming can be done by using the following points scale: points 18 – 32.4 very low level of hrm practices. 32.5 46.8 low level of hrm practices. 61.3 – 61.2 moderate level of hrm practices. 61.3 – 75.6 high level of hrm practices. 75.7 – 90 very high level of hrm practices. 5.2. measuring employee happiness happiness is a subjective term that cannot be defined or measured exactly as it differs from individual to individual. according to veenhoven (2017) there are three types of happiness: 1) overall happiness, also called „lifesatisfaction‟, 2) affective component called „hedonic level of affect‟ and 3) cognitive component called „contentment‟ and all these three types of happiness can be measured using single direct questions, such as below.  overall happiness: "how do you feel about your life as a whole...?"  affective happiness component: "how is your mood these days...?"  cognitive happiness component: "how do you think about what you have accomplished in your life...?" asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 180-187 184 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group opatha (2019) has mentioned that hedonic happiness is represented through a pleasant life while eudaimonic happiness is represented through a good life and meaningful life. the pleasant life is devoted to the pursuit of positive emotions, the good life is devoted to the pursuit of engagement and meaningful life is devoted to the pursuit of service to others (opatha, 2019). as per seligman (2011) there are three elements for happiness under the original theory of authentic happiness: 1) positive emotions, 2) engagement and, 3) meaning and under the well-being theory there are five elements: 1) positive emotions, 2) engagement, 3) relationships, 4) meaning and purpose and, 5) accomplishment. according to vinney (2020) psychological wellbeing is a synopsis for happiness and psychological wellbeing is measured with six constructs relating to self-actualization i.e. autonomy, personal growth, purpose in life, self-acceptance, mastery, and positive connections to others. considering the above literature on measuring happiness and happiness questionnaires developed by lyubomirsky and lepper (1999); hills and argyle (2002) (oxford happiness questionnaire), opatha (2019) the authors developed a questionnaire to measure happiness. the authors developed a questionnaire to measure employee happiness is depicted below in table 4 and dimensions, indicators, and statements for each dimension and indicator are shown in table 2. in constructing the measurement for employee happiness authors considered the above literature mentioned. dimensions for measuring employee happiness were hedonic happiness and eudaimonic happiness. indicators of hedonic happiness were affective hedonic happiness (positive emotions and moods) and cognitive hedonic happiness (global life satisfaction and dimensional life satisfaction). engagement and accomplishment (the good life) and, relationships and meaning and, purpose (meaningful life) were the indicators of eudaimonic happiness. further, referring to wellbeing theory by seligman (2011) positive emotions were considered as an indicator of hedonic happiness while engagement, relationships, meaning and purpose, and accomplishment were considered as indicators of eudaimonic happiness. according to the three types of lives introduced by opatha (2019) positive emotions were considered as an indicator coming under the pleasant life which belongs to hedonic happiness. engagement and accomplishment were considered as indicators of the good life while relationships and meaning, and purpose were considered as indicators of a meaningful life that belongs to eudaimonic happiness. table-2. statements for each dimension and indicator for measuring employee happiness. dimension indicator statement hedonic happiness (pleasant life) affective hedonic happiness (positive emotions and moods) i often feel joy, contented and fortunate in my life rather feeling sadness, disgust and anger. i often experience cheerful and good moods. i feel that life is very rewarding to me. i feel pleased with the way i am. i often wake up with a fresh mood. cognitive hedonic happiness  global life satisfaction i am well satisfied about everything in my life.  dimensional life satisfaction i am highly satisfied with my job. my marriage/personal life makes me happy honestly. i do exercises and i am very healthy. i am a good follower of my religion. eudaimonic happiness (good life and meaningful life) engagement and accomplishment (good life) i have a sense of direction in my life. i am fully engaged with my works. i feel good when making ethical decisions. i feel a sense of improvement or expansion over time. there is a gap between what i would like to do and what i have done. relationships and meaning and purpose (meaningful life) i have very warm feelings towards almost everyone. i do have fun with other people. i do have a particular sense of meaning and purpose in my life. i have a sense of feeling that i have served more to the society. i am very happy with what i have done. source: opatha and uresha (2020). the level of the instrument is interval and the summated rating received on a 20-item; 5-point likert scale of happiness is the relevant operational definition. concerning each of the statements mentioned above, respondents can be asked to rate on a 5-point likert scale, and the act of transforming into a different variable (with new values from 1 to 5) can be done after calculating the composite indexing. the transforming can be done by using the following points scale: points 20 – 36 very low level of happiness. 37 – 52 low level of happiness. 53 – 68 moderate level of happiness. 69 – 84 high level of happiness. 85 – 100 very high level of happiness. 6. discussion and conclusion in this conceptual study, hrm is known as directing employee actions towards the achievement of organizational strategic objectives and employee objectives productively by maintaining strong employer and employee relationships through sound human-related functions. happiness is considered as a sense of joyfulness and meaningfulness relating to the aspects of an individual‟s life. hrm and employee happiness are two crucial asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 180-187 185 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group concepts as in a business organization proper functioning of hrm contributes to make employees happy in terms of different aspects of their lives. lewis and beauregard (2018) define work-life balance as to how well multiple roles in life are being balanced by individuals. work-life balance initiatives in an organization are promoted by hrm and this will lead to make employees happy through assisting them to build up a balance between work life and family life. further one of the major functions of hrm is to handle grievances of employees. grievance means any discontent or dissatisfaction arising from a feeling or a belief of injustice felt by an employee or a group of employees in connection with the work environment (opatha, 1994). handling grievances to the satisfaction of employees will make them happy and ultimately, they will work productively to achieve the organizational goals and objectives. as concern for productivity is vital (akuratiyagamage & opatha, 2004) in many organizations in sri lanka and the world, contented or happy employees are integral to achieve a higher level of productivity for the organizations. thus, employees‟ happiness is of utmost importance to achieve organizational success and progress of success. perera and madagamage (2018) say that it is the obligation of the management, particularly top managers to consider improving the job satisfaction of employees. according to opatha and uresha (2020) found that there is a significant positive impact from hrm on employee happiness and this can be further described in statistically as 45.6% of the variance in employee happiness is explained by human resource management. this paper attempts to contribute to the existing literature on human resource management and employee happiness by introducing two instruments to measure hrm and employee happiness. researchers and business decision-makers can utilize these two measuring instruments of hrm and employee happiness and do further researches to find the degrees of their organizations‟ hrm level and employees‟ happiness level, the correlation between hrm and employee happiness, the impact of hrm on employee happiness and many other useful studies to make evidence-based decisions. references ahammad, t. 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(2007). human resource management: a critical text. london: thomson learning. tubey, r., rotich, k. j., & kurgat, a. (2015). history, evolution and development of human resource management: a contemporary perspective. european journal of business and management, 7(9), 139-149. http://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/learn/wellbeing asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 180-187 186 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group veenhoven, r. (2017). measures of happiness: which to choose? in gaël brulé & filomena maggino (eds.), metrics of well-being. charm: happiness studies book series. springer. vinney, c. (2020). what's the difference between eudaimonic and hedonic happiness?, thought co., retrived from: https://www.thoughtco.com/eudaimonic-and-hedonic-happiness-4783750. wickramasinghe, v., & perera, g. (2012). hrm practices during the global recession (2008-2010). strategic outsourcing: an international journal, 5(3), 88 – 212. wilton, n. (2016). an introduction to human resource management. london: sage publications ltd. annexure annexure 1 table-3. instrument for measuring hrm. statement strongly disagree disagree average agree strongly agree my job is highly enriched (i have the ability to plan, do, and control my job). i know clearly what duties need to be performed by myself. hr department of my organization analyzes future employee demand and supply yearly. the organization i work for widely disseminates information about both external and internal recruitment processes. the organization i work for uses various selection instruments (e.g. interviews, tests, etc). appointment letter given by my organization when hiring an employee contains all the necessary information in a detailed way. induction training programs in my organization provide an excellent opportunity for newcomers to learn comprehensively about the institution. the organization i work for periodically conducts competency-based performance appraisals and disseminates results to its employees. the organization i work for invests in my development and education, promoting my personal and professional growth in a broad manner. hr department of my organization provides counselling and career education for its employees to develop their future career plans and goals. the organization i work for offers me a fair salary that is compatible with my skills, training, and education. in the organization where i work, i get incentives such as promotions, commissioned functions, awards, bonuses, etc. the organization i work for provides various welfare facilities like medical facilities, transportation facilities, feeding facilities, loan facilities etc. employee movements such as promotions, transfers, etc. are not encouraged by personal biasness and favoritism but by performance of employees in my organization. the organization i work for has programs or procedures that help employees to cope up with hazardous incidents and prevent workplace accidents. hr department implements preventive and corrective disciplinary procedures to maintain the discipline of employees. in my organization, there are methods to identify the root causes of the grievances of employees and provides suitable solutions. a culture of harmonious working relationships is encouraged in my organization. http://www.thoughtco.com/eudaimonic-and-hedonic-happiness-4783750 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 180-187 187 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group annexure 2 table-4. instrument for measuring employee happiness. statement strongly disagree disagree average agree strongly agree i often feel joy, contented and fortunate in my life rather feeling sadness, disgust and anger. i often experience cheerful and good moods. i feel that life is very rewarding to me. i feel pleased with the way i am. i often wake up with a fresh mood. i am well satisfied about everything in my life. i am highly satisfied with my job. my marriage life makes me happy honestly. i do exercises and i am very healthy. i am a good follower of my religion. i have a sense of direction in life. i am fully engaged with my works. i feel good when making ethical decisions. i feel a sense of improvement or expansion over time. there is a gap between what i would like to do and what i have done. i have very warm feelings towards almost everyone. i do have fun with other people. i do have a particular sense of meaning and purpose in my life. i have a sense of feeling that i have served more to the society. i am very happy with what i have done. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 124 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 2, 124-134, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.124.134 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group basel capital channel and lending behavior of banking institutions in nigeria: an empirical investigation dumini solomon igbanibo department of banking and finance rivers state university, port harcourt, nigeria. abstract this study is on the role of bank capital on bank lending behavior and other macroeconomic variables. this study examined empirically basel i capital (tier 1 + tier 2), basel ii capital (total capital requirement), basel iii capital (conservation buffer (csb) + counter-cyclical buffer (ccb)) and lending behavior of banking institutions in nigeria. this study is time series in nature and data relating to the study were obtained from nigerian stock exchange fact sheet and cbn statistical bulletin for the period 1986 through 2019. the analyses of the data were done using descriptive statistical tools and econometric technique of autoregressive distributed lag (ardl), and granger causality test. the results indicate that there is a positive and significant relationship between basel capital and lending behavior of banking institutions in nigeria. also the results show that there is a bi-directional causality between basel capital and lending behavior in nigeria. as such we conclude that basel capital influences growth in credit to the private sector (cps) and growth in credit to small and medium enterprises (smes) in nigeria. keywords: basel i, basel ii, basel iii, conservation buffer, counter-cyclical buffer, capital channel, lending behavior, banking. jel classification: e44, e61, g21, g28, e51. citation | dumini solomon igbanibo (2020). basel capital channel and lending behavior of banking institutions in nigeria: an empirical investigation. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(2): 124-134. history: received: 14 february 2020 revised: 26 march 2020 accepted: 30 april 2020 published: 21 may 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 125 2. theoretical thoughts and empirical review .......................................................................................................................... 125 3. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 128 4. data analysis .................................................................................................................................................................................. 128 5. conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 132 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 133 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.124.134&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1649 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8928-6513 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1649 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8928-6513 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1649 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8928-6513 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 124-134 125 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to existing literature by examining empirically basel i capital (tier 1 + tier 2), basel ii capital (total capital requirement), basel iii capital (conservation buffer (csb) + countercyclical buffer (ccb)) and lending behavior of banking institutions in nigeria. 1. introduction there has been the debate in literature with respect to the role of bank capital on bank lending behavior. the traditional monetary school believes that bank reserves play critical role in determining the volume of bank lending in particular while the bank lending channel thesis maintain that monetary policy actions can largely alter the supply of bank loans by changing bank reserves. according to diamond and rajan (2000) higher capital requirement reduces liquidity creation but enables the bank to avoid financial distress and survive more often. admati, demarzo, hellwig, and pfleiderer (2010) suggest that better capitalized banks suffer fewer distortions arising from lending and perform well. the study of barth, caprio, and levine (2006) stated that capital regulations do not necessarily exert positive impact on banking system stability. conversely, modigliani-miller theorem argues that given the perfect capital market where there is the absence of taxes and bankruptcy costs, the capital structure of the firm does not matter in deciding the value of the firm. this thought, in banking context, opines that a bank‟s lending decision is irrelevant to its financial structure if there is a perfect capital market. when a banker does not face any difficulty in lending owing to the presence of the perfect capital market, neither the lending channel nor the capital channel are relevant for the transmission mechanism of monetary policy (bernanke & blinder, 1988). the general understanding is that banks with sound financial health possess higher level of capital and could contribute meaningfully to the financial intermediation. in the light of the above, several studies in developed economies have established that there is a link between bank capital and bank lending, such that bank capital acts as an automatic amplifier for macroeconomic activities. this amplification of the economy works through the mechanism of the bank capital channel (albertazzi & marchetti, 2010; blum & hellwig, 1995; blum., 1999; brun, fraisse, & thesmar, 2013; buch & prieto, 2014; kapan & minoiu, 2013; van den heuvel, 2007; woo, 2003). this is why van den heuvel (2007) stated that insufficient bank capital shows how monetary policy affects bank lending behavior. lending by banks with low capital has a delayed and then amplified reaction to interest rate shocks, relative to well capitalized banks. however, a cursory look at the nigerian economy shows that not much study has been done to empirically investigate the effects of basel capital channel on bank lending behavior in considering the uncertain nature of the macroeconomic and financial environment occasioned by macroeconomic fluctuations, incessant bank failure and inability of bank capital to absorb emerging shocks. hence the research gap this study seeks to fill. 2. theoretical thoughts and empirical review 2.1. theory of bank capital channel this theory postulate that monetary policy actions influence bank lending behavior, through its impact on bank equity capital. these monetary policy actions can lead to a change in the financial position of the banking sector, thereby changing the preferences of its shareholder (markovic, 2006). when bank equity capital is sufficiently low, because of loan losses or some other adverse shocks, the bank will reduce lending because of the capital requirement and the cost of issuing new equity. even when the capital requirement is not currently binding, the model shows that a low capitalized bank may optimally forgo profitable lending opportunities now to lower the risk of future capital inadequacy. furthermore, the theory reports that there exist at least two distinct ways in which the level of bank capital may alter the impact of monetary shocks on bank lending and these are through the traditional bank lending channel and the direct mechanism that is known as bank capital channel. 2.2. modigliani-miller irrelevance theory modigliani-miller argued that in the world of perfect capital markets, bank lending decisions are independent of banks‟ capital structure, since the bank will always be able to find investors willing to fund viable lending opportunities; the level of bank capital is irrelevant to lending and also to the monetary policy transmission mechanism hubbard, kuttner, and palia (2006). this theory or logic of modigliani and miller existed as bank‟s lending depended on its capital structure as well as on lending opportunities and market interest rates. when equity is sufficiently low, because of loan losses or some other adverse shock, the bank will reduce lending because the capital requirement is not currently binding. the model shows that a low capitalized bank may optimally forgo profitable lending opportunities now to lower the risk of future capital inadequacy (chami & cosimano, 2001; meh & moran, 2010). another important attribute of the model is the maturity transformation performed by banks, exposing them to interest rate risk. the result of this is a monetary tightening, by increasing the short term interest rate, lowers bank profits. unless the bank can decrease dividends substantially, this will resist over time or cover bank capital given the failure of the modigliani and miller logic for less lending. thus monetary policy affects the supply of bank loans through its effect on bank equity. this dynamic effect of the bank capital channelamplifies the standard interest rate channel of monetary policy. 2.3. capital regulation and risk taking behavior of banks in nigeria several scholars have documented that the function of bank capital is to reduce bank risk (adewumi, 1997; altman, bharath, & saunders, 2002; berger, herring, & szegö, 1995; koch & macdonald, 2015; peek & rosengren, 1995). a bank that is adequately capitalized can reduce bank risk in the following ways: i. by providing a cushion to absorb bank losses. in this regard, losses occasioned by bad loans, poor securities investment, criminal and management misjudgment are cushioned which allows the banks to continue in its operations and in the process the said losses are either corrected or recovered. the bank‟s capital is said to be the last resort against failures. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 124-134 126 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group ii. by building depositors and general public confidence on the banks institutions and creditors reassurance by adequate capital (adewumi, 1997). iii. adequate capital serves as a regulator of bank‟s growth. peek. and rosengren (1995) found that hundreds of smaller banks with weak capital base went under through mergers because of burgeoning growth in large business loans, which could only be made by banks with stronger or adequate capital base. iv. the nigerian banking laws however stipulates that the maximum loan that can be given to a single borrower must not be more than 20% of the shareholders‟ fund unimpaired by losses. also banks that fail to maintain the required minimum capital ratios are prohibited from advertising for or accepting new deposits, granting of credit, making investment and paying cash dividend to shareholders. furthermore, it is expedient to state that the bank capital channel plays a critical role in its lending behavior. banks with higher level of capital are in a better position to absorb shock, losses and repay deposit in a timely manner (bhatta, 2015). admati et al. (2010) asserted that the role of bank equity became highly recognized after the 2008 financial crises. the crises have apparently strengthened the fact that highly leveraged banks do not create negative externalities. the works of peek and rosengren (1995) and woo (2003) based in japan investigated whether negative shocks to capital induced in the above countries banks restricts lending. the studies provided evidence that negative shocks to bank capital leads to significant decline in lending. similarly, there has been a debate in literature as to whether stifling of bank capital would lead to a contraction of bank loans supply during recession. it was found that during recession, bank loans supply was contracted due to stifling of capital. using different methodologies, various scholars have shown that loan growth at individual banks were positively related to the initial capital ratio (bernanke. & lown, 1991). furthermore they argued that capital unconstrained banks could react to negative shocks to capital by increasing deposit taking. when banks are not capital constrained there is an expectation of negative linkage between shocks to capital and deposit taking. on the contrary they document a positive link between shocks to capital and the dynamics of deposit. berger. and udell (1994) concluded that expansion of loan was lower for less capitalized banks but do not detect the sensitivity of loan expansion to capital ratio during recession and favors the hypothesis that capital crunch adversely affects loans expansion during the 1990s. 2.4. empirical evidence it has been well documented that undercapitalized banks reduce their lending more than well-capitalized ones. using cross-sectional bank level data, bernanke. and lown (1991) showed that loan growth between the second quarter of 1990 and the first quarter of 1991 was positively correlated with banks‟ capital ratios at the beginning of the period. berger. and udell (1994) argue that higher capital requirements encouraged banks to reduce lending to the most risky categories of borrowers. they showed that us banks reduced their commercial loans and increased their holdings of treasuries in the early 1990s. however, the reduction in borrowers‟ risk profile can increase banks‟ financial soundness. small businesses heavily depend on banks for credit, since it may be difficult for them to find alternative sources of funding (brewer, genay, jackson, & worthington, 1996; cole, wolken, & woodburn, 1996). lower lending to these borrowers can slow down economic growth as shown by hancock and wilcox (1998) in their study on u.s. for the 1989-1992 periods. peek and rosengren (2000) considered the japanese banking crisis as an exogenous loan supply shock and found that it is linked to construction activity in u.s. commercial real estate markets, thereby affecting economic activity in the u.s. woo (2003) studied the credit slowdown in japan in 1997 and concluded that the pervasive shortage of bank capital was the reason behind it. using data for 107 countries, barth et al. (2006) for instance, documented that while banks facing more stringent capital regulations have fewer nonperforming loans, the link between capital stringency and banking crises is not robust. using data from italian banks in 1992-2001, gambacorta and mistrulli (2004) showed that well capitalized banks can better absorb temporary financial difficulties on the part of their borrowers and preserve long term lending relationships. better capitalized banks can also better shield their lending from monetary shocks as they have easier access to non insured funding. indeed, loan growth of highly leveraged banks is more responsive to monetary policy than the loan growth of well capitalized banks (kishan & opiela, 2000). thus, the negative impact of higher short term interest rates on credit availability is stronger for banks with lower capital. albertazzi and marchetti (2010) used italian data for 2007-2009 and found evidence of a contraction of credit supply associated with low bank capitalization. using us data, kashyap, stein, and hanson (2010) found a positive relationship between bank leverage and equity risk. de jonghe (2010) measured banks‟ systemic risk exposures using extreme value theory. the result showed that higher capital reduces banks‟ exposure to systemic risk. demirgüç-kunt and detragiache (2011) who employed data for over 3000 banks in 86 countries, reported that capital regulation is not robustly associated with bank risk measured by individual bank z-scores. all studies referred to above suggest that higher capital makes the provision of credit more stable and robust even in economic downturns. more capital also allows banks to better withstand financial and real shocks. bank capital increases the capacity to raise non insured debt and thus banks‟ ability to limit the effect of a drop in deposits on lending. using the capital asset pricing model (capm) framework, miles, jing, and gilberto (2012) estimated the relationship between leverage and equity beta. the study reports that higher capital reduces the chance of banking crises. small firms become more credit constrained when banks are under pressure to satisfy capital requirements. this has been documented by popov and udell (2012). they studied the sensitivity of credit supply to banks‟ financial conditions in 16 emerging european countries before and during the recent financial crisis and results suggested that the effect of positive and negative shocks to a bank on its lending is greater for riskier firms and firms with fewer tangible assets. another type of lending those banks cut when being capital constrained is loans to the real estate sector. de haan and klomp (2012) used data on 200 banks in 21 oecd countries and applied factor analysis on 25 indicators of banking risk, the study reported that capital regulation reduces capital and asset risk of banks. based on a 40 years data from the united states, baker and wurgler (2013) confirmed that better capitalized banks have both lower systematic risk (beta) and lower idiosyncratic risk. another line of research examined the impact of capital requirements on bank risk taking. kapan and minoiu (2013) employed a sample of more than 800 banks from 55 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 124-134 127 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group countries during 2006-2010 and the result showed that bank capital played a cushioning role. better capitalized banks (with lower leverage ratio) that when exposed to the financial market shocks decreased their supply of loans less than other banks. using data for german banks covering the period 1965-2009, buch and prieto (2014) found that a long run increase in bank capital of one percent increased bank loans by 0.23%. interestingly, bank loans decreased with bank capital only when the capital to asset ratio is above 33%. also, during the recent financial crisis, banks with strong balance sheets were better able to maintain their lending. recent study by martynova (2015) showed that higher bank capital increases the franchise value of core banking activities; this allows banks to attract new funds that can be used for investment in risky market based activities. de haan. and klomp (2015) found similar results for a sample of emerging and developing countries. however, some other studies in this line of research, report that there is not a strong relationship between capital requirements and bank risk. using spanish credit register data on all monthly information requests lodged by banks on borrowers, jiménez, ongena, peydró, and saurina (2012) showed that a one percent increase in the interest rate decreases loans granted by less capitalized banks by 3.9 percent more than loans granted by well capitalized banks. as a result, higher bank capital is important in reducing banks‟ financial fragility as well as their ability to survive financial crises. (beltratti & stulz, 2012; diamond. & rajan, 2001). in a sample of banks from advanced and emerging economies, the latter study found that higher pre crisis capital improved bank performance during the 2008 crisis. similarly, berger and bouwman (2013) showed that higher capital in us banks enabled them to improve their market shares during banking crises, and these banks are generally able to maintain their improved shares afterwards (although the results are less robust for the 2008 crisis). since higher capital reduces bank risk and creates a buffer against losses, it makes funding with non insured debt less information sensitive. (admati et al., 2010). this decreases the possibility of bank runs enhancing financial stability (admati et al., 2010; diamond & rajan, 2000). however, studies that focus on banks in advanced economies during the 2008 crisis alone often come to different conclusions. thus, using oecd data (huang & ratnovski, 2009) found no relationship between pre crisis bank capital and performance during the crisis. for their sample of european banks, camara, laetitia, and amine (2010) reported that well capitalized banks took more risk before the 2008 crisis. using a sample of 36 major global banks, the imf‟s gfsr 2009 found that banks that received government support during the crisis had statistically higher capital metrics before the crisis. the bcbs [basel committee on banking supervision] (1999) surveyed the evidence for the response of banks in the g10 countries to the introduction of the 1988 capital requirements, concluding that bank capital pressures during cyclical downturns in the us and japan may have limited bank lending in those periods and contributed to the economic weakness in some macroeconomic sectors. using panel data on large us commercial banks between 1989 and 1997, furfine (2000) developed a structural dynamic model. the simulations predicted that a one percentage point increase in risk based capital requirement resulted in 5.5% reduction in loan growth. albertazzi and marchetti (2010) using italian data after the lehman collapse, documented two percentage points higher contraction of credit supply by less capitalized banks than well capitalized ones. the study also highlighted that borrowers had a limited ability to find substitute funding. puri, rocholl, and steffen (2011) studied the effect of the financial crisis on the lending of german banks. the study concluded that banks hit by the crisis reject 11% more loan applications than non affected banks. several studies estimated the effect of increased capital requirement on bank lending using uk data for the 1990s-2000s. thus, francis and osborne (2012) modeled the targeted capital ratios; based on those numbers they computed capital shortfalls which are further used to explain credit growth. the authors found that a one percentage point increase in capital requirements would reduce lending in 2002 by 1.2%. using data for the uk banks subject to time varying capital requirements in 1998-2007, aiyar, charles, and tomasz (2014b) exploited a single equation approach and showed that a one percentage point rise in capital requirement reduces credit growth by 6.5-7.2 percentage points. aiyar., charles, and tomasz (2014c) used a bayesian hierarchical approach to estimate panel var models and found that an increase in capital requirements by one percentage point reduces the growth rate in real lending by 4.6 percentage points. bridges et al. (2014) focusing on the effect of capital requirement on sectoral lending, provided an estimate for the reduction in total lending of 3.5% in response to a one percentage point increase in capital requirement. aiyar, charles, john, yevgeniya, and tomasz (2014a) using data of 1999-2006 found that higher capital requirements reduce cross border lending as a one percentage point increase in capital requirements is associated with a reduction in the growth rate of cross border credit of 5.5 percentage points. another uk study by noss and toffano (2014) estimated how an increase in macroprudential capital requirements might affect banks‟ lending in the face of a credit boom. they provided an upper bound estimate of 4.5% reduction in lending associated with a one percentage point increase in risk weighted capital requirement. following the approach of francis and osborne (2012) and using the data from 15 countries, bis mag (macroeconomic assessment group) (2010) estimated that a one percentage point increase in capital requirement causes a decline of 1.4% in the volume of lending. brun et al. (2013) estimated the macroeconomic effect of the transition from basel i to basel ii based regulation in france. the study showed that a two percentage points increase in capital requirements led to an increase in aggregate corporate lending by 1.5%, a rise in aggregate investment by 0.5% and creation or preservation of 235,000 jobs. thus, most empirical evidence suggested that increase in capital requirements by one percentage point force banks to cut their total lending in the short run by 1.2-4.5% or reduced credit growth by 1.2-4.6 percentage points. mesonnier and monks (2014) used the recapitalization exercise of 2011-2012 by the european banking authority (eba). the eba announcement was unexpected and required banks to have higher capital ratios than foreseen in transition to basel iii. exploiting data for 250 large banks in the euro area, they found that forcing a banking group to increase its core tier 1 ratio by one percentage point was associated with a reduction in this group‟s credit growth by 1.2 percentage points. similarly, bridges et al. (2014) reported that uk banks faced with a one percentage point increase in capital requirements reduced commercial real estate loan growth by 8 percentage points within one year after the change in capital regulation. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 124-134 128 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. methodology 3.1. data the data used for this study was secondary in nature and a time series data obtained from the publications of the central bank of nigeria statistical bulletin 2019 and nigeria stock exchange fact sheet. data were collected for the period of 1986 to 2019 on bank credits to the private sector (cps) and credit to small and medium enterprises (csm) as proxies for banks lending behavior. 3.2. estimation techniques the study used the descriptive statistic and econometric in its analysis. the descriptive statistic analysis was carried out to ascertain the behavior of the variables of study utilizing such measures as the mean, median, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis, and the jarque-bera statistic. furthermore, the study used graphical analytical techniques such as line graphs, histogram and stacked bar charts, among others while for the econometric analysis the unit root test was used to investigate the stationarity of the variables as a non stationarity could lead to spurious regression results. however, the ardl model was be adopted as the estimation technique of the study, while the granger causality test was also applied in checking the underlying structure of the dynamic relationship between the variables. 3.3. model specification following the previous works of pesaran and shin (1996); canta (2011) and aliero, abdullahi, and adamu (2013) the study assumed that the basel capital channel and lending behavior of banking institutions in nigeria: an empirical investigation can be modeled using two sets of models as follows: ( ) eq. (1) to have the estimable version of above equation, equation 1 can be rewritten to have: eq. (2) where: cps = credit to private sector basi = basel i capital (tier 1 + tier 2). basii = basel ii capital (total capital requirement). basiii = basel iii capital conservation buffer (csb) + counter-cyclical buffer (ccb) u = error term ( ) eq. (3) we can rewrite equation 3 to have: eq. (4) where: csm = credit to small and medium enterprises basi = basel i capital (tier 1 + tier 2). basii = basel ii capital (total capital requirement). basiii = basel iii capital conservation buffer (csb) + counter-cyclical buffer (ccb). u = error term 4. data analysis 4.1. trends of basel capital and macroeconomic variables 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 figure-1. basel i capital. 3 4 5 6 7 8 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 figure-2. basel ii capital. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 124-134 129 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 figure-3. basel iii capital. the basel capital trend analyses are found in figure 1, 2 and 3 above. basel i capital ratios in nigeria showed a rising trend in terms of credit risk provisions. basel ii ratios showed a constant trend without any improvement in the absorption of credit, market and operational risks. however, basel iii capital showed a declining trend, explained by declining provisions in conservation and pro-cyclical buffers. -10 0 10 20 30 40 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 figure-4. credits to private sector. 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 figure-5. credits to small and medium enterprises. the trends in bank lending behaviors are summarized in figure 4 and 5 above. the growth in credit to the private sector showed a rising trend with a remarkable peak in 2008, and trough in 2019. growth of credit to the smes sector showed a remarkable downward trend. 4.2. descriptive statistic table-1. descriptive statistics. variable cps sme base i base ii base iii mean 12.61290 5.336129 9.387097 5.677419 8.870968 median 11.10000 0.850000 10.00000 6.000000 9.000000 maximum 36.90000 27.04000 11.00000 7.000000 27.00000 minimum -2.400000 0.000000 7.000000 4.000000 4.000000 std. dev. 7.314084 7.155078 1.202149 0.747757 4.318502 skewness 1.301863 1.268652 -1.251100 0.103223 2.697124 kurtosis 5.815111 3.864529 2.962837 2.515799 11.57840 jarque-bera 18.99297 9.281046 8.088911 0.357883 132.6373 probability 0.000075 0.009653 0.017519 0.836155 0.000000 observations 31 31 31 31 31 note: cps = credit to private sector. sme = small and medium enterprises. = basel i capital (tier 1 + tier 2). = basel ii capital (total minimum capital). = basel iii capital (conservation buffer (csb) + counter-cyclical buffer (ccb)). the results in table 1 showed mean values of 9.38%, 5.68% and 8.87% for basel i, ii, and iii for the period under study. the gap between the maximum and minimum values is widest in terms of basel iii (27.0 and 4.0). in addition, the provisions under basel iii offer wider absolute variations with a standard deviation of 4.32%. with a mean average of 12.61% and 5.34%, it is observed that growth in credit to the private sector and smes experienced asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 124-134 130 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the widest swing with a standard deviation of 7.31% and 7.16%. the distributions of basel capital and variables of lending bahaviors are not normal with evident of asymmetrical skewness, leptokurtic kurtosis and flat tails. this is confirmed by the jarque-bera statistics and associated probabilities. 4.3. econometric analyses 4.3.1. unit root test table-2. unit root test for basel measures. variable d(basi) d(basii) d(basiii) adf statistics -7.587722 -6.903685 -6.284499 1% -3.679322 -3.679322 -3.679322 5% -2.967767 -2.967767 -2.967767 10% -2.622989 -2.622989 -2.622989 probability 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 . the study conducted stationary test for the basel capital channel variables using the augmented dickey fuller (adf) unit root test. the results are summarized and presented in table 2 for each of the variables studied. from the above table it is obvious that the three variables were non stationary at levels but appears stationary at first difference. hence, the series are all integrated of order 1(1). this is evidenced by the fact that the absolute values of the adf test statistics are all greater than the mackinnon critical values at 1%, 5%, and 10% level significance and thus the respective null hypotheses of non-stationary are rejected, implying the absence of unit root among the variables. table-3. unit root test for selected macroeconomic variables in nigeria. variable d(cps) d(sme) d(rgdp) d(fdi1) d(fdi11) adf statistics -3.742833 -6.747184 -7.494608 -3.997403 -3.820481 1% -3.679322 -3.679322 -3.679322 -3.679322 -3.679322 5% -2.967769 -2.967767 -2.967767 -2.967767 -2.967767 10% -2.622989 -2.622989 -2.622989 -2.622989 -2.622989 probability 0.0086 0.0000 0.0000 0.0046 0.0071 the study conducted stationary test for the selected macroeconomic variables using the augmented dickey fuller (adf) unit root test. the results are summarized and presented in table 3 for each of the variables studied. from the above table it is obvious that all the selected macroeconomic variables were non stationary at levels but appears stationary at first difference. hence, the series are all integrated of order 1(1). this is evidenced by the fact that the absolute values of the adf test statistics are all greater than the mackinnon critical values at 1%, 5%, and 10% level significance and thus the respective null hypotheses of non-stationary are rejected, implying the absence of unit root among the variables. 4.4. relationship between basel capital and bank lending behavior table-4. autoregressive distributed lag (ardl) results for basel capital and cps. variable coefficient std. error t-statistic prob.* cps(-1) 0.478330 0.351294 1.361621 0.2006 cps(-2) -0.417282 0.492191 -0.847805 0.4146 cps(-3) -0.036859 0.509674 -0.072319 0.9436 cps(-4) 0.898983 0.473097 1.900208 0.0839 basi 0.104338 1.488245 0.070108 0.9454 basii 3.548238 1.753683 2.023306 0.0080 basii(-1) 3.609792 3.081279 1.171524 0.0261 basii(-2) -6.290792 1.931521 -3.256912 0.0076 basii(-3) 0.618392 2.611562 0.236790 0.8172 basii(-4) 3.136528 2.311307 1.357036 0.2020 basiii -0.984963 0.339355 -2.902456 0.0144 basiii(-1) -0.787566 0.456055 -1.726910 0.1121 basiii(-2) -0.442777 0.253565 -1.746204 0.1086 basiii(-3) -0.724596 0.311443 -2.326576 0.0401 basiii(-4) -1.217085 0.304761 -3.993579 0.0021 c 11.60274 12.00310 0.966646 0.3545 r-squared 0.893054 mean dependent var 12.97778 adjusted r-squared 0.747219 s.d. dependent var 7.771859 s.e. of regression 3.907481 akaike info criterion 5.850907 sum squared resid 167.9525 schwarz criterion 6.618810 log likelihood -62.98724 hannan-quinn criter. 6.079245 f-statistic 6.123729 durbin-watson stat 1.889550 prob(f-statistic) 0.002206 note: *p-values and any subsequent tests do not account for model selection. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 124-134 131 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the ardl results in table 4 above captured model 1 of this study. both the global statistic and the diagnostic test indicated that the utility, forecasting and predictive power of the model as specified was very high. we can thus rely on the relative results to make inferences on the relationship between the variables under study. a cursory look at table 4 above showed that basel i capital (basi) is positively related to growth in credit to the private sector (cps) at a coefficient of 0.1043 but statistically insignificant at 5% level of significance at a probability of 0.9454. this means that 1.1 increments in the provision of basel i capital will lead to 12.1043 increases in cps. on the other hand, basel ii capital (basii) related positively with the growth in credit to the private sector though not significant in the current period at 5% level. this is demonstrated with the coefficient of 3.5482 at a probability of 0.0080. though this is significant at 10%, but not accepted as our significance level. however, it turned negative and statistically significant at 5% with a coefficient of -6.2908 and probability of 0.0076 when lagged in the second period. also basel iii capital (basiii) is statistically significant at 5% level but with a negative probability and coefficient of (-0.9850 and 0.0144) for the current period, (-0.7246 and 0.0401) for the third period and -1.2171 and 0.0021 for the fourth period respectively when lagged. in addition, the coefficient of determination (r2) of 0.89 in table 4 shows that 89 percent of variation in growth of credit to the private sector is explained by changes in basel capital. this relationship is significant at the 5% level since the f-statistic of 6.1237 falls outside the critical region of hence we reject the ho1, and accept the alternate. table-5. pairwise granger causality tests for basel capital and cps. null hypothesis obs f-statistic prob. basi does not granger cause cps 29 0.28778 0.7525 cps does not granger cause basi 0.43405 0.6529 basii does not granger cause cps 29 1.06422 0.0007 cps does not granger cause basii 0.21290 0.8097 basiii does not granger cause cps 29 0.10279 0.9027 cps does not granger cause basiii 0.12265 0.8851 basii does not granger cause basi 29 0.57833 0.5685 basi does not granger cause basii 0.93912 0.4049 basiii does not granger cause basi 29 0.08027 0.9231 basi does not granger cause basiii 0.70820 0.5025 basiii does not granger cause basii 29 0.86320 0.4345 basii does not granger cause basiii 1.05049 0.3653 the results in table 5 shows that a f-statistics of 0.2878 and 0.1028 at 5% level of significance, for basel i (basi) and (0.2878 and 0.1028) for basel iii (basiii) capital. similarly they recorded a probability of 0.7525 and 0.9027 for both basel i and iii. this is indication that basel i and basel iii capital does not cause growth in credit to the private sector (cps) as there probability is above the stipulated 5% significance level. however, it was also observed from results that causality runs unidirectional from basel ii capital (basii) to growth in credit to the private sector as shown by the f-statistic and probability of 1.0642 and 0.0007 respectively. this implied that an enhancement in basel ii capital (basii) will trigger up growth in credit to private sector. further, it suggested that as banks continue to comply with the provision of basel ii capital, growth in credit to the private sector will be raised as well. table-6. autoregressive distributed lag results for basel capital and credit to smes. variable coefficient std. error t-statistic prob.* sme 0.943866 0.168145 5.613400 0.0000 basi -4.604238 1.572343 -2.928266 0.0076 basi(-1) 3.358290 1.605479 2.091768 0.0477 basii 2.321630 1.728992 1.342765 0.0192 basii(-1) -3.440260 1.627584 -2.113722 0.0456 basiii -0.068078 0.206255 -0.330067 0.7443 c 19.31019 9.335211 2.068533 0.0500 r-squared 0.682227 mean dependent var 5.514000 adjusted r-squared 0.599330 s.d. dependent var 7.207350 s.e. of regression 4.562145 akaike info criterion 6.074426 sum squared resid 478.7029 schwarz criterion 6.401373 log likelihood -84.11640 hannan-quinn criter. 6.179019 f-statistic 8.229790 durbin-watson stat 1.963761 prob(f-statistic) 0.000080 note: *p-values and any subsequent tests do not account for model selection. the ardl results in table 6 above, the global statistics and the diagnostic test (dwt) indicated that the utility, forecasting and predictive power of the model as specified was at 0.68 percent. based on the ardl results, we can rely on the relative and global statistics results to make inferences on the relationship between the variables under study. taking a keen look at table 6 it shows that basel i capital (basi) is negatively related and statistically significant to growth in credits to smes at a coefficient of 4.6042 and probability of 0.0076. furthermore, basel i lagged in period 1 with a coefficient and probability of 3.3583 and 0.0477 is an indication that there is a positive and significant relationship between basel i capital and growth in credit to smes. on the other hand, basel ii capital (basii) relates positively but statistically significant at 5% level. this is confirmed by the basel ii coefficient of 2.3216 and probability of 0.0192. however, basel ii capital lagged in period 1 turned a negative relationship with a coefficient of -3.4402 but significant with a probability of 0.0456. this means that there is an inverse relationship between basel ii capital and growth in credit to smes. basel iii capital (basiii) records a beta coefficient of -0.0681 and probability of 0.7443. going by this, it means that there is a negative asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 124-134 132 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group relationship between basel iii capital and growth in credit to smes which is statistically insignificant at 5% level. in addition, the coefficient of determination (r2) of 0.68 in table 6 shows that 68 percent of variation in growth of credit to the private sector is explained by changes in basel capital. this relationship is significant at the 5% level since the f-statistic of 8.2298 falls outside the critical region of 0.0001. hence we reject the ho2, and accept the alternate. table-7. pairwise granger causality tests. null hypothesis: obs f-statistic prob. basi does not granger cause sme 29 0.85541 0.4377 sme does not granger cause basi 9.09658 0.0011 basii does not granger cause sme 29 1.46560 0.0050 sme does not granger cause basii 3.04631 0.0062 basiii does not granger cause sme 29 0.04181 0.9591 sme does not granger cause basiii 0.13677 0.8728 basii does not granger cause basi 29 0.57833 0.5685 basi does not granger cause basii 0.93912 0.4049 basiii does not granger cause basi 29 0.08027 0.9231 basi does not granger cause basiii 0.70820 0.5025 basiii does not granger cause basii 29 0.86320 0.4345 basii does not granger cause basiii 1.05049 0.3653 the results in table 7 shows that at 5% level of significance causality does not flow from basel i capital (basi) to growth in smes, this is confirmed by the f-statistics and probability of (0.8554 and 0.4377). but f-statistics and probability shows that causality runs unidirectional from smes to basel i and this is significant at 5%. the fstatistics (1.4656 and 3.0463) and probability (0.0050 and 0.0062) for basel ii capital (basii) shows that there exist a bi-directional causality between basel ii and smes but this is significant at 10%, while for basel iii capital (basiii), the f-statistics of 0.0418 and 0.1368 and the probability of 0.9591 and 0.8728 records that there is no causality between basel iii capital (basiii) and credit to smes. therefore, the hypothesis of there is no causality is rejected in place of the alternate. 4.5. discussion of findings the empirical findings for the study support the theory of bank capital channel that postulate that monetary policy actions influence bank lending behavior, through its impact on bank equity capital. these monetary policy actions can lead to a change in the financial position of the banking sector, thereby changing the preferences of its shareholder (markovic, 2006). when bank equity capital is sufficiently low, because of loan losses or some other adverse shocks, the bank will reduce lending because of the capital requirement and the cost of issuing new equity. even when the capital requirement is not currently binding, the model showed that a low capitalized bank may optimally forgo profitable lending opportunities now to lower the risk of future capital inadequacy. conversely, the empirical results for nigeria contradicted the modigliani-miller irrelevance theory that argued that in the world of perfect capital markets, bank lending decisions are independent of banks institution capital structure, since the bank will always be able to find investors willing to fund viable lending opportunities; the level of bank capital is irrelevant to lending and also to the monetary policy transmission mechanism (hubbard et al., 2006). this theory or logic of modigliani and miller existed as bank‟s lending depended on its capital structure as well as on lending opportunities and market interest rates. when equity is sufficiently low, because of loan losses or some other adverse shock, the bank will reduce lending because of the capital requirement is not currently binding, the model showed that a low capitalized bank may optimally forgo profitable lending opportunities now to lower the risk of future capital inadequacy (chami & cosimano, 2001; meh & moran, 2010). previous studies provided evidence on the positive relationship between bank capital and lending behavior and because the studies were all in advanced economies, it was essential to study whether the same principles would hold given the dynamics of emerging market economies of which nigeria is one. empirically, our findings agreed with the works of berger et al. (1995); peek and rosengren (1995); adewumi (1997); woo (2003), albertazzi and marchetti (2010); buch and prieto (2014); koch and macdonald (2015); woo (2003), albertazzi and marchetti (2010); klaus and philipp (2013) and jose, santiago, ana, and camilo (2017) in which they opined that under capitalized banks reduced their lending more than the well capitalized and therefore the well capitalized positively influences lending behavior in nigeria. however, this position was contradicted by the works of kapan and minoiu (2013) who argued that better capitalized banks with lower leverage ratio are exposed to financial market shocks decreased their supply of loans less than other banks. 5. conclusions based on the findings of the study, we conclude that in nigeria the theory of bank capital channel which postulates that monetary policy actions influence bank lending behavior, through its impact on bank equity capital is supported. this conclusive position is based on the analysis of the relationship of the variables modeled in the study which showed that basel capital influences growth in credit to the private sector (cps) and growth in credit to small and medium enterprises (smes). based on the conclusion, the study therefore recommend as follows: i. the central bank of nigeria should focus adequate attention in ensuring macroeconomic and monetary stability to enable not only banking business but other businesses to strive in the country/economy. ii. the monetary authority as a prudential regulator should monitor the banks compliance to the provisions of the basel capital accords. iii. banks should maintain both conservation buffer (csb) and counter-cyclical buffer (ccb) with the view to absorbing emerging shocks from loan losses. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 124-134 133 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group references adewumi, w. 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(2011). global retail lending in the aftermath of the us financial crisis: distinguishing between supply and demand effects. journal of financial economics, 100(3), 556-578.available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2010.12.001. van den heuvel, s. j. (2007). the welfare cost of bank capital requirements. wharton financial institutions center working paper no. 0719. woo, d. (2003). in search of capital crunch: supply factors behind the credit slowdown in japan. journal of money, credit and banking, 35(6), 1019-1038.available at: https://doi.org/10.1353/mcb.2003.0050. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 77 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 8, no. 3, 77-82, 2021 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2021.83.77.82 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group a semantic analysis of corona virus pandemic terms lydia udeme edet1 rosemaary ugonma babatunde2 charles ogbulogo3 innocent chiluwa4 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3,4department of languages and general studies, covenant university, nigeria. 1email: lydia.edet@stu.cu.edu.ng 2email: rosemarybabatunde16@gmail.com 3email: charles.ogbulogo@covenantuniversity.edu.ng 4email: innocent.chiluwa@covenantuniversity.edu.ng abstract various epidemics in recent years have introduced myriad of challenges to the entire world. covid-19 disease is the latest crisis with its attendant health and language issues. with its emergence, covid-19 introduced into the global linguistic repertoire an avalanche of unknown vocabulary to the ordinary language user. in today’s world, language is not only available for communication; it is a tool that contributes to maintaining global peace and order. in bridging diverse communities of humanities in the world, shared meaning becomes a platform for mutual understanding, promoting intellectual development and collaborative research efforts. the current study aims to explore and explicate the novel language of covid-19, thereby making meaning accessible for clarity of communication. the qualitative method of analysis which relied on secondary data from different online covid-19 glossaries was utilised. data collection was a total of 149 terms, out of which 34 were purposively selected for analysis. this was to examine their semantic meaning and also ascertain their word relations. the study investigates the process of developing meaning mechanisms in the use covid-19 terms among language users. the study found that the covid-19 has a distinct vocabulary that can be analysed linguistically. the literature review in this study highlighted past researches on covid-19 as descriptive, others on the frequency count of words and the etymology of terms. keywords: covid-19, epidemics, glossaries, language, register theory, semantics, vocabulary. citation | lydia udeme edet; rosemaary ugonma babatunde; charles ogbulogo; innocent chiluwa (2021). a semantic analysis of corona virus pandemic terms. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 8(3): 77-82. history: received: 27 may 2021 revised: 23 july 2021 accepted: 16 august 2021 published: 13 september 2021 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: the authors wish to express gratitude to the management of covenant university and covenant university centre for research, innovation and discoveries (cucrid) for sponsoring the publication of this article. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 78 2. the nature of semantic analysis ................................................................................................................................................. 78 3. an overview of global pandemics in human history .............................................................................................................. 79 4. an overview of covid-19 from the origin ................................................................................................................................. 79 5. theoretical framework .................................................................................................................................................................. 80 6. data collection and methodology ............................................................................................................................................... 80 7. analysis, discussion and findings ............................................................................................................................................... 80 8. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 81 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 81 mailto:lydia.edet@stu.cu.edu.ng mailto:rosemarybabatunde16@gmail.com mailto:charles.ogbulogo@covenantuniversity.edu.ng mailto:innocent.chiluwa@covenantuniversity.edu.ng http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/journal.500.2021.83.77.82 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0018-3308 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8356-4551 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6303-7156 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4420-9709 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 77-82 78 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this is one of very few studies that investigated the novel covid-19 disease from a semantic perspective. semantics provides shared meaning which impacts on communication. in addition, vocabulary learning which this study provides contributes to the use of english as a global language and also offers linguistic solutions to contain the spread of coronavirus. this is only possible when one has a good understanding of the terms. the study also presents a rare interdisciplinary combination of different fields such as medicine, virology, computer, and linguistics to strengthen meaning. this has implications for global peace, public safety and sustainable development. 1. introduction a major epidemic in the 21st century associated with current global crisisis the covid-19 disease. the emergence of this pandemic brought with it an avalanche of linguistic resources that comprises words used as labels for naming diseases and related terms. this connection has brought to the fore, a large and confusing vocabulary which is quite novel and confusing to the ordinary language user. semantics, the science of meaning appears a ready tool that can proffer solution to this linguistic challenge. this is in order to have a common platform of meaning and understanding in everyday communication. apparently not much has been done to explicate the language of covid-19 from a semantic perspective. even the study by publishers of oxford english dictionary appears merely descriptive with the emphasis on frequency counting. another research into covid-19 terms by asif, zhiyong, iram, and nisar (2020) investigated the etymology of the terms which is morphologically based. perhaps, a more enriching explication will emerge with a deliberate and systematic semantic analysis from this current study. moreover, health is very essential in achieving societal goals as highlighted in the united nations sustainable development goal (sdg) (oyeyemi, gberevbie, & ibietan, 2021) hence the need to explicate the covid-19 terms, their meaning and any existing word relations among them. these demands for clarity and ease of communication form the justification for this study. semantics, the study of meaning is crucial to language and communications. it is widely acknowledged that language, a creative human behaviour distinguishes man from other higher animals (abioye, 2018). language also contributes to the socio-economic and political development of any nation (chiluwa & odebunmi, 2016). as reported by some scholars, meaning was a core subject of investigation to the early philosophers. this interest by philosophers highlight meaning as a central concern of philosophy in the early 20th century. that development was attributed to an interaction of several trends in different disciplines such as mathematics. in this connection, the german mathematician gottlob frege and the british philosopher bertrand russell— extended their inquiry of logic, the formal study of reasoning, into the domain of the natural languages, as the original media of human reasoning. this collective efforts in the mathematical domain, combined with mathematical logic impacted on developments in the study of semantics (the editors of encyclopaedia britannica, semantics | definition & theories | britannica). in contrast, linguists studied meaning solely in relation to language. thus, semantic analysis remains a critical assignment for meaning to be maximized. in literature, the nature of semantic analysis is explicated along two main lines of considerations: the technological domain and the linguistic domain (edet, 2020). this study has inclinations for the linguistic aspect of semantic analysis. in the technological aspect, semantic analysis which is computer based entails the process whereby meaning representations are composed and assigned to linguistic inputs. this is accomplished through a wide range of knowledge-sources and inference techniques such as meanings of words, the meanings associated with grammatical structures and knowledge about the structure of the discourse. other techniques include knowledge about the context in word where the discourse occur and common-sense knowledge about the topic concerned. however, this study is concerned with the meaning of covid-19 terms and its relations. this becomes vital as the novel covid-19 global pandemic with its diverse and confusing terminologies has printed indelible marks on the vocabulary and lexicon footprints of the world. thus, the semantics of english language proffers solution to explicate these terms through a descriptive analysis. 2. the nature of semantic analysis semantics, as a branch of linguistics, aims to study the notion of meaning in language. language demonstrates a meaningful message because of the semantic interaction with the different linguistic levels, phonology (phones), lexicon and syntax. semantic analysis deals with the meaning of words and sentences, which refers to the elements in the world (rajani & hanumanthappa, 2016). although semantic analysis can be carried out on different platforms of truth based semantics, referential, ideational, conceptual, structural, transformational and lexical. however, this study is based on the premise of lexical semantics which concerns itself with the meanings of words and fixed word combination, such as covid-19 terms. a look into some existing views on the concept of semantics seems quite revealing. in linguistics, semantic analysis is the study of the structure and meaning of speech that relates syntactic structures, from the phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs levels to the entire writing and their languageindependent meanings. this is achieved by examining the text from the writer’s point of view where the author’s choice of language structure is unravelled and justified (goddard, 2013). in this connection, semantic analysis identifies words already present in a text to arrive at meaning in communication. this aligns with varone, mayer, and melegari (2017) views that we understand the meaning of a text through established knowledge about language itself and the concepts available in that text. goddard and schalley (2010) opines that semantic analysis entails analyzing the meanings of words, fixed expressions, whole sentences, and utterances in context. in real terms, it means when original expressions are translated into some kind of semantic metalanguage. semantic analysis is the tool for description in order to make exact meaning accessible and also relate syntactic structures. as such meaning in this context remains determinate and a ready tool in the prevention of covid-19 spread. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/disciplines https://www.britannica.com/biography/gottlob-frege https://www.britannica.com/biography/bertrand-russell https://www.britannica.com/topic/reason https://www.britannica.com/topic/formal-logic https://www.britannica.com/editor/the-editors-of-encyclopaedia-britannica/4419 https://www.britannica.com/science/semantics asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 77-82 79 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group varone et al. (2017) opine that semantic analysis describes the process of understanding natural language, the way humans communicate which is based on meaning and context. as such, semantic analysis enables a complete understanding of meaning in text. the foregoing discussions emphasize the import of meaning in communication as well as in natural languages. from the opinions of scholars, it is apparent that the analysis of words enables an understanding in the context of its usage. their views also justify the essence of this study which is a semantic analysis of covid-19 terms. as observed, the practice of semantic analysis can either be technological or linguistic. in the technological domain, it is ict driven and computer based. in this regard, semantic analysis entails the process whereby meaning representations are composed and assigned to linguistic inputs (huang, wang, chang, hwu, & xiong, 2020; meštrović, martinčić-ipšić, & čubrilo, 2007). to create rich and accurate meaning representations, a wide range of knowledge-sources and inference techniques are involved. these include meanings of words, the meanings associated with grammatical structures, knowledge about the structure of the discourse. others are knowledge about the context in word where the discourse occurs and common-sense knowledge about the topic concerned. in linguistics, semantic analysis is the study of the structure and meaning of speech. it also involves relating syntactic structures at the levels of phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs to the level of the writing in a bid to discover their individual meanings. therefore, semantic analysis gives meaning to a work of literary composition as the author’s choice of language structure is highlighted and justified. in this connection, semantic analysis uses words already present in a text to arrive at meaning in communication. this aligns with varone et al. (2017) views that we rely on what we already know about language itself and the concepts present in a text to understand what the text highlights. the foregoing discussions emphasize the import of meaning in natural languages. from the opinions of scholars above, it is the analysis of words that enables an understanding in the context of its usage. 3. an overview of global pandemics in human history the world has recorded an avalanche of public health challenges from the prehistoric times till date. history has it that many lives were lost through various outbreaks in prehistoric times through various epidemics. an account of some relics of the prehistoric epidemics include archaeological sites such as "hamin mangha" and miaozigou. the former is one of the best-preserved prehistoric sites in northeastern china where an epidemic wiped out a prehistoric village in china about 5,000 years ago, and the bodies of the dead were stuffed inside a house. miaozigou another prehistoric mass burial that confirms the brutality of an epidemic is located in northeastern china. in brief, some of the worst epidemics and pandemics, dating from prehistoric to modern times includes: spanish flu: the deadliest pandemic in history, plague of athens: 430 b.c., antonine plague: a.d. 165180, plague of cyprian: a.d. 250-271, plague of justinian: a.d. 541-542, the black death: 1346-1353, american plagues of the16th century. the emergence of modern plagues date back to 1916 with the emergence of american polio epidemic. others are asian flu: 1957-1958, aids pandemic and epidemic: 1981-present day, h1n1 swine flu pandemic: 2009-2010, zika virus epidemic: 2015-present day. historically, the spanish flu pandemic of 1918–1920 ranks the deadliest influenza outbreak in modern history, killing between 50 and 100 million people (jarus, 2020). other challenges directly related to health include hunger/malnutrition, non-communicable diseases, maternal and child mortality, road accidents among others. communicable diseases that have the potential to become epidemics or pandemics include influenza, caused by influenza viruses such as the h5n1 virus outbreak in 2003, the h1n1 epidemic in 2009, and the ongoing h7n9 epidemic in china (jarus, 2020). ebola which originated from the west africa region in 2013 is reported to have destabilized whole countries and paralyzed the healthcare systems in countries such as guinea, liberia and lome. this epidemic led to deaths and loss of economic activities in the affected counties. the popular epidemics which have come to stay are hiv/aids, ebola and sars. the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (aids) is a chronic, potentially life-threatening condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) which damages the human immune system, thereby making an individual prone to infections and diseases since the body has no ability to fight. at present, there is steady decrease in global number of people dying from aids-related causes, from 2.3 million in 2005 to 1.6 million in 2012. as a major health crisis in parts of africa, hiv/aids accounts for about 70 percent of global deaths. 4. an overview of covid-19 from the origin the index case of corona virus was identified as cold in 1960. as observed by the canadian study in 2001, 500 patients were identified with a flu-like system. through the use of polymerase chain reaction, 17-18 cases of the patients were confirmed as infected with corona virus strain which was then treated as simple and nonfatal virus till 2002. in 2003, various reports were published with the proofs of spreading the corona to many countries such as united states of america, hong kong, singapore, thailand, vietnam and taiwan. in addition, coronaviruses are believed to exist in certain species of animals, such as cattle and camels (kandola, 2020). on 31 dec. 2019, china, most populated country in east asia, reported to who some pneumonia cases with strange etiology (kumar, malviya, & sharma, 2020). since its discovery, more than 2,850,000 cases have been infected, with nearly 200,000 deaths (guo et al., 2020). moreover, coronaviruses are well-known to mutate and recombine (alanagreh, alzoughool, & atoum, 2020). the covid-19 is the third novel coronavirus to cause a large-scale epidemic in the twenty-first century after the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (sars-cov) in 2003 (de wit, van doremalen, falzarano, & munster, 2016) and the middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus (mers-cov) in 2012 (alanagreh et al., 2020). sars-cov is the virus strain that causes covid-19. the recovery rate of people with covid-19 is around 80% without specialist treatment. these people may experience mild flu-like symptoms. however, 1 in 6 people may experience severe symptoms, such as difficulty in breathing. with the recent outbreak in wuhan, a city in the hubei province of china in december 2019, corona virus became a global pandemic claiming millions of lives. it was the international committee on taxonomy of viruses (ictv) that announced “severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (sars-cov-2)” as the name of the new virus on 11 february 2020. this name was chosen because the virus is genetically related to the coronavirus responsible for the sars outbreak of 2003. while https://www.livescience.com/51662-100-bodies-found-prehistoric-house.html https://www.livescience.com/spanish-flu.html asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 77-82 80 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group related, the two viruses are different. the first human cases of covid-19, the disease caused by the novel coronavirus causing covid-19, subsequently named sars-cov-2 were first reported by officials in wuhan city, china, in december 2019. 5. theoretical framework the term ‘register’ has varied definitions by different schools of thoughts but with some commonalities (nutakor, 2013). for instance, deng, (2020); nordquist, (2018); szmrecsanyi & leuven, (2019) identifies register as the way a speaker uses language differently in different circumstances. gregory and carroll (2020) defines register as a theory of language variation according to situational contexts. according to niazi (2016) a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. neumann (2016) opines that register in the systemic sense is functional variation of language use in a given context of situation. from the definitions, it is arguable that context is the common denominator that determines the occurrence of variation in language. in other words, the situation or event determines the degree of formality in the language use. this study adopts (niazi, 2016) views that uphold the varieties of language (the core vocabulary) in specific contexts such as medical in which covid-19 exists. the register theory is among the core concepts in systemic functional grammar (sfg) where the social and cultural role of language is a major concern. sfg is a functional theory of language that establishes language as a socio-semiotic system (soares, 2017). it also describes the organisation of the ‘meaning-making resources’ used to achieve language and communication goals halliday & matthiessen (2004 in chong (2011)). it is believed that halliday and other linguists further developed the concept of register in order to identify different variations in language according to the user. in addition, the sfg model highlights the structuring of language to achieve sociocultural meanings (djachy, kuparadze, & rukhiashvili, 2018; ikupa & akpere, 2019) and the use of language by interactants to accomplish tasks in everyday social life coffin (2001 in ling (2013)); ahamada, jauharib, luddinc, and abdurahmand (2019); korneeva, kosacheva, and parpura (2019). in other words, a mastery of registers in any specific or professional context implies clarity and ease of communication. this is very practicable in the use of covid-19 terms which demands shared meaning in the fight against this global pandemic. it is in the use of the appropriate register cum language that the novel disease can be curbed. this has to do with appropriate linguistic choices made from a set of systems containing structures (chong, 2011). for instance, words such as ‘hydroxychloroquine, favipiravir, dexamethasone, lopinavir in everyday communication denote the context of a pharmacist; and also indicate the semantic field of drugs and medications. on the other hand, lexical items such as aerosol, coronavirus, droplets, social distancing highlights the context of the current covid-19, global pandemic. this upholds (halliday, teubert, yallop, & cermakova, 2004) views cited in mayes (2003) that meaning should not only be analyzed within the linguistic system, but the social system in which it occurs should be taken into consideration. the social system aligns with bennet (2013) that words must have a shared or conventional meaning to serve as a means of communication between people. in this regard, people make predictions about the meanings of utterances based on the vocabulary used in the context (mayes, 2003). among the features of registers are specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases, colloquialisms and the use of jargon (nordquist, 2018; polyakova, yuzakova, suvorova, & zharova, 2019). jargon creates and maintains connections among professionals ‘who see themselves as 'insiders' to exclude 'outsiders' (nugrahanto, 2017). these connections are maintained through the use of occupational registers, such as “asymptomatic, epidemic, coronavirus, incubation period, which are core lexical resources in the covid-19 vocabulary. 6. data collection and methodology a study that intends to popularize and share meanings for global acceptability requires standardize linguistic data. as such this study relied on secondary data posted online from different covid-19 glossaries. data was collated through a download of the selected glossaries from their online sites into an ms-word folder. after which each of the three glossaries were printed out in hard copies to enable computation of the word entries. specifically, a total of 149 terms were derived from webmd medical coronavirus: glossary of common terms, covid-19 crisis catalog: a glossary of terms and unbound medicine coronavirus glossary of terms. in this connection, webmd medical coronavirus glossary presented 42 terms, covid-19 crisis catalog glossary had 48 terms while unbound medicine coronavirus glossary highlighted 59 terms. all the three glossaries were compiled in 2020 and retrieved in 2021. the qualitative analysis describes each term and also highlights the word relations represented on tables. out of the 149 words retrieved from the glossaries, only 34 covid-19 terms were purposively selected since they have relations with other words. the data sources and numerical frequency are indicated on the table 1. table-1. sources of data and numerical frequency. glossary number of items remarks 1 webmd medical coronavirus: glossary of common terms 42 author: nazario (2020). 2 covid-19 crisis catalog: a glossary of terms 48 author: becker (2020). 3 unbound medicine coronavirus glossary of terms 59 7. analysis, discussion and findings the purpose of this research was to explore the meaning of covid 19 terms and also highlight the existing meaning relations. as such a total of 34 covid-19 terms were purposively selected from the 149 terms extracted from the glossaries. in this regard, the researchers followed the traditional method of semantic analysis which highlights the meaning and relationship among words. the data were then carefully examined by the researchers based on their definition and relations. only terms related to covid-19 situation were purposively selected for the https://www.thoughtco.com/utterance-speech-1692576 https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-jargon-1691202 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(3): 77-82 81 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group analysis. in this connection, covid-19 related terms were analyzed in tabular form, listing the conceivable antonyms and synonyms with the meaning of each word. table-2. covid-19 terms with word relationship and meaning. s/n words synonym antonym meaning aerosol droplet solid a tiny moist particle that is released when you cough or sneeze. antibody test serology test this type of test checks to see if one has antibodies in the blood that shows an early infection with the virus. asymptomatic lack of symptoms/symptomless symptomatic not showing symptoms of covid-19 communicable contagious non-contagious used to describe diseases that can be spread or transmitted from one person to another community spread wide circulation unexpended the spread of an illness within a particular location, for instance within a neighbourhood or town. unfilled/ spacious corona virus cov a type of virus that looks like a corona (crown) when viewed under a microscope. covid-19 coronavirus disease the name of the infection caused by the novel strain of coronavirus. congregate settings crowded places unfilled/ spacious places theaters, and grocery stores. diagnostic test viral test a test that tests to see if one is infected. epidemic disease pandemic a significant and possibly sudden increase in the number of cases of a disease in the community. it could be from one to three countries. flattening the curve control controlling the rate of new cases of covid-19. the “curve” refers to a graph showing the number of cases of covid-19 immunity resist or exemption the body's ability to resist or fight off an infection. presumptive positive case confirmed positive case negative when a person tests positive for the coronavirus but the centre for disease control is yet to confirm the case. quarantine isolation to keep people away from one another so as to prevent the spread of disease. self-quarantine self-isolation separating oneself when sick from healthy individuals to prevent spreading illness. 8. conclusion in this study semantic tools were explored in the analysis of covid-19 terms. the core tools of antonymy and synonymy were considered germane for a thorough investigation of the lexical items selected in the covid-19 glossaries. the primary interest has been in establishing the standard meaning for the selected terms and also existing relationship among the terminologies. from literature, it was discovered that language variations in specific domains hampers communication efforts thereby stalling meaningful development and advancements in such directions. from the foregoing therefore, it could be concluded that semantics analysis is applicable to the vocabulary of covid-19. in specific terms, the semantic functions of antonymy, and synonymy proved useful tools in identifying the interrelatedness of the selected terms. the study concludes by affirming that meaning can be realized and maintained globally by establishing relationship among words. the research work stands to benefit linguists and educationists in the study of word relations, especially in the notion of similarity and opposition. specifically, learners of english as a foreign language will get more familiar with the concept of meaning in language studies. references abioye, t. o. 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(2017). natural language process semantic analysis: definition. retrieved from https://www.expertsystem.com/natural-language-process-semantic-analysis-definition/. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.slideshare.net/farooqniazi2/register-theory http://www.slideshare.net/farooqniazi2/register-theory http://www.thoughtco.com/register-language-style-1692038 http://www.thoughtco.com/register-language-style-1692038 http://www.academia.edu/7113036/register_theory http://www.academia.edu/7113036/register_theory http://www.expertsystem.com/natural-language-process-semantic-analysis-definition/ http://www.expertsystem.com/natural-language-process-semantic-analysis-definition/ 188 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 3, 188-197, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.188.197 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group effect of quality of work life and leadership on job satisfaction and performance workforce at the state university of medan muhammad arsyad1  m. syamsul maarif2 anggraini sukmawati3 ( corresponding author) 1,2school of business, bogor agricultural university, indonesia. 3department of management, bogor agricultural university, indonesia. abstract the purpose of this study was to determine: (1) the influence of quality of work life and leadership, both simultaneously and partially on job satisfaction (2) the influence of quality of work life, leadership and job satisfaction simultaneously and partially on the performance of education personnel (3) the effect of job satisfaction on the performance of educators (4) the amount of the indirect influence of quality of work life, leadership and job satisfaction on the performance of education personnel. the research was conducted on educational personnel administrative center of the state university of medan. the method used is a quantitative descriptive method using a questionnaire and analysis using structural equation modeling. the results showed that the quality of work life, leadership, both simultaneously and partially influence on job satisfaction, and leadership and job satisfaction simultaneously and partially on the performance of education personnel, while the quality of work life does not influence simultaneously but partial effect and results research also showed job satisfaction can significantly affect the performance of educators. from the results of existing research suggests that the quality of work life, leadership and job satisfaction indirectly provide improved performance in the university academic staff. keywords: quality of work life, leadership, job satisfaction, performance of educators, structural equation modeling (sem). citation | muhammad arsyad; m. syamsul maarif; anggraini sukmawati (2020). effect of quality of work life and leadership on job satisfaction and performance workforce at the state university of medan. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(3): 188-197. history: received: 20 april 2020 revised: 22 may 2020 accepted: 24 june 2020 published: 6 july 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: research was funded by the domestic postgraduate education scholarship (bppdn) from the directorate general of higher education, ministry of research, technology and higher education. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 189 2. research methods .......................................................................................................................................................................... 190 3. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................. 190 4. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 196 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 196 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.188.197&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1835 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1835 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 188-197 189 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the purpose of this study was to determine: (1) the influence of quality of work life and leadership, both simultaneously and partially on job satisfaction (2) the influence of quality of work life, leadership and job satisfaction simultaneously and partially on the performance of education personnel (3) the effect of job satisfaction on the performance of educators (4) the amount of the indirect influence of quality of work life, leadership and job satisfaction on the performance of education personnel. 1. introduction college as an institution of higher education providers plays an important role in shaping the human resources are resilient and have the responsibility to change the nation to make this nation a better and have a good performance. human resources (hr) is an asset owned by the organization so that human resources as drivers for change there needs to be really guarded, cared for and respected in carrying out its activities, thus becoming the capital in shaping a better organization. in line with kesuma (2007) one of the organization's efforts to produce educators who have the competitiveness of the changing times is by managing its human resources. along with it to form the human resources that will have a good work in the work it is necessary to the role of education personnel in universities so that the administration can run smoothly and focused on achieving organizational goals. educators are community members who are devoted and raised to support education (act no. 20 of 2003). the quality of work life to be expected in a college can indicate the state of the work carried out jointly by the individual and his work so as to make workers more productive and satisfying employment, particularly in the implementation of activities carried out daily. in addition to the quality of work life also provide an opportunity for educators to be able to provide the best and the opportunity to realize themselves and actively participate in giving a decision on the job. in the end, the quality of work life that is owned by the university to force employees will facilitate administration activities undertaken for the better, both at the faculty and at the university level so that the quality of work will foster a sense of pride in the work being done. bureaucratic administration of existing and the basis for carrying out activities or decisions that are all arranged or arranged properly in the implementation of the administration. in terms of leadership in an organization both from the highest to the lowest, all of which must have good leadership so as to give an example, direct, influence and supervise or control the activities of his subordinates and try to provide a good working climate and maintained continuously. along with the above expectations, the college, in this case, the state university of medan (unimed) is one of vision, namely to foster an academic atmosphere and a healthy organizational climate. with a vision that there needs to be seen how far the job satisfaction owned employees work in their activities. in terms of job satisfaction in terms of the quality of work life, university or work unit is still visible lack of job satisfaction employees in daily life, for example the tendency of the policies of a difficult boss to be changed or touched in the execution of their daily work, as hard to critique and enter build on the work performed. judging from the relationship between the level employees subordinates, and superiors and subordinates are still visible putridities in doing the work, which originated from a lot and at least a given job superiors to subordinates. on the other side are also still visible cooperation there is also still look less good, both among employees in work units and between units, all of which assume would benefit certain individuals or units, it is very well seen in running their daily activities. indifference to the employment of the employer's good subordinates, a supervisor must have good management in this regard, such as providing additional knowledge to subordinates who do not understand the job as on the job training (ojt) to subordinates. so that will form the knowledge of the work being done every day, in the end, its responsibility as civil servants (pns). besides the superior and subordinate relationships are also less well, in terms of giving tasks and directing the work, the boss always asks executed well and quickly, while the work is rarely discussed together or existing facilities are lacking, the work finally resolved a long time. those things are a little neglected by the superiors who ultimately will affect employee satisfaction in daily life. leadership in the spotlight here, the lack of feedback, encouragement or guidance work, discussion and direction in the work, all of this is rarely done in each work unit. unit leaders more often to remind him or her presence discipline, which is something that is visible to the ranks of university rectors to work units responsibility. another thing that is seen in job assignments from superiors to subordinates is still a lack of technical guidelines on the implementation of the task so that the assignment into something that is not effective in practice. assignments are given effect on the ability of the employees own, so the accumulation of work in the respective different employees. even still their employees who do not have a job in his unit because of their capacity and lack of attention boss against it. in total the university hopes that the implementation of the work in each unit can run properly and smoothly without problems of internal unit, because basically services to students as well as the main tasks each of which is the responsibility of each unit itself to support the achievement of objectives organization forward so that will create a good work culture more measurable and focused. according to simanjuntak (2011) the duties and functions of each individual part of the subsection so that the individual has his responsibilities to his duties and functions that are decomposed with a specific task in terms of realizing the objectives of the organization. job satisfaction is owned employees suspected of having an influence on the things mentioned above, so what is the job satisfaction in itself to be reduced. according to akbar (2014) satisfaction will provide an option for fun (favorableness) or unpleasant (unfavorableness) on the selection of his work which of course will affect the individual. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 188-197 190 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2. research methods 2.1. location and object research the study was conducted at the state university of medan jl. willem iskandar estate market v medan, medan north sumatra. the object of research is the effect of the quality of work life and leadership on job satisfaction and performance workforce education at the state university of medan. 2.2. population and sample in this study, the population is the educational staff's status as a civil servant in the position of administrative staff in the line-work environment administrative centre medan state university totaling 222 teaching staff were spread over eight (8) units. determination of the sample size in the study done using the formula slovin, in order to get the total sample of 69 educators 68.94 rounded to the critical value (tolerance) of 10%. according to prasetyo and jannah (2008). 2.3. equipment data analysis equipment used for research hypothesis testing is done by the management of qualitative data analysis descritic and cross tabulation (crosstab) while quantitative data analysis was done by using structural equation modeling (sem) with pls approach, with the help of software smartpls. for the purposes of acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis is done, the authors used a significance level of 5% (α = 0.05). model lines in accordance with the framework, as in the following figure 1. figure-1. research methods 3. results and discussion 3.1. characteristics of respondents the respondents were civil servants with the status of civil servants in the working environment state university of medan administration center. from the research conducted shows the results of the characteristics undertaken in the study, between can be seen in table 1 by showing the percentage results that exist. table-1. results of respondent characteristics characteristics of respondents total percentage (%) gender man 37 53.6 women 32 46.4 age (years) 25 – 36 20 29.0 37 – 48 17 24.6 > 48 32 46.4 education smu 25 36.2 d3 4 5.8 s1 35 50.7 s2 5 7.2 work period (years) < 14 32 46.4 14 – 24 11 15.9 > 24 26 37.7 3.2. relationship of respondent characteristics with research variables from the results of the existing research, each respondent characteristic is very weak, among others the age related to the research variables only seen in the qwl variable on the pride of the university (x19) with p-value equal to = 0.019. while age hubs with other variables are not visible. in the characteristic education, the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 188-197 191 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group relationship is seen in the qwl and performance of educational personnel. qwl itself is seen on several indicators among the available facilities (x15) with p-value equal to = 0.009, job security (x17) with p-value equal to = 0.006, balanced compensation (x18) with p-value equal to = 0.004 and the pride of the university (x19) with p-value of = 0.004, while the performance of educational personnel is seen as the indicator of timeliness (y25) with p-value equal to = 0.010 where the education owned has a positive effect on the time pattern or work discipline of educational staff. for the characteristic of the working period, the existing research shows that the working period only gives correlation or correlation to qwl through balanced compensation indicator (x18) with p-value equal to 0.007 and pride of university (x19) with p-value equal to 0.018. this indicates that the workforce of the educational staff is very valuable in each individual self, addition, educational personnel expect there to be a balanced compensation for the work done so far, which in turn fosters their pride in their work. 3.3. model evaluation the analysis conducted in this study using structural equation modeling (sem) with partial least square (pls) approach with smartpls software was first developed by word as a common method to estimate path model using constructs or latent variables (exogenous and endogenous) with multiple research indicators (ghozali, 2014). this analysis is used to find out how far the influence or suitability of the variables that exist on other variables. the path model of the analytical tool is used to analyze two elements, namely the outer model analysis of the model and the inner model. outer model or measurement model is used to test the validity and reliability of indicators while inner model or structural model is used for causality test (hypothesis testing) (jogiyanto, 2011). 3.4. evaluation of measurement model (outer model) the model of measurement of latent variables on sem pls is divided into two models: reflexive model and formative model. in this study reflexive model is used, where the reflexive model performs an evaluation consisting of indicators of reliability, discriminant validity, internal consistency and convergent validity (widarjono, 2015). this reflexive model has a loading factor value> 0.7 to the constructs or variables measured, but for the purposes of initial research, the loading factor values from 0.5 to 0.6 are considered sufficient in measuring the research (ghozali, 2014). in this measurement model, as in figure 3, there are 24 indicators that reflect the four latent variables used in the study. in figure 3, each indicator shows that there is a loading factor value < 0.5 to the variable then it is necessary to eliminate and re-iterate it so that it will get the loading factor value > 0.5. figure-2. model of the initial measurement results from the final result of the measurement of the variables in figure 2 by doing several iterations shows that there are 6 (six) indicators that have the loading factor> 0.5 of 9 (nine) indicators on the quality of work life variables seen on x13, x14, x15, x16, x17, and x18. where indicator x15 (facilities available) is the indicator that has the highest value in reflecting the quality of work life on job satisfaction with the value of 0.820. seen in figure 3. leadership variable consists of 4 indicators, all of which have value factor> 0.5 factor seen on indicator x21, x22, x23, and x24. the highest score indicator that reflects the leadership dimension of job satisfaction is x24 (giving hope) with the value of 0.846. according to putra (2005) the indicator that gives the dominant factor to the performance of the leadership of a boss is the his clever leader in reading the situation and sensitive to suggestions and input from subordinates so that the form of confidence of subordinates to work, which leads to the improvement of its performance. expectations given by the leadership of each work unit provide meaning in giving a sense of satisfaction to the work in the university environment while the encouragement given to the leadership of his subordinates is less giving a sense of job satisfaction is done every day. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 188-197 192 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure-3. model of final measurement iteration results on qwl variables. figure-4. model of final measurement iteration results on leadership variables in figure 5, job satisfaction consists of 5 indicators which all have a loading factor value> 0.5 reflected by y11, y12, y13, y14, and y15. from the indicator, y13 (boss) is an indicator that has the highest value that reflects the work satisfaction of educational staff on the resulting performance of 0.871. figure-5. model of final measurement iteration results on job satisfaction variable from the results of existing indicators, a correct boss in carrying out his duties and responsibilities will provide a sense of high job satisfaction with his subordinates to produce a good performance in the work performed. in addition to the boss who provides value to the resulting performance is also supported by other indicators such as salary, a promotion that is supporting the work so that all will form cooperation among colleagues to the work itself, all of which will support the creation or formation of better performance in the environment individual work units. in line with suparjono (2014) job satisfaction formed from a subordinate not only formed from a boss but from all elements of indicators that all affect the job satisfaction of a subordinate but the job satisfaction will be reduced if the lack of clarity of assignment done against the job. therefore, the work itself must have the right direction and purpose so that job satisfaction will continue to be owned by every educational staff. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 188-197 193 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure-6. model of final measurement iteration results on performance variables. from the results obtained on each latent variable, then tested the validity. where the validity test is a test performed on latent variables, in this case using convergence validity test and discriminant validity test. convergent validity test using average variance extracted (ave) with ave value should be > 0.5 while discriminant validity test using cross loading method, ave root is greater than the correlation of latent variable. convergent validity test, this test is done to know or see how big the measurement of loading factor and value of average variance extracted (ave). the result of this research is that the value of loading factor and average variance extracted (ave) value have fulfilled the validity requirement with the above average value or> 0.5 of the overall research indicator, so that the evaluation result of both has fulfilled the standard for validity test and value of outer loading table 1. according to latan and ghozali (2012) the loading factor value for the initial stage of development of measurement scale with the values of 0.5 0.6 is still considered sufficient and the value of ave should be greater than 0.5. table-2. values of validity test results (ave) ave information leadership 0,628794 valid job satisfaction 0,558441 valid performance 0,628159 valid quality of work life 0,557477 valid discriminant validity test performed to show the magnitude of ave root and cross loading values. where the square root ave has a standard value greater than the correlation value between variables while cross loading indicator variable to latent variables must be greater value against other latent variables (latan & ghozali, 2012). from the results of the study shows that the value of ave square root and cross-loading values have met the standards applied so that both of these tests have met the requirements in the evaluation of the reflexive model outer test in the validity test. discriminant validity test results are ave root and cross-loading table 3. table-3. ave root value ave √ave leadership 0,628794 0.792965 job satisfaction 0,558441 0.747289 performance 0,628159 0.792565 quality of work life 0,557477 0.746644 note: criteria: √ave> correlation between constructs (variables). table-4. correlation value between variables (construct) leadership job satisfaction performance quality of work life leadership 1.000000 job satisfaction 0.726478 1.000000 performance 0.552606 0.676291 1.000000 quality of work life 0.626091 0.657384 0.502481 1.000000 reliability test is a test performed to see the internal consistency of a measuring instrument, using composite reliability and cronbach's alpha with a standard value> 0.7. from the result of the research, it shows that the value of value indicator of composite reliability and cronbach's alpha is greater than 0.7, it is stated that the value has fulfilled the criteria of reliability test table 5. 3.5. evaluation of structural model (inner model) structural models or measurement models illustrate the relationship between latent variables (exogenous and endogenous variables). this model is evaluated by using r-square (r2) for the constructor dependent variable (endogen), in this case, the endogenous constructs of job satisfaction and performance of educational staff. the parameters used to evaluate the inner model in smartpls begin by looking at the r-square test (test r2) and tvalue. the value of r2 is used to see how far the endogenous variables can be influenced by exogenous variables in a measurement while the t-value value to show the significance of latent variable influence in the measurement model in hypothesis testing (jogiyanto, 2011). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 188-197 194 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group cross loading leadership job satisfaction performance quality of work life x13 <quality of work life 0,636810 0,581225 0,323055 0,681450 x14 <quality of work life 0,488843 0,367898 0,184630 0,642232 x15 <quality of work life 0,390106 0,524779 0,363717 0,819614 x16 <quality of work life 0,436823 0,533242 0,496890 0,787769 x17 <quality of work life 0,347917 0,336551 0,337897 0,730041 x18 <quality of work life 0,498513 0,526774 0,459661 0,801698 x21 <leadership 0,808895 0,614691 0,476898 0,444976 x22 <leadership 0,806037 0,566445 0,392457 0,481409 x23 <leadership 0,704254 0,554134 0,429275 0,563331 x24 <leadership 0,845693 0,561878 0,446563 0,498853 y11 <job satisfaction 0,474477 0,771111 0,335373 0,642185 y12 <job satisfaction 0,626743 0,751277 0,421538 0,495917 y13 <job satisfaction 0,677380 0,871324 0,560799 0,566603 y14 <job satisfaction 0,412600 0,725228 0,418106 0,537217 y15 <job satisfaction 0,468548 0,589928 0,730872 0,228424 y21 <performance 0,303502 0,316527 0,743019 0,223938 y22 <performance 0,474970 0,541049 0,822648 0,289125 y23 <performance 0,560892 0,590112 0,831214 0,415076 y24 <performance 0,322729 0,460518 0,833804 0,475290 y25 <performance 0,216544 0,384620 0,708511 0,359354 y26 <performance 0,574420 0,732168 0,807461 0,527529 table-5. value of test results reliability composite reliability cronbach’s alpha information leadership 0.870899 0.801109 reliable job satisfaction 0.861697 0.796800 reliable performance 0.909900 0.884349 reliable quality of work life 0.882369 0.840306 reliable figure-7. inner model diagram. the value of r-square (r2) of the job satisfaction variable will be influenced by the variable of quality of work life and leadership in the measurement, while the r-square (r2) value of the performance variable of the education personnel will be influenced by all exogenous variables (quality of work life and leadership) and endogenous variables (job satisfaction). this r-square (r2) value of job satisfaction variability has an r2 value of 0.595, the result of this measurement can be explained by the variable of quality of work life and leadership of 59.5% while the rest 40.5% can be explained by other variables outside the studied. the variability of the performance of educational staff has an r2 value of 0.468, whose measurement results can be explained by the variable quality of work life, leadership and job satisfaction of 46.8% while the remaining 53.2% is explained by other variables outside of the studied. table-6. r-square value (r2). r-square (r2) job satisfaction 0,595 performance 0,468 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 188-197 195 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3.6. hypothesis testing a hypothesis test is used to determine the extent of significant or influence of exogenous variables on endogenous variables in a study conducted. the results of the hypothesis can be described as follows by looking at the results obtained in table 7. table-7. bootstrapping results loading faktor t statistics (|o/sterr|) conclusion quality of work life -> job satisfaction 0.333124 5.543585* significant leadership -> job satisfaction 0.517912 7.495753* significant quality of work life -> performance 0.074109 1.032852 not significant leadership -> performance 0.106493 2.172636* significant job satisfaction -> performance 0.550208 8.776514* significant note: * significant influence on 5% real level (t-count > t-table 1.96 3.7. the effect of quality of work life on job satisfaction the result of hypothesis shown in table 7, that the factor of quality of work life has a significant positive effect on the real level of 0.05 for 5.54 to the job satisfaction by stating h1 accepted and h0 rejected means the increasing quality of work life in the work unit environment will also increase job satisfaction educational staff in everyday life. other quality of work life indicators such as employee participation, development, and pride of the university are the parts that do not support the influence of job satisfaction in the organization (university). where the participation of employees and others are expected later in improving job satisfaction, especially in established cooperation, other than it is expected with the participation of existing employees can provide input or job ideas and eventually foster a sense of job satisfaction is done, thus raises a good work spirit and lead to good performance too. in contrast to the opinion of sukmawati, cyrilla, and andriana (2010) participation positively given to the work done will foster job satisfaction which is one of the determining factors. but in this research, the determinant factor of the influence of qwl on job satisfaction is seen in available facility indicator, where with the facilities in university, it raises the work satisfaction of the high educational staff to what is their responsibility in the work in the work unit. followed by melia and sukmawati (2011) employee participation factors in terms of adequately agreeing, where employees get the opportunity to give their ideas so that the work satisfaction grows but the organization is less run the idea that has given employees to superiors. 3.8. the effect of leadership on job satisfaction the result of the hypothesis is shown in table 7, that the leadership factor has a significant positive effect on the real level of 0.05 of 7.50 to the job satisfaction with h1 accepted and h0 rejected means that the superior leadership will improve the job satisfaction in the work unit environment. leadership performed by employers greatly affect the work satisfaction of subordinates in carrying out work activities undertaken in the work unit, where leadership will encourage, grow and provide direction in order to form subordinate confidence in doing the job given so that will create a new job satisfaction and directed in supporting the formation good performance. in line with the opinion of yanti (2012) leadership of a boss gives effect to employee job satisfaction in this case at pt. putra sarana trans-borneo banjarmasin, where the leadership performed by the boss properly and correctly can increase job satisfaction for employees especially in achieving the work goals. therefore, the efforts or actions taken by superiors on their leadership greatly affect the work satisfaction of subordinates. the leadership style of a superior to subordinates will form teamwork in carrying out the work, so that leadership is the beginning of a boss's actions in managing subordinates. in line with the opinion of safitri and shabri (2012) the variables of the leadership style of democracy and teamwork partially affect the variable of job satisfaction made with subordinates to create a good team. 3.9. the effect of quality of work life on the performance the result of the hypothesis shown in table 7, the quality of work life variable has no significant effect on the real level of 0.05 of 1.03 to the performance of educational staff with t-count <t-table, otherwise h1 is rejected and h0 accepted means that the higher quality of work life in the environment each work unit does not affect the performance improvements that teachers produce in their work. direct qwl in university does not give a strong influence on the performance of educational staff, but qwl gives its influence indirectly through job satisfaction owned by educational staff so that it will have an impact on the performance of educational staff, where with increasing job satisfaction will affect the performance generated self-educational staff. differing opinions with nurbiyati (2014) that qwl has an indirect effect on performance through work discipline is less than its direct impact on performance. it can be explained that qwl has a strong direct effect on employee performance versus intervening variables on employee performance. from this, it can be concluded that the qwl indicator used in the study does not have similarities and different research areas undertaken. in line with the opinion mukuan (2014) and irawati (2015) qwl gives a positive influence of linear patterned on the performance of employees of pt. bank sulut head office, where the better the quality of working life, the better the performance of employees at the bank and it is also seen in the employees of the industry and trade office that qwl gives effect to the performance generated in carrying out the task every day. 3.10. the effect of leadership on the performance based on the results of hypotheses that exist in table 7, leadership variables have a significant positive effect on the performance of educational personnel at a significant level of 0.05 for 2.17 where h1 accepted and h0 rejected means the leadership of the boss is done well and correctly then to form or improve the performance of educational personnel generated in the environment university. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 188-197 196 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group in contrast to damayanthy (2013) opinion, organizational factors reflected in leadership, job design and supervision do not affect the performance of employees in an organization. the lack of leadership influence on employee's performance is seen to be influenced by job satisfaction. if job satisfaction is not achieved then the resulting performance will also be affected. according to juhana, kadir, and yahya (2011) leadership, communication and motivation variables simultaneously affect the performance of employees in the university administration bureau, performance improvement cannot be separated from improving the ability of leadership by playing its function as a function of instruction, consultation, the participation of delegation and control of subordinates. clearly, well-ordered leadership will foster employee job satisfaction in work and result in improved performance in the field. in line with the opinion of lubis (2009) leadership and job satisfaction simultaneously affect the performance of employees in the class i special office immigration medan, it is clearly arranged that good leadership, gave birth to employee job satisfaction and will show the results of work in the form of good performance in running duty to immigration services in the city office. 3.11. the influence of job satisfaction on the performance the result of hypothesis shown in table 7, job satisfaction variables have a significant positive effect on the real level of 0.05 for 8.77 on the performance of educational staff with h1 accepted and h0 rejected means that increasing job satisfaction will improve the performance of educational personnel. indicators of job satisfaction such as salary, promotion, boss, coworkers, and job itself all provide positive input to educational staff in university, this encourages educational personnel to give the best to what has been given university, both from incentives, promotion as well as the role of superiors that foster job satisfaction of education personnel. in accordance with the opinion of suparjono (2014) and asriyadi, aziz, and yunus (2012) job satisfaction gives a significant influence to the performance of rectorate staff of state islamic university (uin) sultan syarif kasim riau seen by having t-count value both bigger than t-table in carrying out their duties and responsibilities to university administrative staff, work affects the performance of employees in the secretariat of the aceh house of representatives in carrying out administrative duties undertaken. similarly, according to komara and nelliwati (2014) job satisfaction owned employees greatly affect the resulting performance, where the resulting performance decreases it will be seen from a sense of job satisfaction owned by employees, in addition, to lead to the benefits received on the work done in accordance with the procedure. the variable of job satisfaction from the result of the research done on the performance of the educational staff is more dominated on the factor or the superior, where the job satisfaction which is caused by a superior influences the performance resulted by an educational staff in carrying out his or her job, even though it is his responsibility. on the contrary, asthu (2016) study in the hypothesis of job satisfaction has little effect on performance, any treatment on job satisfaction variable has no significant effect on the performance of nurses in bandung city public hospital. overall from the results of existing research, data obtained in the calculation that the higher job satisfaction is more dominantly influenced by the leadership of a superior than the quality of work life, it can be seen from the value of leadership factor loading of 0.518 greater than the loading factor quality of work life of 0.333. while the performance of the staff is more dominantly influenced by job satisfaction variable than the leadership of a boss, where job satisfaction has 0.550 greater factor loading than the leadership of 0.106, while for the quality of work life does not give effect to the performance of education personnel. thus, to improve the performance of educational personnel in daily life indirectly need to be made to the leadership of the superior pattern in leading subordinates so that later will foster a sense of more direct work satisfaction and with job satisfaction will increase the performance of educational personnel in their work. 4. conclusion from the research data obtained by using sem pls as test equipment or describe their analysis showed a significant effect on job satisfaction through the variable quality of work life and leadership either simultaneously or partial. besides leadership and job satisfaction also have a significant influence on employee performance either simultaneously or partially. while the quality of work life does not give effect to employees performance simultaneously. partially give effect to employee performance through three variables job satisfaction and indirectly influence on employee performance. the highest indicator effect or the reflects the variable quality of work life on job satisfaction are the facilities available. variable leadership on job satisfaction is reflected through giving hope while job satisfaction on employee performance is reflected through the boss. the lowest indicators in reflecting the variable quality of work life on job satisfaction are communication. variable leadership on job satisfaction is reflected through the pushing action and a basis for taking risks while job satisfaction on employee 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(2012). influence of style of leadership, teamwork, and communication styles on job satisfaction and its impact on the performance of employees at the regional secretariat of sabang. journal of management sciences, 1(2), 1-17. simanjuntak, p. (2011). management and performance evaluation. jakarta: fe publisher the university of indonesia. sukmawati, a., cyrilla, l., & andriana, s. (2010). analysis of decision support application of quality of work life in increased employee motivation. journal of management, 3(5), 80-90. suparjono. (2014). the influence of work discipline and motivation on job satisfaction and employee performance at the office of the rector of the state islamic university (uin) sultan syarif kasim riau. journal of socio-economic development, 4(12), 283-294. widarjono, a. (2015). applied multivariate analysis, with spss program, amos, and smartpls. yogyakarta (id): upp stim ykpn. yanti, j. b. (2012). the influence of leadership role, motivation on job satisfaction and employee performance at pt. putra sarana transborneo banjarmasin. journal_48_kindai, 8(1), 96-111. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 31 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 8, no. 1, 31-42, 2021 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2021.81.31.42 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group competencies of grade 1 teachers in santa ignacia north district: basis for a teacher development program mariella alexes rombaoa espiritu tarlac agricultural university, philippines. abstract this study made use of a descriptive survey research design. it was conducted to describe the profile and instructional competence of grade 1 teachers in santa ignacia north district division of tarlac province. data were gathered through the use of questionnaires and checklists supplemented with an interview to fourteen (14) grade 1 teachers, eight (8) school heads and one hundred (100) stakeholders. results showed grade 1 teachers are competent in their instruction as to lesson planning, art of questioning, use of appropriate motivation, selection and utilization of instructional materials/teaching aids, classroom management, teaching strategies and methods, and assessment of learning. the problems encountered by the teacher are: (1) difficulty in lesson planning due to the lack of teaching guide and/or the lesson objective itself on the given manual, (2) language difficulty and inadequate vocabulary for mother tongue of both teacher and student, (3) insufficient training on k to 12, (4) inability to implement the scope and coverage to be taken in a single lesson most especially in mother tongue because of numerous activities which cannot be accomplished in the allocated time for the lesson, (5) inadequate background and poor foundation of mother tongue concepts, (6) difficulty in the use of different criteria in the assessment of pupils’ performance, (7) difficulty in producing instructional materials aligned to the teaching guide provided such as making one’s own small/big book of a story, and (8) insufficient mastery of using new techniques. keywords: educational reform, instructional competence, k to 12, implementers, profile, proposed program. jel classification: 120 education and research institutions: general; i28 education: government policy. citation | mariella alexes rombaoa espiritu (2021). competencies of grade 1 teachers in santa ignacia north district: basis for a teacher development program. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 8(1): 31-42. history: received: 27 january 2021 revised: 2 march 2021 accepted: 30 march 2021 published: 26 april 2021 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 32 2. review of related literature ........................................................................................................................................................ 33 3. methods and procedures ................................................................................................................................................................ 35 4. results and discussions .................................................................................................................................................................. 35 5. conclusions ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 39 6. recommendations ............................................................................................................................................................................ 39 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 42 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2021.81.31.42&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2828 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2165-2801 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 31-42 32 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the potential contribution of this research is to enrich the archive of data in k to 12 implementations, its challenges and pitfalls and some strategies were mentioned to better enhance teacher’s competence in the implementation of k to 12. 1. introduction the philippines is undergoing a drastic change in its educational system because of the problems encountered in the previous system particularly the comparability of its 10-year basic education to international standards. in the asean region, the philippines is the only country offering 10 years of basic education and one of the three countries in the whole world. in the past, several studies had also been conducted in relation to the basic education curriculum and they revealed that there is inadequacy in the basic education curriculum. most of the surveys had recommended the restoration of grade 7 and additional one or two years to the basic education curriculum (department of education, 2010). in response to these challenges, the government had initiated solutions through department of education. it had pursued a package of policy reforms towards the realization of quality education based on elements of the basic reform agenda (besra). hence, the introduction of an enhanced curriculum known as k-12 came into being based on deped order no. 31, s. 2012 dated april 17, 2012. the result triggered the deped officials to make a major reform in the philippine education system as a way of improving it and reassuring that this program could alleviate the present set up in the field of education. the philippine president, benigno s. aquino iii has signed republic act 10533 entitled “enhanced basic education act of 2013” mandating the full implementation of k to 12 curriculum. the aquino administration takes a great courage to implement the said educational reform behind the knowledge that tons of problems will be faced in the long run of implementation. it takes a stand firm on it because the enhancement of quality of education is very urgent, critical and is the key to nation’s development. k-12 curriculum has started its implementation during school year 2012-2013. teachers, as curriculum implementers of the educational reform, need to be equipped and should implement different strategies to deliver quality instruction in order to produce pupils who are competitive and have the necessary competencies to succeed in their life as a learner. definitely, its success or failure lies more on the hands of the teachers since they are the ones who implement the said curriculum. grade 1 teachers, as key players in the implementation of the enhanced k to 12 curriculum, must be prepared and ready to implement it. since the researcher is formally a grade 1 teacher, she felt the hardship on how to become an equipped teacher under this new curriculum because of no relevant training, insufficient knowledge and poor foundation of mother tongue concepts and teaching strategies. she then realized that if the foundation of learning of the pupils is good and the teacher is effective and competent enough to implement the new curriculum likewise, the pupils she will produce. school administrators and other stakeholders need to assess the readiness of grade 1 teachers to ascertain if the grade 1 teachers are prepared to handle their classes given the training they have undergone in may of 2012. is their knowledge of the subject matter sufficient? do they have adequate sufficient materials and effective teaching strategies? this study is also a way of support to this educational reform to help achieve the vision of k to 12 curriculum which aims to produce filipino graduates who are holistically-developed with 21st century skills prepared for higher education, middle-level skills development, employment, and entrepreneurship. 1.1. statement of the problem this study was conducted to look into the profile and competencies of the grade 1 teachers in santa ignacia north district as key implementers of the k to 12 curriculum. specifically, this study sought answers to the following questions: 1. how are the grade 1 teachers of santa ignacia north district described in terms of: 1.1 age, 1.2 position, 1.3 length of service, 1.4 educational attainment, and 1.5 trainings/seminars attended relevant to k to 12 curriculum? 2. how is the competency of grade 1 teachers of santa ignacia north district described along: 2.1. lesson planning, 2.2. art of questioning, 2.3. use of appropriate motivation, 2.4. selection and utilization of instructional materials/teaching aids, 2.5. classroom management, 2.6. teaching strategies and methods, and 2.7. assessment of learning? 3. how are the grade 1 teachers of santa ignacia north district described in terms of their level of partnership with stakeholders? 4. what problems are encountered by the grade 1 teachers and school heads of santa ignacia north district in the implementation of the k to 12 curriculum along their profile and competence? 5. what teacher development program may be proposed for a more successful implementation of k to 12 curriculum by the grade 1 teachers? 1.2. significance of the study the profile and competencies of the grade 1 teachers will give significance to the teachers, specifically the grade 1 teachers, findings will serve as a basis for them to identify their own strengths and weaknesses to better enhance their instruction. to the school administrator/heads, it may serve as a basis in providing assistance to the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 31-42 33 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group teachers for them to manage effectively the implementation of k to 12 curriculum. to the parents, community and other stakeholders for them to be mindful of the curriculum being implemented. to the department of education and other concerned bodies of government, the result may serve as an eye opener towards the real state of the curriculum implemented. 1.3. scope and limitations of the study this study covered the grade 1 teachers and school heads of the ten (10) schools of santa ignacia north district during the school year 2014-2015. this study included the following: the personal profile of the grade 1 teachers, instructional competence, level of partnership with stakeholders of the grade 1 teachers, and the problems encountered by the grade 1 teachers and school heads of santa ignacia north district in the implementation of the k to 12 curriculum along their profile and competence. 1.4. theoretical/conceptual framework figure-1. conceptual framework of the study. this study is anchored on jerome bruner’s theory of instruction which emphasizes the teacher’s role in the instructional and learning process. in this study, the researcher conceptualized that the profile of grade 1 teachers and their instructional competence are contributory to the effective implementation of k to 12 curriculum. the better the profile and higher the instructional competence of grade 1 teachers, the more effective would be the implementation of k to 12 curriculum. figure 1 illustrates the conceptual framework of the study where the profile of grade 1 teachers of santa ignacia north district and their competencies were determined, the level of partnership with the stakeholders, as well as the problems encountered by the teacher and school. the results served as the basis for a proposed teacher development program which intends to address the problems encountered and improve the implementation k to 12 curriculum. 2. review of related literature 2.1. related literature “either we change our mentality and try to adapt to the new situation or if we do not change we will end up potty” (anonymous). one of the determinants of attaining quality education is the presence of relevant curriculum that needs to be implemented by the teachers. the philippine educational system is at its transition point. since signing it into law last 15th of may, the k to 12 basic education programs of deped continues implementation nationwide on a phased basis with the implementation of grades 1 and 7 curriculum. k to 12 aims to decongest the academic workload, giving students more time to master competencies, for co-curricular activities and community involvement, thus, allowing a more holistic development. it also seeks to ensure a seamless, continuous and enriched researcher/learner-centered education. moreover, it wants to improve teaching and learning process through the use of enhanced pedagogies, such as spiral progressions in science and mathematics, and appropriate media of instruction (valles, 2013). vitanzos (2014) mentioned that what both parties (school and parent) can do to improve parent involvement is to go beyond the simple meanings of the word involvement. this entails not only counting the number of parents coming during meetings and family days but advocating to them that both parties have the same interest of becoming partners in the learning process and find concrete ways to enhance the partnership. effective communication is key and warm engagement can be very helpful. involve them in planning and do not just report to them what is going on, instead ask them and listen to them. make them feel they are also important stakeholders in school particularly in the education of their children. the hierarchy of questions that the teachers usually ask regardless of the subjects being taught is based on benjamin bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. these are the knowledge or memory, comprehension, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 31-42 34 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation questions. the hierarchy possesses different levels of questioning that give the children the opportunity to develop their skills to answer effectively. with these, we can say that questioning is not only an integral part in the educative process. it is also an art that determines the effectiveness of the facilitator and an element that is used to establish a better quality in teaching and learning (lingad, 2014). the following statements are some of mcber (2000) description of effective teachers: (a.) ask a lot of questions and involve the pupils in class discussion. (b.) very systematic in the preparation for, and execution of each lesson. (c.) employ a variety of teaching strategies and techniques to engage pupils and to keep them on task. (d.) have a clear strategy for pupil management. (e.) employ a range of assessment methods and techniques to monitor pupils’ understanding of lessons and work. cheng and tsui (1988), stated that teacher competencies include the total behavioral, affective and cognitive competence of teachers at provincial, regional and national levels. this layer represents the total static quality of teachers. according to shulman (1986) the teacher’s level of competency is one of the factors that directly affect the quality of teaching and consequently pupil performance. in order to apply progressive methods of teaching, methods that favor pupil-centered learning based on discovery and consequently on the construction of knowledge by the pupils themselves, teachers are required to have professional training and a level of competence in terms of their subject matter. as cited by carpio (2012) there is an urgent need to infuse a new vitality in all public school classrooms by placing professional teacher who are imbued with competencies based on national standards. this will assure the best learning outcomes needed in this time. it is therefore, in practice for the department of education to determine the strengths and training need of teachers in order to find ways how to address them. it is also a high time that all teachers take personal responsibility for their own professional growth by starting with awareness of the competencies they actually hold. all of these will be captured the teacher strengths and needs assessment tool (tsna) which was prepared for the purpose. sees teaching method as the strategy or plan that outlines the approach that teachers intend to take in order to achieve the desirable objectives. it involves the ways teachers organized and use techniques of subject matter, teaching tools and teaching materials to meet teaching objectives. with the implementation of k to 12, teachers are comparable to good soldiers. they follow whatever is mandated of them regardless whether they are ready or not. they need to be ready to implement the new program. although, the presence of skepticism and fear remained in the minds of grade i teachers more specifically, they are still willing to implement the new curriculum as what they did with the previous curriculums. 2.2. related studies akinfe, olofinniyi, and fashiku (2012) mentioned that teachers experience contributes maximally to students’ academic performance. findings revealed that teachers with cognate teaching experience turn out students with relatively higher academic achievement. teachers’ use of instructional materials in teaching is paramount to students’ improvement in academic performance. findings reveal that a good number of sampled schools lacked basic instructional aide, where available they are too few to go round and often in bad shape. nuyles (2011) named that personal factors such as age, educational attainment and years in service disclosed negative ‘significant’ influence on the teaching performance of public elementary school teachers. she concluded therefore that the higher the educational attainment, the older the respondents and the longer in service of teaching the better the performance of teachers. the intent of the present study is similar to the study of nuyles (2011) because both pertains to age and length of service of the respondents. however, the present study has not only included age and length of service, instead it includes position, educational attainment and trainings and seminars of grade 1 teachers as description of their profile. similarly, in the study conducted by entitled “toward teacher preparedness in teaching english language in primary schools” which was carried out in thirty eight (38) primary schools in west kenya with 64 teachers showed that academic qualifications are another aspect of teacher preparedness. according to in his study conducted at bahawalpur (southern punjab), poor salary, over workload, bad conditions of school building, lack of library facility, lack of teaching and learning material, status of teacher, respect in society, professional attitude of teachers, mental health, teacher’s morale, responsibilities at home, distance of residing area, stress, political inferences, posting in far flung areas, discrimination, lack of cooperation, working relations with staff and head teacher, working environment are the factors that affect the female teachers’ performance negatively. further, teachers should be provided with adequate and pre-service training courses characterized by effectiveness, creativity and improvement. highest attention should be paid to the utilization of the latest, relevant techniques and technologies in the field of teacher education. this study is similar to the present study because both focused on teachers’ competencies. however, the present study does not include the factors affecting the performance but includes the following: the personal profile of the grade 1 teachers such as age, position, length of service, educational qualification and trainings/seminars attended; the instructional competence of teachers as lesson planning, art of questioning, use of appropriate motivation, selection and utilization of instructional materials/teaching aids, classroom management, teaching strategies and methods, and assessment of learning; and the level of partnership with stakeholders of the grade 1 teachers. conducted a research entitled “instructional materials and students’ academic achievement in physics: some policy implication” and mentioned that the place of instructional materials in the effective implementation of education program cannot be under-mined. instructional materials perform such functions as the extension of the range of the experience available to learners, supplement and complement the teacher’s verbal explanations thereby making learning experience richer and providing the teacher with interest into a variety of learning activities. altun (2011) found that teachers’ continuing professional development is a crucial element in ensuring the quality of what children experience through their education. as the teachers involved and gained knowledge, skills and experience, their increased confidence and expertise subsequently affects all children within their classrooms. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 31-42 35 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group tabas (2004) concluded that there were five (5) factors that had much contribution to the teaching competence of teachers. they were as follows: first, knowledge of the subject matter; second, communication skills; third, teacher’s ability in teaching; fourth, personality traits; and fifth, length of teaching experience. beyond doubt change is inevitable, to stand it we have to adapt and embrace it. if otherwise, forever we will be left behind. k to 12 as seen by the aquino administration is our key to slowly achieve our nation’s progress and its progress is everyone’s success. as teachers, most specifically grade i teachers have to accept all the challenges and responsibilities lies behind k to 12. 3. methods and procedures 3.1. research design the study made use of the descriptive survey research design. it is a descriptive study because it describes the profile and competency of the grade 1 teachers. the problems encountered by the teachers and school was also determined. 3.2. locale of the study this study was conducted in the santa ignacia north district, division of tarlac province. 3.3. respondents of the study the respondents of the study were the fourteen (14) public elementary grade 1 teachers, eight (8) school heads and one hundred (100) stakeholders of santa ignacia north district. 3.4. data gathering procedure the researcher floated the questionnaires and checklists to all grade 1 teachers and school heads supplemented with an interview. 3.5. data gathering instruments data for the survey were collected using the questionnaire and checklist. it was divided into four (4) parts. the first part dealt on the personal profile of grade 1 teachers. part 2 included instructional competence (deped performance appraisal system for teachers (past)) of grade 1 teachers. part 3 dealt on level of partnership with stakeholders of the grade 1 teachers. part 4 reflected the problems met by grade 1 teachers and school heads towards the development of proposed teacher development program to address the problems that they encountered along teacher profile and competence for a more successful implementation of k to 12 curriculum. 3.6. data of analysis the responses of the respondents in the questionnaires and checklists were tallied and tabulated. for objective no. 1, frequency and percentage were used. for objectives no. 2 and 3, weighted mean was used. for objective no. 4, frequency and rank were used to. 4. results and discussions 4.1. profile of the grade 1 teachers in santa ignacia north district education has often been considered as the best instrument in the growth and development of the country. it is considered as the key to nations’ prosperity. this is true in the philippines where people place high premium on education where education is the “prime mover of change” in terms of skills and competencies, attitudes, values and ideals necessary to transfer aspiration and expectation to reality. the quality of education is said to be dependent upon the quality of teachers that the system employs. teachers, especially those in grade 1, are one of the most potent factors in the educational progress because they are the initial molders of the growth and development of the children to become upright citizens of the country showcasing the 21st century skills expected from them. furthermore, they lay down the foundation curriculum to their pupils for the fact that formative years provide a strong influence in their holistic formation. table 1 presents the profile of grade 1 teachers in terms of their age, position, length of service, educational attainment, and seminars/in-service trainings attended relevant to k to 12 curriculum. 4.1.1. age as to age, four (28.57%) each have ages ranging between 46-50 years old and 25-29 years old, two (14.29%) each have ages ranging between 40-45 years old, and 51 years old and above, one (7.14%) each have ages ranging between 20-24 years old and 30-34 years old, respectively. this goes to show that majority of the grade 1 teachers are 40 years old and above. 4.1.2. position as to the position of grade 1 teacher-respondents, result shows that there are six (42.86%) each for teacher i and teacher iii positions, and one (7.14%) each for local school board teacher and master teacher i positions. the data indicate that majority of the grade 1 teachers in santa ignacia north district are teacher i and teacher iii. record shows that teacher 1 are the younger ones and novice in the teaching profession, while teacher iii are the older ones in age and in the service as well. 4.1.3. length of service as to length of service, result shows that seven (50%) have been teaching for five years and below; two (14.29%) each have been teaching for 16-20 years, 20-25 years, and 26-30 years; and one (7.14%) has been teaching for 11 to 15 years. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 31-42 36 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group this further shows that most of the grade 1 teachers are novice in the service. as per district record, newly hired permanent teachers are usually assigned in grade 1. 4.1.4. educational attainment as to educational attainment of grade 1 teachers, nine or 64.29% have ma units; three or 21.43% have beed degree specialized in general education; one or 7.14% has a bachelor’s degree with 18 units in education; and another one has master’s degree. table-1. profile of grade 1 teachers. attributes frequency percentage age 20-24 1 7.14 25-29 4 28.57 30-34 1 7.14 40-45 2 14.29 46-50 4 28.57 51 and above 2 14.29 total 14 100 position local school board (lsb) teacher 1 7.14 teacher i 6 42.86 teacher iii 6 42.86 master teacher i 1 7.14 total 14 100 length of service 0-5 years 7 50.00 6-10 years 0 0.00 11-15 years 1 7.14 16-20 years 2 14.29 20-25 years 2 14.29 26-30 years 2 14.29 total 14 100 educational attainment beed, specialized in general education 3 21.43 bachelor’s degree with educ 18 units 1 7.14 ma/ms units 9 64.29 ma/ms graduate 1 7.14 total 14 100 seminars/in-service trainings attended division 9 64.29 none 5 35.71 total 14 100 majority of the grade 1 teachers in santa ignacia north district have earned ma units indicating their desire of upgrading their education to improve their competencies as well as their position. 4.1.5. seminars/in-service trainings as to the seminars/in-service trainings attended by the teachers relevant to k to 12 curriculum, it was shown that nine or 64.29% of the teacher-respondents have attended the division mass training on k to 12 curriculum for grade 1 teachers held last may 2012, and five or 35.71% of the teacher-respondents have no k to 12 training at all. this reveals that there are still grade 1 teachers who are quite struggling in implementing the k to 12 curriculum. according to them, after the division mass training no follow up trainings were conducted. 4.2. instructional competence of grade 1 teachers the teachers’ level of competency is one of the factors that directly affect the quality of teaching and consequently pupil performance. thus, it seems logical to say that measures of teaching performance may predict effective teaching performance and pupil achievement. as to instructional competence in lesson planning, the teachers involved obtained an over-all mean rating of 4.38 which is described as competent. this means that grade 1 teachers are able to formulate, adopt, communicate, and deliver smart objectives (written in two to three domains) that shows relevance and coherence to the subject matter. as to instructional competence in lesson planning, the teachers involved obtained over-all mean rating of 4.38 which is described as competent. this means that grade 1 teachers are able to formulate, adopt, communicate, and deliver smart objectives (written in two to three domains) that shows relevance and coherence to the subject matter. in terms of art of questioning, teachers obtained an over-all mean rating of 3.91 which is described as competent. this means that teachers are knowledgeable in. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 31-42 37 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-2. instructional competence of grade 1 teachers. instructional competence rated by school head rated by grade 1 teachers oamr vi wm vi wm vi a. lesson planning 4.50 highly competent 4.26 competent 4.38 competent b. art of questioning 3.95 competent 3.87 competent 3.91 competent c. use of appropriate motivation 4.25 competent 4.11 competent 4.18 competent d. selection and utilization of instructional materials/teaching aids 4.05 competent 4.04 competent 4.05 competent e. classroom management 4.18 competent 4.07 competent 4.13 competent f. teaching strategies and methods 4.10 competent 3.96 competent 4.03 competent g. assessment of learning 4.00 competent 3.86 competent 3.93 competent overall 4.14 competent 4.02 competent 4.08 competent legend: oamrover all mean rating. wmweighted mean. verbal interpretation (vi) range. highly competent 4.50-5.00 competent 3.50-4.49 moderately competent 2.50-3.49 less competent 1.50-2.49 not competent 1.00.1.49 asking varied types of questions both directed and non-directed to allow everyone in their class to participate and to think outside the box. with regard to use of appropriate motivation, teachers are competent with an over-all mean rating of 4.18. this means that teachers have good motivational skills that enabled them to arouse the interest of their learners. in relation to selection and utilization of instructional materials/teaching aids, teachers achieved an over-all mean rating of 4.05, hence, they are competent. this means that teachers are resourceful and utilizes varied multi-sensory teaching materials which are appropriate and congruent to the lesson and to the learners. teachers are competent in classroom management and they registered an over-all mean rating of 4.13. this means that they are able to create desirable learning environment reinforcing positive behaviors of pupils and promoting pupils’ active engagement due to established classroom routines and smooth transition of activities. in terms of teaching strategies and methods, the teachers are competent with an over-all mean rating of 4.03. this means that teachers are able to employ varied, appropriate and interactive teaching strategies recognizing the different learning abilities of the pupils. in assessment of learning, teachers are competent obtaining an overall mean rating of 3.93. this means that they use different measures of learning which are congruent to lesson objectives, both traditional and non-traditional modes of assessment. teachers obtained an over-all mean rating of 4.08 which means they are competent. teachers prepare good lesson plans; utilize the art of questioning; practice appropriate motivations; select and utilize appropriate instructional materials and teaching strategies; employ good classroom management; and utilize appropriate assessments of learning. it can be noted also that the teachers met the expectation of their school heads in terms of their instructional competence since they gave them a higher rating compared to ratings, they gave themselves. 4.3. partnership with the stakeholders stakeholders’ involvement is a powerful influence on the success of the school’s programs and activities. when the parents and community are involved in the activities of the schools, they can help in giving sound ideas which make the programs and activities successful, specifically in implementing curricular reforms. table-3. level of partnership of grade 1 teachers with the stakeholders. indicators wm vi 1. organizes and maintains functional homeroom pta 4.51 very good 2. communicates to stakeholders the features of the k to 12 programs (subjects, projects, grading system etc.) 4.27 good 3. conducts homeroom/pta meetings to report learners’ progress 4.44 good 4. disseminate school policies /plans/ programs/ accomplishments to the school clientele 4.20 good 5. encourages involvement of parents and other stakeholders in school programs and activities 4.40 good over-all weighted mean 4.36 good legend: verbal interpretation range very good 4.50-5.00 good 3.50-4.49 fair 2.50-3.49 poor 1.50-2.49 needs improvement 1.00.1.49 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 31-42 38 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 3 shows the level of partnership of grade 1 teachers with the stakeholders. results of the study shows that teachers are very good in organizing and maintaining functional homeroom pta. they are good in communicating/disseminating policies, plans and programs of the school, conducting meetings, as well as in encouraging parents and other stakeholders to participate in school activities. in general, they obtain a weighted average of 4.36 which is described as good. teachers are able to build a good rapport to both internal and external stakeholders and the latter are able to appreciate it. teachers are able to communicate and disseminate necessary school matters to them and treat them rightfully and respectfully even outside the school premises. in the interview conducted, some stakeholders mentioned that regular homeroom meetings and card days allow them to keep track of the progress of their children and it allows them to provide the necessary support for the welfare of their children. with regards to k to 12 curriculum, the mother tongue issue in particular, parents have opposing views, there are some who are in favor while others seem to be against it. 4.4. problems encountered by the grade 1 teacher in the implementation of k to 12 curriculum with this curriculum reform, teachers being in the front line of the learning arena have the first-hand knowledge of the several challenges and problems they met since the initial implementation of the k to 12 curriculum last school year 2012-2013. table 4 shows the problems encountered by grade 1 teachers as the key implementers of k to 12 curricula. there are eight (8) pressing problems identified and among these problems, difficulty in lesson planning in edukasyon sa pagpapakatao (esp), aralin panlipunan (a.p.), and mapeh (music, arts, physical education, and health) subjects due to the lack of teaching guide and/or the lesson objective itself on the given manual received the highest frequency and ranked first. this means that teacher’s guide and learner’s material provided were not that detailed, comprehensive and logically presented. according to the teachers, the production of those materials seemed to be hastened to comply with the initial implementation of the k to 12 curriculum last school year 20122013. according to them, they have to spend much time scanning the material because there were no clear lesson objectives to be tackled. in addition, they tend to repeat the least learned/difficult lessons since the lessons provided in some subjects are few to cover one quarter rather to teach anything under the sun and as well as for better mastery of the skills being taught. table-4. problems encountered by grade 1 teachers. problem frequency rank 1. difficulty in lesson planning in edukasyon sa pagpapakatao (esp), aralin panlipunan (a.p.) and mapeh (music, arts, physical education, and health) subjects due to the lack of teaching guide and/or the lesson objective itself on the given manual. 13 1 2. language difficulty and inadequate vocabulary for mother tongue of both teacher and student. 12 3 3. inability to implement the scope and coverage to be taken in a single lesson most especially in mother tongue because of numerous activities which cannot be accomplished in the allocated time for the lesson. 12 3 4. insufficient training on k to 12. 12 3 5. inadequate background and poor foundation of mother tongue concepts used in the teaching guides/learner’s materials. 9 6 6. difficulty in the use of different criteria in the assessment of pupils’ performance in their mapeh subject. 9 6 7. difficulty in producing instructional materials aligned to the teaching guide provided such as making one’s own small/big book of a story. 9 6 8. insufficient mastery of using new techniques. 8 8 another set of problem that received the highest frequency and ranked third is: (a) language difficulty and inadequate vocabulary for mother tongue of both teacher and student; (b) insufficient training on k to 12; and (c) inability to implement the scope and coverage to be taken in a single lesson most especially in mother tongue because of numerous activities which cannot be accomplished during the allocated time for the lesson. in terms of language difficulty and inadequate vocabulary for mother tongue, teachers themselves admitted that they cannot fluently speak it nor comprehend it, especially the younger teachers and pupils whose native language is not ilocano. in the interview conducted, it was revealed that they solved the problem by making researches and asking information from their peers and co-workers. in addition, school heads encourage teachers to practice speaking the language regularly. to help the pupils, teachers translate it in a way that they understand and encourage them to regularly practice speaking the language. a teacher also mentioned that during the beginning of the school year, she had a big number of pupils who are unable to speak ilocano but because of constant practice, her pupils are now good in using it. she added that as of now, they even answer her questions in complete ilocano sentences. in terms of insufficient training on the k to 12 curriculum, the data show that there is really a need to provide in-service trainings to grade 1 teachers not only at the start but throughout the school year. in the interview conducted, a series of training should be provided to ensure mastery and continuity. this can be achieved through school learning action cell (slac), district learning action cell (dlac) and attendance in training in the higher level should be encouraged. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 31-42 39 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the data show that teachers were not able to implement all activities to be taken in a single lesson most especially in mother tongue because of numerous activities for the lesson. while there is a shortage of lesson on other subject, others seem to be quite overloaded. it is because the lesson activities to be carried are usually in a series of activities which are oftentimes hard to be accomplished based on the allocated time for the lesson. the other problems encountered by the grade 1 teachers are: (a) inadequate background and poor foundation on mother tongue concepts used in the teaching guides and learner’s materials; (b) difficulty in the use of different criteria in the assessment of pupils’ performance in their mapeh subject; and (c) difficulty in producing instructional materials aligned to the teaching guide provided such as making one’s own small/big book of a story. to address the inadequate background and poor foundation on mother tongue concepts used in the teaching guides/learner’s materials, teachers used the given manual and research for the unfamiliar terms since the ilocano used is quite different in the ilocano terms used from central luzon. to solve the difficulty in the use of different criteria in the assessment of pupils’ performance in their mapeh subject, teachers attended in-service trainings pertaining to the kinds of assessment that measure the performance of the pupils in terms of knowledge, process/skills, understanding and performance and how to formulate them. to remediate teachers’ difficulty in terms of producing instructional materials aligned to the teaching guide provided such as making one’s own small/big book of a story, at their own expense, they hired an artist for their big books since not all teachers are artistically gifted. school heads also allotted funds for the purchase of teacher’s guides, learner’s materials and instructional materials since supply of teacher’s guides and learner’s materials are sometimes limited. insufficient mastery of using new techniques is the least problem among grade 1 teachers. it is maybe because majority of the grade 1 teachers are still young so introducing innovation is not yet a big deal for them. undeniably, teachers are facing various obstacles in the implementation of k to 12 curriculum. according to them, training and demonstration teachings as well as the provision of instructional materials needed will contribute to the improvement of their teaching competency 4.5. proposed program to enhance the instructional competence of grade 1 teachers quality instruction is the most emphasized duty of a teacher. oftentimes, they say, teacher’s performance is the reflection of the quality of instruction the teacher has rendered. hence, it is deemed necessary to enhance the instructional competence of teachers to improve the quality of instruction. this proposed program aims to enhance the instructional competence of grade 1 teachers. if implemented accordingly, this would be a great help to grade 1 teachers to have a better teaching performance in implementing the k to 12 curriculum thus, improving the pupils’ performance as well. 5. conclusions most of the grade 1 teachers are 40 years or older, occupying teacher 1 and teacher iii positions; are new in the teaching profession; have earned ma units; and have attended only the division level training on k to 12 curriculum. the grade 1 teachers of santa ignacia north district are competent in their instructional competence vis-a-vis lesson planning, art of questioning, use of appropriate motivation, selection and utilization of instructional materials/teaching aids, classroom management, teaching strategies and methods, and assessment of learning. there is a good partnership between grade 1 teachers and the schools’ internal and external stakeholders. the most pressing problems encountered by grade 1 teachers are difficulty in lesson planning due to the lack of teaching guide, language difficulty and inadequate vocabulary for mother tongue, and insufficient training for k to 12 curriculum implementation. 6. recommendations since the grade 1 teachers are novice and most of them have just earned ma units, school heads may encourage the grade 1 teachers to improve their competencies by continue enrolling their graduate studies and they may also encourage the teachers to attend trainings relevant to their specializations. as a form of support, school heads may organize in-service trainings/seminars which could also integrate computer literacy training for the grade 1 teachers who are inept in using technology during school leaning action cell (slac). through the schools’ mooe (maintenance and other operating expenses), funds may be allocated for the purchase of office supplies needed by the teachers for the production of instructional materials, needed teacher’s guide, and learners’ materials. to address the problems besetting the grade 1 teachers in the implementation of the k to 12 curriculum, the proposed teacher enhancement program may be adopted. collaboration among parents, community and other stakeholders is encouraged. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 31-42 40 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-5. proposed program to enhance the instructional competence of grade 1 teachers. program general objective expected outcome strategies/ activities persons involved time frame resources/ budget requirements teaching enhancem ent program to enhance the instructional competence of grade 1 teachers • enhanced instructional competence of grade 1 teachers • improved teaching strategy of grade 1 teachers in all k to 12 learning areas. • enhanced teacher’s language and teaching proficiency as well as strengthened relation between grade 1 teachers. • improved utilization of alternative assessments in teaching and better performance in creative teaching. • grade 1 teachers are able to use thematic and integrated teaching in mother tongue. • conduct in-service training on teaching strategies, art of questioning, and alternative assessments for grade 1 teachers. • quarterly demonstration teaching by invited outside the school demonstrators in the k to 12 subjects • peer mentoring by the teachers who attended the k to 12 training • conduct slac session on alternative assessments and creative teaching. • capability building for teachers’ integrative and thematic teaching in mother tongue-basedmulti-lingual education (mtb-mle) grade 1 teachers, principals, resource speakers demonstration teacher grade 1 teachers demonstration teachers grade 1 teachers grade 1 teachers, principals, resource speakers grade 1 teachers, principals, resource speakers summer 2015 yearround yearround yearround yearround school mooe/pta fund canteen fund/donations/ solicitation school mooe/pta fund canteen fund school mooe school mooe canteen fund school mooe lesson and instruction al materials developme nt to enhance the skills and ability of grade 1 teachers in planning their lessons and in choosing and making teaching aids. • enhanced instructional competence of teacher in lesson planning and in choosing and making teaching aid appropriate to learners • preparation of modules with the spoken language of both teachers and pupils in every quarter. • in-service training on module writing • slac session on making instructional materials. grade 1 teachers, principals grade 1 teachers, principals grade 1 teachers, principals, resource speakers yearround summer 2015 yearround school mooe canteen fund school mooe/pta fund/ canteen fund/donations school mooe canteen fund enhancem ent partnershi p program to strengthen the existing level of partnership for more responsible • better and more productive relationship is achieved between grade 1 teachers and schools’ internal and external stakeholders • conduct regular pta/ hrpta meetings • organize team building activity integrating k to 12 programs. grade 1 teachers internal and external stakeholders grade 1 teachers internal and yearround yearround school mooe pta fund school mooe pta fund asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 31-42 41 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group relationship between grade 1 teachers and schools’ internal and external stakeholders. external stakeholders ict capability program for teachers to equip the teachers with knowledge in using ict. grade 1 teachers integrate ict in teaching the k to 12 subjects. • in-service training on: a) ms word b) ms powerpoint c) ms excel d) internet surfing grade 1 teachers, resource speaker yearround school mooe pta fund canteen fund donations/ solicitation asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2021, 8(1): 31-42 42 © 2021 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group references akinfe, e., olofinniyi, o., & fashiku, c. (2012). teachers’ quality as correlates of students academic. performance in biology in senior secondary schools of ondo state, nigeria. department of educational administration and planning, obafemi awolowo university, ile ife, osun state, nigeria. golden apple college, ode-irele, ondo state, nigeria. online journal of education research, 1(6), 108-114. altun, t. (2011). inset (in-service education and training) and professional development of teachers: a comparison of british and turkish cases. online submission. carpio, t. c. (2012). correlates of performance and information and communication technology skills among elementary school teachers. unpublished master’s thesis. tarlac college of agriculture, camiling, tarlac. cheng, y. c., & tsui, k. (1988). research on total teacher effectiveness: conception and strategies. international journal of educational management, 12(1), 39-47. department of education. (2010). discussion paper on the enhancedk + 12 education program. retrieved from http://ceap.org.ph/upload/download/201210/17115829500_1.pdf. lingad, g. p. (2014). why is questioning essential? the official website of deped division of bataan. retrieved from: http://www.depedbataan.com/resources/4/why_is_questioning_essential.pdf. mcber, h. (2000). research into teacher effectiveness. a model of teacher effectiveness. department for education and employment (dfee). nuyles, m. c. (2011). teaching performance of public elementary school teachers in mayantoc district as influenced by job stress, personal factors and higher-order needs. unpublished master’s thesis. tarlac college of agriculture, camiling, tarlac. shulman, l. s. (1986). those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching. education researchers, 15(2), 4-14. tabas, f. c. (2004). improving the teaching competence of grade vi teachers.in mathematics in public elementary schools in urdaneta city division. unpublished master’s thesis in baguio central university, baguio city. valles, l. (2013). on track with k to 12. educnews vol.ii, no. 8/august 2013. the official publication of the department of education. vitanzos, a. l. (2014). advocating successful parent involvement in schools. the official website of deped division of bataan. retrieved from: http://www.depedbataan.com/resources/4/advocating_successful_parent_involvement_in_schools.pdf. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://ceap.org.ph/upload/download/201210/17115829500_1.pdf http://ceap.org.ph/upload/download/201210/17115829500_1.pdf http://www.depedbataan.com/resources/4/why_is_questioning_essential.pdf http://www.depedbataan.com/resources/4/why_is_questioning_essential.pdf http://www.depedbataan.com/resources/4/advocating_successful_parent_involvement_in_schools.pdf http://www.depedbataan.com/resources/4/advocating_successful_parent_involvement_in_schools.pdf 53 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 1, 53-57, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.53.57 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group segmentation in agriculture and farmers’ productivity: evidence from survey of poultry farms joseph i amuka1 robinson i nduaguba2 anthony o agu3 chinasa urama4 bernadette c onah5 ( corresponding author) 1,4department of economics, university of nigeria nsukka, nigeria. 2department of agricultural economics, university of nigeria nsukka, nigeria. 3department of economics, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam campus, anambra nigeria. 5national directorate of employment, secretariat, enugu nigeria. abstract the world bank intervened in nigeria agriculture in 2009 to increase productivity in 5 farm areas, namely-poultry, rice, maize, cashew and pineapple farming through the value chain strategy. agricultural activity was segmented and farmers were encouraged to go into one farm operation only. proponents of the segmentation argue that it holds the key to solving the low agricultural productivity in developing counties because farmers will only specialize in one farm area. that is, specialization will enable the farmer to innovates better ways of tackling problems, time the market and planting period to mitigate climate change. the aim of the research is to examine the effects of the segmentation practice on the productivity of poultry farmers in nigeria, using a survey data. result from the survey using regression analysis did not support encouraging segmentation in poultry farming. this is because poultry farmers who engaged in more than one poultry practice had more yield of egg per bird. the lesson for agricultural policy is that farmers should be encouraged to engage in multiple farming practice. keywords: segmentation, agriculture, productivity, poultry, farmers, survey. jel classification: q1, q12. citation | joseph i amuka; robinson i nduaguba; anthony o agu; chinasa urama; bernadette c onah (2020). segmentation in agriculture and farmers’ productivity: evidence from survey of poultry farms. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(1): 53-57. history: received: 13 january 2020 revised: 21 february 2020 accepted: 25 march 2020 published: 10 april 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 54 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 54 3. materials and method ..................................................................................................................................................................... 55 4. result .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 56 5. discussion of finding ...................................................................................................................................................................... 56 6. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 57 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.53.57&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1495 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6658-186x https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1495 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6658-186x https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1495 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6658-186x asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 53-57 54 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the paper provided evidence that segmentation in agriculture is not the solution to low agricultural productivity in developing countries. 1. introduction segmentation in agriculture system is a practice where every farm household engage in one agricultural activity at a time. it is a practice which allows a household to concentrates in one farm operation she feels she is more competitive. it is a shift from the multi farming system whereby a farm household can grow different crops or rear different types of animals and birds at a time. segmentation in agriculture encourages specialization because the farmer is engaged in the same farm operation year in year out. proponents of specialization argue that specialization has positive effect on productivity (smith, 1776). according to smith, doing one thing time without numbers makes a worker become familiar with his work and innovates better ways of handling problems. inquiry into low agricultural productivity in africa and some other developing countries has been long. unfortunately, agricultural productivity improved in asia, south america and other continents but has continued to stagnate in africa. available statistics showed that rice yield in africa rose from an average of 18835 hg/ha in 1971 to 25991 hg/ha in 2016. this is far from the yield in asia which rose from 23811 hg/ha to 47545 hg/ha, and the increase in south america from 16475 hg/ha to 54675 hg/ha within the same period (food and agricultural organization (fao), 2017a). similarly, africa lagged behind asia and south america in the production of cassava which is one of africa’s favoured crops. in cassava production, average yield in africa rose from 59991 hg/ha in 1971 to 92479 hg/ha in 2016. in the same vein, average yield in asia rose from 93719 hg/ha to 213412 hg/ha, and from 136600 hg/ha to 142162 hg/ha in south america within the same period. at the country level, nigeria suffers from fluctuating agricultural productivity. for example, cassava yield fell from 101911 hg/ha in 1971 to 91254 hg/ha in 2016. however, yield in rice production rose slightly from 12763 hg/ha in 1971 to 20265 hg/ha in 2016. though, rice yield in nigeria in 2016 was more than africa average, the average yield in both rice and cassava in nigeria was far below that of asia and south america average in 2016. rice and cassava feature prominently in the menu of nigerians more than other food types. nigeria population grew from 56,131844 in 1971 to 182,201962 in 2015, showing more than 300% increase (world bank, 2016). when we put this side by side with the 59% increase in rice yield and the 10% decline in the yield of cassava within the same period, the capacity of the country to meet the food needs of her population in future is in serious doubt. in livestock production, egg yield per bird in nigeria is one of the lowest among developing economies of the world. egg yield per bird in nigeria increased minimally from 4.17kg in 1980 to 4.6kg in 2014. this was far below the increase in yield per bird in oman and panama within the same period. egg yield per bird in oman increased from 7.2kg in 1980 to 14.53kg in 2014. in panama, egg yield per bird increased from 7.98kg in 1980 to 13.79kg in 2014 (food and agricultural organization (fao), 2017b). an explanation to the high disparity in agricultural productivity between nigeria and her fellow developing countries has been discussed a long time ago. the problems ranged from low technology application to absence of processing facility, poor access to market, and lack of operational value chain (awotide, abdoulaye, alene, & manyong, 2015; awotide, diagne, & omonona, 2012; bassey, edet, & agom, 2016). meat consumption is very important in the health of every human being because it supplies the body with the protein contents it requires to grow, repair and replace lost tissues. egg from the bird is a veritable source of protein to the body and supplies the body with essential vitamins such as b2, b6, b12 and d, as well as minerals like zinc, iron and copper. fundamentally, egg contains essential ingredients the human body needs to grow healthy and perform daily work. regrettably, egg and meat are luxury food in nigeria because only very few households can afford the cost. it is because of the high cost of egg that compel greater number of nigerians to fall back to plants for the protein needs of the body. segmentation model in agriculture was introduced in nigeria in 2009 through the commercial agriculture development programme. the programme which was sponsored by the world bank took off in five states in eight farm areas. the areas are oil palm development, cocoa, rice, fruit trees (pineapple and cashew), poultry, maize, dairy, and aquaculture. the first phase of the programme ended in 2018 and government is trying to bring in more states into it. past studies on the solutions to low agricultural productivity in nigeria focused on improving financial access by the farmers (awotide et al., 2015; bassey et al., 2016), or making new technology available to farmers (awotide et al., 2012). the aim of this study is to examine whether the segmentation in agriculture is better for increased productivity among the farmers in nigeria. we are using the poultry sub-sector as the case study. 2. literature review improvement in agricultural productivity in developing countries has attracted national and international interest as well as interventions. such models like financial access, technology improvement and extension services have been tried in efforts to mitigate the low productivity in agriculture in developing countries. getting the required result is still challenging as the gap between yields in developed and developing countries remains very wide. in a shift of approach, strategy changed towards agricultural value chains in many of the developing countries including nigeria. a value chain is the range of agricultural activities needed to ensure that agricultural commodities are delivered to the final consumers is an efficient way. activities start from conception through intermediaries until the commodities reach the final consumer (okike, 2010). it incorporates all activities and services that are undertaken along a commodity system from primary producer to the final consumer (federal ministry of agriculture water resources and rural development, 2009). major actors in a value chain are farmers, assemblers/traders, processors, wholesalers, retailers, consumers and input suppliers. the major benefit of value chain is that it encourages specialization, and creates room for concentration, and enhances productivity. it helps to trace product flows, stimulate value addition, and enhances the relationship between the actors in the chain when the chain works effectively without breakage. agriculture value chain guarantees markets of commodities which eliminates waste and reduces cost incurred in looking for the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 53-57 55 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group market of agricultural commodities by the farmers. girabi and mwakaje (2013) defined agricultural productivity as the ratio of output to input. a farmer is more productive if he uses the same amount of input as another farmer and produces more quantity of output, ceteris paribus. 2.1. segmentation practice in agriculture segmentation in agriculture has different meaning depending on the author’s approach. it may mean divisions between smallholder subsistence non-commercial farmers; small holder commercial farmers in unorganized value chains; and smallholder commercial farmers in organized value chains (christen & anderson, 2013). christen and anderson (2013) classified the non-commercial farmers as those who practice agriculture to meet their daily needs, and mainly grow staples. the commercial smallholder farmers in loose value chains are those who grow mixture of staple crops and some high valued crops like sugar and tea. the smallholder commercial farmers in organized value chain are those whose main crops are in value chain. the definition of agriculture segmentation given by brent and akridge (1999) is however more encompassing than that of christen and anderson. they defined segmentation in agriculture according to the type of crops, management style, farm size and location. this definition is similar to that given by world bank (2010). according to the world bank, segmentation in agriculture is the grouping of farm households according to their enterprise in such a way that the same solution and intervention can be applied. on the other hand, anderson, marita, and musiime (2016) see segmentation in agriculture in terms of the scale and intention of the household in agricultural activity. from the above definitions, especially those given by world bank (2010) and brent and akridge (1999) a farm household is segmented in agricultural practice if she is concentrated in the production of only one type of crop or engages in one farm operation which she feels she has comparative advantage. segmentation in agriculture falls within the value chain strategy. as part of the value chain, it is seen as an engine to enhance productivity in agriculture because allowing a household to concentrate on only one crop or farm activity will bring specialization. supporting segmentation in agriculture practice, world bank (2010) argues that it is necessary in agricultural finance because it aids the design of insurance policy to mitigate the inherent risk in the sector. segmentation in agricultural practice is low in nigeria as the average small holder farmer grows more than 5 different crops at a time (anderson, marita, musiime, & thiam, 2017). farmers undertake to grow many crops at a time as a means of income diversification and risk minimization. for example, for a farmer growing rice, cassava and maize, an outbreak of disease that affects maize leaves the farmer falling back on cassava and rice for some revenue in that year. that is to say, when one crop fails, a farmer will not lose out entirely in that year. it is the major advantage of the multiple farming practice. however, while the practice is good for risk mitigation, it may not be a good practice when the interest of the state is to increase productivity because it does not give the farmer time to plan. kahan (2013) sees segmentation as very essential in planning in farm operation because it enables the farmer to know the best time to start production so as to achieve the highest yield. according to him, through learning by doing, a rice farmer who is not in an irrigated area knows when to start his cropping so that he will not be caught up with adverse weather. a vegetable farmer can target his cultivation according to the demand of the market since he knows when the demand will be high, while the poultry farmer knows when to start breeding his chicks so as to meet the peak of the season. however, the argument of ye and pan (2016) is that smallholder farmers that grow different crops in a farm will be more productive because they have wide range of output to harvest. the commercial agriculture programme financed in nigeria by the world bank since 2009 was directed towards encouraging agricultural segmentation as the means of achieving higher productivity among the farmers. since this shift in agricultural practice in nigeria, research has not been undertaken to find out the effect of the segmentation practice on farmers’ productivity in nigeria. we have tried to fill this gap in literature with a focus on the poultry sub-sector. the poultry sub-sector was chosen because of the recent ban on importation of chicken products and the growing number of people in the farm business. moreover, data are always available in every poultry farm which researchers can access. 3. materials and method 3.1. area of study the study was done in south-east of nigeria and enugu state in particular. enugu state is one of the 5 sates selected as a pilot state in nigeria for segmentation practice in agriculture through the commercial agriculture programme introduced in the country in 2009. the state has a projected population of 4.27 million in 2016 (national bureau of statistics, 2016). the state is made up of 17 local governments. majority of the citizens are in agriculture and small-scale farm holding dominates. 3.2. sampling procedure enugu state was purposely selected as the study area for two important reasons. number one, it is one of the five pilot states chosen for the agricultural segmentation policy. secondly, the state has large number of registered poultry farmers who are in segmented as well as multiple poultry farming practice where data can be generated without difficulty. the sampling covered all the 17 local government areas in the state in the areas of poultry farming. the survey covered 171 poultry farmers who were randomly selected from egg, broiler and cockerel production. out of this number, data from 142 farm samples were used in the analysis and 29 were dropped because of inconsistent information. 3.3. the model the multivariate analysis is preferred in segmentation agriculture because it allows the inclusion of many independent variables and minimizes the omission of important ones that may have explanatory powers in agricultural productivity. in order to assess the effect of segmentation on farmers’ productivity, we combined the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 53-57 56 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group farmers who concentrated in one poultry (egg production) activity and those who are in more than one activity in poultry (egg, broiler and cockerel production)-: thus, yi= f(xi) (1) where y = yield that measures productivity x= factors that affect productivity i= individual farm households (i= 1, 2…...n, where n= 142) for estimation purposes, equation 1 can be specified as-: yi= αi +βixi+ ei (2) where y= average number of eggs produced per bird in a farm α= intercept β= coefficient χ= independent variables that affect egg yield ԑ= error term i= individual household or equation 1 can be transformed as shown below yi= αi +β1scalei + β2edi + β3expi +β4segi + β5sexi + µi (3) where y= average number of eggs produced per bird in farm i in a day, scale = farm size which measures the number of birds in farm i, ed= education level of the farm manager exp= experience of the farm manager seg= concentration level of the farm (takes the value 1 when a farmer is in egg production only, 2 when the farmer is in both egg and broiler production, and 3 when the farmer is in egg, broiler and cockerel production), sex= sex of the farm manager (takes value 1if male and 0 when female). α is the intercept, β1-β5 are the coefficients of the explanatory variables and µ is the error. 4. result result of the regression analysis is presented in table 1 below. as an analysis done with primary data, it is not important to carry out diagnostic test as required in time series data. table-1. regression result (dependent variable: egg yield). variable coefficient std error t p>/t/ scale 0.0001033 0.000012 8.61 0.000 ed 0.787262 0.0748034 1.05 0.294 sex 0 .0786954 0.0922409 0.85 0.395 seg 0.5462244 0.1790813 3.05 0.003 exp 0.0150242 0.0086749 1.73 0.086 const 2.244965 0.2285845 9.82 0.000 r2 0.49 table 1 is the presentation of the result of the analysis from the farm level survey in nigeria, using poultry farms as the case study. the most important thing scholars consider in econometric analysis is the sign of the coefficient of the variables in a model. looking at the sign of the coefficients, all the variables appeared with the expected sign except segmentation. in econometric analysis, r2 is used to measure the explanatory power of a model. the value of the r2 shows that the explanatory variables included in the model explained approximately 50% of the variations in the productivity of the farms. it is a high explanatory power considering the fact in crosssectional analysis, the r2 is always low. 5. discussion of finding what we tried to find out is if segmentation practice introduced in nigeria through commercial agriculture programme is a solution to low agricultural productivity. in the study undertaken in poultry sub-sector of agriculture, we undertook 3 different classes of farmers. one group is in egg production. the second group is in egg and broiler production and the third group is in egg, broiler and cockerel production. average number of eggs per day per bird was used as the measure of productivity of a farmer. as shown in table 1, segmentation has positive coefficient. the variable is also significant, which means that the type of farm practice in poultry sub-sector is an important determinant of productivity in the sector. the interpretation of the positive sign of the coefficient is simple. in the sample used in the study, some farmers specialized in egg production only; the second group specialized in egg and broiler production while the third group of farmers specialized in egg, broiler and cockerel production. from the result in table 1, farmers who specialized in only egg production have lower yield of egg per bird than the farmers who are in egg and broiler production simultaneously. in the same vein, farmers who are in egg and broiler production have lower yield of egg per bird per day than the farmers who are in egg, broiler and cockerel production at the same time. the finding suggests that a poultry farmer who specializes in only egg production will be less productive than the one who is engaged in egg and broiler production at the same time. the other two variables that have significant effect on productivity of poultry farmers in nigeria are the farm scale and experience of the manager. farm size is positive and significant at 1% level. it suggests that the bigger the size of the poultry farm, the higher the productivity of the farmer. that implies that farmers who have a greater number of birds have higher average yield of egg per bird than the farmers who have fewer number of birds. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 53-57 57 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group similarly, experience is positive and significant at 10% level, revealing that the more the experience of the manager, the higher the productivity. therefore, in poultry farming, experience counts. 6. conclusion segmentation in agriculture practice is a new strategy in agricultural business so as to overcome the problem of low productivity in agriculture in nigeria. the practice has support from world bank in five farm areas, namely: poultry, rice, maize, pineapple and cashew. evidence from analysis of data generated from farm household survey in the poultry sub-sector in nigeria suggests that the farmers that specialized in a single poultry practice are less productive than those in two or more practice. for policy intervention in poultry sub-sector in nigeria, farmers need assistance to access credit to be able to go into large scale poultry farming. farmers should be assisted to go into multiple poultry farming because they will do better than specializing in only one poultry business. references anderson, j., marita, c., & musiime, d. 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(2016). concepts and realities of family farming in asia and the pacific. international policy centre for inclusive growth (ipcig) working paper no. 139. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.yieldgap.org/glossary http://www.fao.org/uploads/media/3-managingriskinternlores.pdf http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/ 65 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 2, 65-74, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i2.4705 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group agricultural exports: systematic literature review on determinants and export-led growth relationship across developing nations shabnam kumari1 deepti kakar2 ( corresponding author) 1indian institute of foreign trade iift, new delhi, india. email: shabnamk.1792@gmail.com 2jagan institute of management studies, rohini, new delhi, india. email: deeptikakar@jimsindia.org abstract the present descriptive article intends to systematically review the list of researches that defines the determinants of agricultural exports across various developing nations and also to made an extensive survey of agri-exports and economic growth association in several countries during the period of 2000 to 2020. this study is descriptive in nature and has used random sampling technique to select the literature on given sample variables. the data has been collected from various sources such as research gate, science direct, sage, springer, scopus and national digital library etc. the findings reveal that the variables; production, producer price, domestic price, export price, real exchange rate and real interest rate have a significant positive impact on exports of agricultural commodities from developing nations. the present study reveals that agriculture export development is a prerequisite condition for overall growth of industry and economy while, some researches accumulate mixed or conflicting evidences that there exhibits the lack of conformity on the potential effect of agri-exports on economy. this meta-survey of literature will illuminate the academician, researchers and scholars to understand the agriexports determinants and their relationship with economic growth and so on to government policy makers. keywords: agricultural exports, economic growth, production, real exchange rate, systematic literature review. citation | kumari, s., & kakar, d. (2023). agricultural exports: systematic literature review on determinants and export-led growth relationship across developing nations. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(2), 65–74. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i2.4705 history: received: 27 january 2023 revised: 8 may 2023 accepted: 22 may 2023 published: 30 may 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: both authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 66 2. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................... 66 3. literature evidences ....................................................................................................................................................................... 66 4. conclusion & implication ............................................................................................................................................................... 72 5. future scope ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 73 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 73 mailto:shabnamk.1792@gmail.com mailto:deeptikakar@jimsindia.org https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i2.4705 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1230-6731 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4712-2104 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 65-74 66 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the primary objective of this paper is to examine and analyze the substantial body of empirical research on the factors that influence agricultural exports and their relationship with economic growth across developing nations during 2000 to 2020, which has not been done so far in any other study. 1. introduction developing economies are generally considered as dual economies comprising traditional agricultural sector and a modern capitalist sector. agriculture sector explicit as an active sector that contributes in labor and food supply and also enlarge the economic growth through linkages of production and consumption (johnston & mellor, 1961). johnston and mellor (1961) have also given the argument that expansion of agricultural exports is one of the most promising source of income growth for developing economies like india, china, pakistan, indonesia etc. the economic performance of these nations has more fluctuations due to their exports and their dependency on agriculture promotes them to export higher of agricultural items. but such agricultural exports are controlled by various internal and external factors which obstructs the growth of agricultural exports of the nations. the relevance of these determining factors of agricultural exports have vastly witnessed by many academic groups and categories. the verification and affirmation are enlisted across various researches made on this area such as jung and marshall (1985); hwa (1988) and henneberry and khan (2000). the substantial role of these determinants has made it mandatory to enhance and promote the agricultural exports and to formulate the appropriate policies for them. the present paper is mainly entitled to investigate and analyze the extensive empirical literature on determinants of agricultural exports to understand the factors which regulates the promotion of agri-exports and encourages the policies which could be formulated and implemented for growth of the developing nations. this study also dives deep into the relationship of agricultural exports and economic growth of the economies following keynesian theory, which comprises that more exports lead to more income growth through foreign exchange multiplier in the short run and also, exports generate more foreign exchange, that is used to buy manufactured goods, capital, transport, technology, petroleum products, chemicals & agricultural products. perhaps, murugesan (2019) said that following the export-led growth hypothesis, agricultural exports also contribute to the economic growth of the nation. so, the present study is entitled to do an extensive survey of empirical literature on relationship of agri-exports and economic growth of the nations. henceforth, objective of this study is: • to perform a systematic literature review of researches depicting determinants of agricultural exports of the economy. • to do an extensive survey of literature on relationship between agricultural exports and economic growth of the country. 2. research methodology the main purpose of this paper is to explore and make a systematic literature survey on empirical studies related to agricultural exports determinants and association of agri-exports and economic growth of the economies. this systematic survey of literature will help in finding the determinants which effect the agricultural exports and their inter-relatedness with economic growth. this study is descriptive in nature and has used random sampling technique to select the literature on given sample variables. the data has been collected for the period of 2000 to 2020 from various databases such as research gate, science direct, sage, springer, scopus and national digital library etc. however, some earlier studies have also been used to envy the prevailing researches of present study. 3. literature evidences 3.1. determinants of agricultural exports the inelastic demand of primary agricultural products in developing countries enforces them to depend upon the production growth rate of developed nations for growth in their export performance (alkhateeb & sultan, 2015). the demand for agricultural products can be inelastic in developing countries but this theory doesn’t apply in case of individual economy. perhaps, an individual economy can control their export mechanism through competitive pricing system and other government restrained measures (thomas & nash, 1991). in this view, numerous efforts have been made to ascertain the key determinants of agricultural exporting products, which capitulate the promising results for economy, business and trade. table 1 depicts the empirical researches made on key drivers of agricultural exports across various nations by eminent scholars, academician and core researchers. table 1. determinants of agricultural exports. s. no author country period tools findings 1 gbetnkom and khan (2002) cameroon 1971-1972 to 19951996 ols (ordinary least square) the finding of this study reveals that producer prices significantly impact the export supply of cocoa and coffee products and export prices significantly influence the export supply of banana. 2 chand (2004) india 1990-91 to 1995-96 and 1996-97 to 2001-02 regression analysis the findings indicate that the real exchange rate and international prices have a significant impact on domestic prices of agricultural commodities, 3 majeed and ahmad (2006) 75 developing countries 1970 – 2004 fixed effect model evidence from the analysis reflects that a sustainable economic growth rate, development of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 65-74 67 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group s. no author country period tools findings communication facilities, and stable exchange rate policy promotes the export growth and sustained export performance. 4 yusuf and yusuf (2007) nigeria 1970 to 2002 error correction mechanism regression analysis the authors revealed that previous year’s gdp has a significant contribution in stimulating the cocoa exports from nigeria however real gdp have a significant contribution in palm kernel exports. though the real exchange rate is most likely key driver to introduce competitiveness in agricultural exports of nigeria. 5 eckaus (2008) china and india 1998 to 2005 regression analysis the results have given the proof of discouragement in china’s export supply due to the valueadded tax regime. on the other hand, aggregate income of importing countries also regulates the demand for chinese and indian exports. it was also noticed that relative wages have more fluctuation causes for chinese and indian exports than the exchange rate. 6 abolagba, onyekwere, agbonkpolor, and umar (2010) nigeria 1961-69, pre sap (1970-85), sap (1986-94), post sap (1995-2005) ols the findings of this study reveal that variable; production, price, and the real interest rate have a positive significant impact on the rubber exports of nigeria 7 david (2013) ghana 1964 to 2010 rca, rsca, multiple regression technique the finding states that there is a significant positive association between the export of cocoa and lagged output, real producer price, real-world price to real producer price ratio of cocoa and the depreciated value of the domestic currency. 8 kannan (2013) india 1991-92 to 2010-11 ols the production of natural rubber in india is influenced by exports of natural rubber, stock, and domestic price. however, the factors which affect the export of natural rubber are their stock, world market price, domestic price, and world population. 9 amoro and shen (2013) cote d’ivoire 1961 to 2005 ols the findings reveal that rubber export is significantly influenced by domestic rubber production, producer price, exchange rate, domestic consumption, and interest rate. 10 kingu (2014) tanzania 1970 to 2010 co-integration and error correction model it was found that the real exchange rate and agricultural productivity have a significant impact on cotton lint exports of tanzania. 11 boansi (2014) chad 1983 to 2011 co-integration analysis the author reveals that production, competitiveness in exports, the volume of world exports, and export price are the key determinants of cotton-lint exports from chad. 12 boansi, lokonon, and appah (2014) ghana 1984 to 2009 ols this study reflects a positive association of both value and volume of products with production, openness to trade, improvement in quality & share of exports. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 65-74 68 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group s. no author country period tools findings 13 alkhateeb and sultan (2015) india 1980 to 2014 ardl (autoregressive distributed lag) the findings represent the existence of long-run cointegration relationship between real effective exchange rate (reer), demand & supply of agricultural products, india’s per capita income, and indian agricultural exports. all these determinants granger cause agricultural export of india in both short-run and long-run period. 14 udah, nwachukwu, nwosu, and mbanasor (2015) nigeria 1970 to 2010 ols findings reveal that agricultural export growth of nigeria has a significant positive relationship with export intensity, and trade openness 15 adhikari, sekhon, and kaur (2016) india 1980-81 to 2012-13 compound growth rate, instability index and markov chain analysis the findings of the study suggest that determinants, namely, export price, international price, lagged production, domestic consumption, and exchange rate play a major role in determining the rice export from india. 16 atif, haiyun, and mahmood (2017) pakistan 1995-2014 stochastic frontier gravity model the results state that there is consistency in using the gravity model for agricultural exports of pakistan and it estimates that bilateral exchange and tariff rates, both affect the agriculture exports. 17 rangarajan and kannan (2017) india 1992-93 to 2013-14 econometric analysis the real effective exchange rate and world exports are the main two variables which influence the demand for indian exports. this study also indicates that maintaining domestic price stability, and improving the productivity of the export products are equally important. 18 bilal and rizvi (2018) pakistan 1980 to 2010 johansen cointegration and vector error correction model the results reveal that the production of rice, yield, and international demand is positively significant to rice exports of pakistan while domestic price and export price are negatively significant to the rice exports, 19 park (2019) korea 1995 to 2017 panel regression analysis the outcome depicts that gdp, per capita income, relative price index, and fta agreements are the main factors that determine the expansion of korea’s agriculture exports. 20 narayan and bhattacharya (2019) india 1961 to 2012 regression analysis this study has empirical evidence of factors; export restrictions, export price, domestic price, capital, labour, farm size, the green revolution, and preferential trade agreements affecting the rec of the considered commodities of india. 21 lien, feng, and fei (2019) china 2001-2014 gravity model analysis the empirical results revealed that gdp, population, income, exchange rate, production and price have a significant association with the total exports of china. though production and price have seen as the best predictor of china’s total exports. 22 daulika, peng, and hanani (2020) indonesia 1995 to 2017 multiple regression model the exchange rate, international rubber prices, and domestic consumption are the major factors that significantly impacted the export price of natural rubber in indonesia 23 kumari and kakar (2020) india 1991 to 2019 johansen cointegration, vecm and vec granger the determinants; consumer price index, producer price, real effective exchange rate, real asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 65-74 69 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group s. no author country period tools findings causality/ wald test interest rate, and agriculture input (land use) have a short term and long-term causality effect on the natural rubber and tea exports respectively in the post-reform period however real exchange rate has a significant association with coffee exports in the short-run. 24 roy (2020) india 1980 to 2010 ols regression the empirical findings have given the evidence of predominant factors like lagged export, production and world income, which determines the indian agriculture exports. however, in case of rice and wheat, stock with the government have more influence on their exports rather than the production. 25 sugiharti, purwono, and padilla (2019) indonesia 2007 to 2017 gravity model the empirical findings suggest that income and market size is an important driver for growth than the agreements. whereas, agricultural goods have more impact of price factors and raw goods are more influenced of price and exchange rate both. 26 nguyen (2022) vietnam 2000 to 2018 stochastic frontier gravity model the researcher identified that “behind-the-border’ is the main constraint, which is significant to rice and coffee exports of vietnam. further on, technical efficiency and potential exports are also one of the main causes to ascertain the increase in rice and coffee exports of vietnam. note: from all above listed literature, the authors report that a continuous effort has been made to measure the impact of agricultural export determinants in various developing economies such as india, china, nigeria, pakistan, and indonesia. the rationale behind these studies is that the explanatory variables; production, producer price, domestic price, export price, real exchange rate, real interest rate have a significant positive impact on exports of agricultural commodities from developing nations. for instance, findings indicating that producer price has a significant effect on coffee exports of cameroon (gbetnkom & khan, 2002), stable exchange rate policy has a significant impact on the export growth of developing economies (majeed & ahmad, 2006) and the factors; stock, world market price, domestic price, and the world population has a significant impact on exports of natural rubber in india (kannan, 2013), etc., showcase the influence of former on the latter. similarly, in most of the cases, a significant impact of the former has been seen on the latter. thus, the authors conclude that there is a positive link exist between the agricultural exports and their determinants in developing nations. 3.2. agricultural exports and economic growth there exists a substantial body of empirical and theoretical evidence that elucidates the role of exports in fostering economic growth and development within a country. prominent classical economists, such as adam smith and david ricardo, have argued that international trade serves as the primary catalyst for economic growth, emphasizing the importance of specialization for attaining greater economic gains (murugesan, 2019). according to keynesian theory, an increase in exports leads to heightened income growth in the short term through the foreign exchange multiplier effect. additionally, exports generate a greater inflow of foreign exchange, which can be utilized to acquire manufactured goods, capital, transportation, technology, petroleum products, chemicals, and agricultural products (murugesan, 2019). this contributes significantly to the economic growth of the nation. table 2 presents a compilation of previous studies conducted to examine the relationship between agricultural exports and economic growth in various countries. table 2. agricultural exports and economic growth. s. no author country period tools findings 1 goyal, pandey, and singh (2000) india 1970-1998 compound growth rate and instability indices the high volatility in exports was exhibited by tobacco, coffee, oil cakes, and raw cotton, rice, spices, and fish products and the study contemplated that the share of agricultural exports in the total world exports was low but it was increasing over the years. 2 tiffin and irz (2006) 85 developing countries 19722002 the estimated var model and granger causality test agricultural value added is the causal variable in the developing countries which means that agriculture plays a role of the engine in the economic growth of the nation and that growth in agricultural productivity is necessary to keep economy moving. 3 sanjuán‐lópez and dawson (2010) 42 developing countries 1970-2004 panel co-integration methods the finding of the study represents that there is a long run relationship between the gdp and agricultural and non-agricultural exports and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 65-74 70 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group s. no author country period tools findings total exports granger causes the gdp of the country and this study also supports the argument that agricultural export can play the role of an engine of economic growth of the countries. 4 tekin (2012) least developed countries 1970-2009 co-integration and granger causality analysis the author has confirmed the presence of unidirectional causality between exports and gdp of haiti, rwanda and sierra leone however in case of angola, chad and zambia, one way causality has been seen from gdp to exports which promotes the export-led growth hypothesis followed in the countries. 5 goyal and berg (2012) india 1980-81 to 2009-10 co-integration analysis and errorcorrection model there is no causality among the variables in the short-run but there is strong evidence for unidirectional long-run granger causality between the export growth and export instability of the country. 6 gilbert, linyong, and divine (2013) cameroon 1975-2009 co-integration analysis, vecm and granger causality this study gives strong evidence of the existence of a significant association between the banana and coffee exports and economic growth of the cameroon however there is no relationship has been seen in the case of cocoa exports. this study also identifies the controllable variables capital, labour force and inflation which effect the economic growth of the nation. these variables collectively have a significant impact on economic growth of the country. 7 ramphul (2013) india 1970–1971 to 2009– 2010 vector errorcorrection model and granger causality test the study shows that there is a positive long-run equilibrium between the india’s agriculture exports and the gross domestic product (gdp) of agriculture and the agricultural exports granger causes the growth of the agricultural gdp. 8 ronit and divya (2014) india 1969-2012 var and granger causality test the growth of exports positively depends on growth of gdp of the economy whereas gdp growth causes export growth in indian economy. moreover, there is sharp increase has been seen in exports through a slight shift in gdp of the country. 9 kumari and malhotra (2014) india 1980-2012 co-integration analysis and granger causality analysis there is no long run association exists between the exports and economic growth (gdp per capita) of india in the period of 1980 to 2012. although, there is bi-directional causality has been seen between the economic growth and exports of india. 10 yifru (2015) ethiopia 1973-2013 co-integration model, error correction model, and granger causality model the findings of this study reveal that coffee and oilseeds export has a positive and significant relationship with economic growth, while pulses have a negative and insignificant effect on economic growth. thus, the export-led growth hypothesis is applicable in the case of coffee and oil exports only. 11 saxena et al. (2015) saarc nation 2001-2013 co-integration analysis and granger causality test the findings of the study show that india makes with 74 percent of the agricultural exports from the region and 55 percent of the agricultural imports of the region and a unidirectional causality occurs between gdp and agricultural exports, where agricultural exports granger cause agricultural gdp but the opposite is not applicable. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 65-74 71 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group s. no author country period tools findings 12 shah, ul haq, and farooq (2015) pakistan 1972-2008 co-integration analysis, vecm and granger causality tests the empirical findings of this study suggest that the argument; agricultural exports are the engine of economic growth is not applicable in the case of a developing economy like pakistan due to their inverse relationship with each other variable however this study also reveals that non-agricultural exports have a positive impact on the economic growth of the country. 13 forgha and aquilas (2015) cameroon 1980-2014 johansen cointegration and error correction modelling the authors have emerged with the contribution that timber exports have an insignificant impact on the economic growth of cameroon in the short run. however, on the contrary a positive significant impact has been seen of former on the later in the long-run. 14 mehrara and baghbanpour (2016) 34 developing nations 1970-2014 ols regression there is positive and significant linkage exist between the industry exports and economic growth of the nations but same does not happen in case of agricultural exports. they have inclined towards a weak relationship between the agricultural exports and economic growth of developing countries. 15 oluwatoyese, applanaidu, and abdulrazak (2016) nigeria 1981-2014 co-integration analysis, vecm and granger causality tests their findings confirmed the existence of significant relationship between the agricultural exports, oil exports and economic growth of nigeria. thus, this study also supports the export-led growth hypothesis of the economy. 16 alam and myovella (2016) tanzania 1980-2010 co-integration analysis and granger causality test they have supported the argument of export-led growth hypothesis via examining the causality between agricultural exports and gdp of tanzania. 17 umar (2016) indonesia 2007-2013 ols findings have inclined that labour has a positive and significant impact on economic growth of indonesia whereas exports have a negative but significant relation with the economic growth of indonesia. 18 edeme, ifelunini, and nkalu (2016) ecowas nations 1980-2013 fixed effect model and random effect model they have investigated the exportled growth theory and concluded in insignificant impact of former on the later. however, a combined effect of agricultural exports on economic growth of ecowas countries has been seen but the rate of impact was weaker. 19 sertoglu, ugural, and bekun (2017) nigeria 1981-2013 johansen multivariate test it is found that variables such as real gdp, agricultural output, and oil rents have a long-run equilibrium relationship by applying johansen multivariate test and the study concluded that agriculture is a viable source of economic growth in nigeria. 20 bakari (2017) south-eastern european countries 2006-2016 correlation analysis and static gravity model this empirical analysis shows that agriculture exports have a positive strong correlation with gdp and it affects economic growth positively. the result of the study provides evidence that agriculture exports are the source of economic growth in southeast european countries. 21 bakari (2017) tunisia 1970-2015 co-integration analysis and vector error correction model (vecm) the author has concluded that vegetable exports have both shortterm and long-term effect on the economic growth of tunisia which implies that vegetable exports are the major source of economic growth in the country and it requires refine asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 65-74 72 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group s. no author country period tools findings investment in this sector. 22 toyin (2016) south africa 1975-2012 co-integration and causality analysis the export-led growth hypothesis is not valid in the case of south africa but the study recommends that export participation through agricultural incentives can fasten the economic growth of south africa. 23 kalaitzi and cleeve (2018) uae 1981-2012 johansen cointegration and multivariate granger causality analysis the authors have revealed that bidirectional causality exists between the manufacturing exports and economic growth of uae in the short run however, growth-led exports hypothesis is valid in case of uae for long run. 24 mahmood and munir (2018) pakistan 1970-2014 johansen cointegration and angel granger causality test the outcome revealed that agricultural exports of pakistan have a positive but insignificant impact on the economic growth of the nation which implies that amount of export earnings have a slight contribution in economic growth of the country. 25 matandare (2017) zimbabwe 1980-2016 ols regression this study has reflected that apart from agricultural exports variables; labour, exchange rate and inflation have a positive significant contribution in economic growth of the country. 26 liang (2018) china 1994-2016 error correction model the results of the study show that exports of agricultural product in china have a positive impact on gdp in the short run and a stable relationship in the long-run 27 murugesan (2019) india 1990-91 to 2016-17 error correction model this study reveals that agricultural exports and non-agricultural exports are important variables to stimulate economic growth in india. 28 bashir et al. (2019) indonesia 1985-2017 vector error correction model (vecm) and simultaneous equations model with 2sls they have stated that there is unidirectional causality exists between the industry added value, economic growth, and the agricultural added value in the longrun. but in the short run variables industry, added value and economic growth have two-way causality and this study suggests that the agriculture sector plays a vital role in fostering economic growth of the country. 29 bashir et al. (2019) china 1984-2017 ardl bound test the result of this study concludes that there has been seen a positive and significant impact of agricultural exports on the economic growth of the chinese economy. note: all the above studies define the relationship between the agricultural exports and economic growth of several nations for a different set of time frame using econometric tools; co-integration analysis, vecm, granger causality test and through panel data approach and the most of the existing literature confirms the existence of a long-term association between the agricultural exports and the economic growth of the economies (gilbert et al., 2013; liang, 2018; murugesan, 2019; ramphul, 2013; sanjuán‐lópez & dawson, 2010; yifru, 2015) however, some of the authors such as kumari and malhotra (2014); shah et al. (2015) and toyin (2016) has given the contradictory conclusions for the paradigm that exports play the role of an engine in the economic growth of the nation. they have given the argument that there is no association exists between the exports and economic growth of the country and the export-led growth hypothesis is not viable. however, several authors have asserted that development of agri-export sector always leads to the economic enrichment. 4. conclusion and implication the listed empirical researches have tendered that agriculture export development is a prerequisite condition for overall growth of industry and economy while, some researches accumulate mixed or conflicting evidences that there exhibits the lack of conformity on the potential effect of agri-exports on economy. following the articles listed in table 1 & 2, the present study is inclined to evoke the existing literature on determinants of agricultural exports across various developing nations which came up with the findings that the factors; producer price, domestic price, real exchange rate and real interest rate have a significant positive contribution in agricultural exports of developing nations. moreover, this study also reveals the association of agricultural exports and economic growth of nations and most of the studies have confirmed the significance influence of former on the latter. thus, the findings of this study have implications for agriculture and allied sector of developing economies for designing the appropriate policies to encourage and promote the development of agri-exports in such economies that plays a substantial role in their economic growth. on the other hand, this review of literature also emphasizes the factors that regulate the agri-exports from various nations which can help policymakers in understanding their contribution to exports that lead to more income generation for country. moreover, this study is also relevant for asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 65-74 73 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group academicians, researchers and scholars to extend it further as a practical investigation which may ensure that agriculture exports could be an engine of economic growth of the nation. 5. future scope the present study has further scope for more comprehensive results as it can be extended to a longer duration. also, this study takes into account the studies from the developing nations which can further be extended to investigate the impact of agri-exports on the developed nations such as uk, usa and japan. further on, to get more better insights, empirical investigation can also be done to understand which factors have a positive and negative impact on the economy. on the end note, this study can also be conducted using modern literature review techniques such as prisma method, bibliometric analysis, and thematic literature review, etc. references abolagba, e. o., onyekwere, n. c., agbonkpolor, b. n., & umar, h. y. 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(2007). determinants of selected agricultural export crops in nigeria: an ecm approach. paper presented at the aaae conference proceedings department of agricultural economics, university of ibadan. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.12.013 https://doi.org/10.1108/jabes-05-2020-0054 https://doi.org/10.16980/jitc.15.1.201902.525 https://doi.org/10.17221/118/2012-agricecon https://doi.org/10.1007/s40953-017-0102-7 https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijber.20140303.13 https://doi.org/10.23862/kiit-parikalpana/2020/v16/i1-2/204558 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-9552.2010.00257.x https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-0279.2016.00010.0 https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2020.7.4(8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2011.10.013 https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/6.2.219 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2006.00141.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2006.00141.x https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2016.11893577 https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaees/2015/16637 https://doi.org/10.20448/journal.500/2016.3.4/500.4.248.255 37 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 1, 37-42, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4454 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group quality of work life, work motivation, job satisfaction and ethical behaviour uzoma ononye department of business management, dennis osadebay university, delta state, nigeria. email: ononye.uz@gmail.com abstract ethical behaviour ensures employees follow organisational social norms in the conduct of their tasks and assignments. but studies have been somewhat silent on the individual-level factors influencing this positive work behaviour, especially in an african public sector context. further, the contextual factors impacting ethical behaviour at work are yet to be fully known. therefore, the study examined the relationship between quality of work life and work motivation on ethical behaviour given job satisfaction as a contextual factor. the study collected data from 191 midlevel employees in the delta state ministry of health in nigeria, and subjected same data to the pls-sem analytical procedure. the results demonstrated that job satisfaction and ethical behaviour are positively related, job satisfaction mediates quality of work life and work motivation relationship with ethical behaviour, and quality of work life relationship with ethical behaviour is mediated by work motivation and job satisfaction sequentially. the study concluded that the link between quality of work life and work motivation on ethical behaviour can be explained by the mediational mechanism of job satisfaction. the results imply that public organisations can support ethical behaviour when certain individual-level (psychological) factors are well positioned and managed to achieve desirable outcomes. keywords: ethical behaviour, job satisfaction, motivation, nigeria, public sector, work life quality. citation | ononye, u. (2023). quality of work life, work motivation, job satisfaction and ethical behaviour. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(1), 37–42. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4454 history: received: 18 november 2022 revised: 12 january 2023 accepted: 24 january 2023 published: 6 february 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 38 2. literature review and hypotheses development ..................................................................................................................... 39 3. method ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 40 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 41 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 42 mailto:ononye.uz@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4454 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6261-9640 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 37-42 38 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study is among the first to integrate quality of work-life, work motivation, job satisfaction and ethical behaviour in a single research framework. the research framework explains how quality of work-life and work motivation relate to ethical behaviour given job satisfaction as a mediational mechanism. 1. introduction today, ethical behaviour (eb) plays a central role in ensuring employees demonstrate acceptable moral standards in the execution of various tasks and assignments. but public sector employees often engage in or are confronted with an array of ethical infractions (e.g. rule bending or breaking, absenteeism, lying, bullying, harassment, nepotism, favouritism, incivility, leaking of sensitive information, document falsification, solicitation and acceptance of kickbacks and gifts, and other forms of financial inducements) at work. this has no doubt contributed to the erosion of public trust, as adherence to the highest ethical standards is central to the aim of public organisations (van roekel & schott, 2022). the prevalence of unethical behaviour is often considered a leadership problem because leaders’ behaviours and actions are primary influential models of ethical guidance for every employee in the workplace (emery, 2016; kim & brymer, 2011; selart & johansen, 2011). as such, a strong ethical leadership should reinforce positive employees’ attitude and behaviour, like eb, considerably (hassan, wright, & yukl, 2014). while the efficacy of leadership as an organisational antecedent may prove true in this context, the ethicality of organisational members can be a function of the enhancement or breakdown of individuallevel factors in the workplace. the antecedent roles played by these factors: job satisfaction (js), work motivation (wm) and quality of work life (qwl), are of interest to this study. js is a psychological state arising from an employee’s appraisal of his/her job, either in its totality or with respect to its different components. studies have explicitly demonstrated eb prediction of employee js (abadiga, nemera, hailu, & mosisa, 2019; kaffashpoor & sadeghian, 2020; vitell & davis, 1990) however, js has increasingly been recognised as a determinant of productive work behaviours in organisations (zhang, 2020) suggesting that the level of eb displayed at work may be indicative of the extent to which js is attained. in other words, public organisations aiming to impact ethical decision making processes strongly may benefit from the enhancement of js. the bidirectionality in effect shows that js could have a predictive effect on eb, but scant attention has been given to the validity of this notion, especially in a public sector setting. this relationship is important because employees’ js levels may account for the persistent ethical problems and violations in the public sector. thus, it will be necessary to determine the enabling factors to ensure high js is developed and maintained. this leads to the selection of js as a mediational construct accounting for eb. wm has become a topical concern among researchers and practitioners in the past decade, in part, to the desire to maintain high js levels, growing concern over the quality of work, and the notion that behavioural problems seem to be largely motivational in nature. according to zayed et al. (2022) wm is “a collection of energetic factors that arise both within and beyond an individual’s self to trigger work-related behaviour and to govern its shape, direction, intensity, and duration”. it often stems from a need which must be appropriately satisfied, and this in turn leads to the demonstration of positive behaviours (lambrou, kontodimopoulos, & niakas, 2010). this need defines the motivational orientation of employees in a specific morality context. although, wm is a critical element of human behavioural responses and persistence, it interacts with other psychological processes to induce critical employee-related work outcomes, such as js, work engagement, organisational commitment, organisational citizenship behaviour, innovative work behaviour, and other productive behaviours. drawing from the selfdetermination theory (sdt), the innate tendency to exert and/or maintain effort towards goal attainment is an important factor that provides the needed energy for the formation of certain positive attitudes and behaviours to improve individual functionality in a specified work setting. if wm is critical to the pursuit of positive workrelated behaviour, then its activation becomes a vital element of ethical enquiry. this has derived the need for the current study to investigate the notion that wm enhances js to affect eb. given the significance of wm in fostering js, it is important to determine other antecedent variable of js, especially the ones that can make wm to provide the context for js to influence eb among employees. qwl proves useful in this regard. this is because employees spend a greater part of their lives at work, and the associated work conditions and practices can be important motivational sources that convey meaning, satisfaction, commitment, engagement, and performance. qwl are perceptible organisational conditions and practices (e.g. remuneration, social integration, safe/healthy work conditions, etc.) that enables employees to have either a favourable or an unfavourable view about the quality of their work environment, and the perceived favourability and appropriateness of these organisational conditions, stemming from employees’ participation at work, may foster positive or negative employee job-related behavioural outcomes (khan, mahmood, & shoaib, 2022). this is to say that the significance of qwl in an organisational setting is unparalleled due to its probable link to wm, js and eb. given that qwl is directly related to wm (ogbuabor & okoronkwo, 2019) and to js (noor & abdullah, 2012) the study argues that wm and js are key psychological pathways for qwl to influence employees’ eb significantly and positively. the validity of this notion appears to be an open research issue due to limited empirical information. besides, this finding is highly relevant because organisations have a responsibility to develop the basic conditions allowing eb to flourish. summarily, the study while contributing to extant literature on the antecedents of eb, elucidated on wm and js as mediational mechanisms for fostering eb with qwl. to the best of the researchers’ knowledge, this integrative research thinking from the combination of qwl, wm, js and eb concepts is among the first to be explicitly articulated in a single study. likewise, the operationalisation of wm and js as mediational constructs remain largely unexplored in related studies, as the study believes both constructs can help demystify the intricacies related to eb in a public sector context. there is a lot of research explaining the consequences of eb, but much less is known about the antecedent and contextual variables that contribute to its development. this study can provide clarity by offering explanations on psychological factors influencing the occurrence of eb at work. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 37-42 39 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2. literature review and hypotheses development eb represents scalable behaviours and actions of organisational members that adhere to widely acceptable moral and normative standards in performing official duty or assignment. the literature on organisational ethics clearly indicate that moral considerations are often overlooked in the public sector, leading to demonstration unethical behaviour which may induce significant costs for organisations. the nigerian public sector has not been left unscathed by this observation because unethical behavioural practices still persist and continues to stymie sound moral values (taiwo, 2015). one of the possible explanations for the widespread unethical behaviour may be the breakdown of the underlying psychological processes stimulating positive employees’ behaviour at the workplace. this underscores the relevance of js in reinforcing eb. it is argued that the accentuation of js can help improve organisational functioning in ways that desirable outcome variables, like eb, are ensured. this surmises that the lack of js may cultivate a dysfunctional culture of deviancy in the workplace. as discussed earlier, research has evidenced eb prediction of js, however, not much is known about js prediction of eb. the study aligns with the argument of zhang (2020) that js shapes employees’ attitudes and behaviours, suggesting that js can function in a predictive capacity in such relationship. employees who are less satisfied with their jobs may likely engage in negative workplace behaviours that clearly violate established organisational norms and standards. this is true because low js could cause employees not to subscribe to the application of ethical considerations in the discharge of certain tasks and/or assignment, and the attendant errors in judgement and discretion reduce employees’ effectiveness in the actualisation of stated goals. in many ways, js levels plays a central role in ethical decision making leading to (un)ethical behaviours. however, the relational strength between both constructs is determined by the interplay between human character, motivation and characteristics of the organisational contexts. the predictive effect of js on the ethicality of organisational members was evidenced in an empirical study conducted by zhang (2020) on workplace spirituality, js and unethical pro-organisational behaviour. besides, resende and porto (2020) state that unethical work decisions are influenced by individual characteristics such as motivation and js. based on this, the study developed the first hypothesis. h1: js-eb relationship is significant and positive. although, js and eb are directly related, it can also be positioned as a contextual construct between other employee-related outcome variables. for instance, the study of zhang (2020) applied js as an intervening variable in the link between workplace spirituality and unethical pro-organisational behaviour, and the study found that js mediation of this link was significant and positive. a similar result was also established in a recent study (sopiah & bernardes, 2022) on the effect of qwl on work engagement by the mediation of js. while studies have shown qwl (ishfaq, al-hajieh, & alharthi, 2022; khan et al., 2022; noor & abdullah, 2012; sopiah & bernardes, 2022) and wm (lambrou et al., 2010; zayed et al., 2022) positive and significant association with js, the theory of planned action (tpa) suggests that antecedents of js are attitudes reinforcing such perceptible behavioural intent, and subjective norm. if the antecedents of js are integrated to predict eb, the prediction of eb as a desired outcome will be significant and positive over time. this is to say that ethical actions are predicated by planned behaviour (weber & gillespie, 1998) one of which is to better js. if the antecedents (qwl and wm) fostering js are rightly activated, employees will be able to demonstrate eb in the execution of tasks and assignments. because js is an immediate determinant of eb than qwl and wm, the study claims that the stronger the level of js achieved in the specified relationships, the stronger the probability that the employee will engage in eb. however, the likelihood that the antecedents will lead to high js is determined by how well organisations provide work resources and conditions that enable employees to develop qwl and wm to stimulate js accordingly. given that js can be applied as a predictor and an outcome variable in research involving employee behaviours (zhang, 2020) the study contends that js concretised in qwl and wm determines eb. thus, we hypothesize that: h2: js mediates the significant and positive qwl-eb relationship. h3: js mediates the significant and positive wm-eb relationship. qwl as an important component of positive psychology reflects employees’ perception of the connections between work characteristics and individual self-concept, and provides intrinsic motivational force to direct employees’ choices, behaviour and performance. studies convey that qwl is directly related to js (ishfaq et al., 2022; noor & abdullah, 2012) and qwl factors are closely related to wm (ogbuabor & okoronkwo, 2019) however, qwl can also sequentially improve wm and js to affect eb in a significant and positive manner. drawing from the control theory, organisations can manage or regulate work behaviours better when they provide a quality work environment that fits the needs of its employees, and employees, in turn, will feel more satisfied by the provision of motivational resources at work. following the norms of reciprocity, the experience of js from a resourceful and motivating work environment will minimise the tendency of engaging in ethical misconducts. using the sdt theory to argue further, a reduction in the variation between workplace qualities and employees’ existential needs/values can strengthen employees’ motivational commitment to work. because employees are presumed to be in a psychologically rewarding exchange relationship, the satisfaction of employees’ existential needs would foster sustainable positive work behaviour. this appears to suggest that employees may behave in ways reflective of the quality of relationship with their organisation and work itself. if employees perceive the relationship as reciprocal, they may display behaviours conforming to organisational norms. conversely, if the reciprocity is uneven, they may develop negative behaviours to balance the unsatisfactory feeling. given the above arguments, it is possible that an unsuitable work setting can turn wm to a psychological burden if qwl is not improved to a certain extent, and this can indirectly diminish any gains in js attained in the workplace. if not properly managed, the gradual attenuation of js would contribute to the manifestation of negative work behaviour, like unethical behaviour. thus, we hypothesise that: h4: qwl-eb significant and positive relationship is sequentially mediated by wm and js. to understand how eb becomes manifest in the workplace, the study must examine and test the integrative nature of direct and indirect sources of eb as presented in the research model in figure 1. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 37-42 40 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 1. hypothesised research model. 3. method the study recruited participants from the ministry of health in delta state, nigeria through convenient sampling. this sampling technique was selected due to the availability of respondents to willingly respond to the survey probe during working hours. this happens to be a very busy ministry. although an approval was obtained from the commissioner of health prior to questionnaire administration, the researchers endeavoured to secure an informed consent for voluntary participation in this study. the sampled staff, consisting of mid-level staff between grade levels 13 to 15, were selected because of their vantage position in the organisation. they are guided by the behaviours of top-level staff through observation and modelling, as well as providing guidance to those in the lower cadre by their modelled work behaviours. the respondents’ consent were given verbally after going through the research aims and confidentiality statement in the covering letter attached to the questionnaire. the researchers provided guidance and clarifications to respondents when needed during the exercise. the questionnaire administration and collection were performed by the researchers on site for a two months period, beginning from the month of october to december. the estimated questionnaire completion time was 10 minutes. at the end of the exercise, the researchers collected 191 questionnaire; all the questionnaire were deemed usable for data analysis due to no missing values. regarding the demographic profile of respondents, 103 are male and 88 are female. the respondents’ age ranged from 33 to 54 years. all the respondents are graduates with a minimum of b.sc. qualification. the mean tenure of the respondents was 14.2 years. the measures used in the questionnaire were taken and adapted from the investigations of past studies. qwl scale was taken from ishfaq et al. (2022). this composite scale has 20 question items measuring qwl dimensions comprising physical work environment, relations and cooperation, training and development, compensation and rewards, and autonomy at work. this scale was rated on a five-point likert scale of strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). cronbach alpha for qwl scale was 0.783. 9 question items were taken from shouksmith (1989) scale for measuring wm. sample items include: “job is challenging and exciting” and “job develops potentials”. wm scale was rated on a five-point likert scale of strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). cronbach alpha for qwl scale was 0.899. the single item measure of js was taken from moon and jung (2018) to capture the overall emotional response of an employee to his or her job. the sample item is “considering everything, how satisfied are you with your job”. this scale was rated on a five-point likert scale of highly satisfied (5) to highly dissatisfied (1). cronbach alpha for js scale was .711. the 4 question items of eb was adapted from weber and gillespie (1998) in line with rest’s ethical decision model. the question items include: “in the past, i have encountered ethically challenging situations involving organisational members”, “i know what ought to be done in such work situations”, “i intend to make the right choice(s) in such work situations” and “in such situations, my actions conform to the ethical standards of my organisation”. this scale was rated on a five-point likert scale of strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). cronbach alpha for eb scale was .724. the partial least square structural equation modelling (pls-sem) technique was used as the analytical tool for data treatment and hypothesis testing. this sem technique was performed with the popular smartpls 3.2.7 software. the pls-sem is highly suitable for mediational analysis and also for latent constructs having a singleitem measure like js. the two-step procedure to pls-sem was adopted to test sequentially the measurement model (outer model) and structural model (inner model). further, the specific indirect effect test was performed to establish the mediation effects in the structural model. the bootstrap technique using 5000 subsamples was applied to assess the significance of the hypothesised paths in the structural model. the rule of thumb espoused in hair, hult, ringe, and sarstedt (2017) was used for interpretation of pls results. 4. results and discussion firstly, the study performed a measurement model estimation to establish validity and reliability of latent constructs. table 1 shows the results of the measurement model, and the resulting values exceeded the acceptable cut-off values recommended by hair et al. (2017). factor loadings (fl) were greater than 0.707, suggesting a good item reliability. the composite reliability (cr) values were greater than 0.70, demonstrating satisfactory construct reliability. the average variance extracted (ave) scores were above the minimum score of 0.50, evidencing adequate convergent validity. the fornell-larcker criterion for discriminant validity shows that each construct’s correlation was greater than the inter-construct correlations, suggesting discriminant validity was achieved. given the results of the quality criteria presented above, the measurement model was deemed satisfactorily to proceed to the second step, which involves the estimation of the structural model. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 37-42 41 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 1. measurement model estimates. construct items fls range cr ave qwl wm js eb qwl 20 0.719 – 0.858 0.756 0.651 0.827 wm 9 0.738 – 0.822 0.848 0.747 0.129 0.804 js 1 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.114 0.104 1.000 eb 4 0.773 – 0.792 0.736 0.689 0.215 0.245 0.119 0.795 table 2. structural model estimates. h path beta value p-value decision 1 js → eb 0.296 0.000 support 2 qwl → js qwl → js → eb 0.148 0.120 0.000 0.000 support 3 wm → js wm → js → eb 0.193 0.136 0.000 0.000 support 4 qwl → wm qwl → wm → js → eb 0.221 0.124 0.000 0.000 support note: p < 0.05; js r2 = 0.281; eb r2 = 0.434 table 2 shows the estimates and the decisions of each hypothesised relationship of the structural model. the r2 score for js shows that qwl and wm accounted for 28.1 percent variation in js, and the r2 score for eb shows that qwl, wm and js accounted for 43.4 percent variation in eb. h1 argues that js-eb relationship is significant and positive, and the pls-sem result (β = 0.296, p = 0.000) confirmed that this argument holds true. thus, h1 was supported, which agrees with the position of past studies (resende & porto, 2020; zhang, 2020) that js as an individual characteristic or factor has a strong predictive value on ethical choices or decisions of organisational members. as such, high levels of js enables employees to display exemplary eb at work. h2 and h3 suggest that js mediates the significant and positive qwl-eb and wm-eb relationships, and the specific indirect results for js mediation of qwl-eb (β = 0.120, p = 0.000) and wm-eb (β = 0.136, p = 0.000) prove these suggestions are valid. thus, h2 and h3 were accepted. the findings somewhat concurs with recent studies (sopiah & bernardes, 2022; zhang, 2020) that positioned js as a significant mediation construct in relationships involving work behaviours. further, the findings aligns with the arguments drawn from tpa that qwl and wm are psychological antecedence reinforcing js as a perceptible behavioural intention enhancing employees eb. therefore, qwl and wm are conceptually aligned with js as psychological processes that enable employees to engage in behaviours that clearly follows organisational norms and standards. h4 states that qwl-eb significant and positive relationship is sequentially mediated by wm and js, and the specific indirect result ((β = 0.124, p = 0.000) provides the needed statistical evidence validating this statement. thus, h3 was confirmed. the sequential mediation of wm and js in this relationship is a new contribution to extant literature, however, the finding concurs with the assumptions drawn from the control theory and the sdt theory in the literature review and hypotheses development section. further, when comparing the results of h2 and h4, it can be argued that qwl-eb relationship can be optimised when the psychological constructs of wm and js are both applied in a sequence. thus, it seems very likely that an employees with high qwl may easily access wm factors which enables him or her to experience a significant degree of js, and this improved levels of js causes employees to feel satisfied in engaging in eb. these results, as summarised in the research model in figure 2, highlight significant pathways for enhancing and maintaining eb in the workplace. figure 2. research model. 5. conclusion the study examined the relationship between quality of work life, work motivation, job satisfaction and ethical behaviour. in doing so, data were collected from 191 mid-level employee working in the delta state ministry of health, and subjected to the pls-sem analytical approach. from the pls-sem results, the study concluded that job satisfaction and ethical behaviour are positively and significantly related, proving the predictive effect of job satisfaction on ethical behaviour. further, js accounts for the way in which quality of work life and work motivation modulate employees’ ethical behaviour. finally, the dual mediation of work motivation and job satisfaction create an optimal link between quality of work-life and ethical behaviour. the results imply that public organisations can support ethical behaviour at work when certain individual-level (psychological) factors are well positioned and managed to achieve desirable outcomes. specifically, the study recommends that public organisations should regularly gauge employees’ job satisfaction levels given its centrality in facilitating positive work behaviour. the ensuing knowledge will allow for the implementation of timely and targeted interventions for continuous improvement of job satisfaction components. further, since work motivation enables employees to feel asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 37-42 42 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group more satisfied making ethical choices, work motivation activation can be a useful organisational intervention to encourage ethical considerations in employees’ decision making process. an assessment can be carried out in this regard to identify the motivating factors that employees hold dear. lastly, while we recognise that the effectiveness of quality of work-life factors is context-specific vis-à-vis industry and work setting, public organisations can consider the holistic effect of quality of work-life factors (comprising physical work environment, relations and cooperation, training and development, compensation and rewards, and autonomy at work) to engender behavioural change necessary for the display of ethical behaviour. for the purpose of future research, studies of this nature can be extended to other organisations and regions in nigeria to improve the generality of findings. further, respondents’ specific characteristics (gender, work experience, age, employment status, etc.) can help in drawing concrete and meaningful inferences. references abadiga, m., nemera, g., hailu, e., & mosisa, g. 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(2020). workplace spirituality and unethical pro-organizational behavior: the mediating effect of job satisfaction. journal of business ethics, 161(3), 687-705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3966-3 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-019-0365-8 https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/1887 https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12216 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijfs10030061 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-020-00496-w https://doi.org/10.3390/su141711055 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.03.008 https://doi.org/10.1186/1478-4491-8-26 https://doi.org/10.1177/0091026018767480 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.02.144 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220292 https://doi.org/10.9788/s43076-019-00006-1 https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2021.2015184 https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00382842 https://doi.org/10.1177/000765039803700406 https://doi.org/10.3390/economies10110290 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3966-3 143 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 2, 143-151, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.143.151 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group kindergarten pupils’ birth order and domains of early childhood development rene g. nanit tarlac agricultural university camiling, tarlac, philippines. abstract this study aimed to find significant relationship of kindergarten pupils’ birth order and achievement in domains of early childhood development (e.g., gross and fine motors, self-help, receptive and expressive languages, cognitive, and socio-emotional) using descriptivecorrelational design. a total population of 360 was reduced to 189 using slovin’s formula; respondents were chosen through random sampling. results show that most of the kindergarten pupils are last-born children. pupils’ achievement in fine motor, receptive language, and cognitive domains was average while slightly delayed in gross motor, self-help, expressive language, and socio-emotional domains. statistically, gross motor and expressive language domains have a significant relationship with birth order. in the gross motor, only middle born children have developed averagely; others were slightly delayed. in expressive language, only-child kindergarten pupils perform better than the other birth order. with this, teachers should consider birth order in providing learning opportunities to develop gross motor and expressive language. keywords: kindergarten, birth order, achievement, fine motor skills, gross motor skills, self-help skills, receptive language skills, expressive language skills, cognitive skills, socio-emotional skills. jel classification: i29. citation | rene g. nanit (2020). kindergarten pupils’ birth order and domains of early childhood development. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(2): 143-151. history: received: 19 march 2020 revised: 24 april 2020 accepted: 26 may 2020 published: 4 june 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this paper was funded by my institution, the tarlac agricultural university. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 144 2. purpose of the research ............................................................................................................................................................... 144 3. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 144 4. results and discussions ................................................................................................................................................................ 145 5. conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 150 6. recommendations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 151 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 151 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.143.151&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1699 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6935-8946 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1699 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6935-8946 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1699 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6935-8946 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1699 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6935-8946 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 143-151 144 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study has provided empirical pieces of evidence on the achievement of kindergarten pupils in domains of early childhood development and its relationship to birth order. the study revealed a significant correlation between birth order and gross motor and expressive language domains. 1. introduction people are intrigued by the empirical eff ects of birth order on human capital growth, which has revitalized interests among researchers and academicians that are evident in several past and recent years. hotz and pantano (2015) claimed that the first-borns are responsible, high achievers, and perfectionists, whereas last born and only child are mostly spoiled kids.1 the studies above are in contrast with the study of dailey (2012) about birth order and its effect on motivation and academic achievement, which revealed that birth order effects on academic achievement are so small that many more participants would be needed to find a significant impact on this study.2 also, results indicated in the research of ha and tam (2011) that the participants of different birth positions have no significant differences in terms of academic performance and personality. 3 although some of the researchers have shown that first-born children are better at a lot of things than their younger siblings and some researchers indicated no significant differences in their academic performance, the subjects of the studies presented were teenagers and adults. that is why the researcher, being an educator in the field of early childhood education, interestingly wanted to know aside from the fact that every individual is different from another if the birth order of a child affects his/her achievement in domains of early childhood education. early childhood years are a crucial stage in every learner's life. the national association for the education of young children (naeyc) considers the teacher's role and in supporting children's development as one of their top fundamental principles. children must function in all the developmental domains (i.e., physical, social, emotional, and cognitive) if they are to adapt to school and societal norms successfully. these domains are empirically related and inextricably intertwined in early childhood. kindergarten is a critical year where the experiences of children nurture positive approaches to learning, which prepare the learner for the more rigorous academic expectations in the elementary grades (copple, 2009).4 the department of education of the republic of the philippines believes that the kindergarten stage is a transition between informal literacy and formal literacy (grade 1-12). the aforementioned is the period of highest growth and development, when the brain develops rapidly, almost at its fullest. this stage establishes a period of walking, talking, selfesteem, moral foundations, and the world's concept. at this stage, teachers should immerse children with games, plays, and activities to naturally acquire the skills/competencies for holistic development as emergent literates and be ready for formal school. republic act 10157 also known as kindergarten education act (philippines, 2012) supports naeyc's mission to nurture positive approaches to learning and prepare children to naturally acquire the skills and competencies appropriate for their holistic development. therefore, teachers should guide the kindergarten learners using a developmentally appropriate, engaging, and creative curriculum. thus, finding the significant relationship of kindergarten pupils' birth order and achievement in domains of early childhood development would be of great help to kindergarten teachers, practitioners and parents to successfully and efficiently undertake their roles in attaining holistic development of children.5 2. purpose of the research this study aimed to determine the relationship of kindergarten pupils' birth order, and achievement in domains of early childhood development at santa ignacia north district, tarlac, philippines enrolled during the school year 2015-2016. specifically, it aimed to answer the following questions: 1. how may kindergarten pupils be described in terms of their:birth order; and achievement in domains of early childhood development? 2. how does kindergarten pupils' birth order relate to their achievement in domains of early childhood development? 3. what are the implications of the study on preschool education? 3. methodology 3.1. research design the study used descriptive-correlational design to determine if there is a significant relationship between kindergarten pupils' birth order and their achievement in domains of early childhood development. descriptive research studies variables as they exist in their setting. there is no manipulation of experimental variables, and the main concern is to describe the status, profile, incidences or occurrences of the variables (sicat, 2009). 6with this, the study looked for the learners' birth order and achievement in domains of early childhood development. thus, this design is appropriate for the study. on the other hand, correctional research explores the relationship between or among variables. it studies variables without any attempt to control or manipulate them. the study aimed to find if there was a significant relationship between kindergarten pupils' birth order and their achievement in domains of early childhood development. thus, this design is also appropriate. . 1 from hotz and pantano (2015). 2 from dailey (2012). 3 from ha and tam (2011). 4 from copple (2009). 5 from philippines (2012). 6 from sicat (2009). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 143-151 145 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3.2. respondents of the study and sampling procedure the population of 360 pupils of santa ignacia north district during the school year 2015 – 2016 was reduced to a sample size of 189 kindergarten pupils, as computed using slovin’s formula at 0.05 degree of error. the respondents of the study were the eight (8) teachers of the 189 kindergarten pupils. the researcher used random sampling in identifying the individual kindergarten pupils in the study. teachers gave the list of kindergarten pupils to the researcher, where he randomly selected the samples. 3.3. data gathering instrument the data on achievement in domains of early childhood development of the kindergarten pupils were elicited through the results of 2nd assessment period of the early childhood development checklist, the instrument used by kindergarten teachers in the public schools. since this instrument is standardized, no validation and reliability test is needed. the checklist is administered in a setting familiar to the respondents. the examiner (teacher) employed various and appropriate methods to determine if the child exhibited specified behavior. these included observation, direct elicitation of the behavior from the child, and an interview of the parents(s) or caregiver(s). each form of the ecd checklist did not take more than 45 minutes to administer. the checklist could be administered to the child thrice within a year. the checklist was divided into seven domains: gross motor, fine motor, self-help, receptive language, expressive language, cognitive, and social-emotional. in each domain, accomplished indicators will be counted and serve as the raw scores. after deriving the raw scores for each domain, the raw score was converted into the scaled score appropriate to the child's age using the scaled score conversation table. the computed scaled scores were interpreted. if the scaled score is 1-3, it was understood as suggest significant delay in development, which means that very few among the skills/activities prescribed in each domain in the checklist were accomplished by the child; this further means that the child was frail in the domain being assessed. if the scaled score is 4-6, it was interpreted as suggest significant slight delay in development, which means that few among the skills/activities prescribed in each domain in the checklist were accomplished by the child; this further means that the child is weak in the domain being assessed. if the scaled score is 7-13, it was interpreted as average development which means that the child accomplished the average number of skills/activities prescribed in each domain in the checklist. moreover, if the scaled score is 14-16, it was interpreted as suggest slightly advanced development which means that majority among the skills/activities prescribed in each domain in the checklist were accomplished by the child; this further means that the child is healthy in the domain being assessed. lastly, if the scaled score is 17-19, it was interpreted as suggest highly advanced development which means that most or all of the skills/activities prescribed in each domain in the checklist were accomplished by the child; this further means that the child is robust in the field being assessed. 3.4. data gathering procedure in terms of the data collection, the researcher first asked permission from the division superintendent of tarlac province then from the district supervisor of santa ignacia north district, santa ignacia, tarlac, and the respective principals before gathering data. when the permission was approved, the researcher went to the individual kindergarten teachers to collect data. the parent's consent was sought before the collection. achievement of the pupils in domains of early childhood development was elicited through the result of the 2nd assessment period of the early childhood development checklist. observations were also conducted for more substantial information. data gathered were analyzed and interpreted after subjecting them to statistical treatments. 3.5. data analysis the study used simple frequency counts and percentages. the chi-square test was used in identifying the correlation of the birth order and domains of early childhood development kindergarten pupils. tables and figures were utilized to give the reader a comprehensive picture of the gathered data and information. in identifying the correlation of the birth order with the kindergarten pupils’ achievement in domains of early childhood development, the chi-square test was used. 4. results and discussions this section presents the analyses and interpretation of the data gathered from the kindergarten pupils. it also discusses the findings concerning the problems raised in the study. the data were subjected to statistical treatment through weighted means and chi-square for objective interpretation. these were presented into table forms followed by their textual interpretations. 4.1. birth order birth order refers to the chronological order of sibling births in a family. the birth order of the kindergarten pupils in the district was collected. data shows that 74 out of 189 or the majority of the pupils were last-borns, followed by first-born children, and then the only child pupils. only a few were middle-born children. 4.2. achievement of kindergarten pupils in domains of early childhood development the achievement of the kindergarten pupils was described in terms of their performance in the seven domains – gross motor, fine motor, self-help, receptive and expressive, cognitive, and socio-emotional. the performances were assessed through the early childhood development checklist, an instrument used by kindergarten teachers in public schools. the tool is being administered at three assessment periods within a year to measure the pupil's development. the data presented below is the result of their second assessment period. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 143-151 146 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.3. gross motor domain gross motor skill is the ability to control and coordinate body movements involving large muscle groups such as crawling, walking, running, skipping, jumping, and climbing. grissmer, grimm, aiyer, murrah, and steele (2010) claimed that some of the same neural infrastructures in the brain that directs the learning process during motor development are also involved in the direction of learning in cognitive development. hence, analyzing the motor development of young children is essential. 7 table-1. achievement of the kindergarten pupils in gross motor domain of early childhood development. birth order suggest significant delay in the overall development suggest a slight delay in the overall development average development total mean verbal description f % f % f % f % first 12 6.35 10 5.29 39 20.63 61 32.28 2.44 suggest a slight delay in the overall development middle 0 0.00 1 0.53 19 10.05 20 10.58 2.95 average development last 21 11.11 17 8.99 36 19.05 74 39.15 2.20 suggest a slight delay in the overall development only child 7 3.70 6 3.17 21 11.11 34 17.99 2.41 suggest a slight delay in the overall development total 40 21.16 34 17.99 115 60.85 189 100 note: grand mean: 2.44 verbal description: suggest a slight delay in the overall development. note: f= frequency, % = percentage it is shown in table 1 that in terms of their gross motor domain, middle born kindergarten pupils perform better than the pupils with other birth orders since the only middle born pupils have average development during the second assessment of the ecd checklist. it can be interpreted that the kindergarten pupils are weak in this developmental domain. during the assessment, only a few among the skills/activities prescribed by the checklist gross motor domain were accomplished. some of these crafts/activities were: climbing on a chair or other elevated pieces of furniture like a bed without help, walking backward, running without tripping or falling, walking upstairs with other feet without holding the handrail, and moving body part as directed. it is alarming that learners are delayed in this learning domain, considering the study of the national research council (2012) which states that sensory and motor developments are critical for everyday and classroom activities that contribute to cognitive development, early learning, and eventually academic achievement. 8with this, it is necessary to strive for the improvement of the kindergarten pupils' gross motor skills through enrichment learning opportunities that can be provided by teachers and can be reinforced by parents/guardians at home. 4.4. fine motor domain a fine motor skill is the ability to control and coordinate hand and finger movements such as copies a simple pattern of different basic shapes and draws a human figure without prompts. likewise, it is the ability to draw a house without prompts using geometric forms, and coloring with strokes staying within the lines. table-2. achievement of the kindergarten pupils in fine motor domain of early childhood development. birth order suggest significant delay in the overall development suggest a slight delay in the overall development average development total mean verbal description f % f % f % f % first 0 0.00 5 2.65 56 29.63 61 32.28 2.92 average development middle 0 0.00 0 0.00 20 10.58 20 10.58 3.00 average development last 3 1.59 5 2.65 66 34.92 74 39.15 2.85 average development only child 0 0.00 1 0.53 33 17.46 34 17.99 2.97 average development total 3 1.59 11 5.82 175 92.59 189 100.00 note: grand mean: 2.91 verbal description: average development note: f= frequency, % = percentage. in terms of fine motor skills, most of the pupils attained average development while very few of them have a significant delay in development and slightly delayed. it can be viewed in table 2 that the pupils accomplished an average number of skills/activities in the ecd checklist. such skills/activities were picking up objects with thumb and index finger, displaying a definite hand preference, putting small objects in/out of containers, holding a crayon with all the fingers of his hand making a fist, scribbling spontaneously and the like. one study found that fine motor skills were strongly linked to later 7 from fine motor skills and early comprehension of the world: two new school readiness indicators. grissmer et al. (2010). developmental psychology 46(5):1008-1017. 8 from neurons to neighborhoods: an update: workshop summary. national research council (2012). washington, dc: the national academies press. https://doi.org/10.17226/13119. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 143-151 147 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group achievement (grissmer et al., 2010).9 considering their achievement, kindergarten pupils have standard fine motor skills. since their performance in this domain was elicited from the 2nd assessment period, teachers have ample time to raise the bar of the pupils' achievement in fine motor skills because this domain has strongly linked to later performance. 4.5. self-help domain self-help is the ability of kindergarten pupils to become independent in performing tasks such as learning to dress oneself, feed oneself, using the toilet, brushing teeth, bathing, tying shoes, and alike. table-3. achievement of the kindergarten pupils in self-help domain of early childhood development. birth order suggest significant delay in the overall development suggest a slight delay in the overall development average development total mean verbal description f % f % f % f % first 31 16.40 14 7.41 16 8.47 61 32.28 1.75 suggest significant delay in the overall development middle 13 6.88 5 2.65 2 1.06 20 10.58 1.45 suggest significant delay in the overall development last 32 16.93 23 12.17 19 10.05 74 39.15 1.82 suggest a slight delay in the overall development only child 16 8.47 8 4.23 10 5.29 34 17.99 1.82 suggest a slight delay in the overall development total 92 48.68 50 26.46 47 24.87 189 100.00 note: grand mean: 1.76 verbal description: suggest significant delay in the overall development note: f= frequency, % = percentage. in the self-help domain, as presented in table 3, almost half of the pupils have significantly delayed development while few of them were slightly delayed and averagely developed. in terms of the class performance, the kindergarten pupils are delayed considerably in overall self-help development since the computed grand mean is 1.76. results revealed that this is the weakest domain of the pupils. these results can be interpreted that during the assessment period, many indicators such as feeding self with finger food using fingers, eating without a need for spoon-feeding during any meal and bathing were not accomplished. same with drinking from a cup without spillage, dressing without assistance except for buttons and tying, going to the designated place to urinate (pee) or move bowels (pooh), and never does this is his underpants anymore and the like. the result of the present study is very alarming because this domain prepares children to become independent in later years as well as self-assurance, accountability, and responsibility. hence, home and school can offer learning opportunities for learners to develop self-help skills and give them ample time to work on these essential tasks. adults shall play an indispensable role as models; children learn a great deal from watching people around them, especially their parents/ guardians and teachers. 4.6. receptive language domain receptive language domain refers to the understanding of language "input." it includes the knowledge of words and gestures. it goes beyond just vocabulary skills, but also the knowledge of concepts like "on" and the ability to understand a question as a question. table-4. achievement of the kindergarten pupils in receptive language domain of early childhood development. birth order suggest significant delay in the overall development suggest a slight delay in the overall development average development total mean verbal description f % f % f % f % first 2 1.06 12 6.35 47 24.87 61 32.28 2.74 average development middle 3 1.59 5 2.65 12 6.35 20 10.58 2.45 suggest a slight delay in the overall development last 8 4.23 16 8.47 50 26.46 74 39.15 2.57 suggest a slight delay in the overall development only child 4 2.12 8 4.23 22 11.64 34 17.99 2.53 suggest a slight delay in the overall development total 17 8.99 41 21.69 131 69.31 189 100 note: grand mean: 2.60 verbal description: average development. note: f= frequency, % = percentage. 9 from fine motor skills and early comprehension of the world: two new school readiness indicators. grissmer et al. (2010). developmental psychology 46(5):1008-1017. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 143-151 148 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 4 shows that the achievement of first-born kindergarten pupils is higher than the other birth orders. the majority of the pupils were averagely developed; and, few of them were slightly delayed and significantly delayed in development. it means that few of the pupils are very weak in their ability to understand both verbal and nonverbal communication. this result further revealed that with the grand mean of 2.60, kindergarten pupils' achievement in the receptive language domain is average. it can be viewed that the kindergarten pupils performed some of the skills successfully. these were pointing to a family member, leading to 5 body parts on himself, pointing to 5 named pictured objects, following one-step instructions that include simple prepositions (e.g., in, on, under, etc.), and following 2-step instructions that include simple prepositions. the interrelatedness of the domains is evident in the study conducted by the national research council (2015).10 it states that awareness of the benefits and pitfalls of the language used by adults is essential for interaction with learners. the language used by adults affects the learning and cognitive growth of learners in many subtle ways. labeling is a powerful way to foster conceptual development. simple labels can help children unify diverse things into coherent categories, but can also have the unintended consequence of reinforcing concepts that are not desirable. 4.7. expressive language domain expressive language skill is their ability of kindergarten pupils to use words and gestures to express his thoughts and feelings, e.g., draw and tell a story about his drawing. table-5. achievement of the kindergarten pupils in expressive language domain of early childhood development. birth order suggest significant delay in the overall development suggest a slight delay in the overall development average development total mean verbal description f % f % f % f % first 6 3.17 50 26.46 5 2.65 61 32.28 1.98 suggest a slight delay in the overall development middle 5 2.65 13 6.88 2 1.06 20 10.58 1.85 suggest a slight delay in the overall development last 11 5.82 58 30.69 5 2.65 74 39.15 1.92 suggest a slight delay in the overall development only child 0 0.00 26 13.76 8 4.23 34 17.99 2.24 suggest a slight delay in the overall development total 22 11.64 147 77.78 20 10.58 189 100.00 note: grand mean: 1.99 verbal description: suggest a slight delay in the overall development. note: f= frequency, % = percentage. in terms of expressive language, the majority of the pupils have a slight delay in development, while few have a significant delay in growth and healthy development. table 5 revealed that the pupils' overall development in expressive language is slightly delayed. the results can be interpreted that during the second assessment of the checklist, very few among the activities were performed correctly by the pupils. some of these tasks of the pupils were using 5-20 recognizable words, using pronouns (e.g., i, me, mine), naming objects in pictures, asking "who" and "why" questions, giving an account of recent experiences (with prompting) in order of occurrence using past tense and the like. 4.8. cognitive domain the cognitive domain refers to the ability of kindergarten pupils to understand concepts, their logical relations, and consequently manipulate them to arrive at new knowledge, ideas, or conclusions. teachers and parents in this regard should be cautious about underestimating children's cognitive abilities. national research council (2015) posits that the potential to underestimate young learners' cognitive abilities continues in the preschool and kindergarten years. in one study, for example, learner's actual performance was six to eight times what was estimated by their preschool teachers and other experts.11 this underestimation draws a lost opportunity that can hinder learner's progress. it was revealed in a study in kindergarten that learners benefited more from advanced reading and mathematics content. unfortunately, teachers spent most of the academic time primary contents which learners already knew (claessens, engel, & curran, 2014).12 moreover, when education professionals and practitioners underestimate learner's abilities to understand and learn subjectmatter content, those with less prior learning experiences were negatively affected (clements & sarama, 2014).13 table 6 shows that the only middle-born kindergarten pupils are slightly delayed in their overall cognitive development; the other birth orders are average in their development. on the other hand, only two kindergarten pupils, firstand last-born was slightly advanced. with the grand mean of 2.64, kindergarten pupils' overall development in the cognitive domain is average. results further revealed that kindergarten pupils' ability to look at the direction of the fallen object, match objects, sort based on shapes, arrange objects according to size from smallest to biggest, name three animals or vegetables, assemble simple puzzles and the like is average. 10 from national research council (2015). 11 from national research council (2015). 12 from claessens et al. (2014). 13 from clements and sarama (2014). 14 from national research council (2012). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 143-151 149 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-6. achievement of the kindergarten pupils in cognitive domain of early childhood development. birth order suggest significant delay in the overall development suggest a slight delay in the overall development average development suggest slightly advanced development total mean verbal description f % f % f % f % f % first 4 2.12 12 6.35 44 23.28 1 0.53 61 32.28 2.69 average development middle 5 2.65 2 1.06 13 6.88 0 0.00 20 10.58 2.40 suggest a slight delay in the overall development last 8 4.23 10 5.29 55 29.10 1 0.53 74 39.15 2.66 average development only child 3 1.59 6 3.17 25 13.23 0 0.00 34 17.99 2.65 average development total 20 10.58 30 15.87 137 72.49 2 1.06 189 100 note: grand mean: 2.64 verbal description: average development. note: f= frequency, % = percentage. in this regard, teachers and parents should provide learning opportunities that are developmentally appropriate for children's abilities and readiness. national research council (2012) emphasized that learning begins prenatally; children are not only "ready to learn" but already actively learning, which started when they are born.14 from birth, children's minds are curious and active, and early thinking is insightful and obscure. many of the foundations of complex forms of learning are established in the earliest stages of life. development and early education can be supported continuously as a child develops, and new knowledge and skills inform and influence future learning. when adults understand how the mind grows, how active inquiry and learning are children's natural inclination, and what progress learners make in their cognitive abilities, they can nurture cognitive growth. adults can support learner's active engagement with new learning experiences. they can provide developmentally appropriate opportunities for further learning. 4.9. socio-emotional domain through structured and unstructured, games, activities, play, and interaction with other people, young learners process information about their world. from these experiences, they develop their understanding and abilities in math, science, and language. the mind of a young child is like a sponge that absorbs information. on the other hand, learners who are unable to self-regulate have emotional difficulties that may hinder learning. as with younger learners, significant adults in a child's life can help the child learn to self-regulate (tomlinson, 2014).15 if this is so, it is necessary to analyze the socio-emotional domain of children. table-7. achievement of the kindergarten pupils in socio-emotional domain of early childhood development. suggest significant delay in the overall development suggest a slight delay in the overall development average development total mean verbal description birth order f % f % f % f % first 13 6.88 25 13.23 23 12.17 61 32.28 2.16 suggest a slight delay in the overall development middle 8 4.23 7 3.70 5 2.65 20 10.58 1.85 suggest a slight delay in the overall development last 19 10.05 28 14.81 27 14.29 74 39.15 2.11 suggest a slight delay in the overall development only child 9 4.76 12 6.35 13 6.88 34 17.99 2.12 suggest a slight delay in the overall development total 49 25.93 72 38.10 68 35.98 189 100 note: grand mean: 2.10 verbal description: suggest a slight delay in the overall development. note: f= frequency, % = percentage. as shown in table 7, kindergarten pupils' achievement in the socio-emotional domain is slightly delayed in any birth order. it means that the majority of pupils are weak in their ability to know themselves, express and understand feelings, and relate to others. the results further revealed that the kindergarten pupils completed only a few among the skills during the assessment. some of these skills/activities were playing alone but liked to be near familiar adults or brothers and sisters, demonstrating respect for elders, sharing toys with others, identifying feelings in others, helping with family chores (e.g., wiping tables, watering plants, etc.) and other activities prescribed by the checklist. socio-emotional development contributes to the growth of emotional security that enables young children to fully invest in new learning and to the growth of cognitive skills and competencies that are important for 15 from tomlinson (2014). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 143-151 150 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group education. these capacities are essential because knowledge is inherently a social process. young learner's relationships—with parents, teachers, and peers as well as the members of the community—thus are fundamental to the learning experiences that contribute to their later success (national research council, 2012). 16it is alarming that pupils are slightly delayed in this domain. in this regard, teachers, parents, and other stakeholders must work hand and hand for its improvement. parents have a significant function in the development of character and values of children; this starts at home. building good character and values which are intertwined in socio-emotional skills are best learned through role modeling. teachers, on the other hand, have a role in reinforcing taught values and socio-emotional skills at home. anyone who has direct contact with each child can affect his/her socio-emotional development how they were treated, valued, and cared. 4.10. relationship of kindergarten pupils’ birth order to their achievement in domains of early childhood development birth order refers to the chronological order of sibling births in a family (first-born, last-born, middle-born, only-child). on the other hand, gross motor, fine motor, self-help, receptive language, expressive language, cognitive, and socio-emotional composes the domains early childhood development. table-8. relationship of kindergarten pupils’ birth order and achievement in domains of early childhood development. note: f= frequency, % = percentage. it made use of the chi-square test to examine the relationship between kindergarten pupils' birth order and their achievement in domains of early childhood development. only the relation of birth order to expressive language and gross motor domains of kindergarten pupils was significant since the computed p-value is less than the 0.05 level of significance. it can be interpreted in table 8 that their gross motor performance, such as climbing on a chair or other elevated piece of furniture without help, walking backward, and running without tripping or falling, has a significant relationship to birth order. further, walking upstairs with other feet without holding the handrail and moving body part as directed has a substantial connection to the sibling arrangement. meanwhile, in terms of the performance of the kindergarten pupils concerning their birth order, the only middle born children are average achievers while other birth orders are slightly delayed. on the other hand, expressive language is most merely the "output" of writing, how children express their wants and needs. this domain includes not only words but also grammar rules that dictate how these words are combined into clauses, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs and the use of gestures and facial expressions. credit must also be given to the gestural cues and facial expressions that pupils use and react to as it is an earlydeveloping and valuable skill. statistically, this domain has a significant relationship with birth order. in terms of the achievement of the kindergarten pupils in their expressive language concerning their sibling arrangement, pupils who are only child perform better than the pupils with other birth order. with this, it can be inferred that since only child pupil has his/her attention at home, he/she is more exposed to conversations and another form of communication, which enhances his/her expressive language skills. 5. conclusions this study primarily aimed to determine the relationship of kindergarten pupils' birth order, and achievement in domains of early childhood development at santa ignacia north district, tarlac, philippines enrolled during the school year 2015-2016. the present study is unique and will fill the gap in birth order and academic achievement studies since all of the respondents on all conducted studies analyzing the effects of birth order on the academic achievements of students: elementary, high school, and college students. hence, the findings of the present study are significant and essential as additional empirical results of those researches conducted to look at the relationship of birth order to pupils' academic achievement, highlighting early childhood education, particularly kindergarten education. the findings of the present study revealed that most of the kindergarten pupils are last-born and firstborn children. and few are middle-born and only-child pupils. on the other hand, the overall achievement of the kindergarten pupils in fine motor, receptive language, and cognitive domains is average. simultaneously, they are slightly delayed in gross motor, self-help, expressive language, and socio-emotional domains. these domains of learning are interrelated to each other; these have equal importance and significance to the attainment of holistic development. thus, it is necessary to improve fields, especially delayed ones. on the one hand, gross motor and expressive language are the domains of early childhood development that have a significant relationship with kindergarten pupils' birth order. only middle-born children have average growth in the gross motor; the other birth orders are slightly delayed. meanwhile, pupils who are only child perform better in expressive language domain than the pupils with different birth orderfirstborn, middle born and last born. in this light, we can infer that, since the only child pupil has the individual attention at home, he/she is the sole recipient of any form of communication, both verbal and non-verbal, which can contribute to the development of expressive language. 16 from national research council (2012). the domain of early childhood development p-value level of significance interpretation gross motor 0.02 0.05 significant fine motor 0.29 0.05 not significant self-help 0.58 0.05 not significant receptive 0.57 0.05 not significant expressive 0.02 0.05 significant cognitive 0.37 0.05 not significant socio-emotional 0.08 0.05 not significant asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 143-151 151 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group hence, the present study concludes that birth order has something to do with pupils' academic achievement not only to elementary, high school and college students but also as young as a kindergarten pupil, especially in gross motor and expressive domains of early childhood development. 6. recommendations it is the shortcoming of the present study to look for the possible reasons or causes why respondents’ achievement in some domains of early childhood development is delayed; gaps in years between birth orders were not also considered. with this, it is recommended to consider these variables for future research direction. also, further research has to be conducted considering other localities and broader scope for more conclusive findings. on the other hand, based on the results and conclusions, it is recommended that kindergarten teachers may consider the significant relationship of birth order and gross motor and expressive language domains in providing learning opportunities to kindergarten pupils. birth order may be used as a grouping strategy to enhance a specific field of learning. meanwhile, school administrators should provide kindergarten teachers with continual exposure and training to deal with the improvement of kindergarten pupils’ achievement in the realms of early childhood development. references claessens, a., engel, m., & curran, f. c. (2014). academic content, student learning, and the persistence of preschool effects. american educational research journal, 51(2), 403-434.available at: https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831213513634. clements, d. h., & sarama, j. (2014). learning and teaching early math: the learning trajectories approach (2nd ed.). new york: routledge. copple. (2009). developmentally appropriate practices in early childhood program: serving children from birth through age eight. usa: national association for the education of young children (naeyc). dailey, k. m. (2012). birth order and its effect on motivation and academic achievement. journal of personality and individual differences, 40(5), 953-959. grissmer, d., grimm, k. j., aiyer, s. m., murrah, w. m., & steele, j. s. (2010). fine motor skills and early comprehension of the world: two new school readiness indicators. developmental psychology, 46(5), 1008-1017.available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020104. ha, t. s., & tam, c. l. (2011). a study of birth order, academic performance, and personality. singapore: iacsit press. hotz, v. j., & pantano, j. (2015). strategic parenting, birth order, and school performance. journal of population economics, 28(4), 911936.available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-015-0542-3. national research council. (2012). from neurons to neighborhoods: an update: workshop summary. washington, dc: the national academies press. national research council. (2015). transforming the workforce for children birth through age 8: a unifying foundation. washington, dc: the national academies press. philippines, r. o. (2012). republic act no. 10157. manila, ncr.republic act. retrieved from: https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/. sicat, l. v. (2009). work text in research writing (pp. 30-31). tarlac: tarlac state university. tomlinson, h. b. (2014). an overview of development in the primary grades. in developmentally appropriate practice (pp. 9-38). washington, dc: national association for the education of young children. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/ 42 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 9, no. 2, 42-50, 2022 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v9i2.3902 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group relationship between workplace fun and job satisfaction among university administrative staff: does perceived organizational support matter? henry samuel edosomwan department of psychology, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria. email: hs.edosomwan@stu.unizik.edu.ng tel: +2347066709392 abstract research on the underlying factors connecting workplace fun and job satisfaction in public organizations is in dearth. based on the aforementioned, this study examined the moderating effect of perceived organizational support (pos) in the relationship between workplace fun and job satisfaction. a cross-sectional design was adopted for the study. the convenience sampling technique was used for selecting 167 university administrative staff consisting of 58 males and 109 females. standardized self-report measures were adopted for data collection while the regression analysis (complemented with model 1 of hayes' process macro) was used for testing the hypotheses via the ibm-spss version 25. the results indicated that workplace fun positively and significantly predicted job satisfaction. pos was positively and significantly related to job satisfaction but did not moderate the relationship between workplace fun and job satisfaction. the research findings suggest that workplace fun and pos are salient factors for the experience of satisfaction at work. it is recommended that workplace fun should be encouraged and supported by the organization as this has a unique way of improving job satisfaction. keywords: workplace fun, job satisfaction, perceived organizational support, university, administrative staff, nigeria. citation | henry samuel edosomwan (2022). relationship between workplace fun and job satisfaction among university administrative staff: does perceived organizational support matter? asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 9(2): 42-50. history: received: 22 february 2022 revised: 4 april 2022 accepted: 20 april 2022 published: 6 may 2022 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 43 2. literature review and hypotheses development ..................................................................................................................... 43 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 45 4. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 46 5. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................ 47 6. theoretical implications ................................................................................................................................................. 48 7. practical implications ...................................................................................................................................................... 48 8. conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................ 48 9. limitations and avenues for further studies ............................................................................................................................ 48 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 49 mailto:hs.edosomwan@stu.unizik.edu.ng https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v9i2.3902 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4338-9066 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 42-50 43 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to the literature by exploring the moderating effect of perceived organizational support in the nexus between workplace fun and job satisfaction in a sample of university administrative staff in nigeria. it also examines the dimensions of workplace fun as predictors of job satisfaction. 1. introduction job satisfaction, the positive state or feeling emanating from employees’ experience in the workplace has gained a lot of attention in organizational research (bhatti, alshagawi, zakariya, & juhari, 2019). the construct has been explored in different work settings, including the university work environment (e.g., inuwa and muhammad (2016)). the overall functioning of a university mostly relies on the job carried out by the administrative staff. the university administrative employees are in charge of administrative and supportive services that help in the daily functioning of the university. according to a report published by the national universities commission (2018), they constitute a large proportion of the total workforce in most nigerian public-owned universities. hence, an important task for nigerian public universities is to stimulate the motivation and job satisfaction levels of their administrative employees. satisfying the higher-order needs of employees remains a priority and it is achieved by creating a conducive working environment where employees have a sense of belonging and attachment to the organization and the people in it (adekanmbi, ukpere, & adegoke, 2020; stefanovska-petkovska, bojadziev, & velik-stefanovska, 2014). with regards to productivity in the university system, administrative staff are assessed by their operational efficiency rather than the accumulation of revenue or profits (adekanmbi et al., 2020). the success of academicians and students in the university greatly relies on the support provided by administrative staff of the university. there have been reports of inefficiency and reduced productivity among university administrative staff in nigeria (adejare, olaore, udofia, & emola, 2020). administrative inefficiency is a menace to the growth and success of a university. inefficiency and unproductivity have been attributed to reduced job satisfaction (inuwa & muhammad, 2016). therefore, to achieve timely organizational results, it is imperative to explore factors that are likely to promote job satisfaction. based on this, the current study examines workplace fun as a predictor of job satisfaction, and the interacting effect (moderation) of perceived organizational support (pos) on the proposed relationship. although empirical literature on the antecedents of job satisfaction exists, little is known about fun at work and the satisfaction university administrative staff derive from their job. a few gaps in the literature gave necessity to this study. the first gap in the literature relates to the research setting (nigeria), and the population utilized in previous studies within this setting. although job satisfaction is a highly researched area in nigeria (e.g., (inegbedion, inegbedion, peter, & harry, 2020; iyeke, 2020; opeke, ikonne, & adewoyin, 2020)); studies exploring the role of workplace fun and its dimensionality as possible antecedents of job satisfaction among public sector employees (especially administrative staff in the nigerian universities) are in dearth. previous studies have utilized workplace fun as a moderator on the nexus between identifying with an organization and job satisfaction among workers in hospitality organizations (ugheoke, mashi, & isa, 2021). hence, there is a scarcity of research regarding workplace fun as a predictor of job satisfaction among university administrative employees. exploring this gap in literature will help to inform policies and managerial practices in the university setting and public organizations. second, there is a lack of research investigating the conditional effect of pos on the nexus between fun at work and job satisfaction. the recent trend in organizational research indicates that the relationship between two workplace variables can be mediated or moderated by a third variable (inegbedion et al., 2020; oguegbe & edosomwan, 2021) given that past research and organizational theory support the inclusion of a third variable. this informed the choice of investigating the moderating effect of pos to further understand the underlying factors responsible for the proposed nexus between fun at work and the satisfaction employee get from their job. therefore, it is proposed that the likely relationship between fun at work and job satisfaction changes at the different levels of pos. last, most studies that have been conducted on workplace fun have adopted the five-item scale put toward by karl, peluchette, and harland (2007). the use of this scale is largely evident in the literature (e.g., (chan & mak, 2016; inegbedion et al., 2020; mousa, ayoubi, & massoud, 2020a; mousa, ayoubi, massoud, & chaouali, 2021b; ugheoke et al., 2021)). although the scale has been proven to have good psychometric properties, recent conceptualization considers workplace fun as a multidimensional construct (sekarawisut & yurtkoru, 2021). hence, it will be more valid and encompassing to measure workplace fun using this proposition to be better informed on the proposed relationship between the predictor and criterion variables. based on the above-stated problem and gaps identified in the literature, the following objectives have been designed to guide this study: (1) to examine the nexus between workplace fun and job satisfaction, and (2) to examine the conditional effect of pos on the nexus between workplace fun and job satisfaction. examining these objectives will be of great value in adding to the organizational behavior literature on the possible connection and interaction among the predictor, criterion, and moderating variables. 2. literature review and hypotheses development 2.1. job satisfaction job satisfaction is a construct that has been largely explored in management research because of its capacity to influence performance and other workplace attitudes (katebi, hajizadeh, bordbar, & salehi, 2022). according to bhatti et al. (2019), job satisfaction is the positive emotional state of employees ranging from the feeling of happiness, optimism, enthusiasm, love, and passion for their job. these positive emotional states are usually based on the employees’ experience in the workplace (loan, 2020; oluwatayo & adetoro, 2020). job satisfaction occurs when the job can meet the material and psychological needs of an employee. recent literature indicates that job satisfaction is linked to positive workplace outcomes such as organizational commitment, employee loyalty, job performance, caring and empathic behavior among healthcare professionals, and general employee well-being (e.g., (adeniji, salau, awe, & oludayo, 2018; bakotic, 2016; iyeke, 2020; jain, 2016; loan, 2020; phuong & vinh, 2020)). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 42-50 44 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.2. workplace fun workplace fun is another variable being considered in this study. it is defined as the interpersonal and taskrelated activities of a humorous or playful nature that provide the employees with enjoyment, pleasure, and amusement (fluegge-woolf, 2014). workplace fun describes all the activities in the workplace that makes the work environment fun and pleasurable for the employees. based on the report of mcdowell (2005), these activities range from socializing with coworkers, celebrating at work, personal freedoms, and generally fun activities at work. according to michel, tews, and allen (2019), workplace fun is defined as specific features or characteristics of a playful, social and humorous nature, with the potential of eliciting positive feelings such as amusement, enjoyment, and lighthearted pleasures among individuals at work. management literature indicates that workplace fun is a positive resource that influences an employee’s attitude in the workplace (tsaur, hsu, & lin, 2019). 2.3. perceived organizational support (pos) pos is an important concept in the management literature. pos has been defined as employees’ beliefs regarding the extent the organization shows support, cares about their well-being, and values their contribution (rhoades & eisenberger, 2002). it represents the employees' assurances that the organization has their best interest at heart, is ready to provide assistance to them when it is required, and provides the necessary tools that will help them carry out their job effectively and deal with work-related stress (rhoades & eisenberger, 2002). it is a unidimensional measure indicating the belief employees have regarding the degree or extent their organization will go to meet their socio-emotional needs, care for their well-being, values, and reward their contribution to the organization (krishnan & mary, 2012; rhoades & eisenberger, 2002). eisenberger, rhoades shanock, and wen (2020) reaffirm that pos is felt in the organization when the employees have a favorable experience in the workplace and when they attribute these experiences to the organization’s voluntary actions toward making their work conditions better. 2.4. workplace fun and job satisfaction workplace fun and job satisfaction have been explored across various types of organizations. the literature indicates that a link exists between fun at work and positive experiences in the workplace. for example, tsaur et al. (2019) examined the indirect role of psychological capital on the nexus existing between fun at work and work engagement among front-line workers in the tourism-oriented and hospitality organizations in taiwan. the researchers found that having fun at work is a positive and significant predictor of employee work engagement and psychological capital. in another study, yang and wang (2020) explored the psychological capital and its indirect effect on the link between fun at work and employee voice behavior. based on the research outcome, workplace fun was a significant and positive predictor of employee voice behavior. this indicates that encouraging fun at work is a resourceful mechanism that has the capacity to influence positive attitudes and behaviors in the workplace. workplace fun adds some form of enrichment and meaningfulness to the job. when the organization encourages fun at work, the work becomes more meaningful to the employees (mousa et al., 2021b). this sense of meaningfulness could impact the satisfaction derived from the job (scanlan & hazelton, 2019). a survey conducted by chan and mak (2016) among frontline employees in large retail stores in hong kong found that fun at work has a positive and direct connection to the satisfaction employees derive from their job. the researchers found that the higher the experience of fun in the workplace the higher the satisfaction employees derive from their job. the literature on the proposed nexus between workplace fun and job satisfaction is further supported by the affective event theory (aet) and the job demand-resource model (jd-r model). as proposed by the aet, workplace events elicit emotional reactions (either positive or negative) from the employees (weiss & cropanzano, 1996). hence, positive workplace event (e.g., workplace fun) tends to enhance positive workplace attitude such as job satisfaction. this is also supported by the jd-r model. the jd-r model developed by bakker and demerouti (2007) proposed that the workplace characteristics can be grouped into two: job demand and job resources. job demand has to do with the job requirements (e.g., physical, social, organizational, and psychological aspects of the job) while job resources are considered as the resources needed to meet the physical, social, psychological, and organizational demands of the job. in application, workplace fun can be regarded as a positive resource that can help the employees meet the requirements of their job thereby improving the satisfaction they derive from work. consequent to the empirical and theoretical literature, it is hypothesized that: hypothesis one (h1): workplace fun will positively and significantly predict job satisfaction. 2.5. perceived organizational support as a moderator there is a dearth in the literature on studies that have examined pos as a moderator in the nexus between fun at work and job satisfaction. according to kundu, phogat, datta, and gahlawat (2016), organizational support indicates resources allied to fairness in the workplace, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, and general employee support which has a way of increasing the levels of satisfaction employees get from their job. pos emphasizes the employee perception of the support they get from their organization. as seen in the literature, this has the tendency to influence how employees behave at work (e.g., (imran, elahi, abid, ashfaq, & ilyas, 2020; kurtessis et al., 2017)). pos is a work resource that tends to influence a variety of workplace attitudes. higher and lower levels of pos can serve as positive and negative resources respectively. previous literature indicates that pos can help improve work meaningfulness, job, and life satisfaction (bernarto et al., 2020; cardador, grant, & bruno, 2019). empirical literature shows that pos has been adopted as a moderating variable. pos has been found to have an interacting effect on the nexus between emotional intelligence, job performance, and turnover intention (akhtar, gulfran, husnain, & shahid, 2017; giao, vuong, huan, tushar, & quan, 2020), work engagement and job performance (yongxing, hongfei, baoguo, & lei, 2017), newcomer adjustment and socialization tactics (perrot et al., 2014). hence, there is a possibility that pos can have a conditional impact on the nexus between workplace fun and job satisfaction. this study is of the notion that when employees experience high support from the organization, there is a likelihood that it will produce positive emotions and thereby asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 42-50 45 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group reinforcing the proposed relationship in the study. based on the above empirical literature and propositions, it is hypothesized that: hypothesis two (h2): pos will moderate the relationship between workplace fun and job satisfaction such that the relationship will be stronger when pos is high. the relationship and moderating effect under investigation are shown in the conceptual framework below: figure 1. conceptual model showing the proposed direct and moderating effect. figure 1 shows the conceptual model of the study. it is built on the notion that workplace fun is related to job satisfaction and that this relationship is moderated by perceived organizational support. 3. methodology 3.1. sample and procedure the participants of the study consisted of 167 administrative staff sampled from nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, nigeria. job satisfaction is a salient factor in university settings. job satisfaction of personnel at the university's disposal can help in the actualization of project 200 proposed by the university's new administration. the sample size adopted was estimated with the use of g*power software (faul, erdfelder, buchner, & lang, 2009). using the adequate number of predictors which were workplace fun and pos as outlined in the framework developed for the study, with a medium effect size (f 2) of 0.15, a standardized alpha of 0.01, and a power level of 0.95. the g*power analysis suggested a required sample size of 107 participants. however, bartlett, kotrlik, and higgins (2001) suggested that the sample size of the population should be increased by 50% of the required sample. based on this proposition, an additional sample size of 60 was added to the overall sample totaling 167. hence, the size of the sample was considered appropriate for the study. the questionnaires were administered to staff at the university administrative block. the non-probability sampling technique (convenience sampling) was used for collecting data from 167 participants based on their availability. the use of non-probability sampling is a very common feature in organizational research, especially in the current research setting where sampling frames are often difficult to access. the sample consisted of 58(34.73%) males and 109(65.27%) females; 89(53.29%) single, 73(43.71%) married, 3(1.80%) separated, 1(0.60%) divorced, and 1(0.60%) widowed. the age range of the respondents was between 27-56 with a mean of 36.53 years and a standard deviation of 5.32. all the participants had a formal education with a minimum of a higher national diploma/bachelor’s degree. 3.2. measures three existing standardized instruments were adopted for data collection. they include the workplace fun scale, job satisfaction scale, and perceived organizational support scale. the scales are discussed below: job satisfaction. this was assessed with job satisfaction scale developed by judge, bono, and locke (2000). it is a standardized self-report measure composed of five items. the scale measures the level of satisfaction employees get from their job. hence, a higher score is an indication of higher job satisfaction while a lower score indicates lower job satisfaction. item 3 and 5 were reversed coded. sample items for the scale include: “i find real enjoyment in my work” and “most days i am enthusiastic about my job”. a 5point summative likert type response (ranging from strongly disagree = 1 to strongly agree = 5) was used. the scale presented a good internal consistency of 0.89. workplace fun. this was assessed with the workplace fun scale developed by mcdowell (2005). the scale measures employees’ experience of fun at work using four components which represented the best and most valid measure of fun in the workplace. the four components of workplace fun as stated by the developer are: “socializing with coworkers”, “celebrating at work”, “personal freedoms”, and “global fun at work”. each of the subscales was measured with six items. for the first three dimensions, the participants were requested to rate their response on a 5-point summative likert type ranging from 1= never to 5 = always, while in the fourth subscale (global fun at work) participants’ responses were also rated on a 5-point summative likert type ranging from 1 =strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. sample items include: “joking with coworkers”, “observing birthdays and other events at the workplace”, “going out to lunch with coworkers”, and “the overall climate of my organization is fun”, representing each of the dimensions respectively. reliability analysis (cronbach’s alpha) for each dimension as reported by fluegge-woolf (2008) were 0.85, 0.88, 0.74, and .95 respectively. since the present study is focused on workplace fun and the specific dimensions, the composite score was estimated for the whole scale items such that the higher the scores, the higher the experience of fun at work. this approach is evident in the literature (fluegge-woolf, 2014; mcdowell, 2005). perceived organizational support. this was assessed with the 8-item version of the perceived organizational support scale developed by eisenberger, cummings, armeli, and lynch (1997). the instrument measures employees’ perception of the organization’s contribution and care for their well-being. a higher score on the scale indicates that employees perceive their organization to be supportive and lower scores indicate that the organization offers little to no support for its employees. items 6 and 7 are negatively worded. reverse coding was utilized for the items that were negatively worded. examples of some of the items include: “my organization takes pride in my accomplishment at work” and “my organization cares about my well-being”. a 5-point summative likert response type ranging from asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 42-50 46 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group strongly disagree = 1 to strongly agree = 5 was utilized. principle components analysis (pcm) reported for the original scale using the response gotten from 361 employees in nine organizations revealed a single factor accounting for 48% of the total variance (eisenberger et al., 1997). the developers reported a cronbach’s alpha of 0.90. generally, the scale has good psychometric properties (nwanzu & babalola, 2021). 3.3. design and statistical tools this is a cross-sectional study. it is a cross-sectional study because data were collected from all the participating university administrative staff at one point in time. this gave the researcher the liberty to collect data using several variables at one point in time. the data collection, analysis, and interpretation were done at the individual level. the data collected for the study were analyzed through a two-step procedure. first, the instruments' reliability coefficient, the descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, and normality test), and the correlation coefficient of the variables were examined. this is carried out to determine if the data are congruent with the assumptions of parametric statistics such as the normality of data. second, the research hypotheses were tested with regression via the ibm-spss add-on (hayes’ process macro v.4) utilizing an independent moderator (model 1). this was used for testing the direct and conditional effects as proposed in the research hypotheses. the hayes process macro is a popular analytical tool used for testing the indirect and conditional effects of variables on observed relationships. 5000 bootstrapped samples were utilized to estimate the confidence interval (95%) for the developed model. the conditional effect is significant in the absence of absolute zero between the lower and higher limit of the 95% confidence interval. 3.4. common method variance several methods have been suggested in the literature with regards to controlling common method variance (cmv) in survey-based studies. it is one of the challenges surrounding questionnaire-based studies. hence, it is necessary to control for this so that the result of this study will have more explanatory power. to achieve this, the researcher employed some of the methods suggested in the literature during the design of the study to help control for cmv. to for respondents’ misinterpretation of the questionnaire items and to prevent random responses, the researcher ensured that the wording of the questionnaire was concise and easy to comprehend. the cover later guaranteed the anonymity of the respondents and also stated that participants should respond based on their true feelings to control for socially desirable responses. these methods were adopted to help increase respondents’ honesty to the items on the questionnaire (mackenzie & podsakoff, 2012; rodríguez-ardura & meseguer-artola, 2020; steenkamp, de jong, & baumgartner, 2010). statistically, the correlation matrix technique as suggested by bagozzi and phillips (1991) and tehseen, ramayah, and sajilan (2017) was adopted for testing the severity of cmv in the data. this approach states that a high correlation value between the variables under investigation (r > 0.90) indicates the presence of cmv. therefore, correlation values < 0.90 indicate the absence of cmv. 4. results 4.1. assessment of reliability, validity, and correlation coefficients the researcher tested the reliability of the adopted scales using cronbach’s alpha. this is reported in table 1. the scales or instruments’ reliability values ranged from α = 0.73 to α = 0.89. therefore, indicating that the scales are reliable and suitable for use in this study. the inter-item correlation values offer support for the convergent validity of the scales (field, 2018), while content validity was achieved by using existing instruments in the literature (mirjana, ana, & marjana, 2018). the mean score ranged from 3.17 to 3.88 which indicates an average score using a 5-point likert-type response. table 1 also shows the correlation coefficients of the studied variables. the table indicated that workplace fun (r = 0.42, p <0.01), and pos (r = 0.18, p < 0.05) were positively related with job satisfaction. furthermore, the table also indicated that the dimensions of workplace fun such as socializing with coworkers (r =0.19, p < 0.05), celebrating at work (r =0.32, p < 0.01), personal freedoms (r =0.27, p < 0.01), and global fun at work (r =0.15, p < 0.05) were all positively correlated with job satisfaction. the relationship among the variables was modest (< .80) indicating the absence of multicollinearity. the values for the correlation coefficients were less than 0.90. this met the requirement of the correlation matrix technique for assessing cmv as suggested by bagozzi and phillips (1991) and tehseen et al. (2017). based on the observed correlation, cmv was not an issue in the study. table 1. descriptive statistics, correlation coefficient, and cronbach's alpha of the variables. variables mean sd wf sc cw pf gf js pos wf 3.45 0.41 [0.81] sc 3.88 0.69 0.44** [0.73] cw 3.41 0.65 0.53** -0.01 [0.78] pf 3.31 0.73 0.63** 0.01 0.28** [0.87] gf 3.17 0.77 0.53** 0.05 0.08 0.39** [0.84] js 3.69 0.54 0.42** 0.19* 0.32** 0.27** 0.15* [0.88] pos 3.75 0.48 0.11 0.15* 0.05 -0.03 0.09 0.18* [0.89] note: **p < 0.01; *p <0.05; sd = standard deviation; wf= workplace fun; sc = socializing with coworkers; cw = celebrating at work; pf= personal freedoms; gf = global fun at work; js = job satisfaction; pos = perceived organizational support; cronbach's alphas are given in parenthesis. 4.2. testing the hypothesized model based on the research model, two hypotheses were tested in this study. the hypotheses testing was carried out with regression analysis through hayes' process macro v.4. the appropriate model was utilized (model 1) using 5000 bootstrapping to test the direct, and conditional effects based on the research model. before testing the hypotheses, multiple regression was adopted to examine the individual and combined predictive effect of the dimensions of workplace fun on job satisfaction. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 42-50 47 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 2 shows the multiple regression analysis carried out on job satisfaction predicted from the dimensions of workplace fun. the results indicated that socializing with coworkers (b = 0.14, p < 0.01), celebrating at work (b = 0.22, p < 0.01), and personal freedoms (b = 0.12, p < 0.01) significantly predicted job satisfaction while global fun at work (b = 0.04, p >0.05) did not. as revealed by the b-values, job satisfaction increases by 14%, 22%, 12%, and 4% for every one-unit increase in coworkers’ socialization, celebrating at work, personal freedoms, and global fun at work. β values indicated that job satisfaction was largely influenced by celebrating at work which accounted for a 27% variance in job satisfaction. the durbin-watson value of 1.66 was within the normal range with regard to positive autocorrelation (field, 2018). the variance inflation factors (vif) were below 10. this falls within the normal range and indicates the absence of multicollinearity (field, 2018; hayes, 2017). table 2. multiple regression analysis of job satisfaction predicted from the dimensions of workplace fun. predictors b β t part correlation 95% ci vif socializing with coworkers 0.14 0.18** 2.68 0.18 [0.04, 0.25] 1.00 celebrating at work 0.22 0.27** 3.78 0.26 [0.10, 0.34] 1.09 personal freedoms 0.12 0.16** 2.15 0.14 [0.01, 0.24] 1.27 global fun 0.04 0.06 0.77 0.05 [-0.06, 0.14] 1.18 f = 9.26, r = 0.42**, r2 = 0.17, adj. r2 = 0.15 (dw, 1.66) note: **p < 0.01; dw = durbin-watson; vif = variance inflation factor. the statistics at the base of table 2 shows the combined contributions of the dimensions of workplace fun on job satisfaction, r = 0.42, r2 = 0.17, p < 0.01. the r2 value indicates that workplace fun as a composite explained a 17% variance in job satisfaction. as symbolized by the r2, the effect size statistic indicates a medium effect size (cohen, 1988). this is an indication that workplace fun contributes to employee feelings of satisfaction at work. the f-ratio, also significant at 0.01, indicates that the model is good; job satisfaction can be predicted from workplace fun. hence, the first hypothesis was supported. table 3. moderation analysis on the effect of workplace fun and pos on job satisfaction. predictors b se t p llci ulci workplace fun 0.52 0.08 5.89 0.001 0.35 0.70 perceived organizational support 0.15 0.07 1.98 0.040 0.01 0.30 workplace fun x pos -0.09 0.20 -0.45 0.651 -0.49 0.31 note: n = 167; β = standardized coefficient; se = standard error of sample size (5000); llci= lower limit confidence interval; ulci= upper limit confidence interval; pos = perceived organizational support. table 3 shows the results of the direct effect and moderation analysis. in congruence with the first hypothesis (h1), the results in table 3 shows that workplace fun positively and significantly predicted job satisfaction (β = 0.52, 95% ci [0.35, 0.70], t = 5.89, p < 0.01). hence, hypothesis 1 was accepted. also, pos positively and significantly predicted job satisfaction (β = 0.15, 95% ci [0.01, 0.30], t = 1.98, p < 0.05). for the second hypothesis (h2), the interaction term between fun at work and pos was not significant (β = -0.09, 95% ci [-0.49, 0.31], t = -0.45, p > 0.05) indicating that pos did not moderate the nexus between workplace fun and job satisfaction. hence, hypothesis two was rejected. 5. discussion the present study tested the model that pos would moderate the nexus between fun at work and job satisfaction. the result confirmed the importance of workplace fun and pos on job satisfaction among university administrative staff. in testing the hypothesized model for this study, the first hypothesis which stated that workplace fun will positively and significantly predict job satisfaction among university administrative staff was accepted. workplace fun was a significant predictor of job satisfaction. this shows that university administrative staff who have a high experience of fun in their workplace are more likely to be satisfied with their job. also, further analysis showed that of the four dimensions of workplace fun, three were positive predictors of employee job satisfaction. these include socializing with fellow employees, celebrating at work, and personal freedoms. the model was good as the multiple regression values show that workplace fun as a composite construct predicted job satisfaction. hence, an increase in workplace fun leads to an increase in job satisfaction. this finding is in agreement with previous empirical research linking workplace fun and positive workplace behaviors and attitudes. for example, tsaur et al. (2019) found that fun at work is a positive predictor of employee work engagement and psychological capital, while yang and wang (2020) discovered that encouraging fun at work is a resourceful mechanism that enables positive behaviors and attitudes in the workplace. the researchers found that workplace fun enables employee voice behavior such that an increase in workplace fun promotes voice behavior. workplace fun acts as a form of enrichment, this enrichment can foster work meaningfulness, which in turn promotes employee job satisfaction (mousa et al., 2021b; scanlan & hazelton, 2019). more specifically, chan and mak (2016) conducted a study on the association between fun at work and job satisfaction among frontline employees working in large retail stores in hong kong. the researchers found that workplace fun significantly predicts job satisfaction, such that the higher the experience of fun at work, the higher the satisfaction employees derive from their job. theoretical evidence also supports the result of the first hypothesis. the theories are the affective event theory, and the job demand-resource model (jd-r model). the affective event theory (aet) proposes the emotional reaction of employees (positive or negative) is a result of events in the workplace (weiss & cropanzano, 1996). based on this proposition, workplace fun is considered a positive workplace event that is bound to produce a positive reaction from employees. therefore, workplace fun can promote positive workplace attitudes such as job satisfaction. consistent with the jd-r model put forward by bakker and demerouti (2007), fun at work can be seen as a positive resource that can help the employees deal with the demands or requirements of their job. employees are likely to feel more satisfied when there are available resources that can help them meet the demands of their job. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 42-50 48 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the second hypothesis which stated that pos will have a moderating effect on the link between workplace fun and job satisfaction was not supported, as the result was not in line with the proposed hypothesis. this study found that pos has a non-significant role in buffering the nexus between workplace fun and job satisfaction among university administrative staff. the result is not consistent with the arguments offered by the researcher on the moderating effect of pos. also, this finding is contrary to some of the previous empirical studies that have adopted pos as a moderator variable (akhtar et al., 2017; giao et al., 2020; yongxing et al., 2017). a few plausible explanations could be offered for the unexpected result. the buffering effect of pos could have been impeded by other workplace characteristics. a possible workplace characteristic that could have caused the observed result is perceived fairness in the workplace. employees usually judge their experience in the workplace based on how their fellow employees are being treated (twumasi & addo, 2020). when there is perceived fairness in recognition, promotion, rewards, and all the decisions that concerns employee safety and well-being at work, employees are more likely to derive satisfaction from their job (mohammadi, kazemi, raisoon, & ramezani, 2017). meanwhile, in the absence of perceived fairness, employees will be less motivated leading to job dissatisfaction. according to kurtessis et al. (2017), higher pos is more focused on job tasks and work issues than the employees’ socio-emotional needs. that is, an employee may feel that the organization gives him or her support to carry out work-related activities, but less attention may be given to the employee’s socio-emotional needs. hence, there is a high tendency of employees feeling dissatisfied with their job when the whole facet of support is not prioritized. this is also likely to be stronger in the absence of fairness with regard to allocating supportive resources to employees. these could be the reasons for the observed difference between the result of this study and that of the previous empirical literature. it is suggested that future studies should utilize pos and perceived fairness as simultaneous moderator variables on the nexus between fun at work and job satisfaction. understanding the effects of both moderators taken simultaneously would help in enhancing the literature and inform managerial practice in public organizations. 6. theoretical implications theoretically, this study has made a unique contribution to the literature by investigating the moderating effect of pos in the workplace fun and job satisfaction relationship among university administrative staff. this population is unique to the literature as it has not been examined in this research area. the findings confirm the affective event theory (weiss & cropanzano, 1996) and the job demand-resource model bakker and demerouti (2007). these theories explained the nexus between fun at work and job satisfaction while the result confirms the relationship between the predictor and criterion variable. this provides empirical literature for future studies that will attempt to use these theories to map out complex organizational relationships. also, the context for the development of the measures (scales) utilized in this study (workplace fun, pos, and job satisfaction) was different from that of the current research area (nigeria). adequate procedures were followed to ensure that the measures were reliable, valid, and suitable for use in the nigerian population. the measures showed evidence of reliability and validity. on this background, future studies that will be conducted by organizational behavior and management researchers in nigeria can adopt the scales that were specifically used in this study. 7. practical implications university education has become a necessity in most countries of the world. it becomes paramount for management practitioners to understand the behaviors and attitudes of individuals who work in these institutions. this gave justification for exploring workplace fun as an antecedent of the satisfaction university administrative staff derives from their job. the moderating effect of pos on the relationship was also investigated. based on the research findings, workplace fun was a significant predictor of job satisfaction while pos did not moderate the nexus between fun at work and job satisfaction. these results have implications for management practitioners and university administrators. university administrators should ensure that they encourage fun at work because this tends to positively influence the job satisfaction of workers. socializing with colleagues, celebrating at work, personal freedoms, and other indicators of workplace fun should be sanctioned because they have positive effects on job satisfaction which can lead to job performance in the institution. the administrative head of the university should also make sure that the institution provides adequate support for its administrative staff. 8. conclusion the importance of job satisfaction for university administrative staff cannot be undermined. the need for an increased level of performance on students and other academic-oriented services is largely dependent on job satisfaction. this study concludes that job satisfaction can be enhanced when fun is encouraged in the workplace. that is, the higher the experience of fun at work, the higher the job satisfaction. also, the study found that pos did not moderate the nexus between fun at work and the job satisfaction of university administrative staff. 9. limitations and avenues for further studies although this study has contributed to the organizational behavior literature by enhancing the knowledge of workplace fun, pos, and job satisfaction, it is not without limitations. these limitations are discussed and avenues for future studies are suggested. first, the study was cross-sectional making it difficult to draw causal inferences. better approaches can be adopted. second, the use of self-report measures in measuring all the variables might introduce bias thereby confounding the data. although constructive approaches were used to reduce response bias from participants, it was difficult to eliminate it from the study. future studies should include items within the measure that can help capture and remove participants with socially desirable 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(2017). work engagement and job performance: the moderating role of perceived organizational support. annals of psychology, 33(3), 708-713.available at: https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.33.3.238571. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 135 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 2, 135-142, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.135.142 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group financial performance and liquidity trends of banks in an emerging economy: evidence from ghana michael ayikwei quarshie1 reginald djimatey2 ( corresponding author) 1,2department of entrepreneurship and business sciences, university of energy and natural resources, sunyani, bono region, ghana. abstract the purpose of this study was to analyse financial performance and liquidity trends of banks in the financial sector of ghana. a review of literature on performance and liquidity was conducted owing to the challenges the banks are confronted with. the study analysed 180 annual reports of the banks during the periods 2006-2015. the analysis revealed that banks were relatively liquid in most of the study periods except in the years 2013 and 2014, where the average liquidity was 1.54 and 1.41 respectively. the highest liquidity of 2.183 was recorded in 2011, which indicates that gh¢ 2.183 of current assets available covers gh¢ 1 of current liabilities. the financial performance of the banks was fairly intermittent during the study periods. the lowest financial performance of the banks was recorded in the year 2006. an average financial performance of 6.74% and 0.83% for return on equity (roe) and return asset on (roa) respectively was recorded in 2006. while the year 2014 recorded the highest financial performance of 24.23% for return on equity and 4.57% for return on asset owing to favourable economic conditions in the country in that year. the study recommends that bank managers should adopt effective liquidity management to ensure the banks are operating profitably. since it has been empirically proven that high liquidity rates will provide for better financial results. keywords: liquidity, banks, financial performance, return on equity, return on assets, current ratio, acid-test ratio. jel classification: m41. citation | michael ayikwei quarshie; reginald djimatey (2020). financial performance and liquidity trends of banks in an emerging economy: evidence from ghana. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(2): 135-142. history: received: 17 march 2020 revised: 20 april 2020 accepted: 22 may 2020 published: 4 june 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 136 2. literature review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 136 3. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 139 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................. 139 5. conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................. 141 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 141 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.135.142&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1698 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4391-6484 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9757-5799 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1698 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4391-6484 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9757-5799 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1698 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4391-6484 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9757-5799 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1698 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4391-6484 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9757-5799 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 135-142 136 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the outcome of this study contributes to the existing literature as it provides useful information on managing liquidity risk and adopting appropriate liquidity management practices that offer a competitive advantage to banks and other financial institutions. 1. introduction liquidity is viewed as the ability of a firm to readily meet all its short-term obligations as and when they fall due. most often liquidity is used to refer to situations were liquid assets thus cash and any other assets that can easily be converted into cash at no extra cost. according to the board of governors of the federal reserve system (2014), liquidity is a measure of the ability and facility with which a company's assets can be converted into cash to settle maturing financial obligations. a higher ratio means greater liquid asset coverage to short-term maturing obligations, which ensures the company will be able to meet all its maturing obligations and finance its ongoing operations (certified management accountant (cma) australia, 2013). nevertheless, unproductive use of capital could be denoted by a significantly higher ratio and a lower ratio could also mean insolvency. however, a 2:1 ratio is considered appropriate according to certified management accountant (cma) australia (2013). the value of liquidity cannot be overemphasized for any business organization. many businesses fail not because of competitiveness but because of lack of cash (rob, 2010). the benefit is worthless, according to rob, unless it can be converted to cash by debtors' receipts. an otherwise profitable company can still fail if it has a cash flow problem. banks are particularly vulnerable when it comes to liquidity risk due to their position of financial intermediation in any economy. amer (2007) commented that financial intermediaries whose assets are typically less liquid than their liabilities and depend on their continued viability in paying the liabilities are exceptionally vulnerable when it comes to liquidity risk. gomez (2008) intimated that clients’ assurance will be significantly dented in the banking sector if banks cannot meet customers ' withdrawal needs. gomez further stressed that a bank's continued existence is based on public trust, and the bank can only build that trust if it can convert its assets into cash to meet depositors ' requests for withdrawal. to remain viable, financial institutions should have sufficient liquid assets in place to meet their maturing obligations (board of governors of the federal reserve system, 2014). for this reason, as part of its regulatory role, the bank of ghana (bog) allows banks doing business in ghana to have an assets and liabilities management committee (alco), which meets at least once a month to review the financial statement of the bank among other functions by looking at sources and applying funds against costs and yields. in addition to alco, banks operating in ghana are required to submit a weekly liquidity report showing compliance or non-compliance with the mandatory primary reserve ratio among other statistics. current ratio, fast (acid test) ratio and cash ratio are the most common liquidity measures. nevertheless, other liquidity mechanisms, such as the loan deposit ratio (ldr), liquid assets to total deposits, and so on, exist in the banking business apart from the above. it is reasonable to expect banks to keep some cash to alleviate their short-term obligations, particularly depositors' withdrawal needs, and also to take advantage of investment opportunities to make some profit for their shareholders (tan, 2005). alongside the required 10% primary reserve ratio (prr) and the prudential 3% cash reserve ratio (crr), which the bank of ghana allows banks doing business in ghana to maintain. relying too heavily on profitability may mean ignoring the risk associated with achieving higher returns, thereby endangering customer deposits. nonetheless, to return interest to their owners, banks would need to make a profit. to overcome this issue, section 31 of the banking act, 2004, act 673, allowed the bog to place liquidity conditions on banks to declare that banks hold such funds on their financial statements as protection for customer deposits. banks can, however, choose to keep these assets over the regulatory requirements set by the bog. failure to comply with the provisions of section 31 could lead to certain punitive measures, as provided for in section 33 of act 673. the relationship between financial performance and liquidity of banks has been a subject of disagreement among researchers and players in the industry. some have pointed to the relationship being more analytical than perceptional. a study by lartey, antwi, and boadi (2013) found a clear, positive correlation between bank profitability and liquidity in ghana. banks in ghana, especially in the last few years, are embroiled in a serious war over deposit mobilization to raise their customer deposits as if higher customer deposits would necessarily ensure better financial performance. banks consistently run deposit promotions, hiring large sales staff and expanding vast branch network across the country’s length and breadth. such machinations cost significant sums of money and other resources which adversely affect the banks' liquidity and financial positions, hence the need to analyse financial and liquidity trends of banks in the financial sector of ghana. the rest of the study is presented as follows: section 2 focuses on the literature review. section 3 examines the methodology. section 4 presents the results and discussion. finally, section 5 captures the conclusion and recommendations drawn from the study. 2. literature review 2.1. self-liquidating paper theory self-liquidating paper theory was widely accepted as a means of keeping banks liquid. according to leonard (2011), the bank's short-term loans to fund saleable goods from the manufacturer to the customer are the most liquid credits the bank can advance. these were known as self-liquidating loans, as the funded goods were soon sold and the debt paid off. such self-liquidating short-term loans have been advanced to meet the borrowers' working capital requirements. shekhar and shekhar (2005) claim that self-liquidating commercial papers or shortterm loans are intended to provide existing, self-liquidating working capital. a bill of exchange, usually an example of a self-liquidating document from a real trade transaction, which is a secured loan from physical goods that can be repaid from the price of their sales (gomez, 2008). often called commercial loan theory, the theory allows banks to refrain from long-term lending. gomez (2008) criticized the commercial loan hypothesis for having negative effects on business activities and the borrowers ' purchasing power if all bank loans were real bills or all banks attempting to cut their loans; also in depression periods, goods do not move readily into the normal channels of trade and may occasion some losses to sellers. therefore, the traders are not able to meet the bills on maturity. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 135-142 137 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.2. shiftability theory moulton (1918) propagated this theory to replace the self-liquidating paper theory, though loans remained an important source of liquidity for banks. the theory holds that bank liquidity is retained if it has assets which, if appropriate, can be transferred to other banks before maturity. an entity can preserve liquidity by maintaining assets that can be quickly moved, transferred, or sold for cash with minimum transaction costs or value loss (bhattacharya, 2008). gomez (2008) asserted that if the assets held could be transferred or sold to the central bank which is the lender of last resort, the optimum shiftability is achieved. the bank will hold highly marketable securities which are readily transferable for liquidity to other banks and the central bank. the theory argues that the bank should obtain assets that are shiftable, marketable and transferable to ensure that when the need arises, they can create some liquidity for the bank. the major criticism of this theory is that during times of depression cost of shifting assets may be high because securities would not be attractive to buyers. 2.3. overview of ghanaian banking industry the banking sector in ghana, since the turn of the 21st century, has been the most active in the economy, showing steady growth in both assets and profitability. the successes of the banks largely resulted from the passage of the bank of ghana act 2002, act 612 and the banking act 2004, act 673 combined with the liberalization of the banking sector. these initiatives saw the issuance of universal banking business licenses and the relaxation of the conditions for entry into the banking business. such innovations have brought many nigerian banks into the industry with advanced technology, unparalleled customer support and product innovation; forcing existing banks to strengthen their systems and processes in equal measure (bawumia, owusu-danso, & mcintyre, 2008). some analysts do not share this view and argue that growth in the banking sector is only in tandem with the growth in the ghanaian economy, now a lower-middle-income economy. the financial services sector appears to be undergoing some rapid global transformation. these changes have arisen owing to economic deregulation, government policies, globalization and information communication technology. this transition has led to intense competition across the globe within the financial services industry, requiring financial institutions to constantly offer a range of financial products to thrive and remain competitive. initially, the banking sector in ghana was listed as private, merchant and development banks. whilst merchant banks were limited to corporate clients, the development and commercial banks served customers across the entire spectrum (antwi-asare & addison, 2000). it was against this backdrop that the need to create a level playing field for all banks operating in ghana was introduced, hence the concept of uniform banking business licensing. the goal was to give banks that meet the capital requirements, the freedom to participate in any permissible, unregulated banking business and thus remove the compartmentalization. over the past few years, the banking industry has seen some significant performance improvements as a result of government-led reforms over the years. some of the reforms introduced that helped the banking sector in ghana included; the legislation of the foreign exchange bureau, the non-performing assets recovery trust (npart), the financial sector adjustment programme (finsap ii and i), the promulgation of the new banking law in 1989, pndc law 225, and so on (bawumia et al., 2008). with the passage of the new banking law and the other reforms introduced, the bank of ghana was sufficiently strengthened to perform its regulatory function. these reforms equally strengthened the banks and eventually lead to the improvement of their asset quality. the new minimum capital requirements introduced by the pndc law 225 enabled the banks to be adequately resourced to undertake high volume transactions and make sustained profits to be able to survive and grow organically. non-performing assets recovery trust act of 1990 was to cushion the ghanaian banks against npls by offering them the opportunity to offload their npls to the trust and focus on their core obligation of financial intermediation. according to antwi-asare and addison (2000), the removal of the npls from the books of the banks helped improved their profitability and overall performance. following the promulgation of the new banking law in 1989, the number of banks doing business in ghana increased to about 12. since then the number of banks has grown exponentially and stood at 29 banks as at the close of 2015. it was envisaged that the number of banks operating in ghana will hit 35 or more by the close of 2017. owing to this development, many industry watchers have expressed a lot of scepticism about its ramifications on the ghanaian economy. although, the economy still has a very large unbanked population, hence a great potential for the growth of the banking industry; the size of the economy is still considered quite small to accommodate 35 or even more universal banks. when this happens, banks are likely to adopt unorthodox practices to grow their customer deposits and increase their profitability, which can erode assurance in the banking sector. the bank of ghana (bog) adopted the international financial reporting standards (ifrs) as a way of reducing systemic risk. the adoption of ifrs by institutions as issued by the international accounting standards board (iasb) enable determine an application of a common set of financial reporting standards (jermakowicz & gorniktomaszewski, 2006; neag, 2014). furthermore, the establishment of a collateral registry and the credit reference bureaus by the bank of ghana further seeks to encourage transparency, ease credit accessibility and the recapitalization of the banks, were all fashioned to address the risk and stabilize the banking system (bawumia et al., 2008). 2.4. recapitalization over the years, the bog has issued some directives to all banks operating in the country to increase their minimum capital requirements to enable them to handle big-ticket transactions and for a stronger financial system to support the real sector of the economy. in 2003, bog, for instance, issued a directive requiring all banks to increase stated capital to gh¢ 7 million by the end of 2006. this was to enable the banks to hold the universal banking business license that allowed them to undertake commercial, merchant, and development banking without the need to acquire separate licenses. again, on 14th february 2008, a press release from the bog set the minimum capital requirements for obtaining class 1 banking license (universal banking) at gh¢ 60 million. this was to take effect at the end of 2009 by which time locally-owned banks would have a minimum of gh¢ 25 million as stated capital. however, the local banks were supposed to meet this gh¢ 60 million minimum capital requirement by december 2012 (pwc, 2008). further to the above, new banks, both local and foreign, were required to have gh¢ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 135-142 138 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 120 million to obtain a universal banking business license in ghana according to the central bank. existing banks do not have to meet this new minimum capital requirement nevertheless they can consistently assess their risk levels and augment their capital appropriately. the gh¢ 120 million minimum capital requirement has since been increased by bog to gh¢ 400 million for all banks, existing or new, effective december 31, 2018. the banking sector in ghana has gone through a series of reforms and restructuring over the last fifteen years. some of these reforms were occasioned by some happenings in the global economy. for instance, the 2008-09 global financial crisis, which was necessitated by the subprime mortgage crisis and the credit crunch in the usa and the eurozone debt crises led to a significant dropped in foreign remittances and foreign direct investments (fdis) into the country. this adversely affected the flow of liquidity to the banks and even to the ghanaian economy at large, which resulted in a drastic reduction of lending to the private sector and mounting non-performing loans (npls). the central bank responded by issuing a press release on 14th february 2008 directing all universal banks to increase their minimum capital requirements to gh¢ 60 million by december 2012. it was an attempt on the part of the regulator to cushion banks doing business in ghana against liquidity risk and also to revamp confidence in the banking sector, which was seriously daunted by the growing npls and the ever-widening negative liquidity gap or mismatch in the industry. before the second recapitalization directive, the central bank in august 2006 abolished the secondary reserve requirement. this announcement came as a big liquidity boost for the banks. the immediate impact was increased in lending to the private sector. the other noticeable changes that affected the operations of banks in ghana within the last ten years included; the re-denomination of the cedi in july 2007 and the introduction of international financial reporting standards (ifrss) in the same year. the introduction of the ezwich payment system, which is aimed at reducing the number of cash transactions in the economy and improving accessibility to banking and retail services. the establishment of credit reference bureaus to help track customers with multiple loans and advances across banks operating in ghana. these bureaus amongst other objectives, aim at reducing the prevalence of non-performing loans (npls) in the ghanaian banking industry. 2.5. the concept of liquidity liquidity is the bank’s ability to maintain adequate funds to take care of its maturing obligations (ibe, 2013). any asset that is capable of being converted to cash easily without incurring any extra cost is a liquid asset. therefore, if the conversion cannot be done at fair value or is done at a cost, then the asset is said to be not liquid. gomez (2008) postulates that liquidity is the capacity of a bank to convert its assets into cash on demand. gomez further asserted that cash is the most liquid of all assets, the only problem is that it loses value over time because of the time value of money. olagunju, adeyanju, and olabode (2011) stated that liquidity is the assets in cash or which can quickly be converted into cash without any loss in value that would be available to settle short-term liabilities and/or maturing obligations. it is a generally held belief that cash is most liquid of all assets, therefore, liquidity is understood and calculated from the cashability of all other assets (bhattacharya, 2008). the survival of any business organisation, banks inclusive, depends largely on its ability to generate adequate liquidity to support its day-to-day operations (rob, 2010). many a company collapsed not because they are not profitable, but they fail to raise enough liquidity to sustain their operations. customers make withdrawal requests by issuing cheques and the bank has statutory obligation to honour the cheques and there is no question of postponing payment. therefore, the bank has to maintain enough funds to take care of customers’ withdrawal needs and cannot lock up funds in permanent securities (gomez, 2008). amid liquidity challenge banks still should make a profit for shareholders and to sustain their operations. according to gomez (2008), a bank is supposed to direct its resources to profitable investments to make a profit for its shareholders. making more profit will require locking up funds for the long term, which will have an adverse consequence on the bank’s liquidity position. so, banks should strike a balance between profitability and liquidity by investing a portion of their funds in liquid assets and a portion in long-term assets. cash, which is the most liquid asset, does not earn interest. therefore, as banks will want to honour the withdrawal requests of customers without fail, keeping large amounts of cash will alienate the profit maximization objective of the bank. 2.6. elements of liquidity liquidity as already explained is the capacity to converted assets into cash on demand to settle maturing obligations. in other words, liquidity is the availability of cash and other current assets to cover accounts payable, short-term debts and other liabilities maturing within the accounting year. liquidity management is effectively working capital management, which requires daily maintenance of liquidity to ensure that the company operates smoothly and be able to meet its obligations. a company is considered liquid if the current assets can adequately cover the current liabilities. therefore, liquidity is a relative measure that looks at how the firm’s cash and the other assets, which are readily convertible to cash without any loss, will be able to pay off the current liabilities or maturing obligations. the components of liquidity are mostly; cash and cash equivalents, interest receivable, loans and advances (loan repayments) and so on. these components can vary significantly amongst banks depending on the type of ownership or attitude to risk. the foreign-owned banks will invest mostly in government securities. for instance, the united bank for africa (uba)’s liquid funds to total assets show a significant increase in 2013. the bank applied a significant portion of its funds to purchase government securities in 2013 (pwc, 2014). the bank of baroda was equally cited in the pwc 2014 banking survey report for large investments in government securities against lending to the private sector. the loans and advances come next to government securities in the order of liquidity; they are the most profitable of the bank’s assets (shekhar & shekhar, 2005). nevertheless, a high credit risk associated with loans and advances has made it unattractive for banks. generally, the assets in the statement of financial position of banks are shown in descending order of liquidity. cash and balances with the central bank are always at the top and the property, plant and equipment (ppe), which is considered as not liquid of all the banks’ assets is shown at the bottom. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 135-142 139 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.7. bank financial performance the return on asset (roa) and return on equity (roe) have been used extensively as measures of bank financial performance. roa shows how effectively a bank is managing its assets, to generate income. it is the income earned on each unit of an asset usually expressed as a percentage. the challenge with roa is that it excludes from the total assets off-balance sheet items thereby understating the value of assets. this situation can ultimately create a positive bias where roa is overstated in the evaluation of bank performance. nevertheless, golin (2001); rose and hudgins (2008) have argued that roa is one of the most important measures of profitability in recent banking literature. studies such as haron (2004), hassan and bashir (2003) and naceur (2003) have all adopted roa as a measure of profitability. return on equity (roe) is considered as an alternative measure of profitability and it is computed by dividing net income by equity. it measures the income earned on each unit of shareholders’ funds. the shortfall of this measure is that banks with high financial leverage tend to generate a higher ratio. yet, banks with high financial leverage tend to have higher financial risk and therefore a higher possibility of bankruptcy. 3. methodology the research design demonstrates how the observed facts are collected, measured and analyzed. the study employed a quantitative research design. according to cooper and schindler (2001), quantitative research relates to numbers and measuring of observed facts; it involves reliance on observable hard facts for which data is collected, analyzed and described in terms of numbers. the data collected was in a panel form which is a longitudinal data set, since it captures the same financial and economic changes of different organizations over multiple periods. the combination of time series and cross-sectional observations, forming panel data gives more informative data, more degrees of freedom and more efficiency. the study employed criterion-based sampling in line with palinkas et al. (2013) view, thus the availability of annual reports spanning 2006 to 2015. based on the criterion-based sampling eighteen banks were selected mainly because of the availability of data and the fact that the banks were in existence during the period under consideration (2006-2015). the eighteen banks were; standard chartered bank, sg-ssb, ecobank, fbn bank, stanbic bank, uba, zenith bank, bank of africa, agricultural development bank, universal merchant bank, cal bank, first atlantic bank, ut bank, prudential bank, unibank ghana, fidelity bank, guaranty trust bank and access bank. data were mainly collected from secondary sources which include; the annual financial reports of banks and banking supervision department (bsd) reports submitted to the bank of ghana between the period of 2006 and 2015. data were analysed using descriptive statistics and trend analysis. 4. results and discussion 4.1. descriptive statistics table 1 presents a summary of the descriptive statistics of the performance and liquidity variables employed in the study. these statistics were generated to give an overall description of the data used. the key descriptive measures were the mean, median, standard deviation, the minimum and maximum values over the period under consideration. it is observable that the current ratio and acid test ratio have the largest standard deviations which mean that they have significant variances compared to the other variables over the period. this is confirmed by the wide range between their minimum and maximum values. however, return on assets has the least standard deviation which suggests that it is the most stable and consistent variable compared to the other variables over the period. the average industry performance as measured by roe stands at 14.59% with -98% and 51% as a minimum and maximum values respectively whilst the average industry efficiency or asset utilization as measured by roa also stand at 2.75% with -10.53% and 8.92% as a minimum and maximum values respectively. a standard deviation of 2.99%, which is the least amongst all the variables, is an indication of less variability in profits vis-à-vis the total assets of the banks operating in ghana. this is very significant because the roe and roa show the earnings prowess of banks in ghana. thus, for every cedi of net owned funds (nof), banks operating in ghana generate an average return of gh¢ 0.15, whilst the average return on a cedi of assets employed is gh¢ 0.03. the average current ratio (cr) and the acid test ratio (atr) which measure short-term solvency of banks operating in ghana stood at 4.8:1 and 1.5:1 respectively. according to certified management accountant (cma) australia (2013) the ideal ratio is 2:1 or better which means banks operating in ghana are performing relatively well when it comes to mobilizing short-term funds to honour their maturing obligations. however, an average loan deposit ratio (ldr) of about 67% shows that banks have committed an appreciable amount of their customer deposits into risk-assets (loans and advances). the minimum and maximum values of 9% and 174% respectively for ldr depict the varying attitude of banks towards committing customer deposits in risk-assets. this is evident, in high short-term solvency ratios such as cr, atr and so on; meaning banks are far more interested in short-term, then long-term. this assertion is supported by the significantly high liquid funds total deposits ratio of about 75% which means, on average, up to 75% of customer deposits are either held as cash or invested in short-term investments such as government securities. liquid funds total interest-bearing liabilities ratio of 1.2:1 is another manifestation of the well-resourced banking industry with adequate liquid funds to settle its maturing obligations. the industry’s average return on capital (equity) is about 15%, yet, the average 91 day treasury bill rate is about 18% which suggests that either the cost of funds for the banks is probably high or the banks are operating with significantly high net overhead costs. the high cost of funds could have been occasioned by the banks’ deposit mix, thus having more ‘term deposits’ which is relatively expensive, in their mix as compare to ‘demand deposits’ will naturally lead the higher cost of funds. therefore, dwindling the net interest margin and subsequently the pre-tax profit. this amongst other things might have been responsible for the unimpressive showing of both roe and the roa as seen from the descriptive statistics. these ratios have collectively shown that there was no liquidity risk in the ghanaian banking industry over the study periods. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 135-142 140 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table-1. descriptive statistics of variables. variables observations mean median std. dev. minimum maximum roe 180 0.145972 0.164288 0.195654 -0.982837 0.51381 roa 180 0.027508 0.028045 0.029865 -0.105313 0.089217 cr 180 4.87184 3.144594 5.149784 0.328672 32.13421 atr 180 1.544268 1.212424 1.823605 0.28195 21.98302 ltd 180 0.753295 0.708112 0.295641 0.292972 2.161055 lib 180 1.206985 1.072594 0.668593 0.282228 4.124094 ldr 180 0.6703 0.634283 0.253441 0.090929 1.741183 note: roe return on equity; roa return on asset; cr – current ratio; atr – acid test ratio; ltd liquid funds total deposit ratio; lib liquid funds total interest-bearing liabilities; ldr loan deposit ratio 4.2. liquidity trend of banks as shown graphically in figure 1, the year 2011 recorded the highest liquidity for banks in ghana. nevertheless, banks recorded one of their lowest performances in terms of roe in the same year, apart from 2006, 2009 and 2015. again, in 2014, the banks recorded the least average liquidity position. yet, their highest roe and roa performances were also recorded in that same year. a look at 2015 performance graphs in figures 2 and 3 showed an obvious declined in bank performance in terms of equity and assets utilization. but the average liquidity graph in figure 1 depicted an increment in liquidity position for 2015 as compared to the previous year. this seemingly inverse relationship between the two opposing graphs should not be misconstrued as an inverse relationship between bank performance and liquidity because it could simply mean that, the banks were more efficient and prudent in managing relatively less liquidity to generate higher returns. bank profitability is determined by so many factors including but not limited the following; efficient management, technology, favourable government policies and central bank directives and so on. the trend clearly showed that the banks were liquid throughout the study period except that they were less liquid at certain periods, particularly, in 2013 and 2014 which recorded average liquidity of 1.54 and 1.41 respectively. for instance, liquidity of 2.183 in 2011, indicates that gh¢ 2.183 of current assets are available to cover gh¢ 1 of current liabilities. again, liquidity (1.409) in 2011, indicates that gh¢ 1.409 of current assets are available to cover gh¢ 1 of current liabilities. it is worth noting that the average liquidity figures were all above 1, meaning the banks had sufficient funds to settle their maturing obligations. simply, the banks did not face any liquidity risk during the periods under consideration. figure-1. average bank liquidity. 4.3. financial performance trend of banks from the graphical presentation in figures 2 and 3; banks performance during the study period was quite erratic, thus moving up and down haphazardly. the year 2006 recorded the lowest performance for banks in ghana, representing 6.74% and 0.83% for roe and roa respectively whilst 2014 was the highest point, registering a return on equity of 24.23% and a return on assets of 4.57%. interestingly, roe dropped significantly in 2015 to 9.9% from 24.23% in the preceding year. this was mainly due to recapitalization by four banks, namely; first atlantic bank, sg-ssb, unibank ghana and universal merchant bank. the dropped in roa also was not that significant to suggest the reduction was occasioned by low profitability in 2015. however, the steady performance of the banks came between 2011 and 2014 when they recorded consistent growth in both equity and asset utilization. apart from 2006, 2009, 2011 and 2015 which recorded dips for roe and 2006, 2009, and 2015 for roa, the rest of the years during the study period all trended upwards. the dipped in performance for these years was because of some significant losses recorded by agricultural development bank, bank of africa, universal merchant bank and the ut bank. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 135-142 141 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure-2. average return on equity. figure-3. average return on assets. 5. conclusion and recommendations banks, just like all other forms of businesses are faced with numerous risks such as interest rate risk, exchange rate risk, liquidity risk, operating risk, political risk, technological risk and default risk (credit risk). the trend analysis shows that the liquidity of banks is to some extent link to the bank financial performance. this means the amount of liquidity held by a bank in ghana will necessarily influence its financial performance. this is consistent with the overall conclusion of malik, awais, and khursheed (2016) that liquidity ratios affect profitability ratios. liquidity risk may have diverse effects on a bank's earnings and capital base depending on how it is managed. lack of liquidity or improper management of it can collapse an otherwise profitable business organisation. the analysis further highlights the importance of liquidity to banks in terms of profitability and survival. taking the various determinants of bank liquidity into consideration, and how liquidity impacts bank profitability, efficient management of it would not only inure to the benefit of banks but also to individuals and business entities and thus the whole economy. it is further recommended that bank capitalization ought to be encouraged with the goal that bank financial performance can be improved. banks should endeavour to retain earnings in other to boost capital as opposed to paying exorbitant bonuses. the well-capitalized banking industry will guarantee financial stability and make the sector more robust against external shocks. efficient liquidity management should be adopted by bank managers to ensure that banks operate profitably and do not become insolvent. since it has been established empirically that high levels of liquidity will guarantee better financial performance. references amer, d. w. 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(2008). bank management & financial series (7th ed.). new york: mcgraw hill/irwin. shekhar, k. c., & shekhar, l. (2005). banking theory and practice (19th ed.). new delhi, india: kay kay printers. tan, c. h. (2005). financial markets and institutions in singapore. singapore: singapore university press. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.mafhoum.com/press6/174e11.pdf 104 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 2, 104-113, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.104.113 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group motivation and labour turnover in the health sector: perception of healthcare professionals at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital, central region, ghana michael ayikwei quarshie1 alfred attafuah2 gifty sarfo3 ( corresponding author) 1department of entrepreneurship and business sciences, university of energy and natural resources, sunyani, bono region, ghana. 2directorate of human resource, university of cape coast, cape coast, central region, ghana. 3institute for educational planning and administration, university of cape coast, cape coast, central region, ghana. abstract this study aimed at evaluating the impact of motivation on labour turnover among healthcare professionals at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital, central region, ghana. the study reviewed literature on organisational equilibrium theory, compensation theory and herzberg twofactor theory to establish the link between staff motivation and labour turnover. the descriptive cross-section survey was adopted for this study. questionnaires were employed to obtain data from 165 healthcare professionals at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital using the simple random sampling technique. data were presented and analyzed using regression and descriptive statistics. the study revealed that most healthcare professionals at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital are fairly satisfied with their work. this is because they are fairly motivated for the services they render at the hospital. the study further established that employee recognition (β= -0.476; p-value = 0.004) and working environment (β= -0.319; p-value = 0.015) have a significant impact on labour turnover at the government hospital. it was therefore recommended that management of the hospital should maintain credibility in the implementation of its motivational practices to enhance staff satisfaction and retention. keywords: motivation, labour turnover, working environment, healthcare professionals, recognition, work content, payment, promotion. jel classification: o15. citation | michael ayikwei quarshie; alfred attafuah; gifty sarfo (2020). motivation and labour turnover in the health sector: perception of healthcare professionals at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital, central region, ghana. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(2): 104-113. history: received: 7 february 2020 revised: 18 march 2020 accepted: 20 april 2020 published: 14 may 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 105 2. literature review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 105 3. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................. 108 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................. 109 5. conclusions and recommendations ........................................................................................................................................... 111 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 112 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.104.113&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1630 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4391-6484 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2944-7300 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8231-5772 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1630 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4391-6484 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2944-7300 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8231-5772 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1630 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4391-6484 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2944-7300 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8231-5772 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1630 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4391-6484 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2944-7300 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8231-5772 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1630 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4391-6484 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2944-7300 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8231-5772 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 104-113 105 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the outcome of this study contributes to the literature as it provides useful information on motivation to policymakers, planners and other stakeholders. the study will rebound to the benefit of hospital managers and administrators considering the role that healthcare professional play in delivering healthcare services. a better knowledge of factors that impact on labour turnover was needed to inform district health managers and administrators who are essential at the operational level of health systems and important drivers for performance outcomes in their districts. 1. introduction guaranteeing access to quality healthcare service greatly relies upon the hospital’s capacity to retain its qualified healthcare professionals (adjei-appiah, 2008). for that matter, high nurse turnover is regarded to have negative consequences on healthcare institutions ability to meet patient needs and provide quality care (shields & ward, 2001). researchers like saratoga institute and kepner-tregoe (1999) and hay group (2001) asserted that employee’s turnover in the health sector is mostly costly; reduces the effectiveness and efficiency of an organization and further reduces the quality of health care delivery. accessible data demonstrates that there is a high rate of employee turnover among healthcare professionals in ghana (adjei-appiah, 2008). for instance, between the periods 1993 and 2002, the ministry of health indicated that ghana lost close to 630 medical doctors, 410 pharmacists and approximately 11,300 nurses to other sectors of the economy or other countries (ministry of health, 2002). the ministry of health (2002) reported that the country required the services of about 3,000 medical doctors at the various health institutions around the country but had only 964 medical doctors. this situation leads to a deficit of about 2,036 (ministry of health, 2002). according to the ministry of health (2002), records show that the national doctor-patient ratio in the country for the year 2000 was 1:12,000 and in 2002, it expanded to 1:15,000. for adjei-appiah (2008) the high turnover rates for health care practitioners require the government, and all health sector stakeholders of ghana to spend scarce resources for recruiting and training, of doctors and nurses, leaving considerably fewer resources for more direct aspects of health care delivery in the country. hence any health service organisation must assess how it is faring with other employers in this competitive job market mobley (1982). meanwhile, the government of ghana is the major employer of healthcare practitioners and trend is that if healthcare professionals decide to leave the government hospitals, majority of them travel out of the country while a few get employed in private hospitals (arkoh, 2004). according to adjei-appiah (2008) most healthcare researchers in ghana claim that the problem of retaining healthcare workers is primarily related to the working environment, job satisfaction and conditions of service. as a result, governments over the years have periodically engaged healthcare professionals by using many forms of inducements and incentives. it, however, appears that these initiatives have not yielded any significant impact on reducing the high degree of labour turnover in the health sector. owing to this and many more, numerous health care policies including the national health insurance scheme (nhis) run into many challenges (ministry of health., 2016). the government of ghana upon recommendations made by professional health care bodies such as the ghana medical association (gma) and ghana registered nurses association (grna) in the year 2001 prompted the government to release about five million dollars in the year 2003 onwards into a healthcare revolving fund. the fund was meant for the improvement in infrastructure, purchase of cars for the various health professionals, salaries enhancement, payment of extra duty allowances and also agreed in principle to provide a private housing scheme and to make it possible for them to own an accommodation (adjei-appiah, 2008; ministry of health., 2016). despite frantic efforts by government, healthcare professionals continue to express dissatisfaction with continuous attrition of their members. some studies (adjei-appiah, 2008; arkoh, 2004; numerof, abrams, & shank, 2002) have demonstrated that the healthcare sector has one of the most noteworthy turnover rates. the dunkwaon-offin government hospital is the largest and highly equipped hospital in dunkwa and its suburbs. the hospital employs and accommodates diverse healthcare professionals but is bedevilled with high labour turnover in recent times. the claim is that attention given to the improvement of remuneration and working conditions seems to be woefully insufficient (arkoh, 2004; ministry of health., 2016). moreover, analysis of the literature reveals that not much research has been done on motivation and labour turnover in the health sector within the ghanaian context to verify these claims or otherwise. most of the studies conducted on motivation and labour turnover mainly focus on the education and hospitality sectors (agyei-ohemeng & sedegah, 2018; kosi, sulemana, boateng, & mensah, 2015; sam, effah, & osei-owusu, 2014). owing to these and many more, this study sought to assess healthcare professionals’ perception of motivation and the impact of motivational factors on labour turnover at the dunkwaon-offin government hospital. 2. literature review 2.1. theoretical review the major sociological theories used to explain employees’ motivation and labour turnover are the theory of organisational equilibrium, compensation theory and herzberg theory. these theories were chosen because they are appropriate for discussing the relationship between motivation and labour turnover. the section that follows examines the theories’ general arguments, assumptions and how they relate to motivation and labour turnover. 2.2. theory of organisational equilibrium this theory proposes that desirability of movement and the ease of movement are the two main drivers of employee turnover. the desirability of movement depicts the individual’s satisfaction with the job, whereas ease of movement generally reflects perceived or actual job alternatives in the external market. job satisfaction and lack of alternatives are two important factors in employees’ decisions to stay in an organisation (march & simon, 1958). this study is therefore interested in assessing whether or not the healthcare professionals at dunkwa-on-offin asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 104-113 106 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group government hospital are satisfied with their job, whether or not there are real or perceived job alternatives in the labour market and to evaluate the impact of motivation on labour turnover at dunkwa-on-offin government hospital. 2.3. compensation theory among the underlying foundations of compensation theory is that compensation influences behaviour. the premise emanated from the study of behaviour psychologists, thus b.f. skinner, who trusted in operant moulding (kohn, 1996). skinner illustrated that if you reward an organism for certain behaviour, that organism will be more likely to repeat that behaviour. converted into organizational terms, if you reward an employee for exhibiting good behaviours of producing results, that employee will probably rehash those same activities. it is critical to note that there is a small number of individuals that do not buy into these principles (kohn, 1996). the faction argues that human behaviour is much too complex to be controlled and manipulated through reward programmes. their argument emphasizes the need to fully appreciate the role of compensation as a tool for achieving employee satisfaction and retention. it is particularly important for an institution to fully appreciate the effect of its compensation system (noe, hollenbeck, gerhart, & wright, 2003). compensation can substantially promote an organization’s success and satisfy employee career objectives. it has been underscored that remuneration should likewise be designed legitimately as though not watchful amid design and implementation. compensation systems can accidentally fail to inspire the desired behaviour (e.g. inadequate compensation plan) or worse, motivate undesired conduct (e.g. individualistic behaviour in a team environment) (lawler, 1996). 2.4. herzberg two-factor theory amedzo (2007) discussed herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory by distinguishing motivational and maintenance factors in work circumstances. the theory endeavours to clarify satisfaction and motivation in an organisation by expressing that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are driven by various variables (that is motivation and hygiene factors). a research study was made by herzberg and his associates based on the interview of 200 engineers and accountants who worked in eleven unique firms in pittsburgh territory. based on this study, two occupation factors were recognized, namely motivators or satisfiers and hygiene or maintenance factors. motivators are those parts of the work that make individuals want to perform and inform their choice to remain or quit an organisation. these motivators are viewed as intrinsic to the content of the work and include variables such as achievement, recognition, advancement, work itself, the possibility of growth and responsibility. conversely, dissatisfying encounters, labelled "hygiene" factors, to a great extent results from extrinsic, nonwork related factors, for example, organization policies and administration, salary, technical supervisory style, interpersonal relationship with supervisors, interpersonal relationship with peers and interpersonal relationship with subordinates, salary and job security. herzberg, mausner, and sayderman (1957) have reported on the motivational variables which are responsible for employees’ job satisfaction and eventual retention in an organisation. the theory explains employee satisfaction as being driven by motivation and hygiene factors or intrinsic and extrinsic factors. motivators are those part of the job that make individuals want to perform and inform their choice to remain or quit an organisation. chiboiwa, samuel, and chipunza (2010) define intrinsic motivators as factors that are inside a person and are based on individual needs. they include accomplishment, acknowledgement, the job itself, obligation, and prospects for career growth. conversely, the authors define extrinsic factors as hygiene factors that are required for employee satisfaction but are not directly related to the nature of the job. they include company policies, salary, status, job security, and supervisory styles. the theory, thus, suggests that employees see themselves and how they are dealt with regarding their surrounding environment, work systems not in isolation thus they should be managed and treated likewise. the charge along these lines for an organisation is to create reward systems that are seen to be reasonable, impartial and distribute the reward as per worker convictions in the organisation. 2.5. meaning of turnover turnover can be explained as the movement of labour out of and into a working organization (lashley, 2000). another definition may be simply stated as to when an employee leaves an organization for whatever reason(s). turnover can take several forms. it can be intended or unintended, purposeful or dysfunctional, preventable or unavoidable. in a voluntary turnover, an employee leaves the organization of his own free choice with some of the possible reasons being: low salary, job dissatisfaction or better job opportunities elsewhere whereas involuntary turnover takes effect when the organization decides to remove an employee due to poor performance or economic crisis (aksu, 2004). besides, price (1977) said that voluntary turnover can be termed as avoidable turnover and involuntary turnover as unavoidable turnover. however, a study by wright (1993) focused on intended rather than unintended turnover which concludes that voluntary turnover is a critical issue for both employees and organizations. 2.6. conceptual models of employee turnover one of the earliest and perhaps most influential integrative models of employee turnover was introduced by march and simon (1958). they studied turnover factors affecting perceived desirability and affluence of movement within the labour force. subsequently, the study of turnover in various contexts and the development of turnover models has burgeoned (mcbey & karakowsky, 2001; mobley, 1982). as early as 1977, price (1977) published an extensive review and codification of the turnover literature. he presented the determinants and prevailing variables associated with turnover. price (1977) viewed the principal determinants of turnover as pay level, integration, instrumental communication, formal communication and centralization. in the same year, mobley (1977) developed intermediate linkages that threw more light on some vital sources of influence. mobley model focuses on turnover as a process and questions the role of satisfaction as the immediate precursor of turnover. then, in 1979, mobley expanded his model of the labour turnover process. the amended model suggests that there are four primary determinants of intentions to quit and subsequently result in turnover: job satisfaction-dissatisfaction; positive asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 104-113 107 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group expectation about a future role in the organization; expectation of finding an attractive job external to the present organization and non-work values and contingencies. in 1982, mobley again produced a simplified model of turnover determinants. he used the term “determinants” in a generic sense to describe any variable potentially related to turnover which could be direct, indirect, causal or co-relational. the determinants identified were organizational variables, external economy, individual non-work and work-related variables. in 1984, jackofsky further added to literature with his integrated process model of turnover. he reviewed previous research on labour turnover and integrated job performance in the process of turnover. mcbey and karakowsky (2001) affirmed that regardless of which turnover model is considered, much of the studies have drawn attention to four sources of influence on turnover. the four influences highlighted are; work-related attitudes (push factors), external environment factors (pull factors), individual characteristic factors, and job performance factors. this turnover model has continued to shape the thinking of the turnover literature in recent times. it can thus be seen that the causes and correlation of employee turnover have been studied from many different perspectives. most researchers have linked some variables to turnover. a study by morrow, mcelroy, laczniak, and fenton (1999) has established a positive association between absenteeism and voluntary turnover and a negative association between job performance and turnover. among the probable causes of turnover, remuneration was often cited as the reason for leaving an organisation (hinkin & tracey, 2000; rowley & purcell, 2001). 2.7. consequences of turnover the impact of turnover can be either positive or negative, or both for an organization. according to carbery, garavan, o'brien, and mcdonnell (2003) from the perspective of the employer, turnover is viewed as a negative situation and from the view of the employee, it is often seen more positively. for the employer, perhaps the most obvious positive organizational consequences are the potential replacement of a former employee with one who is better. in terms of negative impact, from a managerial perspective, it would seem apparent that the organizational consequences of turnover are closely associated with the additional cost of recruitment and training and potentially lower profitability. according to mobley (1982) the most frequently studied organizational influence of turnover, both direct and indirect is the monetary cost which can vary substantially between and within organizations. some researchers (aksu, 2004; hinkin & tracey, 2000; kaak, field, giles, & norris, 1998) found that high turnover rates have adverse effects on the profitability of organizations. turnover is expensive. it affects organizational profitability because in measuring turnover three major costs are included, namely; separation cost, replacement cost and training cost (mobley, 1982). johnson (1981) viewed turnover as challenging for the industries, affecting the quality of services and products, and suffering considerable replacement cost and recruitment costs. johnson further avers that labour turnover acts as a hindrance to increased effectiveness and efficiency, a view maintained in more recent literature. for example, the issue of quality cannot be ignored when dealing with employee turnover. it is often said that the people who leave are those who are most talented (hinkin & tracey, 2000). the issue of quality is highlighted when someone unfamiliar with the tasks takes on the vacant position. it takes a long time to learn a new job and ranges from 54 to 80 days to reach an acceptable level of competence (hinkin & tracey, 2000). contrarily, a positive impact could be seen for an employee who quits a job feeling motivated by expectations of greater net positive consequences in a new post (mobley, 1982). this may be in the form of higher rates of pay or career development. however, the negative consequences of turnover also exist for employees who misjudge the organizations that they are about to join. unrealistic expectations of the new organization, for example, about better benefits or working conditions may lead to a negative impact. other possible negative consequences may involve loss of seniority, co-workers or boss (mobley, 1982). also, there are costs (financial, social and psychological) of moving to a new post that has to be borne regardless of any increase in salary or seniority. 2.8. possible causes of employee turnover stressors can be referred to as job or organizational conditions that may threaten an individual’s well-being. stressors are the element of stress. stranks (2005) stated that the causes of stress are diverse but it normally includes three aspects that are environmental, occupational and social. some researchers have studied workplace stressors in a variety of industries. workplace stress which includes role conflict, role overload and role ambiguity has been discussed in comprehensive reviews in the occupational stress literature. according to jex (1998), a role can be seen as a set of behaviours that are expected of an individual occupying a certain position. in social systems such as organizations, role plays an important part in coordinating an individual’s behaviour. every organization needs roles to function effectively as employees in an organization received role-related information through both formal and informal sources (jex, 1998). cooper and marshall (1978) noted that role ambiguity exists when a person has insufficient information about work role and where there is lack of clarity about the work objectives associated with the role, about colleague’s expectation of the work role and the scope and responsibilities of the job. ideally, in most cases, workplace role-related information should be communicated to employees and it should be consistent. if the role-information is not clear to the employee, this situation may lead to role ambiguity. jex (1998) further explained that role ambiguity may occur for several reasons. first, it is from the organizational perspective where poorly written job descriptions and monitoring exist. second, some roles are simply more difficult to define and this causes employees to have difficulty in understanding the role. this mostly happens for managerial positions. for instance, in some organizations, managers are expected to achieve a certain level of sales but due to little guidance and lack of experience, this is not achievable. environmental change is identified as the third common cause of role ambiguity. this happens when the content of many organizational roles is linked to factors and events outside the organization. also, role ambiguity happens to employees who have a complex description or where a job requires multi-tasking. to avoid job ambiguity, an employee has to acquire multiple skills to perform all related tasks. above all, kahn., wolfe, quinn, and snoek (1964), in their study, found that men who suffered from role ambiguity experience lower job satisfaction, high job-related tension, greater senses of futility and lower self-confidence. this implies the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 104-113 108 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group importance of clear role definitions at the workplace to avoid unintentional consequences to employees. role conflict occurs in a situation where an individual has different expectations of roles to those of higher management or other stakeholders as to the performance of a given task. sigler (1988) stated that when an individual holds various overlapping roles or the behaviour expected is inconsistent, this can cause role conflict. kahn. et al. (1964) found that men who suffered more work conflict had lower job satisfaction and higher job-related tension. thus, it is suggested that role conflict increases job dissatisfaction and in turn, increases quitting the behaviour. with regards to role overload, cooper., dewe, and o’driscoll (2001) refer to the sheer amount of effort required for a role to be completed. it happens when a worker has been pressurized to do more and finish the work within a normal workday hour (glazer & beehr, 2005). role overload is one of several factors that can impact on job satisfaction. according to galinsky, kim, and bond (2001) about two-thirds of managers and professional employees and one-third of other employees felt overworked. they further stressed that one reason for work overload is customer expectation. the consequences of work overload include reduced job satisfaction, which ultimately leads to turnover behaviour. work overload also causes errors in products and services. 2.9. stress as a cause of employee turnover stress is a term that can be viewed differently by different people and there is no single definition of the term (stranks, 2005). ivancevich and ganster (1987) agreed that there is no particular definition that has been generally accepted as the final view of what stress entails. law, pearce, and woods (1995) stated four criteria that can be useful in demonstrating stress. they believe that: 1) stress can be positive and negative; 2) stress can be caused by a wide variety of things; 3) it is not so much the event but human reaction to the event which causes stress and 4) stress is a demand made on our capacities and it is these capacities which determine our response to the demand. in the case of employees at work, they would worry potentially about many things such as too much or too little work, inefficient management, excessive working hours, job security, and pressure on or conflict with job demands (stranks, 2005). these sorts of things can result in stress in the workplace. a 1992 un report called job stress “the 20th century epidemic” and the world health organization called stress a “world wide epidemic”. stress in the workplace also happens in the health sector. the examples of stress observed are derived mainly from job overload such as understaffing, temporary staff shortages, unrealistic task criteria and also bullying (rowley & purcell, 2001). even though research on stress has been an extremely active field for many years, job stress in the health sector has not been widely investigated (zohar, 1994). according to agyemang, nyanyofio, and gyamfi (2014) stress creates a mental, physical, social, and economic response that needs adjustment to neutralize pressure. job stress occurs during the time of work due to contact between the workers. job stress can occur when workers are unable to cope with labour demand which further creates psychological stresses (nowrouzi et al., 2015). job stress is a concern for both workers and the organisations at large. if job stress is poorly handled, it can adversely affect the organization's survival and growth. job stress would also hinder the organisation's recruiting and retention of skilled staff. hu, wang, xu, and xu (2014) study reported that medical employees have a high level of stress which is a common phenomenon among healthcare professionals. work stress in the healthcare sector is critical because if it is not managed well it tends to impact negatively on the quality of work. healthcare professionals, such as the doctor, nurse, and other supporting staff who work in the hospital are exposed to stress. if stress is not adequately managed could affect not only the staff but also the patients (pisljar, lippe, & dulk, 2011). besides work demand, patients can also be exposed to negative emotions from healthcare professionals who work at the hospital. emotional contagion is likely to occur if workers frequently interact with people who suffer depression as a result of the disease they have (pisljar et al., 2011). 2.10. work environment the work environment is one of the factors that affect an employee’s decision to stay with an organisation (bültmann et al., 2005). ramlall (2003) associates the work environment with a focus on physical aspects such as heavy lifts, noise, and exposure to toxic substances. miller, erickson, and yust (2001) opined that workers benefit from a positive work environment that provides a sense of belonging. emotional and mental wellness is important to good retention and other indicators of business performance. levi (2002) advocates that there is a need for organisations to recognise the emerging needs of individuals to keep them committed and provide better jobs with a great work environment to retain employees. potential remedies to poor workplace health may come from other retention factors like vacation benefits, flexible time, a good work-life balance, effective and open communications, and job enrichment (wells & thelen, 2002). zeytinoglu and denton (2006) explain that workplace safety, and health and wellness initiatives can make a fundamental contribution to business performance as well as the improved health and well-being of individual employees. hytter (2008) has reported that people enjoy working, and strive to work in an organisations that provide a conducive work environment where employees feel they make a difference. 3. research methodology this study adopted descriptive cross survey design. descriptive research is designed to describe the existing situation. it seeks to answer who, what, when, where and how questions (zikmund, 2003). in this study, the researchers applied a survey technique by distributing questionnaires to gain feedback from respondents and to gain understanding about the perception of healthcare professionals on motivation and labour turnover at the hospital. according to zikmund (2003), a survey technique can gather data or information from people by using a questionnaire. this survey, therefore, uses a questionnaire administered by the researchers to gather data from the respondents. the study population is the group of people who have the information that the researchers look for and from which conclusions can be acquired (malhotra & birks, 2007). in this case, the study population was 225 healthcare professionals from the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital. from the total population, the minimum sample size required was 144 respondents. this was determined using the sloven’s formula; which states as asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 104-113 109 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group follows: n = ( ) where n = sample size, n = accessible population and e = level of significance at 0.05 (quarshie, djimatey, & abakah-anaman, 2018). however, the researchers sampled 165 respondents to make the study more representational and to take care of the non-retention rate of the questionnaires. the study employed a probability sampling technique, specifically, the simple random sampling technique to select the respondents. the simple random sampling was used because it gave room for each healthcare professional to be selected without any bias. the main instrument employed for the data collection was a structured closed-ended questionnaire. the questionnaire was designed to provide specific responses aimed at addressing the research objective. respondents were given the questionnaire with an explanation before responding to the items on the questionnaire. likert scales were used in measuring the variables of interest, that is motivation and labour turnover. thirty-four items on the questionnaire concerning motivation and employee turnover were administered to the respondents. respondents were requested to tick the item that corresponds to their views on the likert scale. the likert scale ranges from 1= low agreement to 5= highest agreement. there are some reasons behind the selection of this method. first, it allows a large quantum of information to be solicited at a relatively low cost. second, more accurate and precise responses are obtained because researchers bias can be avoided. to reduce the chances of getting inaccurate responses, attention was paid to the reliability and validity of the instrument used. some steps were taken into consideration to ensure the validity and reliability of the study. data were obtained from reliable sources which meant that a respondent must be a healthcare professional at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital. the questionnaire was developed based on the literature reviewed. the questionnaire was pre-tested by the researchers to ensure it measured what it was supposed to and data were obtained during reasonable period. results from the pre-test showed a cronbach’s alpha of 0.82 in line with pallant (2007) suggestions. to ensure strict compliance with ethical standards of research, written permission was duly sought from the hospital, which was duly granted before data were collected. the researchers introduced a clause in the introductory paragraph of the questionnaire assuring respondents of anonymity and confidentiality. also, the time required for completing the questionnaire was mutually agreed between the respondents and the researchers. 4. results and discussion 4.1. demographic information of respondents in this study, respondents’ background information was described in terms of sex, age range, highest educational level and length of service. the background was sought to enable the researchers to make a comparison among the respondents. the distribution of respondents’ respective demographic information is captured in table 1. the distribution of respondents’ sex indicated that the majority (62.4%) of respondents are females while the remaining (37.6%) are males. this indicates that most of the healthcare professionals at the hospital are female-dominated. it can further be observed that out of the 165 respondents, the majority (71.5%) are within the age group 20-29 years. this was followed by (25.5%) of the respondents who are within the age group 30-39 years. the results imply that the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital is dominated by young adults who are aged between 20 and 29 years followed by primed-aged adults. differences in the educational levels of workers may influence job satisfaction and willingness of employees to stay in their organizations. the table shows that (58.2%) of the respondents hold a diploma. this was followed by (15.2%) of the respondents who hold a certificate. twenty-three per cent hold bachelor’s degree and the rest (3.6%) hold postgraduate certificates. the data shows that staff workforce at the hospital is to some extent dominated by diploma holders. the study further examined the distribution of respondents’ length of service at the hospital. this is important because the number of years staff have worked in the hospital is likely to influence their perception and level of motivation at the hospital. the data shows that majority (79.4%) of the respondents have been working at the hospital for less than 5 years, whereas (14.6%) of the respondents have been working at the hospital between 6-9 years. table-1. background information of respondents. background information frequency per cent (%) sex male 62 37.6 female 103 62.4 total 165 100 age range (years) 20-29 118 71.5 30-39 42 25.5 40-49 5 3.0 total 165 100.0 highest educational level diploma 96 58.2 certificate 25 15.2 bachelor’s degree 38 23.0 postgraduate degree 6 3.6 total 165 100 length of service less than 5 years 131 79.4 6-9 years 24 14.6 10-14 years 7 4.2 15-19 years 3 1.8 total 165 100.0 source: field survey. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 104-113 110 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group approximately two per cent of the respondents have worked within the hospital between 15-19 years. it is noted from the table that the percentage of respondents decreases with increasing years of length of service in the remaining categories. the implication is that the majority of healthcare professionals have worked within five years at the hospital. these categories of staff tend to leave the institution in the early years of appointment and may be attributed to the unmet expectation at the time of appointment. 4.2. motivation at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital from table 2, it is evident that most healthcare professionals agreed very highly that they feel glad when they help to save a patient’s life in performing their duties (mean = 4.82; stdv. = 0.46). the respondents expressed very high agreement levels on the issue that it is very important to them personally that they do their job very well (mean = 4.71; stdv. = 0.53). most respondents agreed very highly that they view their job as a calling profession (mean = 4.49; stdv. = 0.60). the respondents agreed very highly that they feel they are making a valuable contribution to the life of patients who patronise their services (mean = 4.41; stdv. = 0.85). the respondents in expressing their views on motivational factors at the hospital agreed very highly that the job provides them with the opportunity to develop their talent (mean = 4.16; stdv. = 0.94) and further agreed very highly that their colleagues at the hospital are supportive (mean = 4.05; stdv. = 0.84). the respondents agreed very highly that the job encourages self or personal development and creates a career path (mean = 4.01; stdv. = 0.83). the respondents also agreed very highly that the hospital manager encourages teamwork (mean = 3.80; stdv. = 0.92). analysis of data further shows that healthcare professionals feel committed to the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital (mean = 3.69; stdv. = 0.97) as illustrated in table 3. the respondents highly agreed that healthcare professionals feel free when working at the hospital (mean = 3.46; stdv. = 1.13). most respondents highly agreed that the hospital manager discusses the performance of individual persons (mean = 3.43; stdv. = 1.05). furthermore, the respondents highly agreed that the hospital manager motivates healthcare professionals to do a good job and duly recognizes their performance (mean = 3.35; stdv. = 1.18) and (mean = 3.32; stdv. = 1.15) respectively. respondents highly agreed that their job security is assured at the hospital (mean = 3.25; stdv. = 1.23). also, the respondents highly agreed that the hospital provides the necessary resources to complete a task successfully (mean = 3.12; stdv. = 1.16). again, respondents highly agreed that the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital pays fairly for the services rendered (mean = 2.82; stdv. = 1.43) and highly agreed that healthcare professionals’ needs at the hospital are taken into consideration (mean = 2.79; stdv. = 1.21). table-2. motivation at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital. motivation mean std dev interpretation contentment 4.82 0.46 very high service importance 4.71 0.53 very high noble profession 4.49 0.60 very high valuable contribution 4.41 0.85 very high talent development 4.16 0.94 very high supportive colleagues 4.05 0.84 very high career path 4.01 0.83 very high teamwork 3.80 0.92 very high commitment 3.69 0.97 high safe and secure 3.46 1.13 high performance discussion 3.43 1.05 high encouragement 3.35 1.18 high recognition 3.32 1.15 high job security assurance 3.25 1.23 high resources provision 3.12 1.16 high fair payment 2.82 1.43 high consideration of staff needs 2.79 1.21 high key: mean range interpretation of the level of motivation. 1 – 1.25 – low; 1.26 – 2.5 – moderate; 2.56 – 3.75 – high; 3.76 – 5 very high. 4.3. motivation impact on labour turnover at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital the multiple regression analysis was employed to examine the impact of motivation on labour turnover at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital. the requirements of multiple regression were followed before establishing the impact. the results of the test can be observed in tables 3, 4 and 5. from table 4, the multiple regression analysis (model summary) indicates that the independent variables met the entry requirement for the model. the r (0.406) shows a medium positive correlation between the predictive variables (working environment, work content, recognition, payment and promotion) and the dependent variable (labour turnover). the adjusted r-square value reveals that about 14.4% of the variance in labour turnover is explained by the motivational factors at the hospital. this implies that the remaining 85.6% of labour turnover at the hospital is explained by other variables apart from these motivational factors. table-3. model summary. model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 0.406a 0.165 0.144 6.5425 note: a predictors: (constant), working environment, work content, recognition, payment and promotion. b dependent variable: labour turnover. in the anova (f-test) in table 4, it can be seen simultaneously that the independent variables (working environment, work content, recognition, payment and promotion) have a significant impact on labour turnover as shown from the value of sig. 0.000 < α = 0.05. hence it could be concluded that the variation in the dependent asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 104-113 111 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group variable can be explained by the linear regression model specified. this shows that there is a linear relationship between the dependent variable and the predictor variables. table-4. anova(b). model sum of squares df mean square f sig. regression 1348.514 4 337.129 7.876 .000(a) residual 6848.662 160 42.804 total 8197.176 164 note: a predictors: (constant), working environment, work content, recognition, payment and promotion. b dependent variable: labour turnover. beta (β) or standardized coefficient figures as presented in table 5 were used to demonstrate the magnitude of motivation impact on labour turnover at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital. the constant value of 44.16 indicates that if the independent variables are assumed to be constant, then the mean of the labour turnover at the government hospital is 44.16. from table 5, work content and payment and promotion do not have a significant impact on labour turnover at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital. based on the coefficients results in table 5, it can be observed that recognition of employees has a significant negative impact on labour turnover. this can be seen from the value of sig. = 0.004< 0.05; t= -2.925; β = -0.476. the p-value of 0.004 associated with recognition shows that its contribution to labour turnover is significant. this further implies that a point increase in employee recognition leads to about 0.476 decreases in labour turnover at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital. the finding is consistent with bhatt (2015) study which reported that employee knowledge, skills and competencies are very important for organizations. for this reason, managers need to be able to map and retain highly skilled employees and always remind them how valuable they are to the organization. similarly, selden and sowa (2015) study also reported that for organizations to improve on employee retention, they should invest more time and resources on developing employees as future leaders and cultivating a positive working environment. it can further be observed from table 5 that the working environment has a significant negative impact on labour turnover. this can be seen from the value of sig. = 0.015< 0.05; t= -2.468; β = -0.319. the p-value of 0.015 associated with working environment shows that its contribution to labour turnover is significant. this implies that a point increase in working environment leads to about 0.319 decreases in labour turnover at the dunkwa-onoffin government hospital. this finding corroborates wells and thelen (2002) study which documents that a positive work environment is believed to make employees feel good about coming to work and provide the necessary motivation to sustain them throughout the day. this observation was further echoed by heneman (2007) who intimated that organizations which offer suitable levels of privacy and sound controls at the workplace improves the levels of motivation and commitment in employees. this also has the ability to satisfy and retain employees. heneman further alludes to the fact that one of the most crucial elements of any organizations total reward strategy is having a positive work environment. table-5. coefficient(a). model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta (β) (constant) 44.162 4.745 9.307 .000 work content 0.281 0.197 0.123 1.424 .156 payment and promotion 0.025 0.163 0.016 .153 .878 working environment -0.319 0.129 -0.247 -2.468 .015 recognition -0.476 0.163 -0.289 -2.925 .004 note: a predictors: (constant), working environment, work content, recognition, payment and promotion. b dependent variable: labour turnover. 5. conclusions and recommendations healthcare professionals at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital perceived highly that motivation is very important for enhancing retention, improving staff performance, effectiveness and efficiency. however, a section of healthcare professionals perceived that motivation at the hospital is quite inadequate. which implies that the nature of motivational issues at the hospital, if not addressed properly, could affect staff retention. this situation can adversely affect staff performance, effectiveness and efficiency and eventually increase staff turnover at the hospital. the study also discovered a significant relationship between recognition, working environment and labour turnover at the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital. this finding implies that an improvement in employee recognition and working environment will promote staff retention and reduce the challenges of high staff turnover at the hospital. this further means that an improvement in these factors at the hospital will lead to the desired increase in staff retention. the study recommends that some policy measures could be adopted by hospital management to ensure that best motivational issues are followed to employ and retain competent staff. staff who can help the dunkwa-on-offin government hospital to achieve its strategic goals. management of the hospital should maintain credibility in the implementation of the various motivational practices to enhance staff satisfaction. these may include ensuring fairness in promotion and opportunities for career development. this can be achieved by sensitizing supervisors to maintain fairness in staff selection for specific training and career development programmes as well as issues on promotion. hospital management should involve 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(2006). satisfied workers, retained workers: effects of work and work environment on homecare workers’ job satisfaction, stress, physical health, and retention. ontario: mcmaster university. zikmund, w. g. (2003). business research method (7th ed.). india: cengage learning. zohar, d. (1994). analysis of job stress profile in the profile. international journal hospitality management, 13(3), 219 – 231. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 69 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 12, no. 4, 69-76, 2025 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v12i4.7634 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group cross-industry project management: insights into transition capabilities from australian practitioners meriam poles1 indra gunawan2 ( corresponding author) 1,2university of adelaide, australia. 1email: meriam.poles@adelaide.edu.au 2email: indra.gunawan@adelaide.edu.au abstract this research examines how project managers effectively transition between industry sectors, drawing on qualitative insights from experienced practitioners across australia. despite the complexity and sectorspecific challenges involved, many project managers successfully adapt to cross-industry roles. a comprehensive study involving interviews with nine senior project managers from various industries, including mining, healthcare, defence, and technology, was conducted to identify the skills enabling these shifts. thematic analysis identified three key factors for success: flexible application of knowledge, strong interpersonal communication, and effective stakeholder management. rapid learning of industry-specific language and contextual understanding also proved essential for smooth entry into new sectors. additionally, the study emphasises the importance of reflective practice in helping managers process experiences, build confidence, and adapt to unfamiliar environments. by connecting practitioner insights with the project management institute’s talent triangle and the project management competency development (pmcd) framework, the study offers both theoretical and practical contributions. findings show that transferable skills and reflective practice enhance professional adaptability, while sector-specific awareness builds credibility. the results provide valuable guidance for recruitment, professional development, and workforce planning. ultimately, the research highlights how organisations can fully utilise project management talent in increasingly dynamic and cross-sector environments. keywords: career self-efficacy, cross-sector mobility, knowledge adaptability, professional identity transformation, project manager adaptability, reflective practice, stakeholder engagement, transferable skills. citation | poles, m., & gunawan, i. (2025). cross-industry project management: insights into transition capabilities from australian practitioners. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 12(4), 69–76. 10.20448/ajssms.v12i4.7634 history: received: 22 august 2025 revised: 30 september 2025 accepted: 14 october 2025 published: 31 october 2025 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the study involved minimal risk and adhered to ethical guidelines for social science fieldwork. formal approval from an institutional review board was not required under the policies of university of adelaide, australia. informed verbal consent was obtained from all participants, and all data were anonymized to ensure participant confidentiality. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: both authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. both authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 70 2. literature review .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70 3. theoretical framework .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 72 4. design/methodology/approach .......................................................................................................................................................................... 72 5. results and findings ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 73 6. discussion .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 74 7. conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 74 references ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 75 mailto:meriam.poles@adelaide.edu.au mailto:indra.gunawan@adelaide.edu.au https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v12i4.7634 https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0450-6602 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7357-509x asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(4): 69-76 70 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature an analysis of project managers' cross-sector mobility is presented in this study, combining behavioural, structural, and institutional perspectives. by challenging ideas about sector-specific expertise, it enhances understanding of transferable skills, identity change, and adaptability. this paper offers practical implications for theory, recruitment, and professional development in dynamic project settings, based on insights from australian practitioners. 1. introduction project managers who can work flexibly and handle diverse challenges are in high demand in today's increasingly complex and dynamic project environments across all sectors (sampaio, wu, cormican, & varajão, 2022). project managers usually possess deep sector-specific knowledge; however, global trends in project-based work, agile methodologies, and workforce mobility have shifted the focus to the transferability of project management skills across industries (brandon, allen, & menefee, 2022). despite the practical importance of this topic, there has been limited academic research on how project managers successfully switch between sectors and the skills required for this transition (sankaran, vaagaasar, & bekker, 2020). previous studies have examined the competencies and behavioral traits that lead to project success within specific industries (ribeiro serra, scafuto, vils, & mattos, 2021). however, little attention has been given to how these competencies support cross-sector transitions. for effective project delivery, existing literature implicitly assumes that domain-specific knowledge is essential. nonetheless, the increasing fluidity of labour markets and the demand for agile, cross-functional teams challenge this assumption (grander, da silva, da silva, & gonzalez, 2022). this study investigates a less-explored area of project management by examining how experienced project managers navigate sectoral boundaries and what transferable skills they possess, such as adaptability, stakeholder engagement, and strategic communication. it also discusses how individual traits influence professional identity and mobility in various project settings. as a result of bridging this gap, research improves theory by reshaping our understanding of project management expertise. it offers evidence-based advice on recruitment, training, and career development strategies that extend beyond industry boundaries. australian project environments provide a unique opportunity to explore cross-sector shifts in project management. due to its diverse economic landscape, which includes construction, infrastructure, mining, healthcare, education, and digital innovation, australia offers a dynamic setting where project managers increasingly need to operate across various sectors. the national labour market trends also emphasise the importance of flexibility, transferable skills, and workforce mobility, highlighting the need for project professionals to effectively manage these transitions (australian government & relations, 2022). there has been significant investment in public-private infrastructure and social projects across south australia, creating opportunities for project managers to move between government, commercial, and not-forprofit sectors. in this context, it is possible to examine how cross-sectoral project delivery functions in practice and to identify the skills necessary to support such projects. this paper begins by reviewing relevant literature on project manager competencies and sectoral mobility. it then outlines the qualitative research design. the results from interviews with experienced project managers in south australia are presented, along with a discussion on the implications of these findings for both theory and practice. 2. literature review in the evolving landscape of project-based work, the emphasis has shifted from solely developing technical skills to encompassing broader behavioral and transferable skills. several recent studies show that successful project delivery increasingly depends on leadership, adaptability, collaboration, and stakeholder engagement, rather than just sector-specific expertise (turner, baker, & morris, 2021). as organisations adapt to rapid technological change, market disruptions, and complex stakeholder environments, these skills are becoming increasingly vital across various sectors. the concept of professional identity in project management is closely connected to one's ability to learn, adapt, and communicate across boundaries (ojiako, maguire, & chipulu, 2020), which has generated increased interest in identifying skills that support such cross-boundary performance. building on this foundation, this literature review investigates the competencies required for effective project management across different sectors, with an emphasis on transferable skills. this paper discusses the shift in project competency frameworks away from solely technical expertise towards behavioural and adaptive skills. it then explores the challenges of cross-sector transitions and how transferable competencies assist project managers in managing them effectively. finally, this review highlights gaps in the current literature that this study seeks to address. 2.1. transferable skills and cross-sector moves project management demands transferable skills to move across various sectors. it is increasingly apparent that skills such as strategic communication, stakeholder engagement, emotional intelligence, and systems thinking are vital for adjusting to different organisational contexts (loughlin & priyadarshini, 2021). by honing these abilities, project professionals can effectively address the specific needs of different sectors, especially in roles involving cross-cultural, regulatory, and technical cooperation. for example, project managers moving from construction to healthcare or from government to non-profits often rely less on domain-specific knowledge and more on adaptability, interpersonal skills, and change management capabilities (locatelli, zerjav, & klein, 2020). transitions of this nature demand the ability to quickly assess unfamiliar stakeholder expectations and navigate complex, ambiguous environments. according to researchers, these skills are not innate but can be developed through targeted learning and reflective practice (zulch, 2021). mentoring, coaching, and experiential learning are deliberate strategies that help professionals internalize and apply these skills across various contexts (clarke, 2020). moreover, it has been shown that project managers with high emotional intelligence who actively use this ei during requirements changes tend to achieve better stakeholder alignment and team cohesion in cross-sector initiatives (madampe, dissanayake, & wijesundara, 2022). additionally, research indicates that soft skills such as collaboration and empathy are often underdeveloped, despite being vital to project success in multi-sectoral asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(4): 69-76 71 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contexts (serrat, 2019). particularly in sectors undergoing rapid technological change, digital proficiency has become a crucial transferable skill. digitally skilled professionals are better prepared to sustain productivity and communication during transitions (turner & lecoeuvre, 2018). the capacity to manage ambiguity, motivate others, and test iterative solutions is increasingly linked to successful project delivery across various sectors (den hond, keegan, & van osch, 2021). consequently, mastering transferable skills offers a strategic edge in today's complex project environments. organisations are looking for practitioners who blend systems thinking, emotional awareness, and adaptive communication as sector boundaries become more flexible. this mindset can be developed through structured growth programs to ensure both individual career versatility and organisational readiness for cross-sector change. 2.2. cross-sector mobility and adaptive capacity of project managers project professionals are increasingly expected to move between sectors as organizations shift towards more dynamic and project-driven structures. the concept of cross-sector mobility involves more than just switching industries; it also encompasses transferring and adapting relevant skills to different organizational contexts (müller et al., 2022). in complex infrastructure projects, sustainability initiatives, and humanitarian efforts, the lines between the public, private, and non-profit sectors are becoming more blurred. a key factor in ensuring a successful transition is developing a flexible professional identity. besides technical skills, individuals must also be able to adapt their competencies to different institutional logics and stakeholder expectations (hodgson, paton, & cicmil, 2018). professionals with high adaptive capacity often demonstrate critical reflection, cultural sensitivity, and the ability to reinterpret tools and practices across diverse domains (biesenthal, clegg, & sankaran, 2021). furthermore, learning agility, the ability to acquire and apply knowledge in new settings, has been recognized as a key enabler of cross-sector collaboration. professionals who engage in ongoing learning and adapt their practices are better positioned to manage sectoral changes effectively. maintaining this flexibility is crucial in digital transformation sectors. this involves integrating practices from technology-driven industries into more traditional fields, such as healthcare or education. project professionals who are open to reconfiguring their approaches and embrace continuous learning are more likely to navigate role transitions successfully. the capacity to adapt technology sector practices to conventional fields like construction and healthcare is vital in industries experiencing digital change. organisational support mechanisms such as mentoring, cross-training, and leadership development programs have also demonstrated their ability to boost project managers' readiness for sectoral shifts. moreover, these initiatives build confidence, adaptability, and the soft skills needed to succeed in unfamiliar environments (too & weaver, 2020). for effective mobility, organisational mechanisms such as mentoring, leadership development, and structured cross-training are vital (garavan & s. watson, 2019). furthermore, these initiatives foster reflective habits that improve knowledge transfer across different contexts. aligning human resource strategies with project-based learning creates a supportive environment for professionals to develop skills that are both adaptable and sensitive to the context (keegan, ringhofer, & huemann, 2019). adaptive capacity is further strengthened through strategic human resource management practices such as job shadowing, rotational assignments, and role reconfiguration, which build resilience and promote cross-sector readiness (sydow, braun, & müller-seitz, 2021). additionally, a systems-oriented approach to project leadership combines behavioral and technical skills, encouraging proactive change management and a comprehensive understanding of diverse project environments (andersen, 2021). despite growing academic interest, a gap persists in integrated models that incorporate behavioural, structural, and institutional aspects of cross-sector mobility. this limitation hampers the practical application of current research and underscores the need for frameworks that foster the development of adaptable, future-oriented project professionals. 2.3. barriers and facilitators of sectoral transitions in project management despite increased cross-sector mobility in project management, several barriers still prevent professionals from transitioning between sectors. one challenge is the misalignment of institutional logics, as each industry has different beliefs about success, accountability, and stakeholder engagement. it is common for project managers to find that practices effective in one industry are incompatible or irrelevant in another (brière, proulx, flores, & laporte, 2020). professional stereotyping remains a significant barrier. consequently, employers in certain industries are hesitant to hire candidates from outside their sector because of concerns about adaptability or cultural compatibility. in highly regulated fields like healthcare or public administration, sector-specific expertise is often valued more highly than transferable skills (sankaran & müller, 2019). the literature also emphasizes key enablers for successful transitions. engaging in trans-sectoral partnerships or multidisciplinary projects has been shown to enhance cognitive flexibility and interpersonal agility necessary for navigating diverse stakeholder environments (clegg, pitsis, & pina e cunha, 2020). furthermore, collaborative leadership and workplace learning practices, such as mentoring, peer learning, and development-oriented interactions, can boost contextual awareness and build confidence when transitioning to a new industry (garavan & watson, 2019). recent research highlights the psychological and identity challenges faced by project professionals when transitioning to a different sector. displacement often arises from differences in norms, communication styles, and decision-making processes, especially when moving from highly commercial environments to more bureaucratic or socially oriented settings. these tensions can weaken confidence and slow down integration into the evolving workplace (lindgren & packendorff, 2018). as a key factor in successful mobility, career self-efficacy—the belief that one can adapt to changing roles—has also been recognized. individuals with high self-efficacy are more inclined to pursue sectoral changes, adapt quickly, and persevere despite uncertainty. this trait is notably shaped by exposure to varied project settings, supportive leadership, and skills development (greer & kirk, 2019). apart from individual traits, structural enablers such as cross-sector fellowships, secondments, and transitional leadership roles have also proven effective in supporting mobility. using these formal structures, project professionals can gradually integrate into new sectoral settings while maintaining their core identity and skills. in a supportive environment, they serve as 'bridging spaces' where skills are shared, networks are built, and contextual understanding is deepened (wilkins, calvard, & jones, 2020). a strong learning orientation, along with asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(4): 69-76 72 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the willingness and ability to learn from new environments, has also been linked to successful transitions, beyond the impact of individual traits and structural supports. those project managers who reflect on past experiences and apply those insights to new settings are more likely to succeed in unfamiliar sectors (ahsan, ho, & khan, 2021). furthermore, individuals with proactive learning mindsets often see cross-sector shifts as opportunities rather than disruptions (ba, nair, & kedia, 2024). considering these insights, there remains a notable gap in the literature. most studies tend to focus solely on public-to-private transitions or are mainly descriptive. behavioural, structural, and institutional factors are not adequately considered in the existing models. by offering a comprehensive framework that captures the complexity of sectoral mobility in modern project environments, we aim to close this gap. as a result of these insights, it becomes clear that there is a significant gap in the literature. current studies tend to focus mainly on public-to-private transitions or remain descriptive. the existing models do not adequately incorporate behavioural, structural, and institutional factors. it aims to fill this gap by offering a comprehensive framework that reflects the complexity of sectoral mobility in modern project environments. 3. theoretical framework three interconnected theoretical perspectives provide a comprehensive understanding of how transferable skills support cross-sector mobility among project managers. 3.1. social cognitive theory (bandura) (australian government, 2023) the social cognitive theory emphasizes the significance of self-efficacy and observational learning in influencing professional behavior and adaptability. the project manager must develop a range of advanced skills to address today’s challenges and prepare for those of tomorrow. these include emotional intelligence, creativity, decision-making skills, and strategic vision. when these intelligences are harmoniously integrated, every project can become a platform for growth, innovation, and positive change (bassi, 2025). project managers who believe they are capable of learning and performing effectively across different sectors are more likely to undertake sectoral transitions. through intentional learning and exposure to diverse environments, cross-sector adaptability can be cultivated (lent, ezeofor, morrison, penn, & ireland, 2021). according to recent research, project managers' digital literacy and openness to continuous learning are increasingly crucial for adapting to evolving technological and sectoral contexts. 3.2. boundary-spanning theory a boundary-spanning perspective describes how individuals navigate, bridge, and connect across different institutional, cultural, and sectoral boundaries. it is especially relevant for project managers working in complex environments where their roles require them to negotiate across organizational silos or sectoral differences. successful transitions require boundary-spanning behaviors, such as collaboration, knowledge translation, and relationship building (kreiner, hollensbe, & sheep, 2021). as a result, emerging technologies like artificial intelligence are increasingly supporting boundary-spanning practices by improving collaboration, knowledge sharing, and innovation across different organisational and sector boundaries (prasetyo, peranginangin, martinovic, ichsan, & wicaksono, 2025). 3.3. institutional theory institutional theory highlights the influence of sector-specific norms, values, and expectations on professional identity and behaviour. managers in new sectors need to align their skills with the institutional demands of these sectors, which often vary in terms of accountability systems, stakeholder frameworks, and success criteria. to achieve effective integration and performance across boundaries, recognising these logics is essential (söderlund & locatelli, 2024). recent contributions emphasize that institutional change is also driven by sustainability imperatives and digital transformation, and that project managers must navigate evolving pressures related to accountability and legitimacy (martinez & hughes, 2025). 3.4. technological enablers artificial intelligence is increasingly seen as a vital enabler of cross-sector transitions. by integrating diverse institutional logics, it supports data-driven decision-making, enables adaptive risk management, and encourages innovation (moon & alexander, 2025). incorporating technology into the theoretical framework, this study illustrates how both human adaptability and technological tools influence cross-sector mobility. overall, these theoretical perspectives demonstrate how cross-sector mobility is influenced by both individual skills and broader institutional and contextual factors. including these viewpoints enables this study to examine sectoral transitions as dynamic processes involving learning, identity work, and navigation of institutional norms. 4. design/methodology/approach the purpose of this study is to investigate how project managers develop and utilize transferable skills that support successful career transitions between sectors in a qualitative, exploratory manner. considering the complexity of cross-sector mobility and the lack of integrated models in current research, this method was selected to obtain detailed insights from practitioners (australian national audit office, 2024). nine project professionals based in australia, each having experience in at least two different sectors such as construction, healthcare, public administration, or non-profit organizations, were interviewed using a semistructured approach. to ensure a variety of experiences and sector backgrounds, participants were chosen through purposive and snowball sampling. the interviews focused on key skills, enablers, and challenges faced during sectoral transitions. table 1 summarizes the demographic and professional backgrounds of the nine project professionals interviewed in this study. it includes details such as participant id, sector (public, private, ngo), role (e.g., senior project manager, program director, sustainability officer), years of experience, and the nature of their sector transitions. this overview highlights the diversity of participants’ careers, showing mobility among public, private, and non-profit sectors, as well as intra-sector experiences. by presenting these details, the table provides a asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(4): 69-76 73 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group foundation for analysing how project managers develop and apply transferable skills during cross-sector transitions. table 1. professional backgrounds summarized. participant id sector role years of experience sector transition experience p1 public senior project manager 12 moved from ngo to public p2 private program director 15 moved from private to public p3 ngo project coordinator 8 moved from public to ngo p4 public pmo analyst 10 moved within public only p5 private construction manager 14 moved from tech to construction p6 ngo sustainability officer 9 moved from private to ngo p7 public policy project lead 11 cross-sectoral project exposure p8 private tech project manager 13 moved from engineering to tech p9 ngo humanitarian project manager 10 worked in all three sectors an inductive-deductive coding framework was used to analyze interview transcripts thematically. initially, codes were developed based on themes identified in the literature, such as learning agility, professional identity, and contextual adaptability. as new themes emerged from the data, they were refined iteratively. according to braun and clarke (2019), coding was carried out manually to ensure contextual sensitivity and deep engagement with participant narratives. the university's relevant research ethics committee approved the study, and all participants provided informed consent. to maintain confidentiality, identifying information has been anonymized. a qualitative approach was particularly effective in capturing the interpretive and experiential aspects of cross-sector mobility, including sensemaking, identity transformation, and perceived organizational support (madampe, williams, & jones, 2022). 5. results and findings the following section summarises the key findings from nine in-depth interviews with project professionals who have experience working across at least two sectors. as a result of iterative coding, three main themes emerged that illustrate how transferable skills are developed and utilised during sectoral transitions: knowledge adaptability, transferable skills, and experiential learning. in addition to being consistent across participant stories, these themes provide insight into the processes that facilitate cross-sector mobility. 5.1. knowledge adaptability 5.1.1. sectoral language acquisition to integrate effectively, several participants stressed the importance of learning industry-specific language and norms. "it's not about learning something completely new, it's about learning how people communicate and what matters to them." adaptive communication has been shown to build trust more quickly (hällgren, rouleau, & de rond, 2018). 5.1.2. regulatory and contextual awareness it is vital to quickly grasp the specific compliance protocols and policy frameworks tied to each sector, according to several interviewees. in the words of p3, "regulations hit hard if you do not see them coming." research confirms that understanding the context boosts credibility and responsiveness in new settings (haider, asad, & fatima, 2021). 5.2. transferable skillsets 5.2.1. interpersonal and emotional intelligence having a strong sense of interpersonal and emotional intelligence is crucial. adjusting to new sectoral environments demands interpersonal sensitivity and emotional regulation. as p5 commented, "even when you are unfamiliar with an industry, empathy helps you lead people." emotional intelligence has been linked to effective leadership across various fields (baškarada & koronios, 2018). 5.2.2. strategic communication and stakeholder engagement effective communication has become an essential enabler of transitions. as p7 noted, "you gain trust when you understand your audience, regardless of whether they are clients, regulators, or employees." these observations are in line with miterev, engwall, and jerbrant (2020), who emphasize stakeholder fluency as a key project leadership competency. 5.3. experiential learning and identity transformation 5.3.1. learning through disruption sectoral mobility has been described as both disruptive and transformative. throughout her narrative, p6 states: "every move challenged how i saw myself, but that's how i grew." such narratives highlight the importance of learning from non-linear career paths (pells, 2023). 5.3.2. role reinvention and identity fluidity participants described how they have developed their professional identities over their careers. it seems that research supports this change towards more flexible professional identities when crossing borders, as p9 states: "i no longer consider myself to belong to a particular sector, but rather to a certain skill set " (eskerod, huemann, & ringhofer, 2019). 5.3.3. confidence building through mastery having mastered various projects, a sense of confidence in handling unfamiliar challenges was developed. after some time, the principles are the same; you simply tweak them. this learning mechanism is supported by bandura's mastery experience theory and its application in project settings (p4) (luu, 2021). figure 1 shows the frequency of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(4): 69-76 74 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group themes identified during cross-sector transitions, illustrating how often each theme appeared across participant interviews. the figure highlights that knowledge adaptability, transferable skill sets, and experiential learning were the most common areas, emphasising their key role in successful sectoral mobility. by visually depicting the prominence of these themes, the figure supports the study’s findings on the crucial factors that enable project managers to navigate diverse professional settings. figure 1. theme frequency in cross-sector transitions. 6. discussion the study also identified the role of transferable skills, such as strategic communication, emotional intelligence, and stakeholder engagement, in helping project managers handle unfamiliar situations. besides improving operational efficiency, these skills are essential for building credibility, trust, and legitimacy during sectoral transitions (fuente-sabia, villaseñor, & ferrer, 2023). interpersonal skills, unlike technical abilities, can assist professionals in establishing authority and gaining acceptance in new settings, thereby speeding up their integration. the findings show that sectoral mobility often involves periods of uncertainty and self-redefinition from a psychological and developmental point of view. this aligns with the evidence that identity transformation shaped through reflective practice and exposure to different institutional logics encourages adaptive learning and resilience in project-based careers (dharani, 2024). therefore, identity fluidity is not just a result of transition but also a resource that enhances professional versatility. additionally, the study highlights the significance of organisational legitimacy mechanisms, such as transparent information sharing, organisational listening, and cross-sector collaboration, which bolster trust and credibility when professionals assume unfamiliar roles (kaplan & norton, 2022). achieving alignment between individual skills and organisational expectations supports the social integration of individuals and reduces resistance from stakeholders. finally, the results show that career self-efficacy affects cross-sector transitions. high self-efficacy is linked to increased motivation to take on unfamiliar roles and greater persistence in overcoming obstacles. the use of structured supports, such as fellowships, mentoring programs, and secondments, has proven to be an effective way of boosting self-efficacy and aiding the transfer of skills across industries (borg & scott-young, 2023). these findings support the idea that transferable skills, identity development, organizational legitimacy, and self-efficacy are all interconnected mechanisms that influence the success of project managers in cross-sector environments. while many of these elements have been discussed separately in existing literature, few studies have comprehensively integrated behavioural, structural, and institutional factors like this study. this paper aims to offer a multidimensional understanding of cross-sector mobility, focusing on the interaction between personal characteristics, relationship dynamics, and organisational support systems. a key mechanism for transitioning into project-based learning is identity work and confidence-building. 7. conclusion this study aims to explore how project professionals manage cross-sector transitions, focusing on the interaction of transferable skills, experiential learning, identity development, and institutional enablers. successfully transitioning between sectors requires not only technical skills but also the ability to adapt, reflect, and actively engage with new organisational logics and cultural environments. the significance of learning agility and a proactive mindset for sectoral mobility emerged as key themes. specifically, the study identified that psychological factors, such as career self-efficacy, along with formal transition mechanisms like secondments and fellowships, are crucial in building confidence and supporting professionals' integration into new fields. using behavioural, structural, and institutional enablers, this research offers a comprehensive understanding of cross-sector project leadership. in response to the literature's call for more cohesive frameworks, it provides new insights into how project managers can build credibility, resilience, and agility in evolving professional settings. it is important to keep in mind certain limitations when interpreting these findings. although the sample was diverse in sectoral backgrounds, it was geographically limited to australia, and all participants had successfully transitioned at least once before. researchers should explore longitudinal transition paths, including unsuccessful or abandoned moves, and compare these patterns across different countries or policy contexts in the future. this study provides insights into improving professional development, talent mobility, and leadership agility in an asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(4): 69-76 75 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group increasingly dynamic, project-driven economy. both 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(2021). soft skills and project leadership in changing environments. international journal of project management, 39(5), 450-460. turner, r., & lecoeuvre, l. (2018). digitalisation in project management: the rise of virtual skills. journal of modern project management, 6(3), 45-54. wilkins, k., calvard, t., & jones, a. (2020). secondments as learning spaces for leadership development. leadership & organization development journal, 41(1), 59-75. zulch, b. (2021). developing behavioural competencies in project managers: training, coaching, and reflective learning. international journal of project organisation and management, 13(1), 67-82. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joitmc.2024.100445 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijmpb-12-2018-0285 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijmpb-12-2018-0285 20 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 12, no. 1, 20-27, 2025 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6806 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group is the auditor truly a watchman or a gate keeper in nigeria? uket e. ewa1 etim ndu essien2 adesola, wasiu adebisi3 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3department of accountancy, university of cross river state, calabar, nigeria. 1email: uketewa@yahoo.com 2email: etimnduessien@gmail.com 3email: shobisi@yahoo.com abstract this study conceptually appraised the legal and regulatory instruments that created the internal audit unit in the nigeria public sector finance and the environmental operational analysis of the internal audit as well as the offices of the auditors-general of the states and the federation. also, the perception of fraudulent practices among staff of mdas has necessitated this study to ascertain if the internal auditor is really a watchman or gatekeeper in line with section 85(5) of the 1999 nigerian constitution as amended. the study employed conceptual review of the extant laws, circulars and related studies on the subject matter. the study revealed the lack of independence and security for the auditors, ambiguous clauses prone to manipulation by officials in the current laws regulating the public sector financial operation and the offices of the internal auditor and auditor-general. the study recommends the establishment of audit service commission to handle operational matters relating to recruitment, training, and welfare, disciple of internal auditors and staff of the auditors-general in nigeria. also review of the audit act, the financial regulation law and other extant laws to guarantee auditors independence, capacity and capability to detect and report fraudulent practices in the public sector finance management. keywords: accountability, gatekeeper, independence, transparency, watchman, public sector, financial regulation. citation | ewa, u. e., essien, e. n., & adebisi, a. w. (2025). is the auditor truly a watchman or a gate keeper in nigeria?. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 12(1), 20-27. 10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6806. history: received: 2 january 2025 revised: 17 march 2025 accepted: 1 june 2025 published: 20 june 2025 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: not applicable. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 21 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 22 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 27 mailto:uketewa@yahoo.com mailto:etimnduessien@gmail.com mailto:shobisi@yahoo.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6806 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 20-27 21 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the present laws partially guaranteed the auditor-general as a person his work security but do not protect others working in the auditor general’s office. also the internal audit reports to the accountant general instead of the auditor general for proper financial coordination and control in the public sector in nigeria. 1. introduction the nigeria public is awash with complaints over the way the public wealth of the nation is managed by politicians and government officials. there is also widespread unemployment among the teeming youth’s population in the country. in fact, the country’s gross domestic product per capita which was last recorded as 2,416.36 us dollars in 2023 is equivalent to 19 percent of the world’s average, (trading economics, 2024). also, the fuel subsidy removal and the deregulation of the foreign exchange rate in 2023 has also further impacted very negatively on the nation and according to national bureau of statistics data, 131 million nigerian are classified as multidimensional poor while 71 million live in extreme poverty, (punch newspaper, 2023). in his commentary on nigeria poverty rate, ubanagu (2023) posited that tonye cole while campaigning for governorship election in rivers state quoted data from the world bank poverty clock which reported about 40.7 percent of nigerians are estimated to live below the international poverty line by the end of 2024. the country therefore with this awful distinction of being the world capital of poverty with 71 million people living in extreme poverty and a total of 133 million people classified as multi-dimensionally poor according to national bureau of statistics data is ascribed in many quarters as a failing state. in spite of the huge yearly government budget and expenditure, the public is very dissatisfied as there are no significant impacts in the economy and infrastructural development. many budget heads are not attended to but still the yearly budget estimates are exceeded by the government. in an editorial “stop corruption: confronting the odious bribery of nigeria’s public officials” reported on the report of the national bureau of statistic (nbs) in collaboration with the united nations office on drugs and crime (unodc) on corruption in nigeria: patterns and trends survey that showed that a staggering sum of =n=721 billion was paid as bribes to nigerian public officials in 2023, (premium times, 2024). the report highlighted bribes were reported as having been paid in offices and on the streets especially during procurements, payroll preparation, retirement documentations among others. the cancer is so daunting that the economic and financial crime commission (efcc) chairman in his interaction with officials of revenue mobilization, allocation and fiscal commission (rmafc) stated how unspent budget allocations are moved to private accounts in commercial banks before midnight at the end of budget cycle and yet those involved are rarely brought to book, (premium times, 2024). nigeria presently ranks 145 out of 180 nations in transparency international’s (ti) corruption perception index. there is thus the public anger of government officials carrying out budget padding, inflated contracts, the release of public funds for unexecuted contracts/services and lack of value for money on government projects’ executions and fictitious payments for services not rendered. by section 85(5) of the 1999 constitution as amended, the auditor general is empowered power to conduct periodic checks of all government statutory corporations, authorities, agencies including all persons and bodies established by an act of the national assembly. section 85(6) stated the auditor general in the course of this function shall not be subject to the directive or control of any other authority or person. however, control or directive from any other authority or person may be direct or indirect on the activities and person(s) carrying out the function of the auditor general. therefore, internal audit which is a unit of the auditor general responsibilities and as one of the gatekeepers by public sector financial regulations should be saddled with the responsibility to ensure every revenue and expenditure transaction in government mdas conform to the laid down rules as enshrined in the public procurement act, the financial regulations act and the audit act. the internal audit should play a crucial role in mitigating the risks associated with an echo chamber effect at the executive level. as an objective or independent unit in function, internal audit should evaluate and provide assurances on the adequacy and effectiveness of governance, risk management and control processes. the unit should facilitate transparency, accountability, challenging the status quo and encouraging a culture of honest feedback and continuous improvement. its work is essentially in bridging the gaps and helping to prevent the adverse effects of sycophancy and personal gains. therefore, internal auditors as gate keepers are presumed to fail when they verify or issue statements that they know or through reasonable effort should know is false or misleading. when a leader or a leadership team is surrounded with sycophants, an echo chamber effect is created as only agreeable opinions and feedbacks are voiced. this kind of environment limits the diversity of thoughts as dissenting viewpoints are discouraged or out rightly dismissed. this scenario leads to a distorted or inaccurate view of an mda or entity’s operations as the information reaching the head or leadership is overly optimistic or skewed. it breeds a culture of conformity i.e the “is normal” syndrome mentality. in such situation, integrity and transparency is limited because employees are incentivized to agree with the status quo rather than propose novel solutions. this is the situation in nigeria where government leadership is surrounded by “yes” people and thus is challenged by the echo chamber effect and thus risks becoming insulated from the operational realities and challenges that the government and the general public faces. the consequence of this sycophantic behavior is the moral and motivation of employees who value transparency and meritocracy plummet as they witness the success of those who engage in the sycophantic behaviors and sharp practices. the question therefore is does auditors general’s offices and internal audit units play a key role as gatekeepers against these distortions by these sycophants and breaches in controls in the public sector system? is internal audit laws in operation effective in ensuring operational compliance in the public service? is the public outcry of the corruption in the management of public sector finances the inefficiency and ineffectiveness of the auditors-general offices and internal audit offices? the independence of the offices of the auditor-general of the federation and the states auditors-general has been a subject of concern. the assurances offered the auditors-general by the constitution only guaranteed their asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 20-27 22 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group persons, but independence of their offices as entities comprising other individuals cannot ipso facto be said to have been secured by the law. this is premised on the fact that the auditors-general do not personally carry out the auditing and investigation of the accounts and processes of the ministries, agencies and departments (mdas) of the government. they only act through officers (audit staff) whose operational security – job security and welfare is not protected or guaranteed in the audit act as is applicable to the auditors general. second, the senior audit staff recruitment and reporting line renders put to question their independence. the office of the auditor-general is only permitted by the public service rules to engage the services of personnel not above level 06 while the power to recruit senior officers is reserved for the federal civil service commission for the federal government and states civil service commission as regards states recruitment. thus, officers from level 07 and above are staff of the federal or states public service commissions to whom they are answerable to in discipline and control. thirdly the present practice where the office of the auditor-general gets monthly allocations on warrants and releases from the ministry of finance and the accountant general may impede the independence of the auditor, notwithstanding the provisions of section 85 (6) and 125 (6) of the constitution that stipulates that in exercise of his functions under this constitution, the auditor – general shall not be subject to the direction or control of any other authority or person. in the current scenario in nigeria public sector, is the internal auditor a gatekeeper? 1.1. statement of the problem according to ewa, kechi, adu, and agida (2017) government agencies’ regulatory policies, implementation and enforcement are riddled with corruption. nigerian government yearly expenditure is about 60% of the nation’s total expenditure and so its implementation should have direct impact on the growth and wellbeing of the citizenry in the country. although since the democratic rule in 1999, government yearly budget allocations have steadily increased but there is no reciprocity in the improvement in social services, poverty reduction, employment generation and infrastructural development. there are also no identifiable instances of adverse audit reports and implementation. according to kankpang, ewa, oti, inyang, and okon (2020) in nigeria as a result of socio-political and economic dynamics, there is a general upward trend in corruption and fraudulent practices as many are of the opinion that power, authority and recognition can be achieved through acquisition of wealth, legally or illegally. also, with the recent devaluation of the national currency, high inflation and poor social services for the citizenry, people earnestly desire for wealth which according to kankpang et al. (2020) is propelled by the need to take care of health, education, housing, security and other services which are primary responsibilities of governments, but which governments have failed and/or neglected to provide. nigeria presently ranks 140 out of 180 nations in transparency international’s (ti) corruption perception index, (ti, 2025). many of the corruption cases listed for prosecution are from the public service funds management and according to ewa et al. (2017) are laced with weak audit evidences to effectively prosecute the cases. ewa (2023) posits that most high-risk mdas financial records are audited late and though the public suspect infractions and corruption in the agencies, the audit reports hardly highlight fraudulent acts in the agencies audit reports. ewa, adesola, and kankpang (2019) study revealed inadequate capacity of the anti-corruption agencies workforce, non-commitment to integrity, ethical values, the rule of law, lack of openness, lack of transparency and accountability. while dye and stapenhurst (1998) opined that polls in the developed countries indicate many citizens do not trust their government officials to act always in the public interest but have confidence in the independence of the office of the auditor general as a watchdog of the public interest and promoter of transparency and ethical behavior in their jurisdiction, the difference is the case in nigeria where ewa et al. (2019) posit that corruption is endemic and described as cancer in public institutions that are subjected to yearly audits without any tangible adverse audit reports and culpable agencies officers charged to court. the public perception is that an unqualified opinion of an mda audited financial statements means the mda financial statement is devoid of fraudulent act and misstatement. this assertion is borne out of the notion that the primary function of audit is the reassurance of the credibility of the financial records and assurance of value for money on capital projects and programs of the mdas. this perception of fraudulent practices among officials in ministries, departments and agencies (mdas) has necessitated this study to conceptually ascertain if the public sector auditors are really gatekeepers in line with section 85(5) and section 125(5) of the 1999 nigerian constitution as amended. 2. literature review 2.1. theoretical framework there are various theories that underpin the position and responsibility of an auditor globally. among the theories is the policeman theory and theory of lending credibility. the policeman theory places the responsibility of an auditor as searching for culpable activities, discovering of financial and material infractions and preventing of discovered fraudulent activities in the system. an auditor under this theory acts as a policeman focusing on arithmetical accuracy and on prevention and detection of fraud. here, the auditor’s job is to focus on arithmetical accuracy and on the prevention and the detection of fraud in the accounting system audited. the theory of lending credibility regards the primary responsibility of the auditor to be the addition of credibility or assurance to the financial transactions, statements or recordings of the entity. in this regard, the service that internal auditors are supposed to be selling to the public is credibility assurance or comfort of the financial report of the mda. the internal auditor’s responsibility and activities in the mda increases the assurance, confidence and credibility of operational and financial activities of the mda and the financial report presented by management. this is vital as the financial statements are channels used by management who are agent in the agency theory to render their stewardship to the principal who in this case is the general public. the principal (general public) is perceived to make quality assessment or evaluation of the government mda based on reliable and credible action of the internal auditor on the information which the audit report renders. the public expect the internal audit function should provide it with the assurance that the financial transactions and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 20-27 23 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group information rendered is devoid of material misstatement, fraud and there is value for money in the projects and programs executed by the mdas. 2.2. the public sector audit public sector audit has changed within the last decade internationally. the traditional role of primarily providing an independent review of the accounts of public sector entities has changed. the push for good governance, transparency and accountability during the period and the push for justifiable allocation of resources by the society have necessitated auditors to enhance their audit scope to cover financial and performance audit functions. the financial audit involves the review of the accounts and the internal controls of the entity while the performance audit involves among other things, the mda’s programme efficiency, effectiveness and economy (value for money). the nigeria public finance is guided through the finance (control and management) act, cap f26 laws of the federation of nigeria, 2004. the act was reviewed to ensure accountability and transparency in the management of public funds, revenues, expenditures, assets and liabilities of the government of the federation and other related matters. among the sections is the internal audit 2.3. internal audit section 41(1) stipulates “there shall be an internal audit in each public institution which shall be independent in its operations and have free access to all records and documents of that public institution. the head and operational staff of an internal audit shall be deployed by the accountant general from a pool of specialized treasury internal auditors. the head of an internal audit shall be directly responsible to the accounting officer of a public institution for a comprehensive audit of all the operations and activities of the public institution. 2.4. functions of the internal audit 1. ensure that internal control system in place is sufficient and functioning properly. 2. carry out 100% prepayment, financial, management, risk-based and system audits. 3. conduct special reviews, investigation and any other assignment as may be directed by the accounting officer. 4. render monthly, quarterly and half yearly reports to the accounting officer and forward a copy to the accountant general and auditor-general. 5. issuance of special reports when in his opinion, the attention of the accounting officer and that of director of finance and accounts of the ministry need to be drawn to any irregularity in the accounting records or to any apparent weakness in the accounting procedure. 6. the head of internal audit to draw up detailed internal audit instructions for the use of the staff, setting out concisely the nature and extent of the checks to be applied to each account or record. by the provisions of the act, the internal auditor in any institution is deployed by the accountant general from a pool of specialized treasury internal auditors and directly responsible to the accounting officer of a public institution for a comprehensive audit of all the operations and activities of the public institution. the implies that the internal auditor is answerable to the accounting officer (permanent secretary for ministries, executive chairman, director general executive secretary or its equivalent) for extra-ministerial departments of the institution in which he/she operates. the line of reporting as enshrined in the law runs contrary to international best practices and the private sector code of corporate governance. the internal auditor should have been made to be answerable to the auditor-general or audit commission like the audit committee in the private sector as stipulated in the 2019 nigeria code of corporate governance. melinda (2024) posit that internal auditors must be equipped with adequate competence in carrying out their duties by being given regular training and the department must be directly under top management to create audit independence. the lack of defined security guarantee also in the financial regulation to protect the internal auditor against possible persecution from the top management renders the office vulnerable. similarly, the lack of whistle blowing policy and or external agency like an audit committee to protect the officer against victimization renders the job risky. also, the lack of defined pre-requisite relevant qualification and experience to be an internal auditor cast doubt on the office to be a gatekeeper. the clause “the accountant general shall ensure that a suitably competent accountant is placed directly in charge of the internal audit units of ministries/extra-ministerial offices and other arms of government has not clearly stipulated the requisite qualification and experience. in this instance, perception carries the day. the auditor like a gate keeper or police man must have the following qualities to guarantee functionality. 1. professional and technical knowledge and ability to interpret the regulatory laws governing the system. 2. independent of the system in responsibility and accountability. should not be operationally be responsible to the management of the agency he is auditing. 3. secured and guaranteed career progression devoid of intimidation. the auditor’s career progression should not be dictated by the leadership of the agency he is its auditor. 4. regulatory laws must not contain ambiguous clauses that may be prone to manipulation by officials. 2.5. office of the auditor-general the practice of auditing of government agencies financial records has always been regulated in nigeria right from colonial times. the 1956 audit ordinance was enacted in 1956 for the audit of federal mdas as well as mdas across the regions in nigeria. the act has fifteen sections that covered appointment, tenure, duties, powers and salary of the director of federal audit; appointment of acting director of federal audit; time for submission of accounts to the director of federal audit; audit of accounts of the regions and statutory bodies; time for presentation of the annual certificate and report of the director of federal audit to the minister of finance and the house of representatives. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 20-27 24 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group upon independence in 1960, the country continued the application of the 1956 audit act in the management of public sector audit. presently, the offices of the auditor general for the federation and the states in nigeria are covered under sections 85 and 125 of the amended 1999 constitution of the federal republic of nigeria, as enumerated below. 1. there shall be an auditor-general for the federation who shall be appointed in accordance with the provisions of section 86 of this constitution. 2. the auditor-general for a state shall be appointed by the governor of the state in accordance with the provisions of section 126 of the constitution. 3. the public accounts of the federation and the states and of all offices and courts of the federation and the respective states shall be audited and reported on by the respective auditors-general who shall submit their reports to the national assembly and the respective states houses of assembly; and for that purpose, the auditors-general or any person authorized by them in that behalf shall have access to all the books, records, returns and other documents relating to those accounts. 4. nothing in subsection (2) of this section shall be construed as authorizing the auditors-general to audit the accounts of or appoint auditors for government statutory corporations, commissions, authorities, agencies, including all persons and bodies established by an act of the national assembly or respective states houses of assembly, but the auditor –general shall. (a) provide such bodies with – (i) a list of auditors qualified to be appointed by them as external auditors and from which the bodies shall appoint their external auditors, and (ii) guidelines on the level of fees to be paid to external auditors. (b) comment on their annual accounts and auditor’s reports thereon. 5. the auditors-general shall have power to conduct periodic checks of all government statutory corporations, commissions, authorities, agencies, including all persons and bodies established by an act of the national assembly or respective states houses of assembly. 6. the auditors – general shall, within ninety days of receipt of the accountantgeneral’s financial statement, submit their reports under this section to each house of the national assembly and the respective states houses of assembly for states audit report and each house of the national assembly shall cause the reports to be considered by a committee of the house of national assembly responsible for public accounts. 7. in exercise of their functions under this constitution, the auditors – general shall not be subject to the direction or control of any other authority or person. also, section 86 and 126 provides. 1. the auditors-general for the federation and the states shall be appointed by the president or the respective state governors on the recommendation of the federal and states civil service commissions subject to confirmation by the senate or the respective states houses of assembly. 2. the power to appoint persons to act in the offices of the auditors-general shall vest in the president and the state governors. 3. except with the sanction of a resolution of the senate or state houses of assembly, no person shall act in the office of the auditor-general for a period exceeding six months. similarly, section 87 and 127 provides. 1. a person holding the office of the auditor-general for the federation or the state shall be removed from office by the president or state governor acting on an address supported by two-thirds majority of the senate or the state’s house of assembly praying that he be removed for inability to discharge the functions of his office (whether arising from infirmity of mind or body or any other cause) or for misconduct. 2. the auditor-general shall not be removed from office before such retiring age as may be prescribed by law, save in accordance with the provisions of this section. 2.6. quality of a watchman or gatekeeper 2.6.1. independence the offices of the auditor –general of the federation and the states in nigeria are enshrined in the 1999 constitution as amended. this underscores the important role these offices are expected to play in enhancing quality transparency and accountability in nigeria public sector. to enhance independence, the structure of the constitution gives the impression that the auditor-general is an officer of the legislative arm of government as the office appears in chapter five which deals with the legislature and appointment to the office is as enshrined in the constitution. presently, over the years the office has always been occupied by career civil servants who rose through the ranks. this is however in line with the requirement of the constitution that the appointment of the auditor-general shall be on the recommendation of the federal or state civil service commission (csc). however, the present constitution has not limited the civil service commission (csc) on its search and recommendation for candidates to only career civil servants for the office of the auditor general to the president or governors of the respective states. it is also not definitive in the present instance whether the president or governor could reject a candidate recommended by the csc. however, the wordings in section 86(1) and 126(1) did not suggest the president or governor is bound to accept the recommendations of the csc. in the consideration of the requisite academic and professional qualification for a candidate to guarantee integrity and independence, just like the financial regulation, the constitution has not specified the requisite academic and professional qualification(s) and cognate experience expected from aspirants for the office of the auditor-general. the assumption appears to be that the csc would have taken the issue of qualification and experience into consideration before recommending a candidate to the president or the governor. as the appointment to the office of the auditor-general is subject to confirmation by the senate or the respective states houses of assembly, it is expected that the confirmation process will ensure that candidate possesses the right qualification. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 20-27 25 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group in the present circumstance, independence measured by professionalism and academic qualification is absent in the recruitment procedure. however, in order to address or reduce the margin of discretion, the minimum professional qualification and experience for the office should be laid down by an act of the national assembly or the respective houses of assembly audit laws. also to forestall independence, the constitution guarantees the holder of the office job security to a very large extent by requiring the president or a state governor to secure the concurrence of two-thirds majority of the senate or state assembly before removing the auditor-general from office due to inability to discharge the functions of his office or misconduct. the right of a person holding the office of auditor-general to resign is also preserved. on the issue of gratification as a factor that can imped the auditor’s independence, auditor general office is grouped in section 84 (3) of the constitution. accordingly, their remunerations which comprise salaries and allowances are prescribed by the national assembly, although they are not expected to exceed the amounts determined by the revenue mobilization, allocation and fiscal commission. also, the office emoluments constitute a charge on the consolidated revenue fund of the federation for the federal government, and its budget allocation cannot be altered to their disadvantage after their appointment or during their tenure. the assurances as enumerated above offered the auditor-general by the constitution may guarantee their personal positions, but the independence of their offices as entities comprising other staff members cannot ipso facto be said to have been secured or guaranteed. this is so because whereas the auditor general is covered under the constitution, other staff members in the office are regarded as staff of either the federal or state public service commission. therefore, as the auditor-general does not personally carry out the auditing and investigation of the accounts and processes of the ministries, agencies and departments (mdas) of the government, but acts through officers whose compensations and welfare are not guaranteed, there is this persistent clamor for the establishment of a federal audit service commission that will protect the interest of all staff members in the audit team. it is anticipated that such a commission will satisfactorily handle matters relating to recruitment, welfare and disciple of staff of the auditor-general. it is envisioned that if the office of the auditor-general is to assume and effectively play its role as an anti-corruption agency, the staffers should be removed from the public service commission and be protected as the auditor-general. the current condition where the office of auditor-general depend on warrants and releases from the ministry of finance and the accountant general of the states or federation does not guarantee the independence of the auditor-general in the discharge of his function even though section 85 (6) or 126 (6) of the constitution stated that in exercise of his functions, the auditor – general shall not be subject to the direction or control of any other authority or person. in any acting position for the office, the constitution gave the president or state governors the power to appoint persons to act in the office of the auditor-general for a state or the federation but subject to a resolution of the senate or state assemblies and maximum acting capacity period of six months. wakil, alifiah, and teru (2020) posit that a better standard of independence of auditors improves robust audit efficiency that results in accurate financial reporting and that the independence of the auditor has significant association with the quality of the audit and so the independence of the office will greatly influence accurate financial reporting of public service operations. 2.6.2. auditor competence the international education standard (ies 8) has defined competence as “being able to perform a work role to a defined standard, with reference to real working environment”. the auditors’ code, published by audit practicing board (apb) outlined nine fundamental principles of independence which competence is one of the principles and is defined as the ability to carry out professional duty with great knowledge and skills. in her explanatory framework, the standard stated that competence refers to the demonstrated ability to perform relevant roles or tasks to the required standard. in other words, competence is actual demonstration of performance. the standard outlined the minimum competence requirements expected of international federation of accountants congress (ifac) members to obtain before they take on the role of an audit professional to include; i. auditors must have formal education (knowledge) relevant to audit, ii. auditors must acquire professional skills, professional values, ethics and attitude. this is critical as auditors are expected to have sufficient knowledge of current developments in the field of audit. they need a in-depth understanding of the probable ethical implications of professional and managerial decisions. they also need to be aware that decision-makers can be under tremendous pressure when it comes to upholding ethical principles. 2.6.3. transparency and accountability schlenker (1997) posit accountability as to be answerable to the public (audiences) in one’s stewardship according to prescribed standard(s) that is relevant to fulfilling given obligations, duties, expectations and other charges. accountability principle is critical as an auditor should demonstrate to the satisfaction of the public that he applied the authority delegated to him by the institution and the general public and have achieved the expected objective of the institution by ensuring equitable, effective and efficient utilization of the institutions’ resources in running the affairs of the department. in public sector management, citizens require government officials to justify the sources and utilization of public resources entrusted to them (inanga, 1991). the audit report is a channel of providing assurance and credibility of management or government representations and their stewardship. the audit report is the main channel of communication to the stakeholders. the 1956 audit ordinance act, financial regulations, finance (control & management) act, the fiscal responsibility act and extant circulars as may be issued by the accountant general and the auditor general guide the preparation and audit of the financial statements of ministries, departments and agencies (mdas). it is worth noting that the auditing standards and guidelines outline the minimum information content and format rather than the maximum that must be incorporated in audit reports. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 20-27 26 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group kalu and okeke (2020) posit that the concept of accountability together with the agencies through which the concept is articulated and implemented, is perhaps the single most important factor that controls holders of political and public administrative power. the study postulated that there is a distinction to be made between the accountability imposed on government by its citizens, and the accountability that a government imposes on itself through the creation of public institutions like auditing agencies, anti-corruption bodies whose mandate is precisely to act as a restraint on government. this distinction the study opined referred to by some theorists as vertical accountability (to citizens directly) versus horizontal accountability (to public institutions of accountability). vertical accountability involves citizens acting directly through the electoral process or indirectly through civic organizations (civil societies) or the news media. similarly, horizontal accountability which covers the range of public entities that check abuses by the executive branch of government may be initiated and pursued by the legislature, the judiciary, electoral commissions and tribunals, auditing agencies, anti-corruption bodies, ombudsmen, human rights commissions, and central banks. the office of the auditor-general which is otherwise called the supreme audit institution is responsible for the financial examination of government institutions and responsible in holding the government to account for its use of public funds in tandem with the legislature and other oversight bodies. 2.7. public sector and management public sector entities cover all organizations that get their funding from public sources such as fees, taxes or licenses. it covers both government departments and government enterprises. public sector finance management is the financial management of public sector institutions resources to achieve planned public objective through public sector ministries, departments and agencies (mdas) (graham, 2011). these agencies are owned and either controlled by federating units (federal, state or local government councils) in nigeria. the major objective of mdas is social service as against private sector which is profit maximization although individual mdas may have specific objectives for their establishment. the mdas operate majorly full public service bureaucratic structure. today, still many of the mdas are operating the cash basis of accounting in the recognition of liabilities in the accounts even though ipsas implementation has commenced in nigeria. due to level of corruption in nigeria, lack of infrastructural facilities and under development across the sectors, financial management of the resources is fundamental in the public sector fund management as it guarantees a transparent, systematic, efficient and legitimate application and utilization of department’s resources. it involves resource allocation (getting funds), controlled delivery (spending funds) and accountability (reporting on funds). a sound and effective public sector financial management system require good accounting system and financial regulations to control spending in line with budgetary allocation and ensuring accountability which connects between operational, management and control processes. the public sector financial sector is regulated in nigeria by the finance (control and management) act, 2009 as well as the relevant sections of the constitution dealing with public finance. 2.8. justification as watchmen or gatekeepers in the state of affairs in the public sector although section 85(6) and 125 (6) of the 1999 nigeria constitution as amended is expected to make the auditor-general to be independent, the guarantees opened to the auditor-general by the provision only secures their personal interest. the independence of the office as an entity which is composed of other personnel outside the auditor-general cannot ipso facto be said to have been secured or guaranteed. the auditor-general do not personally carry out the audit and investigation of the accounts and activities of mdas but only acts through officers whose compensations and welfare is not protected by the 1999 constitution as amended hence the office cannot be seen as independent or qualify to be a watchman. there is the call for the establishment of a federal audit service commission which is expected will satisfactorily handle matters relating to recruitment, welfare and disciple of staff of the auditor-general. indeed, if the office of the auditor-general in nigeria is to assume and effectively play its role as an anti-corruption agency, there is the need to make the office of the auditor-general independent by creation of the audit service commission with constitutional power over all personnel and funding matters. disbursement of funds to the audit should be under first line charge like is the case with the independent national electoral commission, the national assembly and the national judicial council. according to kalu and okeke (2020), the office of the auditor-general has not been very effective with respect to its traditional role of conducting fiscal audit of public accounts, not to talk of the added responsibility of undertaking value for money audit. presently, in nigeria the office of the auditor-general and public sector internal auditors under the present legal regime and policies have no protection both in terms of civil liability for acts or omissions committed in course of performance of their duties and criminal prosecution for whistleblowing. this is collaborated by kalu and okeke (2020). similarly, the nigerian 2021 financial regulation that stipulates the accountant general to be the one who deploys heads of internal audit and not the auditor-general has rendered the independent evaluation of financial transactions involving the accountant general and top management in the ministry questionable. also, the clause that the head of the internal audit should be responsible to the accounting officer will not allow his independence as the infraction most often comes from the top management of the department. as by the provisions of the nigerian 2021 financial regulations act that the internal auditor in any institution is deployed by the accountant general from a pool of specialized treasury internal auditors and directly responsible to the accounting officer of a public institution for a comprehensive audit of all the operations and activities of the public institution implies that the internal auditor is answerable to the accounting officer (permanent secretary for ministries, executive chairman, director general executive secretary or its equivalent) for extra-ministerial departments of the institution in which he/she operates. in addition, as the line of reporting as enshrined in the financial regulations law runs contrary to international best practices and the private sector code of corporate governance, the internal auditor should have been made to be answerable to the auditorgeneral. again, the lack of defined security guarantees in the financial regulations law to protect the internal asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 20-27 27 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group auditors against possible persecution from the top management of the mda they are carrying out their responsibilities renders their persons and office vulnerable and the lack of whistle blower policy and external agency to protect the officers against victimization renders the jobs risky hence cannot be seen to perform their duties as sincere gatekeepers or watchmen. also, the lack of defined pre-requisite relevant qualification and experience to be an internal auditor cast doubt on the office to be a good gatekeeper or watchman. the clause “the accountant general shall ensure that a suitably competent accountant is placed directly in charge of the internal audit units of ministries/extraministerial offices and other arms of government” has not clearly stipulated or defined the request qualification and expertise required for the position. in the present circumstance, perception of the top management carries the day in staff recruitment. the current laws regulating the public sector financial services in nigeria and the offices of the internal auditor and auditor-general contain ambiguous clauses that may be prone to manipulation by officials which can influence independence and transparency. also secured and guaranteed career progression devoid of intimidation is not embedded in the current laws as well as lack of defined professional and technical knowledge required for recruitment and so the notion of auditors in ministries, departments and agencies (mdas) in nigeria being watchmen or gate keepers is doubtful because of the executive pressures on the offices occasioned by the extant public service finance laws in nigeria. references dye, k. m., & stapenhurst, r. (1998). pillars of integrity: the importance of supreme audit institution in curbing corruption. washington: economic development institute of the world bank. ewa, u., kechi, k., adu, v., & agida, j. (2017). evaluating institutional agencies in curbing corruption in nigeria. the international journal of business and management, 5(12), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v12n12p50 ewa, u. e. (2023). perception of audit expectation gap of public sector audit in nigeria. scholars journal of economics and management, 10, 259-269. https://doi.org/10.36347/sjebm.2023.v10i10.003 ewa, u. e., adesola, a. w., & kankpang, k. (2019). evaluating anti-graft agencies governance practices in nigeria. international business research, 12(12), 1-50. https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v12n12p50 graham, a. (2011). public sector financial management for managers. canada: canadian governance support office (cgso) and canadian international development agency (canadem). inanga, e. l. (1991). accounting and accountability: inaugural lecture. ibadan: ibadan university press. kalu, u. c., & okeke, o. e. (2020). public accountability in federal states: the gap between nigeria and the united states of america. irlj, 2, 36. kankpang, a. k., ewa, u. e., oti, p. a., inyang, w. s., & okon, e. e. (2020). financial pressure and employee fraud dispositions: analysis of public service productivity. journal of critical reviews, 7(17), 761-769. melinda, w. p. (2024). impact of workforce on the innovation capability: knowledge as mediated. ammer: journal of academic & multidiscipline research, 4(2), 30-36. premium times. (2024). editorial: confronting the odious bribery of nigeria’s public officials. premium times, july 22, 2024. punch newspaper. (2023). 71 million nigerian extremely poor world poverty clock. retrieved from https://punchng.com. [accessed june 19, 2023] schlenker, b. r. (1997). personal responsibility: applications of the triangle model. research in organizational behavior, 19, 241-301. ti. (2025). corruption perception index. transparency.org. retrieved from http://www.transparency.org trading economics. (2024). nigeria gdp per capita. retrieved from https://tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/gdp-per-capita ubanagu, m. (2023). 71 million nigerians extremely poor – world poverty clock. punch newspaper, june 19, 2023. wakil, g. k., alifiah, m., & teru, p. (2020). auditor independence and audit quality in nigeria public sector: a critical review. journal of critical reviews, 7(7), 839-845. https://doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.07.153 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v12n12p50 https://doi.org/10.36347/sjebm.2023.v10i10.003 https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v12n12p50 https://punchng.com/ http://www.transparency.org/ https://tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/gdp-per-capita https://doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.07.153 280 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 4, 280-287, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.280.287 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group work-life balance and organizational performance: the mediating role of organizational citizenship behavior n. thevanes1 s. harikaran2 ( corresponding author) 1assistant lecturer, trincomalee campus, eastern university, sri lanka. 2lecturer, vavuniya campus of the university of jaffna, sri lanka. abstract previous studies rarely examined the relationships among work-life balance, organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) and organizational performance. moreover, most studies neglect the mediating effect of ocb in the relationship between work-life balance and organizational performance. hence, this paper aims to examine the relationships among work-life balance, ocb and organizational performance and the mediating effect of ocb in the relationship between work-life balance and organizational performance. in order to achieve the study objectives, primary data were collected from 166 employees in selected private banks which are operating in batticaloa district of sri lanka. the simple mediation analysis was used to test the research model. findings of the study revealed that, there are positive and significant relationships exist among the study variables. moreover, empirical finding of the study indicated that ocb mediates the relationship between work-life balance and organizational performance. the empirical findings of the study support the theoretical argument of the study. the current study is considered to be vital in understanding the empirical knowledge regarding the relationships among work-life balance, organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) and organizational performance. keywords: work-life balance, citizenship behavior, organization, performance, bank, employee. jel classification: m10 business administration: general. citation | n. thevanes; s. harikaran (2020). work-life balance and organizational performance: the mediating role of organizational citizenship behavior. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(4): 280-287. history: received: 18 september 2020 revised: 9 october 2020 accepted: 23 october 2020 published: 5 november 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 281 2. literature review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 281 3. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 284 4. findings of the study .................................................................................................................................................................... 284 5. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 285 6. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 285 7. limitations and future studies .................................................................................................................................................. 285 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 286 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.280.287&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2309 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1684-3198 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2693-2290 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 280-287 281 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study focuses on relationships among work-life balance, organizational citizenship behavior and organizational performance. in the existing literature, these relationships are not clearly explored and remained unclear. therefore, this study fills these relationship gaps in the existing literature. especially, this study should make a direct contribution to the literature on human resource management and organizational behavior. 1. introduction in this today competitive business environment, working people are facing more significant challenges in balancing their work and family responsibilities. the typical employee in the 1960s or 1970s showed up at a specified workplace monday through friday and worked for clearly defined 8or 9-hour chunks of time. that’s no longer true for a large segment of today’s workforce. employees are increasingly complaining that the line between work and non-work time has become blurred, creating personal conflicts and stress (robbins & judge, 2013). in this sense, some researchers argue that, technological advancement lead to less work-life conflict by allowing them working from multiple locations, including the home through e-mails and other electronic communication methods (hayman, 2009; thevanes & mangaleswaran, 2018; waller & ragsdell, 2012; wheatley, 2012). on other hand, robbins and judge (2013) have explained that communication technology allows many technical and professional employees to do their work at home, in their cars and other places which away from their workplace. hence, it is extremely difficult to get away from their jobs. nowadays, organizations are requesting employees to work for longer hours to reach their goals and objectives. further, they stated that creation of global organizations lead to the world never sleeps. thus, work-life conflict is considered as contemporary issue in today world and lead to several social conflicts. hence, employees forced to search for a job where they can balance their work and family responsibilities to ensure the quality life (greenhaus, collins, & shaw, 2003). recent studies suggest employees want jobs that give them flexibility in their work schedules so they can better manage work–life conflicts. nowadays, employees seriously concern about their work-life balance before accept the job offer beyond the salary and other fringe benefits (thevanes & mangaleswaran, 2018). further, they also indicated that employees do not show interest in working in outside area beyond their home town in order eliminate the work-life conflict. thus, organizations also increasingly required to focus work-life balance of their employees to unleash the employees’ and organizational performance to ensure the sustainable competitive advantage. any organization aiming to increase competitive advantage needs to develop an approach to human resource and work-life balance strategies that cater for the diverse needs of the workforce (cieri, holmes, abbott, & pettit, 2005). in order to respond this issue, managers are paying a great attention on design workplaces and jobs that can help employees deal with work–life conflicts. thus, organizations today offer a range of work–life and work–family programmes and benefits such as job sharing, work flexibility and on-site child-care designed to reduce the stress associated with balancing multiple roles (mccarthy, cleveland, hunter, darcy, & grady, 2013). in this context, number of scholars contributed to the understanding of work-life balance (bardoel & drago, 2016; chan et al., 2016; fischlmayr & kollinger, 2010; fleetwood, 2007; heywood, siebert, & wei, 2010; mccarthy et al., 2013). however, many scholars have conducted research studies regarding work-life balance (edwards & kuruvilla, 2005; hyman & summers, 2007; winefield, boyd, & winefield, 2014) organizational citizenship behavior (kegans, mccamey, & hammond, 2012; wang., 2015; xerri & brunetto, 2013) and organizational performance (khaola, 2014; koopmans et al., 2011; podsakoff & mackenzie, 1997) separately. moreover, anecdotal evidences reveal that a very few research works are available in this area in sri lanka. even though, work-life balance, organizational citizenship behavior and organizational performance are considered as the interrelated concepts. previous studies rarely examined the relationships among these concepts theoretically as well as empirically. moreover, most studies neglect the mediating role of ocb in the relationship between worklife balance and organizational performance. thus, this study focuses on relationships among work-life balance, ocb and organizational performance. in the existing literature, these relationships are not clearly explored and remained unclear. therefore, this study fills these relationship gaps in the existing literature. especially, this study should make a direct contribution to the literature on human resource management (hrm) and organizational behavior (ob). hence, the objective of this review is to explore the relationships among work-life balance, ocb and organizational performance and examine the mediating effects of ocb on the relationship between work-life balance and organizational performance. this article is structured as follows. next section provides method of review, third section presents the review of the relevant literature about work-life balance, ocb, and organizational performance and propose the hypotheses. the third section provides the methodology of this study. lastly, we present the findings and discussion of the study and finally, it ends up with the conclusion. 2. literature review 2.1. relationship between work-life balance and job performance researchers argued that, an organization’s performance directly depends on the individuals it employs (arulrajah & opatha, 2012). as an organization’s competitive advantage is typically based on strong human resources, it is crucial for organizations to improve employee performance to enrich the overall organizational performance. hence, organizations seriously focus on enhancing positive work-related attitudes (eg: job satisfaction, organizational commitment) and work-related behaviors (eg: ocb, work engagement) to unleash the job performance of employees (meijerink, bos-nehles, & de leede, 2018). in this context, several researchers argued that, it is possible to enhance the positive work-related attitudes and behaviors among employees through the work-life balance promoting hrm practices such as telecommuting, job sharing, flextime, etc (bardoel & drago, 2016; chan et al., 2016; fleetwood, 2007; mccarthy et al., 2013; winefield et al., 2014). organizations with more satisfied employees tend to be more effective. for many companies, worklife balance seems to lead to several positive outcomes such, low turnover, less absenteeism and increased work asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 280-287 282 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group engagement, ocb, in-role performance, employee productivity, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and etc (konrad & mangel, 2000; lambert, 2000; nawab & iqbal., 2013; parakandi & behery, 2016; wang & walumbwa, 2007) which turns lead to superior organizational performance. wheatley (2012) indicate that, worklife balance of employee providing the win-win outcomes from both employer and employees. in addition to that, naithani (2010) has stated that organization which neglects issues related to employee work-life balance will end up with lower employee productivity and in turn will find it more difficult to improve the employee job performance. further, thevanes and arurajah (2017) have identified work-life balance promoting practices as a one of the sustainable hrm practices which contributes to economic, social and environmental performance of the organizations. in this sense, for the employees who work in the home town, the work-life conflict is much less than the others whose work site is far away from home. an employee has the privilege of spending more time with his family and easily fulfills his/her family commitments. so, the employees become a vibrant team of happy and committed individuals driving the organizations towards sustainable growth (thevanes & arurajah, 2017). in addition to that, robbins and judge (2013) revealed that organizations that don’t help their people achieve work– life balance will find it increasingly difficult to attract and retain the most capable and motivated employees. hence, organizations should give more priority to enhance the work-life balance of employees to create the satisfied, committed and retained workforce to uplift the organizational performance. according to the above literature, this study establishes that work-life has a positive relationship with organizational performance. therefore, this study proposes a hypothesis: hypothesis 1: there is a positive relationship between work-life balance and organizational performance. 2.2. relationship between work-life balance and ocb nowadays, organizations are continuously implementing several strategies, initiatives and practices to enhance the employees’ conscious and active participation and commitment in the organizational activities to achieve the goals and objectives. hence, organizations increasingly required to enhance the positive employee attitudes and behaviors to improve the individual performance. in this context, ocb is considered as the crucial employee workplace behavior which has the ability to enhance the organizational performance. further, most studies on ocb describe it as a positive and constructive behavior worthy of encouragement by supervisors and very important for clients of the organization (kegans et al., 2012; vigoda-gadot & beeri, 2011; wang, 2015; xerri & brunetto, 2013; zhao, wu, sun, & chen, 2012). according to organ, podsakoff, and mackenzie (2006) ocb is an employee’s discretionary behavior that is not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system and efficiently and effectively promotes the performance of the organization. further, some researchers stated that, going above and beyond what is expected in the workplace is referred to as organizational citizenship behaviors; these behaviors often lead to valuable contributions to the organization (anit somech & drach-zahavy, 2004; turnipseed & rassuli, 2005). if members feel that the organization supports them, they will exhibit ocbs which is beneficial for the organization (tsui-hsu tsai & jing lin, 2014). thus, organizations increasingly pay attention on enhancing ocbs among employees. indeed, organizations turn their focus on creating, identifying and implementing several strategies and practices to foster the ocbs among the organization’s employees. higher levels of organizational support will be related to higher levels of employee engagement (zhao et al., 2012) which in turn will result in higher levels ocbs within the organization. lambert, hogan, and griffin (2008) revealed that, if staff are treated with respect and dignity then engagement in ocbs is more likely. in this sense, mccarthy et al. (2013) stated that, work-life balance is considered as the major indicator of organizational support. further, allen (2001) found it was important to disentangle employee perceptions of supervisory support from perceptions of organizational support or generally a climate where employees are encouraged to use work-life balance policies and programmes. in addition to that, wang. (2015) indicated that enhancing work-life balance strategies within the organization contributes to create a positive atmosphere in the day to day correctional work environment to employees which turns lead to foster ocbs among the employees. in this context, some researchers stated that uplifting work-life balance of employees significantly contributes to enhance the ocbs of employees (beham, 2011; lambert, 2000; lambert, kelley, & hogan, 2013; pradhan, jena, & kumari, 2016). the antecedents of ocb comprise employee attitudes, role perceptions, stress, job satisfaction, interpersonal trust, organizational commitment and employee mood (moorman & blakely, 1995; williams & shiaw, 1999). hence, it is possible to enhance the ocbs of employees to improve these positive work attitudes among employees. in this scenario, researchers argued that ensuring the work-life balance to the employees has become a more important mechanism to exhibit positive job attitudes and behaviors (chan et al., 2016; galinsky, bond, & hill, 2004; konrad & mangel, 2000; lambert, 2000; mcnall, masuda, & nicklin, 2009; richman, 2006; wang & walumbwa, 2007; wfd consulting, 2007). similarly, work–life balance has a positive impact on job and family satisfaction. work–life balance, in turn, leads to both job and family satisfaction because an employee who has achieved work–life balance is most probably experiencing good functioning at work and at home with minimum inter-role conflict (allen, 2001; chan et al., 2016). people who are more satisfied with their jobs are more likely to engage in ocbs (hoffman, blair, meriac, & woehr, 2007). in overall, this trend improves the ocbs of employees within the organization. in addition to that organ et al. (2006) pointed that work-life balance appears to promote employee’s engagement in ocbs which may benefit the organization through positive affectivity. however, employees with conflicting work and family demands may not always be able to go the extra mile for their organization and demonstrate high levels of ocbs as expected by their employers (beham, 2011). in other words, improving work-life balance contributes to foster employees’ ocbs within the organization by creating positive work environment and climate. however, few studies have considered the relationship between work-life balance and ocb in the past. thus, this review considers this as a gap in the literature and wants to establish a positive relationship between work-life balance and ocbs of employee. based on the above cited literature evidences, it can be possible to establish a positive relationship between work-life balance and ocbs. according to the above literature, this review establishes that work-life balance has a positive relationship with ocbs of employees as a second hypothesis of this review. hypothesis 2: there is a positive relationship between work-life balance and ocb. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 280-287 283 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.3. relationship between ocb and organizational performance one of the most widely studied topics in organizational behavior research in recent years is organizational citizenship behaviors (kegans et al., 2012; wang, 2015; xerri & brunetto, 2013). due to the importance of ocbs, nowadays, organizations continuously turn their spot light on enhancing the ocbs among employees in order to effectively and efficiently achieve the organizational goals and objectives in the changing competitive business environment. ocb is considered as one of the most favorable workplace behaviors which expected from employees to make organizations more profitable. in this context, researchers pointed out that ocb should be a major determinant of an employee’s job performance (basu, pradhan, & tewari, 2017; khaola, 2014; podsakoff & mackenzie, 1997). the employees are the ultimate actors in determining the organization success because they implement the changes in behaviors and routines which are required to achieve the goals of the organization (perron, côté, & duffy, 2006). therefore, encouraging ocbs of employees is an important aspect to achieve the organizational goals and objectives (young et al., 2015). in addition to that basu et al. (2017) argued that ocb is not a part of the formal organizational structure or reward system, it has far-reaching implications on organizational and individual performance and effectiveness. ocb comprised of five dimensions: (1)altruism (altruism is helping behavior to coworker, supervisor and etc), (2) generalized compliance (employee conscientiousness that surpasses enforceable work standards), (3) sportsmanship (activities such as not complaining or making huge issues out of minor problems or inconveniences), (4) courtesy (act of touching base with others before taking actions or making decisions that would affect their work) and (5) civic virtue (active participation and involvement of employees in company affairs and includes activities such as attending meetings, responding to messages and keeping up with organizational issues) (basu et al., 2017; podsakoff & mackenzie, 1997; podsakoff, mackenzie, paine, & bachrach, 2000). further, khaola (2014) argued that, employee who engage in ocbs within the workplace, directly contributes unleash the co-workers performance by help their coworkers; offer them proactive and preventive advice regarding work problems; help prevent, resolve, or mitigate interpersonal conflicts; latitude to incorporate the information and encourage and reinforce their coworkers’ achievements (chiaburu & harrison, 2008; khaola, 2014). in addition to that, motivating ocbs among employees also contributes create a positive organizational climate and work environment. nowadays, organizations strongly believe that team work is an essential factor to improve the organizational performance. an organization can be considered as collection of people. they have to work as a team to achieve their common goals and purposes (thevanes & arulrajah, 2016). in this trend, podsakoff and mackenzie (1997) revealed that ocb leads to superior team performance by enhancing team spirit, morale, and cohesiveness. these dimensions are really fruitful in enhancing team and organizational productivity and definitely these trends may improve employees as well as organizational performance. furthermore, researchers revealed that, ocb may also improve performance by enhancing the organization's ability to attract and retain the best people (george & bettenhausen, 1990). in addition to that, researchers pointed out that ocb leads to several organizational benefits such as customer satisfaction, sales revenue and financial efficiency (podsakoff et al., 2000) which turn lead to enrich the overall organizational performance. moreover, organ et al. (2006) stated that employees who have a higher level of ocb may express it by showing a personal interest in the work of others, in training new people, in caring for the organization’s property, and wishing to remain in their organizations. in addition to that, motivating ocbs among employees contributes to mitigate the turnover intensions and absenteeism of employees. further, organizations may fully utilize their employees’ knowledge and skills by developing ocbs among the employees. thus, organizations develop and implement the several strategies and practices to foster ocb among employees in order to enrich the organizational performance. based on the above cited literature evidences, it can be possible to establish a positive relationship between ocb and organizational performance. according to the above literature, this review establishes that ocb has a positive relationship with organizational performance as a third hypothesis of this review: hypothesis 3: there is a positive relationship between ocb and organizational performance. 2.4. ocb mediates the relationship between work-life balance and organizational performance in general, when employees feel supported by their organization, they become more committed and satisfied and willing to engage in ocbs at workplace. in addition to that, researchers argued that, work-life balance initiatives and practices of organizations lead to foster ocbs among employees (beham, 2011; pradhan et al., 2016). further, some researchers revealed that without unleashing ocbs among employees, improving organizational performance becomes unrealistic (basu et al., 2017; khaola, 2014). hence, organizations consider more about work–life balance of employees to motivate employees to engage in ocbs within the workplace which ultimately deeply affect their overall organizational performance. according to the above literature, this review establishes that ocb mediates the relationship between work-life balance and organizational performance as the fourth hypothesis of this review: hypothesis 4: ocb mediates the relationship between work-life balance and organizational performance. hence, based on the review, this paper proposes a conceptual model that shows the relationships among environmental training, and environmental attitude of employee and environmental orientation of organization (see figure 1). figure-1. conceptual framework. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 280-287 284 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. methodology 3.1. sampling and data collection the empirical data for the current study were collected from selected private banks in batticaloa district of sri lanka. the total population for the study was 210 employees of selected private banks in batticaloa. out of these, 166 employees were selected as sample to conduct this research by using disproportionate stratified sampling method, because to assure representation of employees belonging to different grades in the selected banks. this study depends on primary data. the data of this study were collected from the respondents through structured questionnaire. in order to ensure the content validity of the scale used, it is advised to largely adapt the items for each construct from prior researches (luarn & lin, 2005). therefore, 25 survey items for each construct in the questionnaire were adapted from prior researches. the questionnaire contained questions relating to work-life balance and ocb and organizational performance. 3.2. measures all constructs were measured with multiple items developed and tested in previous studies. each item was measured on a five-point likert-type scale anchored by “strongly disagree‟ and “strongly agree” response options. the researchers used an instrument adapted from past review works of banu and duraipadiyan (2014). this instrument can be used to measure work-life balance in an organization that consists of eleven question items in five point likert-scales. this instrument had a cronbach‟s alpha of 0.89 which is higher than 0.70. hence, this instrument had a good reliability. the authors used an instrument adapted from past research works of somech and ron (2007) to quantify the ocb. this instrument had a cronbach’s alpha of 0.88, which is higher than 0.70. hence, this instrument had good reliability. the instrument had a good degree of reliability with a cronbach’s alpha of 0.87. the researchers used an instrument adapted from past research works of santos and brito (2012) to quantify the organizational performance. this instrument had a cronbach’s alpha of 0.69 which is lower than 0.70. however, according to bowling (2002) an alpha of 0.5 or higher is considered a sign of acceptable internal consistency. hence, this instrument had used in this study. 3.3. data analysis techniques correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between the variables (jahangir & begum, 2008). according to sekaran (2000) the correlation coefficient value (r) ranges from 0.10 to 0.29 is considered weak, from 0.30 to 0.49 is considered medium and from 0.50 to 1.0 is considered strong. however, according to field (2005) correlation coefficient should not go beyond 0.8 to avoid multicollinearity. the correlation matrix shows that multi-collinearity does not threaten the validity of the data. to test the relationship between work-life balance and organizational performance (h1), work-life balance and ocb (h2) and ocb and organizational performance (h3), as well as mediating effect of ocb on the relationship between work-life balance and organizational performance (h4), correlations and simple mediation analyses were used. this method was proposed by baron and kenny (1986) to examine the mediating effect. in conducting simple mediation analysis, series of regressions were performed. the first involved regressing the dependent variable on independent variable, then independent variable on mediating variable and hereafter mediating variable on dependent variable and finally performing a multiple regression analysis with independent variable and mediating variable on dependent variable. 4. findings of the study 4.1. correlation analysis table 1 shows the correlation matrix. correlation analysis illustrates that work-life balance has a moderate positive correlation with organizational performance. correlation analysis also shows that there is a strong positive correlation exists between work-life balance and ocb. further, correlation analysis indicated that ocb has a strong positive correlation with organizational performance. table-1. correlation matrix. variables 1 2 1 work-life balance 2 ocb 0.669** 3 organizational performance 0.473** 0.522** notes: n=108, **correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), *correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed). 4.2 simple mediation analysis figure-2. simple mediation model. figure 2 shows the simple mediation model of the study. paths a and b are called direct effects. the meditational effect, in which x leads to y through m, is called the indirect effect. the indirect effect represents the portion of the relationship between x and y that is mediated by m. baron and kenny (1986) proposed a four-step asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 280-287 285 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group approach in which several regression analyses are conducted and significance of the coefficients is examined at each step. take a look at the table 2 below to follow the description. table-2. four step approach for simple mediation analysis. step analysis visual description step 1 conduct a simple regression analysis with x predicting y to test for path c alone c x y step 2 conduct a simple regression analysis with x predicting m to test for path a a x m step 3 conduct a simple regression analysis with m predicting y to test for path b alone b m y step 4 conduct a multiple regression analysis with x and m predicting y c x m y source: adapted from baron and kenny (1986). table 2 shows the four-step approach for simple mediation analysis. the purpose of steps 1-3 is to establish that zero-order relationships among the existing variables. if one or more of these relationships are non-significant that mediation is not possible or likely. assuming there are significant relationships from steps 1 through 3, one proceeds to step 4. in the step 4 model, work-life balance (x) is no longer significant when ocb (m) is controlled, so, the findings support full mediation. table-3. significance value for simple mediation analysis. step independent variable dependent variable sig 1 work-life balance organizational performance 0.000 2 work-life balance ocb 0.000 3 ocb organizational performance 0.000 4 work-life balance organizational performance 0.254 table 3 shows the simple mediation analysis of the study. from step 1 to step 3, the relationship between the variables are significant as sig value is less than 0.05. in the step 4, ocb (0.000) is significant while work-life balance (0.254) is insignificant. hence, the relationship between e-hrm and environmental performance is mediated by ocb. 5. discussion basically, this review deals with three main concepts. they are work-life balance, ocb, and job performance. the findings of the study suggest that there are positive relationships between the work-life balance and organizational performance, work-life balance and ocb and ocb and organizational performance. further, findings of the study revealed that, ocb mediates relationship between work-life balance and organizational performance. the work-life balance promoting practices aims to shapes the positive work-related attitude of employees such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job involvement. in this regard, recently organizations start up to recruit and select appropriate people who are closest to the workplace or organization to eliminate the work-life conflict of employees. for the employees who work in the home town, the work-life conflict is much less than the others whose work site is far away from home (thevanes & arurajah, 2017). further, an employee can work around the clock to improve the productivity. most of the employees who work in the out stations usually feel homesick and don’t shows any interest in their works. hence, this suggested that organizations take necessary steps to up-lift the work-life balance of employees in order to improve job satisfaction of employees. ultimately, this trend encourages the employees to foster the ocbs in the workplace. in an organizational context, satisfied, committed and involved workforce more likely to engage in ocbs within the workplace. without foster the ocbs among organization’s employees improving the organizational performance become unrealistic. further, work–life balance promoting practices really fruitful in creating and sustaining happy and motivated workforce by allowing them to balance their family responsibilities as well as work responsibilities. overall, this trend contributes to improve the organizational performance. 6. conclusion the empirical data for the current study were collected from selected private banks in batticaloa district of sri lanka. based on the empirical finding of the study, there is positive and significant relationship exists between work-life balance and organizational performance. similarly, there is positive and significant relationship exists between work-life balance and ocb as well as ocb and organizational performance. moreover, findings of the study revealed that, ocb mediates the relationship between work-life balance and organizational performance. 7. limitations and future studies the current study is a cross-sectional study. therefore, it is important for future studies to validate the current findings in a longitudinal design could be more appropriate than cross-sectional ones for establishing casual inferences based on preexisting theory and empirical data (chiaburu & harrison, 2008). the current study only applies a quantitative research design. therefore, future studies may consider collecting deeper data from the respondents. the use of both qualitative and quantitative methods would provide an opportunity for more depth and richer explanations regarding the relationships among work-life balance, ocb and organizational performance. in addition to that, future studies have the further opportunities to consider the antecedent variables related to this asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 280-287 286 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group study. the findings of this study are methodologically limited by restrictions imposed by the study in selected private banks in sri lanka, which not permit the generalization of findings. in order to overcome this 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(2012). organizational citizenship behavior in chinese society: a reexamination. the international journal of human resource management, 23(19), 4145-4165. available at: 10.1080/09585192.2012.669786. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2005.07.006 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2005.07.006 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00012531211215178 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00012531211215178 152 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 2, 152-157, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.152.157 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group covid-19 in sri lanka and seven hrm related recommendations against covid-19 h.h.d.p.j. opatha department of human resource management, university of sri jayewardenepura, sri lanka. abstract human resource department that performs human resource management (hrm) function in organizations has to play a key role in fighting against coronavirus while ensuring the sound health and safety of its employees and the sound performance of other hrm functions. a conceptual attempt was done to achieve three research objectives which are, 1) to explore about coronavirus disease and its symptoms, 2) investigate covid-19 situation in sri lanka and, 3) to describe seven hrm related recommendations/strategies that can be adopted by an organization under covid-19 pandemic situation. a comprehensive literature survey was done to achieve the mentioned study objectives. it was found that coronavirus is an infectious disease caused by a newly discovered coronavirus and its symptoms are fever, cough, fatigue, shortness of breath etc. sri lanka is still fighting against covid-19 with various preventive measures to eradicate the virus from the country and many of those preventive measures have been successful so far. in addition, this study found seven hrm related recommendations that can be adopted by an organization under covid-19 pandemic situation i.e. invest on training employees for remote working, give more consideration for worker wellbeing, introduce pay cuts instead of layoffs, conduct medical tests at the selection process, create employee resource groups, encourage sick employees to stay at home and, communicate all the necessary actions taken by the organization to employees. keywords: human resource management, organization, hr department, coronavirus, pandemic, sri lanka. jel classification: i10 health: general. citation | h.h.d.p.j. opatha (2020). covid-19 in sri lanka and seven hrm related recommendations against covid-19. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(2): 152-157. history: received: 15 may 2020 revised: 25 may 2020 accepted: 2 june 2020 published: 10 june 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 153 2. research questions and objectives ........................................................................................................................................... 153 3. method ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 153 4. covid-19 ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 153 5. covid-19 in sri lanka ................................................................................................................................................................ 154 6. seven hrm related recommendations/strategies ............................................................................................................... 154 7. discussion and conclusion........................................................................................................................................................... 156 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 157 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.72.152.157&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1718 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5243-0868 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1718 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5243-0868 http://asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1718 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5243-0868 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 152-157 153 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper mainly attempts to provide some practical recommendations against covid-19 for organizations from the perspective of hrm and to provide a conceptual contribution to the existing body of knowledge regarding covid-19 and covid-19 in sri lanka. 1. introduction humans make things happen while other resources make things possible (opatha, 2009). human resource management (hrm) is considered as a critical function among the other organizational functions due to its unique nature as it focusses on managing an exclusive resource which is completely different from other resources (opatha.. & uresha, 2020). according to opatha (2009) hrm is defined as efficient and effective utilization of human resource in order to achieve organizational objectives and goals. human resource management is about all aspects of how people are employed and managed in organizations (armstrong & taylor, 2014). marescaux, de winne, and forrier (2019) state that, proper hrm is an antecedent for employees to determine that organization values and cares about their wellbeing, development and contribution. there are various functions being done under hrm (eg; job design, job analysis, human resource planning, recruitment, selection, hiring, induction, training and development, rewards management, health and safety management etc.). due to the pandemic of covid-19, a greater responsibility rests with hrm to protect its employees’ health and safety. promoting workplace safety and health initiatives is a critical hrm activity (opatha., 2020) and this criticalness has been increased with the prevailing pandemic situation in the world. epidemiology unit: ministry of health & indigenous medical services (2020) in sri lanka mentioned that businesses and employers have a major role to play to keep workplaces safe to stop the spread of this disease as workplaces are frequented by a large number of people. thus, hrm has a great duty to manage the well-being of its workers while performing other hrm functions introducing new strategies in this unprecedented situation. this paper attempts to explore and describe about coronavirus disease, covid-19 situation in sri lanka and seven hrm related recommendations/strategies that can be adopted by an organization to successfully engage in the business process during this pandemic. 2. research questions and objectives followings are the research questions of this descriptive study: 1. what is coronavirus disease? what are its symptoms? 2. what is the situation of sri lanka relating to covid-19? 3. what are the hrm related recommendations/strategies that can be adopted by an organization under covid-19 pandemic situation? study objectives are to, 1. explore about coronavirus disease and its symptoms. 2. investigate covid-19 situation in sri lanka. 3. present and describe seven hrm related recommendations/strategies that can be adopted by an organization under covid-19 pandemic situation. 3. method this study mainly attempts to provide some practical recommendations for organizations from the perspective of hrm and to provide a theoretical contribution to the existing body of knowledge in covid-19. in order to achieve the three study objectives systematically, a comprehensive literature survey was done by using the desk research strategy in addition to the logical beliefs of the author and observations. 4. covid-19 corona virus disease 2019 (covid-19) is an infectious disease caused by newly discovered coronavirus (world health organization, 2020). this began in hubei province, china in december 2019 and now, world health organization (who) has declared that this virus is a pandemic as it is spreading worldwide. the root cause for the disease is still controversial and unable to say that whether it is a natural or man-made disease. this deadly virus is known as coronavirus, covid-19, 2019-ncov acute respiratory disease and novel coronavirus pneumonia. according to centers for disease control and prevention (2019), most persons with covid-19 will experience symptoms i.e. fever (83-99%), cough (59-82%), fatigue(44-70%), anorexia (40-84%), shortness of breath (31-40%), sputum production (28-33%), myalgias (11-35%) and these symptoms will appear within 2-14 days after exposure to the virus. however, there were few cases reported in sri lanka to say that some people show symptoms even after 21 days the person is exposed to the virus. covid-19 virus is transmitted directly from person to person when a covid-19 patient coughs or exhales producing droplets that reach the nose, mouth or eyes of another person. at the same time these droplets can land on objects and surfaces surrounding the person and this causes other people who touch those contaminated objects and surfaces and then touch their eyes, nose or mouth, to become infected with covid-19. thus, who has recommended all the people living in the world to maintain at least one meter distance between two persons, when associating general public. further, world health organization (2020) recommends that everyone should perform hand hygiene frequently and avoid people with fever or respiratory symptoms in order to limit coronavirus transmission. as per epidemiology unit: ministry of health & indigenous medical services (2020) in sri lanka, most persons who are infected by coronavirus develop mild symptoms and recover without any complications while those with low immunity and people suffering from conditions such as diabetes, heart, liver, lung disease and people who are older than 40 are more at risk. covid-19 pandemic has caused 377,607 deaths and 6,374,287 are infected all around the world while 2,909,749 are cured (worldometer, up to date 02/06/2020). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 152-157 154 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 5. covid-19 in sri lanka in sri lanka, "covid-19 healthcare and social security fund" and “the presidential special task force” have been established to effectively and efficiently regulate and control the spreading virus (silva, 2020). sri lanka is the first country in south asia, that imposed a nationwide weekend curfew (silva, 2020) to avoid spreading this deadly coronavirus throughout the country. the villages where coronavirus positive patients were identified were locked down until no coronavirus positive patient is found from the same village. foods and other necessary goods were distributed under safety measures among the people living in covid-19 high-risk areas in the country by commercial vans and lorries during the curfew and locked down periods. nearly 45 quarantine centers have been built in the country and foreigners, local people coming from abroad and doubtable persons who have closely associated coronavirus positive patients are sent to those quarantine centers for two weeks and conduct pcr (polymerase chain reaction) test for them. another strategy that sri lankan government is adopting to reduce the crowd in the outside environment is allowing the general public to leave their houses according to the last number of their national identity card (1 and 2 – monday, 3 and 4 – tuesday, 5 and 6 – wednesday, 7 and 8 – thursday, 9 and 0 – friday). people who are going for jobs can use their workplace id, national id card or e-mail messages sent by the organizations informing its employees to come to the workplaces, as their travelling passes. state intelligence service of sri lanka, sri lanka armed forces, police, public health inspectors and sri lankan health sector are working hard continuously tackling with coronavirus to destroy it from the country. in addition, the media channels, some reputed and non-reputed organizations, farmers etc. of sri lanka are doing a great job by providing needy things to the poor people, temples, churches and other divine places around the country as csr (corporate social responsibility) activities. in some places of the country, it is observed that sri lankan army officers and police officers did not forget to supply foods for innocent animals like cats and dogs walking around the locked down cities. in sri lanka there are 1643 coronavirus cases and 11 deaths while 811 are recovered (covid-19 alert: sri lanka, up to date 02/06/2020). 31 clusters of infections have been reported so far (up to date 02/06/2020) and almost all of them are under control of presidential special task force. figure 1 shows how coronavirus cases have been reported daily up to 01/06/2020 from the date (11/03/2020) the first coronavirus infected patient was identified. the graph shows that covid-19 infected people in sri lanka are not continuously increasing daily but there are increasing cases and also decreasing cases. the reason for this may be the right preventive measures taken by the sri lankan government. the highest number of coronavirus infected persons for a day was reported as 150 on 28th of may due to covid-19 infected kuwait returnees (local labors). silva (2020) mentioned that sri lankan government has given their due consideration toward managing of public crowds and wearing of protective masks, providing most essential facilities to the victims at the right time, expanding the threshold of health sector, preventing poor communities being hurt from a possible economic epidemic (eg; rs. 5,000 were given twice for poor people and income losers through village officers of sri lanka). figure-1. coronavirus cases in sri lanka. source: wikipedia (covid-19 alert; sri lanka) up to date 01/06/2020. 6. seven hrm related recommendations/strategies 6.1. invest on training employees for remote working (training and development) companies all around the world encourage or motivate employees to work from home during the corona virus pandemic. this may be a firsthand experience for many of the employees in the world, especially for employees in developing countries like sri lanka. meister (2020) has examined various ways the companies are dealing with remote working and one way is training employees to work from home. she has identified that many organizations in usa provide training for employees on working remotely, working remotely while in quarantine and also training managers to manage remote workforce successfully. microsoft has created a guide to working from home during covid-19 and this guide was shared with the microsoft global workforce (meister, 2020). for their customers, a version of that was made as an editable document to use with their own organizational conditions (meister, 2020). it is recommended for organizations to use online or cloud platforms where their employees can work remotely, learn new competencies, ask questions from their supervisors and colleagues, share opinions and ideas etc. while being healthy and productive. as an additional advantage of working from home, it makes employees to maintain a proper balance between their work life and family life. 6.2. give more consideration for worker wellbeing (health and safety management) due to the fact that this deadly covid-19 virus is spreading all over the world, one of the major considerations or might be the first priority in the organization is well-being of the workers. if one of the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 152-157 155 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group employees gets infected with this deadly virus, it surely can be a cause to shut down the whole organization at an instant. therefore, hrm needs to take relevant initiatives to protect worker well-being. meister (2020) said that “today more than ever, the future of work is the future of worker wellbeing”. thus, every employee of the organization must be informed to practice good safety practices while maintaining social distance to protect others as well as themselves. for those employees who do not work according to the safety practices of the organization can be punished through disciplinary actions. construction industry development authority (2020) has mentioned health and safety guidelines for employees in construction industry to be adopted during covid-19 and some of them are given below as an example.  all workers must wash hands with soap or hand sanitizer containing alcohol and running water when entering the construction site.  workers shall refrain from spitting or sneezing/coughing, putting out the discharge of phlegm in public places.  in extreme situations where the standard of protective mask is a requisite, a particulate respirator at least as protective as a niosh certified n95, eu standard ffp2, or equivalent shall be used.  employer shall appoint a health and safety committee for every work site, with representations from the contractor. the said committee shall be convened at least once a week and discuss with the workers about the current status of the epidemic, situation in the construction site and potential threats and decisions have to be taken providing solutions.  if by any chance, it is known that one or more workers in the work site is infected with covid-19, he shall be at once sent to a specified government hospital by an ambulance.  the details of the other workers who closely worked or associated with the infected person shall immediately be notified to the nearest hospital or to special units appointed by the health ministry / president’s task force. likewise, organizations in other industries also should follow comprehensive health and safety guidelines as mentioned above and hr must take the first step of initiating them. other than the above practices organizations have to rethink on some areas like conducting meetings, using elevators, sanitary facilities, using lunch rooms and changing rooms, transport facilities, accommodation etc. in order to ensure the safety of every human being. further, organizations have to take steps to keep their organizations extra clean to avoid spreading of virus. it is compulsory for every organization to check the temperature of employees using temperature test machines when they are entering into the organizational premises. another safety initiative is that organization can introduce a transport facility system if they have the possibility, to let the employees travel from their home to workplace and from workplace to home. this will reduce the chance of employees getting exposed to the external public in public transportation vehicles (eg; bus, train) and simultaneously reduce the probability of getting infected by covid-19 virus. it is not only about the physical health of the employees but also about the mental health of the employees. according to opatha. (2020) there are 15 fears for employee due to covid-19 and they are fear of getting affected by himself or herself, fear of possibility of getting quarantine, fear of getting stigmatized by the public and friends, fear of getting affected by his or her closely loved ones, fear of getting affected by others, fear of becoming a cause of spreading the epidemic, fear of attending the work, fear of getting sanction/s, fear of peer pressure, fear of harsh customer response, fear of losing the job, fear of continuity of business operations, fear of inability of implementing plans developed, fear of inability of formulating new plans for better future, and fear of loss of pursuits of pleasure. opatha. (2020) has mentioned that the employee will get one or two or several or all types of fears mentioned above and as a result of that he or she becomes stressful. this type of stress is labeled as stress by corona (sbc) (opatha., 2020). thus, it is a responsibility of hr department to make preventive actions from the organization’s side to diminish or eradicate those fears through counselling and executing standard health and safety practices as mentioned before in the paper. ultimately this will minimize employees’ stress by corona (sbc). 6.3. pay cuts instead of layoffs (pay management) one of the major challenges for organizations during this pandemic is to pay salaries for employees. paying salaries as usual might not be possible for many organizations as they were shut down at least for a month in many countries. in sri lanka many of the private and public organizations were closed for nearly two to three months and still there are some barriers to open some business organizations due to the prevailing quarantine curfew in some areas of the country at the moment. as a result of this organizations couldn’t earn profits as usual and now, they are struggling with paying salaries to the employees. hence, some organizations have started to layoff employees. this has also become a cause for many employees’ mental stress as they are losing their income source. but it is more suitable for hr to help the company and the employees of the organization during this hard time, by proposing salary cuts for a predetermined period instead of layoffs (jaisinghani, 2020). here, proper communication must be held between the hr department and trade union/s of the organization. for an example, one hr manager of an organization in sri lanka mentioned that they have requested all the senior managers and above staff to salary deferment on voluntary basis from april onwards. they have given options to cut their salaries as a percentage of 0%, 20%, 40%, 50% from the basic salary. further, he mentioned that senior managers individually responded to the hr department and this strategy helped their company to save money in millions to manage lower staff salaries. another example is management can reduce salaries up to 25% for a period of 6 months so that the company can survive and no staff needs to be laid off (jaisinghani, 2020). 6.4. conduct medical tests at the selection process (employee selection) when selecting a job candidate for a vacant job it is necessary to conduct some tests to find the most appropriate and qualified person for the job. in a selection process first, applications are screened and then selected applicants are called for interviews. further, different types of tests like personality tests, aptitude tests, background investigations and medical tests are done. it was not compulsory for many organizations to conduct medical tests when selecting employees to the organizations so far. however, from now onwards it may become an integral task to conduct medical tests to make sure that newly selected job candidate is not a covid-19 positive asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 152-157 156 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group patient who has the possibility of making a significant negative impact to the organization and its employees in future. pcr (polymerase chain reaction) test or other health measuring tests have to be implemented by the organizations in future when selecting employees. 6.5. create employee resource groups (job design) one of the hr functions in an organization is job designing which means arranging duties, tasks, responsibilities in to an organizational unit of work to achieve organizational objectives (opatha, 2009). as a solution for covid-19 pandemic situation hr can form a group called employee resource group (erg) under group technique of job designing. under the supervision of hr department of the organization this team can be formed. the major objective of forming an erg is to provide support for other employees in terms of various aspects relating to work. through these employee resource groups, organization can successfully provide work support for other employees to work remotely, enhance career development through online learning facilities and mentoring, enhance worker happiness of employees on the job and, solve employee grievances relating to unnecessary pay cuts, terminations, layoffs etc. organizations must promote online virtual conversation platforms to contact employee resource groups by the other employees of the organization. a proper training needs to be given for employees in the resource team in order to provide a quality service to other employees of the organization and training those employees is a responsibility of hrm. 6.6. encourage sick employees to stay at home (presenteeism management) this is very much important for the organization to not to ask employees come to work while they are ill or if they show the symptoms of coronavirus (fever, cough, sore throat, and shortness of breath etc.). this attempt will ensure that other employees in the organization are not in a risk of being infected by corona and also avoid presenteeism which means that employees come to work while they are ill and do not work productively. if the organization has the possibility, they can provide insurance facilities for their employees or corona infected employees to cover their medical expenses as a welfare facility under hrm and this might increase employer branding of the organization. 6.7. communicate all the necessary actions taken by the organization to employees taking necessary actions by the hr people and other managers of the organization to fight against covid-19 is not enough, but also need to communicate those actions to employees in an understandable way because ultimately these actions are executed by employees in the organization. therefore, it is recommended to send an email to all the employees who have e-mail facilities, informing safety measures or share newly introduced safety policies and other related policies and procedures via social media. those e-mail or online facilities might not be available for some poor factory workers living in some developing countries like sri lanka. however, they can be communicated through word of mouth method or displaying posters and notices in the places where they regularly attend (eg; lunch room, bathroom area, inside the factory, rest rooms etc.) in the organization. figure 2 depicts the above seven hrm related recommendations. 7. discussion and conclusion coronavirus disease 2019 is a newly identified infectious disease which spreads primarily through droplets of saliva or respiratory droplets discharge from the nose and it is deadly and very expensive humanly and financially (opatha., 2020). it is very much important to keep the social distance and maintain hygienic practices to clean our hands and other body parts in order to limit the viral transmission of the virus. figure-2. seven hrm related recommendations. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(2): 152-157 157 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group according to gamage (2020) sri lanka is considered as a model for the world as most of the health indicators have been improved tremendously despite the low resource setting. state intelligence service of sri lanka, sri lanka armed forces, police, public health inspectors and sri lankan health sector are doing a great job against coronavirus pandemic. coronavirus has also infected the normal business process of organizations where hrm is responsible for managing employees efficiently and effectively. hrm has to play a major role in this unprecedented situation to ensure the worker well-being and sound performance of hrm functions (eg; selection, training and development, pay management, performance evaluation etc.). therefore, it is recommended to invest more on training employees for remote working, give more consideration for worker wellbeing, introduce pay cuts instead of layoffs, conduct medical tests at the selection process, create employee resource groups, encourage sick employees to stay at home and, communicate all the necessary actions taken by the organization to employees for a successful implementation of hrm during covid-19 pandemic. references armstrong, m., & taylor, s. 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licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 3, 229-235, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.229.235 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group taxation and the growth of small and medium enterprises in nigeria inim, victor e.1 udoh, francis sylvanus2 ede, uzoma samuel3 ( corresponding author) 1department of accounting nile university of nigeria, abuja, nigeria. 2,3department of business administration nasarawa state university, keffi, nigeria. abstract this study examines the impact of taxation on the growth of small and medium enterprises (smes) in nigeria from 2007 to 2019. data was gathered from the central bank of nigeria statistical bulletin and small and medium enterprises development agency of nigeria (smedan). the study adopted the co-integration and error correction modelling as its technique of analysis. while company income tax (cit) and value added tax (vat) were found to have significant impact on the growth of smes in nigeria, custom and excise duty (cedt) was found to have insignificant impact on their growth. as expected however, the three variables, cit, vat and cedt were found to be inversely related with smes growth. the study therefore recommends among others, that for taxation to grow the smes, tax policies especially those relating to cit and vat should be properly formulated and carefully administered in such a way that such policies directly promote the growth of smes. in particular, the government should consider a downward review of the current vat rate of 7.5%. in addition to reducing tax rates for the smes, other incentives, reliefs and allowances such as loss reliefs, pioneer status, tax holidays, capital allowance etc. should be specially packaged for smes to enhance their productivity and growth. keywords: taxation, value added tax, custom, excise duty, company income tax, smes. jel classification: h20, h25, h51, o5. citation | inim, victor e.; udoh, francis sylvanus; ede, uzoma samuel (2020). taxation and the growth of small and medium enterprises in nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(3): 229-235. history: received: 12 may 2020 revised: 17 june 2020 accepted: 20 july 2020 published: 4 august 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: all authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 230 2. review of literature ...................................................................................................................................................................... 230 3. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................... 232 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................. 232 5. discussion of findings .................................................................................................................................................................. 234 6. conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................. 234 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 234 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.73.229.235&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1963 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7895-2114 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2141-8751 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8482-3113 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1963 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7895-2114 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2141-8751 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8482-3113 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1963 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7895-2114 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2141-8751 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8482-3113 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1963 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7895-2114 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2141-8751 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8482-3113 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1963 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7895-2114 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2141-8751 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8482-3113 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 229-235 230 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study has contributed immensely to the literature because unlike previous studies on this subject, the effects of the major types of taxes, both direct (company income tax) and indirect (value added tax and custom and excise duty) on the growth of the smes in nigeria have been considered and comprehensively analyzed in this paper. also, the methodology adopted is much more superior to those adopted in the previous studies. 1. introduction taxation is central to the current economic development agenda in nigeria. it provides a stable flow of revenue to finance development priorities, such as strengthening of physical infrastructures. it also plays a crucial role in over-all economic management and stabilization. fundamentally, tax policy shapes the environment in which local trade and investment take place. thus, a core challenge for nigeria is finding the optimal balance between an effective taxation that is business and investment friendly, and one, which can leverage enough revenue for public service delivery to enhance the attractiveness of the economy. taxation is an integral part of countries’ development policies, interwoven with numerous other areas, from good governance and formalizing the economy, to spurring growth and stimulating export activities. among other things, taxation: provides governments with the funding required to build the infrastructure on which economic development and growth are based; creates an environment in which business is conducted and wealth is created; shapes the way government activities are undertaken; and plays a central role in domestic resource mobilization. (nepad & oecd, 2009) the importance of smes in the economic development process of nations has necessitated a shift of emphasis by successive governments in nigeria away from large-scale, capital-intensive industrialization to small businesses. the smes are therefore seen as cardinal and veritable tools in the industrialization process of nigeria. but their existence and survival depend largely on adequate financing. ovat (2013) and afolabi (2013) had observed that the bane of smes in nigeria is financial constraint. churchill and lewis (1983) identified growth stage models; an attempt to link growth with stages of development. however, more examination is needed of sme's capability to adapt, deploy skills, focus assets, and of how such procedures lead to ultimate success. clearly, as firms and particularly smes grow, they face threats and opportunities and it is legitimate that researchers should seek to examine these influences. the problem of taxation on the growth of smes is exacerbated by a lack of reliable data for statistical analyses. the mortality rates of smes are very high, and among the factors responsible for this are tax related issues. despite the emphasis placed on taxation especially, value added tax, custom and excise duties and company income tax to grow the smes, yet, the smes are not growing as expected. it was on the above premise that the finance bill 2019 which was passed into law in nigeria in january 2020 to become the finance act, 2019, has as one of its strategic objectives; supporting of small businesses in line with the ease of doing business reforms (obayomi, 2020). the new law has amended certain tax acts and made them more responsive to the tax reform policies of the federal government and enhance their implementation and effectiveness. the tax acts which have been amended include; companies income tax, value added tax, custom and excise tariff, personal income tax, capital gains tax, stamp duties act and petroleum profit tax. some of the amendments, especially on the cit act are deliberately aimed at promoting the growth of smes. 1.1. objective of the study the general objective of this study is to examine the impact of taxation on the growth of small and medium enterprises in nigeria from 2007 to 2019. other specific objectives include: to evaluate the impact of value added tax on the growth of smes in nigeria; to examine the impact of custom and excise duty on the growth of smes in nigeria and to determine the impact of company income tax on the growth of smes in nigeria. 1.2. hypotheses based on the above objectives, the following null hypotheses are formulated and tested: h01: value added tax (vat) has no significant impact on the growth of small and medium enterprises in nigeria. h02: custom and excise duty (cedt) has no significant impact on the growth of small and medium enterprises in nigeria h03: company income tax (cit) has no significant impact on the growth of small and medium enterprises in nigeria. 1.3. scope of the study this study covers a period of 13 years, from 2007 to 2019 and the entire 72,838 smes in nigeria according to smedan & nbs (2013). this period is chosen because it covers the administration of the country by the past and present governments and as such captures their efforts at shifting attention from the country’s dependency on crude oil to that of enhancing the growth of her smes so as to create many jobs and eradicate extreme poverty that has hit the nation. 2. review of literature 2.1. concept of taxation taxation is a process through which governments all over the world raise revenue to finance her expenditures by forcing charges on their corporate entities, citizens as well as on goods and services. taxation is differentiated from other forms of payment, such as market exchanges, in that taxation does not require consent and is not directly tied to any services rendered. the three types of taxes used in this study are discussed below. 2.1.1. value added tax a value added tax (vat), also known as turnover tax, single business tax, or goods and services tax (gst) in asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 229-235 231 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group some countries, applies the equivalent of a sales tax to every operation that creates value. vat is usually applied by requiring the company to complete a vat return, giving details of vat it has been charged (referred to as input tax) and vat it has charged to others (referred to as output tax). the difference between output tax and input tax is payable to the local tax authority. ogunrinde (2013) stated that value added tax was introduced to make a remarkable shift from direct to indirect taxation in order to boost government tax revenue and minimize the country’s dependence on oil revenue. in nigeria, the vat act was amended by the finance act, 2019 to improve the efficiency of the nigerian vat system, expand vat coverage through taxation of the digital economy, vat registration threshold and intangibles. the new act raised the rate of vat from 5% to 7.5% to help government generate additional revenues to fund the budget. 2.1.2. company income tax adereti, sanni, and adesina (2011) noted that company income tax act, lfn 2007 is the current enabling law that governs the collection of taxes on profits made by companies operating in nigeria excluding companies engaged in petroleum exploration activities. he further noted that this tax is payable for each year of assessment of the profits of any company at a rate of 30%. in nigeria, the new finance act amends the provision of the companies income tax to among other things address the taxation of industries such as insurance, start-ups and the capital markets considered by the fgn as being critical to growing the nigerian economy, with a view to stimulating activities in those sectors and fostering overall economic growth. in particular, the new law provides for new rates of tax in favor of smes as follows; 1) a general exemption (subject to a minimum tax of 0.5% of the turnover of the company) from corporation tax for small companies earning lower than n25 million turnover in any tax year; 2), 20 kobo for every naira for mediumsized companies; and 3) retained the old flat rate of thirty kobo for every naira for large companies the above provisions enable a more robust incentive to all smes, instead of former provisions relating to reduced tax rates for small manufacturing companies in their first four years. it also supports government’s initiative to foster overall growth of msmes in nigeria. 2.1.3. custom and excise duty de wulf (2005) views customs and excise duty as a revenue generation mechanism on imports or on export of commodities. the customs and excise act of nigeria defines customs duty as a tax levied on imported goods and excise duty as a tax levied on certain locally manufactured products and other products that are imported under trade agreements. the rate of duty charged per product depends on the category of goods as classified according to its description. generally, an excise duty is an indirect tax imposed on goods during the process of their manufacturing, production or distribution and is usually proportionate to their quantity or value. in nigeria, the new finance act amends the provision of the custom and excise tariff (consolidation) act to create a level playing field for local manufacturers by subjecting certain imported goods to excise duties in similar manner as their locally manufactured counterparts. this is basically meant to incentivize local production. 2.2. concept of small and medium enterprises in nigeria, the national council of industry (2001) categorized smes based on three criteria: micro with employee size of 1-10 and less than n1 million capital, small with employee size of 11-35 and n1 million to less than n40 million capital, medium with employee size of 36-100 and n40 million to less than n200 million capital. the central bank of nigeria, in its 2005 guideline on small and medium enterprise investment scheme (smeis), described sme as any enterprise with a maximum asset base of 200 million naira (excluding land and working capital) with no lower or upper limit of staff (etuk, etuk, & michael, 2014). onugu (2005) states that the national council of industries in nigeria describe smes as business enterprises whose total costs; excluding land, is not more than two hundred million naira (n200, 000,000.00) only. the federal ministry of commerce and industry defines smes as firms with a total investment (excluding cost of land but including capital) of up to n750, 000, and paid employment of up to fifty (50) persons (mba & cletus, 2014). in the 1990 federal government of nigeria’s budget, small scale enterprises for the purpose of commercial loan were defined as those enterprises with annual turnover not exceeding n500,000 and for merchant loan as those with capital investment not exceeding n 2 million (excluding cost of land or a maximum of n5 million) (aremu & adeyemi, 2011). the new nigerian finance act defines a ‘small company’ as a company that earns gross turnover of n25 million or less; ‘medium-sized company’ as a company that earns gross turnover greater than n25 million but less than n100 million; and a ‘large company’ as any company which is not a small or medium-sized company. aruwa (2013) believed that nigeria’s industrial sector is dominated by smes which accounts for 90% of the number of enterprises, as compared with other developed countries where more than 98% of all their enterprises belong to sme sector. in japan, smes employ about 80% of the total industrial labor force, while in germany and usa, 50% and 46% respectively, are employed in smaller firms. 2.3. theoretical framework 2.3.1. optimal tax theory optimal taxation theory is the branch of economics that considers how taxes can be structured to give the least deadweight costs, or to give the best outcomes in terms of social welfare (simkovic, 2012). the ramsey problem deals with minimizing deadweight costs. because deadweight costs are related to the elasticity of supply and demand for a good, it follows that putting the highest tax rates on the goods for which there is most inelastic supply and demand will result in the least overall deadweight costs. 2.3.2. ability-to-pay theory this theory suggests that, taxes should be levied according to an individual’s ability to pay. it says that public asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 229-235 232 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group expenditure should come from him that hath instead of him that hath not. the principle originated from the sixteenth century. the ability-to-pay theory was, scientifically extended by the swiss philosopher jean jacques rousseau (1712-1778), the french political economist jeanbaptiste say (1767-1832) and the english economist john stuart mill (1806-1873). this is indeed the basis of ‘progressive tax,’ as the tax rate increases by the increase of the taxable amount. this principle is indeed the most equitable tax system and has been widely used in industrialized economies. the usual and most supported justification of ability to pay is on grounds of sacrifice. the payment of taxes is viewed as a deprivation to the taxpayer because he surrendered money to the government, which he would have used for his own personal use. however, there is no solid approach for the measurement of the equity of sacrifice in this theory, as it can be measured in absolute, proportional or marginal terms. thus, equal sacrifice can be measured as (i) each taxpayer surrenders the same absolute degree of utility that she/he obtains from her/his income, or (ii) each sacrifices the same proportion of utility she/he obtains from her/his income, or (iii) each gives up the same utility for the last unit of income; respectively. the theoretical framework found adequate for this study was this ability-to-pay theory. 2.4. empirical studies ojeka (2012) employed non-probability judgmental sampling method and spearman's rank correlation for hypothesis testing to examine tax policy and the growth of smes in nigeria. questionnaires were distributed to smes operators in zaria, north central, nigeria and the findings revealed that most smes surveyed were faced with the problem of complex tax regulations, high tax rates, lack of proper enlightenment or education about tax related issues, and multiple taxation. the study also found a significant negative relationship between taxes and the business' ability to sustain itself and to expand. ocheni (2015) investigated the impact analysis of tax policy and the performance of smes in the nigerian economy. descriptive survey research design was adopted. the population of the study comprised sixty-eight (68) smes currently operating in kogi state and fct, abuja. their 727 personnel comprised fifty-six (56) managers and 671 accountants. the sample for the study consisted of two hundred and fifty-eight (258) respondents, (20 managers and 238 accountants from the two states. taro yamani’s sampling technique formula was used to select the two hundred and fifty-eight (258) respondents, representing 36% of the population. out of the two hundred and fifty-eight (258) copies of the questionnaire which were printed and distributed, sixty-eight were not returned, while one hundred and ninety (190) copies or (74%) of the questionnaire were retrieved. of the 190 copies, fortysix (46) were wrongly filled giving a total of one hundred and forty-four (144) copies of valid questionnaire. descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data collected and to obtain the mean assessment for each scale item. the research hypotheses for this study were tested using z-test statistics to establish p < 0.05 significant differences. the analysis revealed that there is no significant difference in the mean opinion scores of managers and accountants on the best tax policy that encourages tax compliance by smes in nigeria. it was also revealed that there is no significant difference in the mean opinion scores of managers and accountants of the implications of tax policy on smes growth. the researcher did not use efficient statistical tools such as regression, but only percentages, graph and chart to analyze the data. also, the researcher made use of gdp as a measure of economic growth but failed to consider and specify his exact study period. furthermore, he did not explicitly state the analytical statistical package used such as spss or e-view software statistical package. these are some of the identified research gaps that this study intends to fill. the study also makes use of secondary data from 2007 to 2019 and adopts various types of taxes such as value added tax, custom and excise duty and company income tax to examine their effects on the growth of smes. 3. methodology this study adopted an econometric approach in its empirical analysis of the impact of taxation on the growth of smes in nigeria. the technique of analysis is co-integration and error correction modelling. this technique is chosen in order to determine whether there is the existence of a long run equilibrium relationship in the series. data for this study was gathered from central bank of nigeria statistical bulletin and smedan. the time frame is thirteen years period from 2007 to 2019. the population of this study comprised of all smes in nigeria, which according to smedan and national bureau of statistics is 72,838. the types of taxes used to assess the impact of taxation are; value added tax, custom and excise duty and company income tax, while the proxy used for the growth of smes is sme’s contributions to gdp. the theoretical base of the study is ability-to-pay, anchored on the john stuart mill led growth hypothesis. this hypothesis emphasized that public expenditure should come from him that hath instead of him that hath not. this taxation theory stressed that tax is a key factor affecting government infrastructures. the model which draws considerably from the literature is functionally specified as follows: (1) equation (1) is transformed into an econometric form to include the error term as follows: (2) where: gsme = smes growth, which is proxied by smes contribution to gdp; vat = value added tax; cedt = custom and excise duty; cit = company income tax; t = stochastic or error term; 0 = constant term and 1 3 = coefficients of the explanatory variables, which a priori are all expected to be < 0. 4. results and discussion 4.1. unit root test econometric studies have shown that most financial and macro-economic time series variables are nonstationary and using non-stationary variables lead to spurious regression (engle, 1987). to test for the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 229-235 233 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group stationarity, the augmented dickey-fuller (adf) unit root test technique was used to ascertain whether the four variables used in the study exhibit unit root property. the result of unit root test is presented in table 1. table-1. traditional unit root test result (trend and intercept). variables adf-statistics critical values order of integration gsme -7.790918 -4.356068* i(0) cedt -5.819927 -4.374307* i(0) vat -3.645969 -3.574244** i(1) cit -4.29157 -3.595026** i(0) note: * and **indicate significance at 1% and 5% levels respectively. from table 1, the traditional test of the adf indicates that three (3) of the variables, gsme, cedt and cit are stationary at levels. their adf test statistics of -7.790918, -5.819927 and -4.29157 are greater than their critical values of -4.356068, -4.374307 and -3.595026 at 1%, 1% and 5% levels respectively. however, vat was found stationary at first difference (that is at order i(1)) and 5 percent level. 4.2. co-integration test result having established the order of integration, we proceeded to establish whether the variables are cointegrated, or there is a long run equilibrium relationship among them using the bounds testing approach. the result of the co-integration test is presented in table 2. table-2. bounds test co-integration result. f-bounds test null hypothesis: no levels relationship test statistic value signif. i(0) i(1) f-statistic 15.28175 10% 2.20 3.09 k 3 5% 2.56 3.49 2.5% 2.88 3.87 1% 3.29 4.37 the co-integration test result shows that the f-statistic value of 15.28 is greater than the lower (i(0)) and upper bound (i(1)) critical value at the 5% significance level. thus, the null hypothesis of no long-run relationship is rejected at the 5% significance level. it can therefore be inferred that the variables are co-integrated. thus, there is a long-run co-integrating relationship between the taxation variables and smes growth. 4.3. estimation of results the ecm results and interpretation are presented as follows: table-3. error correction regression. dependent variable: log(gsme) method: ardl selected model: ardl(2, 0, 0, 0) variable coefficient std. error t-statistic prob.* log(gsme(-1)) 0.799826 0.284113 2.815173 0.0183 log(gsme(-2)) -0.678247 0.361687 -1.875230 0.0902 log(cedt) -0.420973 0.393613 -1.069510 0.3100 log(vat) -0.789116 0.028158 -2.494090 0.0260 log(cit) -0.124160 0.016731 -2.240280 0.0150 c 5.948726 3.344393 1.778716 0.1056 ecm(-1)* -0.878421 0.224090 -3.919952 0.0029 r-squared 0.853933 mean dependent var 10.23002 adjusted r-squared 0.730899 s.d. dependent var 0.662130 s.e. of regression 0.174055 akaike info criterion -0.378896 sum squared resid 0.302951 schwarz criterion -0.089176 log likelihood 9.031171 hannan-quinn criter. -0.364060 f-statistic 15.28457 durbin-watson stat 2.129213 prob(f-statistic) 0.000002 *note: p-values and any subsequent tests do not account for model selection. the ecm coefficient (-0.8784) with p-value, 0.0029 is statistically significant at 5%, and with the expected sign. it indicates that once there is disequilibrium in the system in the short-run, it takes an average (high) speed of 87.84% to adjust itself back towards long-run equilibrium level. the 2r (r-squared) value of 0.8539 indicates that all the explanatory variables were able to explain about 85.39 per cent of the variation in smes growth, implying that only 14.61 percent of the variation in smes growth is attributed to variables omitted from the equation, ceteris paribus. the f-statistics (15.28) and its probability value (0.000002) confirmed the overall significance or ‘goodness-of-fit’ of the regression equation. the durbinwatson statistic (2.13) revealed the absence of autocorrelation. the above statistics confirm the adequacy of the model and hence its reliability for predicting the effects of value added tax (vat), custom and excise duties (cedt) and company income tax (cit) on the growth of smes as follows: vat – if vat rate is decreased by 1%, the growth of smes will increase by 0.79%, and vice versa, ceteris paribus. if cedt is decreased by 1%, the growth of smes will increase by 0.42%, and vice versa, ceteris paribus. finally, if cit is decreased by 1%, the growth of smes will increase by 0.12%, and vice versa, ceteris paribus. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 229-235 234 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.4. test of hypotheses the test of hypothesis is based on the ardl-ecm regression result shown in table 3, using the t-statistic of each of the variables and their associated probability values. for each variable, we accept the null hypothesis if at 5% level of significance, the probability value which indicates the exact level of significance is greater than 5%, otherwise we reject the null and accept the alternative hypothesis 4.4.1 hypothesis one h01: value added tax (vat) has no significant impact on smes growth in nigeria. from the regression result in table 3, the t-statistic for vat is -2.49 and its probability value (0.0260) < 0.05, so we reject the first null hypothesis (h01) and accept the alternative. this implies that value added tax (vat) has significantly impacted smes growth in nigeria 4.4.2 hypothesis two h02: custom and excise duties (cedt) has no significant impact on smes growth in nigeria. from the long-run regression result in table 3, the t-statistic for cedt is -1.07 and its probability value (0.3100) > 0.05, so we accept the second null hypothesis (h02) and reject the corresponding alternative hypothesis. the conclusion here is that custom and excise duties (cedt) has no significant impact on smes growth in nigeria 4.4.3. hypothesis three h03: company income tax (cit) has no significant impact on smes growth in nigeria. from the result in table 3, the t-statistic for cit is -2.24 and its probability value (0.015) < 0.05, so we reject the third null hypotheses (h03) and accept the alternative. this implies that company income tax (cit) has a significant impact on smes growth. 5. discussion of findings from the results, we found that value added tax and company income tax have significant effects on smes growth in nigeria, while custom and excise duties had insignificant effect. the coefficients of all the variables were found to have a negative relationship with smes growth within the period under study. the implication of these finding is that a reduction in the rates of these taxes will significantly boost the growth of smes in nigeria and vice versa. accordingly, the increase in the vat rate from 5% to 7.5% by the finance act, 2019 might adversely affect the growth of smes in nigeria. the cedt was found to have an insignificant and negative effect on smes growth. the inverse relationship implies that higher custom and excise duties are detrimental to the growth of smes. the insignificant relationship observed could also imply that custom service operations and revenue generation especially in the border is not practically impacting in the economy due to non-accountability, transparency and obvious leakages in the system. finally, company income tax (cit) was found to have a negative but significant influence on smes growth in nigeria. it shows that the higher the cit rate, the lower the rate at which the smes grow. this finding agrees with the findings of ojeka (2012) who found that tax policy adversely affected the growth of smes in nigeria. however, it is hoped that the finance act, 2019 which amends the rate of cit from a flat rate of 30% on the assessable profit of all companies irrespective of size, to a complete tax exemption for small companies with gross turnover of n25 million or less; 20% (twenty kobo for every naira) for medium-sized companies with a gross turnover greater than n25 million but less than n100,000,000 and 30% (thirty kobo for every naira) for large (not small or medium-sized) companies with gross turnover of n100 million or more, would greatly enhance the performance and growth of the smes 6. conclusion and recommendations in recognition of the fact that the role of smes is very strategic with far-reaching implications on any economy, this study sets to establish the impact of taxation on the growth of smes in nigeria from 2007 to 2019. from the results, it can be inferred that taxation has stifled the growth of smes rather than promoting them. it is imperative to note that only smes operating in a conducive taxfriendly environment can remain competitive, relevant and active players within the domestic economy and in the global arena. based on the findings, the study therefore makes the following recommendations: i. tax policies especially those relating to cit and vat which have been found to be significant in the growth of smes should be properly formulated and carefully administered, in such a way that such policies directly promote the growth of smes. in particular, the government should reconsider a downward review of the current 7.5% vat rate as the study has revealed that vat is significant to the growth of smes. the reduction in the cit rate for small and medium-sized companies by the finance act, 2019 is a step in the right direction. ii. in addition to reducing tax rates for the smes, other incentives, reliefs and allowances such as loss reliefs, pioneer status, tax holidays, capital allowance etc. should be specially packaged for smes by the government to enhance their productivity and growth. iii. effective modalities should be put in place to ensure accountability, transparency, and stoppage of the leakages associated with customs service revenue generation to enable the operations of the service impact positively on the smes and the entire economy. iv. finally, government should be sensitive to the variables in the tax environment to enable the smes cope with the ever-changing dynamics of the smes environment. references adereti, s., sanni, m., & adesina, j. (2011). value added tax and economic growth of nigeria. european journal of humanities and social sciences, 10(1), 456-471. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(3): 229-235 235 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group afolabi, m. o. (2013). growth effect of small and medium enterprises (smes) financing in nigeria. journal of african macroeconomic review, 3(1), 193-205. aremu, m. a., & adeyemi, s. l. (2011). small and medium scale enterprises as a survival strategy for employment generation in nigeria. journal of sustainable development, 4(1), 200. available at: https://doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v4n1p200. aruwa. (2013). the influence of tax reforms on the prosperity of microfilms and small businesses in uzbekistan. asia-pacific journal, 16(2), 31-64. available at: https://doi.org/10.18356/311f020f-en. churchill, n. c., & lewis, l. v. (1983). the five stages of small business growth. harvard business review, 61(3), 30-50. de wulf, l. (2005). ghana in customs modernization initiatives, case studies. washington d.c: world bank. engle, r. (1987). cointegration and error-correction: representation, estimation, and testing. econometrica, 55(2), 251-276. available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/1913236. etuk, r. u., etuk, g. r., & michael, b. (2014). small and medium scale enterprises (smes) and nigeria’s economic development. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 5(7), 656-656. mba, o. a., & cletus, i. e. (2014). issues, challenges and prospects of small and medium scale enterprises (smes) in port-harcourt city, nigeria. european journal of sustainable development, 3(1), 101-114. available at: https://doi.org/10.14207/ejsd.2014.v3n1p101. national council of industry. (2001). proceedings at the 13th national council meeting on small and medium enterprises held in makurdi, benue state, nigeria. nepad & oecd. (2009). taxation for investment and development: an overview of policy challenges in africa: africa investment initiative. obayomi, w. (2020). finance act, 2019-impact analysis, february, revised edition, kpmg, 3. retrieved from: https://assets.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/ng/pdf/tax/finance-act-2019.pdf. ocheni, s. i. (2015). impact analysis of tax policy and the performance of small and medium scale enterprises in nigerian economy. strategic management quarterly, 3(1), 71-94. available at: https://doi.org/10.15640/smq.v3n1a3. ogunrinde, s. o. (2013). contentious issues in value added tax act and administration in nigeria. paper presented at the chartered institute of taxation of nigeria (citn) mptp at ibadan, nigeria, june 17. ojeka, s. (2012). tax policy and the growth of smes: implications for the nigerian economy. research journal of finance and accounting, 2(2), 1-12. onugu, b. a. n. (2005). small and medium enterprises (smes) in nigeria: problems and prospects. unpublished dissertation for a doctor of philosophy in management award, st. clements university, nigeria. ovat, o. o. (2013). liquidity constraints and entrepreneurial financing in nigeria: the fate of fresh graduate entrepreneurs. global journal of management and business research, 13(9), 35-42. simkovic, m. (2012). the knowledge tax. university of chicago law review, 82(4), 4. smedan & nbs. (2013). survey report on micro, small and medium enterprises (msmes) in nigeria. 2010 national msme collaborative survey, between national bureau of statistics (nbs) and the small and medium enterprises development agency of nigeria (smedan). asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 8 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 1, 8-14, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i1.5322 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group sme’s leadership in improving performance dorothea wahyu ariani management department, economics faculty of universitas mercu buana yogyakarta, indonesia. email: dwariani@gmail.com abstract the discussions about leadership and performance never end. successful leadership (ld) is a causal factor in good individual performance (ip). however, how it affects still requires a lot of proof. this research examined the influence of ld on ip both directly and mediated by individual internal variables. this research examined the mediating variables of the influence of ld on ip. the research was conducted on 416 employees of small and medium enterprises (smes) in yogyakarta, indonesia using a questionnaire whose validity and reliability were tested. once the data meets the requirements of the multiple linear regression test, the multiple linear regression (mlr) method was carried out to test the direct influence of ld, motivation (mt) and job satisfaction (js) on ip. structural equation modeling (sem) with a two-step approach was used to test the mediation model. increased ip is not immediately caused by ld. however, leaders can increase mt and js directly. mt consistently improves ip, but js has no effect on ip. the results of this study strengthen the results of previous research that the influence of ld on ip is mediated by mt and js. a discussion of the results of this research is presented after the presentation of the analysis of the research results. keywords: individual performance, job satisfaction, leadership, motivation. citation | ariani, d. w. (2024). sme’s leadership in improving performance. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(1), 8–14. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i1.5322 history: received: 2 november 2023 revised: 22 november 2023 accepted: 5 january 2024 published: 15 january 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the peratutran lembaga ilmu pengetahuan, indonesia has granted approval for this study. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 9 2. theoretical review and hypotheses formulation ....................................................................................................................... 9 3. methods ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 10 4. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10 5. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12 6. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 12 mailto:dwariani@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i1.5322 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2148-3833 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(1): 8-14 9 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the results of this research further confirm that leadership cannot directly improve the performance of its employees. there are several variables that can mediate this influence. this research examines employee motivation and job satisfaction as mediating variables. 1. introduction individual performance is the most important variable to achieve because it contributes to team and organizational performance (carpini, parker, & griffin, 2017). achieving this performance cannot be separated from the role of the leader, because leaders are able to motivate their employees (ng, 2017). several researchers found that leaders have a direct influence on ip (e.g., (breevaart, bakker, demerouti, & derks, 2016; buil, martínez, & matute, 2019; dastane, 2020; lópez-cabarcos, vázquezrodríguez, & quinoa-pineiro, 2022)). however, several other researchers found that the influence of ld on ip is not direct, but is mediated by several other variables (e.g., (phillips, thai, & halim, 2019; salas-vallina, simone, & fernández-guerrero, 2020)). several researchers agree that ip’s output is employee’s js, satisfaction with leaders, performance, and organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) (e.g., (abdelwahed, soomro, & shah, 2023; bakker, hetland, olsen, & espevik, 2023; banks, mccauley, gardner, & guler, 2016; laschinger, wong, & grau, 2013)). researchers also agree that js is an important factor in achieving ip (dorta-afonso, gonzález-de-la-rosa, garcia-rodriguez, & romerodomínguez, 2021; kong, jiang, chan, & zhou, 2018; nemteanu & dabija, 2021). employees who are satisfied have high ip, while those who are dissatisfied have less good ip (aung, san santoso, & dodanwala, 2023). based on social exchange theory (set), leaders who provide help and support to employees will be rewarded with their behavior being in line with the leader's preferences (gao, murphy, & anderson, 2020). appropriate leadership can motivate and satisfy employees so that their ip is better (hoch, bommer, dulebohn, & wu, 2018). apart from js, mt is a variable that is believed to have a very strong influence on ip, because mt can move employees to achieve goals. in general, employees who are not motivated will feel less satisfied with their work (azar & shafighi, 2013; pang & lu, 2018) which will affect their ip (dodanwala & santoso, 2022; yukongdi & shrestha, 2020). mt is a variable that influences employee’s js (alshmemri, shahwan-akl, & maude, 2017; ayalew et al., 2021; samson-akpan, ojong, & ndiok, 2016). leaders play a role in increasing employee motivation (asrar-ul-haq & kuchinke, 2016) to achieve targets or performance. this study analyzes how leaders influence ip through js and employee’s mt. this study was conducted on smes in yogyakarta. sme leadership is rarely researched (franco & matos, 2015) because in general the leader is the owner of the company. apart from that, sme leaders also work like other employees. smes also rarely assess leader effectiveness (nazarian, soares, & lottermoser, 2017). because the role of leaders in improving performance is very large (burawat, 2019) research on leadership still needs to be carried out. the results of this study confirm the results of previous research that the influence of ld on ip is not direct, but is mediated by other variables, namely js and mt. 2. theoretical review and hypotheses formulation in a fiercely competitive environment, performance is an important variable for organizational development and sustainability. ip is how much employees can achieve the goals or targets set (blickle & schütte, 2017). in general, performance is related to employee behavior in the workplace (abdelwahed et al., 2023). ip is a form of individual behavior. optimal ip can be achieved if there is a leader who manages them to become reliable employees (eliyana & ma’arif, 2019). ip is also an individual's ability to carry out activities so that they can contribute to organizational performance (campbell & wiernik, 2015). empirical research has proven the influence of leadership on js and ip (e.g., (aboramadan & dahleez, 2020; lai, tang, lu, lee, & lin, 2020; para-gonzález, jiménez-jiménez, & martínez-lorente, 2018; tian et al., 2020)). this is because leaders influence attitudes, namely js (gao et al., 2020) and behavior, namely performance (torlak & kuzey, 2019) of employees. the relations between employees and their leaders is the key to company success (tseng & levy, 2019). leaders generally help achieve performance by making it easier to achieve targets, encouraging employee enthusiasm for work, and increasing employee self-confidence (salas-vallina et al., 2020). leaders also direct employees about how to work and shape work culture. according to abdelwahed et al. (2023) the influence of ld on ip can be direct or mediated by other variables. some researchers found a direct influence of ld on ip (e.g., (hongdao, bibi, khan, ardito, & nurunnabi, 2019; lópezcabarcos et al., 2022; swanson, kim, lee, yang, & lee, 2020; zollo, rialti, tron, & ciappei, 2021)) while several other researchers found that there were mediating variables between the two. work engagement was found to be a variable that mediates the relationship between ld and ip (e.g., (bakker et al., 2023; tummers & bakker, 2021)). js also mediates the relationship between the two (e.g., (adiguzel, ozcinar, & karadal, 2020; braun, peus, weisweiler, & frey, 2013; salas-vallina et al., 2020)). other researchers have found mt to mediate the influence of ld on ip (e.g., (advani, 2015; alilyyani, wong, & cummings, 2018; bryan & vitello-cicciu, 2022; stollberger, las heras, rofcanin, & bosch, 2019)). furthermore, js is a work attitude or positive perception of work by comparing targets and results achieved (szabó et al., 2023). in general, js is related to and can improve ip (eliyana & ma’arif, 2019). js is also a positive feeling and expression towards work and enjoying the job (ayalew et al., 2021) so that employees feel compatible with the job (gul, usman, liu, rehman, & jebran, 2018). employees who feel satisfied with the organization and their work will perform well, but if they are not satisfied they will experience stress and have the potential to resign from the organization (chen & wang, 2019; huertas-valdivia, gallego-burín, castillo, & ruiz, 2021). meanwhile, mt is an encouragement to generate and direct behavior to achieve desired goals (ayalew et al., 2021). mt, which is the energy to try, is often associated with js (szabó et al., 2023). mt is an internal and external force related to work, while js is an individual's attitude towards work (lohela-karlsson, jensen, & björklund, 2022). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(1): 8-14 10 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group mt is an important component in improving ip (kuvaas, buch, & dysvik, 2017). employees’ mt will feel satisfaction at work (pang & lu, 2018) and conversely, employees who are dissatisfied with their work are also not motivated at work (huertas-valdivia et al., 2021). based on set, satisfied and motivated employees will provide the best for the organization (dorta-afonso, romero-domínguez, & benítez-núñez, 2023). based on set, leaders and followers develop a relationship where if one party gets something, the other party responds (gooty & yammarino, 2016). according to set, a relationship of mutual trust between leaders and followers can produce positive attitudes and behavior in the workplace (khan, ismail, hussain, & alghazali, 2020). leaders play an important role in generating motivation (deci, olafsen, & ryan, 2017) and increasing employee js (mayfield, mayfield, & neck, 2021). several researchers found that motivation also acts as a mediating variable in the influence of leaders on ip (e.g., (khan et al., 2020; megheirkouni, amaugo, & jallo, 2018; rehman, bhatti, & chaudhry, 2019)). proposed hypothesis are: h1: leadership positively influences performance. h2: motivation positively influences performance. h3: job satisfaction positively influences performance. 3. methods 3.1. samples and procedures this research was conducted at smes in yogyakarta, indonesia with employees as the research sample. this research uses google form to collect data from respondents. the questionnaire was distributed over 4 months (january to april 2023) and 416 data were collected. the collected data is used to carry out validity and reliability tests, classical assumption tests, and mediation test of relationship models. validity test uses factor analysis with factor loading of more than 0.50 and kaiser meyer olkin measure of sampling (kmo) above 0.60 (tabachnick & fidell, 1996). validity test using cronbach alpha using the criteria of zikmund, babin, carr, and griffin (2010) namely 0.80 < α < 0.95 is very good reliability, 0.70 < α < 0.80 is good reliability, 0.60 < α < 0.70 is fair reliability, and α below 0.60 is poor reliability. multiple linear regression testing requires passing normality, heteroscedasticity and multicollinearity tests. model mediation testing was carried out using sem with a two-step approach (byrne, 2010). 3.2. measurements this research used a quantitative approach with survey techniques using questionnaires. the questionnaire was taken from previous research, namely romawati, supriadi, and setyadi (2022). this research uses 6 valid and reliable ip items (factor loading 0.654 to 0.830, kmo 0.674, and α = 0.867, for example, i am able to complete work according to target), 4 valid and reliable ld items (factor loading 0.806 to 0.913, kmo 0.827, and α = 0.891, for example, my leader always provides solutions), 5 valid and reliable mt items (loading factor 0.743 to 0.851, kmo 0.786, and α = 0.881, for example, i have responsibility), and 6 js items which is valid and reliable (loading factor 0.755 to 0.824, kmo 0.794, and α = 0.865, for example, i am satisfied with the opportunities given). 4. results 4.1. preliminary analysis before testing the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable and testing the mediation model of the relationship, a correlation test and classical assumption test were carried out on the data used in this research. the results of the correlation test between the variables studied are presented in table 1. table 1. correlations, mean, composite reliability. variables ld mt js pf leadership (ld) 1.000 motivation (mt) 0.242** 1.000 job satisfaction (js) 0.708** 0.582** 1.000 performance (pf) 0.292** 0.764** 0.648** 1.000 mean 3.7692 3.9192 3.5849 3.8205 standard deviation 0.6999 0.5728 0.5972 0.5742 composite reliability 0.9460 0.8930 0.9540 0.9370 note: ** significant at p ≤ 0.01 level. table 1 shows that the correlation between variables is significantly positive. ip is quite strongly correlated with motivation and js. js is also quite strongly positively correlated with ld and mt. meanwhile, although weak, the correlation between ld and mt and between ld and ip is also significantly positive. the average of ld, mt and ip is high, while the average of js is moderate. next, a classical assumption test was carried out which included normality, heteroscedasticity and multicollinearity tests. the multicollinearity test results found that the three independent variables did not have multicollinearity because the variance inflation factor (vif) value was below 10 (vif leadership = 0.219, vif motivation = 1.657, vif job satisfaction = 3.127). the results of the data normality test found that the data was normally distributed. meanwhile, the results of the heteroscedasticity test show that the data is quite widely spread and does not form a particular pattern. the results of normality and heteroscedasticity tests are presented in figure 1. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(1): 8-14 11 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 1. normality and heteroscedasticity test results of all variables. 4.2. multiple linear regression analysis multiple linear regression is used to test the direct influence of independent variables on the dependent variable. the test results are as follows: table 2. test results of the direct effect. anovab model sum of sq. df mean sq. f sig. 1 regr. 107.084 3 35.695 494.561 0.000a resid. 29.736 412 0.072 total 136.821 415 table 2 shows the direct influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable. jd, mt, and js simultaneously influence ip. furthermore, table 2 needs to be completed with a coefficient of determination to determine the percentage influence of the three independent variables on ip. the magnitude of the influence of all independent variables on the dependent variable is shown in the coefficient of determination value, namely the adjusted r-square value. table 3. coefficient of determination. model summaryb model r r sq. adj. r sq. std. err. of est. change statistics r sq.ch. f ch. df1 df2 sig. f ch. 1 0.885a 0.783 0.781 0.26865 0.783 494.561 3 412 0.000 note: a. predictors: (constant), js, mt, ld. b. dependent variable: pf. table 3 shows that the influence of ld, mt and js on ip is quite large, namely 78.1%. this means that there are still other variables that influence performance but are not too big, namely 22.9% and were not examined in this research. next, the influence of each independent variable on performance is presented in table 4. table 4. effect of independent variables on dependent variables. coefficientsa model unstd. coeffs. std. coeffs. t sig. coll. stats. b std. error beta tolrnc. vif 1 (constant) 0.274 0.104 2.621 0.009 ld -0.074 0.028 -0.091 -2.664 0.008 0.455 2.197 mt 0.715 0.030 0.713 24.124 0.000 0.604 1.657 js 0.286 0.039 0.297 7.323 0.000 0.320 3.127 note: a. dependent variable: pf. table 4 shows that all independent variables (ld, mt, js) have an effect on the dependent variable (ip). mt and js have a positive effect on ip (h2 and h3 are supported), while the effect of ld on ip is significantly negative but the effect is very weak (h1 is not supported). furthermore, because the influence of ld on ip is negative and very weak, it is necessary to test the mediation model using sem with a two-step approach. 4.3. mediation model test results the results of multiple linear regression testing found that the effect of ld on ip was negative and weak. therefore, it is necessary to test the mediation model. based on previous research results, the influence of ld on ip is not direct, but is mediated by mt (e.g., (advani, 2015; basford, offermann, & wirtz, 2012; stollberger et al., 2019)) and js (e.g., (adiguzel et al., 2020; braun et al., 2013; eliyana & ma’arif, 2019)). the results of testing the mediation model are presented in table 5. note: a. predictors: (constant), js, mt, ld. b. dependent variable: pf. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(1): 8-14 12 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 5. mediation model test results. influence of independent variable on dependent variable β critical ratio leadership → motivation 0.257* 4.614 leadership → job satisfaction 0.685* 20.953 job satisfaction → performance 0.049 1.203 motivation → performance 0.918* 22.590 motivation → job satisfaction 0.463* 14.423 c min = 13.152 df = 1 p = 1 cmin/df = 13.152 gfi = 0.984 agfi = 0.939 cfi = 0.989 nfi = 0.989 ifi = 0.990 tli = 0.937 note: * significant at α ≤ 0.05 level. gfi: goodness of fit index. agfi: adjusted goodness of fit index. cfi: comparative fit index. nfi: normed fit index. ifi: incremental fit index. tli: tucker lewis index. table 5 shows that the influence of ld on ip is fully mediated by mt, while the influence is partially mediated by js. this relationship model has been modified according to theory and data. this is indicated by a tli value of more than 0.90, a cfi and agfi value of more than 0.95. in addition, the model also found that mt influences js. 5. discussion this research reexamines the influence of ld on ip and strengthens the results of previous research that ld does not have a direct effect on increasing ip. ld, mt, js and ip are interrelated variables, so the correlation between variables is high and significantly positive. however, the correlation between ld and mt and the correlation between ld and ip are low. the average mt, js and ip of smes employees are relatively high. employees also rate their leaders as good and quite transformational. this research supports the results of previous research that ld is related to ip (e.g., (buil et al., 2019; hongdao et al., 2019; lópez-cabarcos et al., 2022)). the role of leaders in motivating employees is also shown by the leader's influence on mt being significantly positive. this supports the results of previous research (e.g., (bakker et al., 2023; bilginoglu & yozgat, 2018; hoch et al., 2018; ng, 2017)). leaders are able to encourage and align the behavior of their followers to achieve organizational goals. this research also strengthens the results of previous research that ld is related to and can increase employee’s js (e.g., (adiguzel et al., 2020; banks et al., 2016; qalati, zafar, fan, limón, & khaskheli, 2022)). ld can indeed improve employee attitudes and behavior in an organization. furthermore, this research found a fairly strong relationship between mt and js. this is consistent with the research results of szabó et al. (2023). this research also found the influence of mt on js which is consistent with the results of previous research (e.g., (alshmemri et al., 2017; aung et al., 2023; pang & lu, 2018; samson-akpan et al., 2016)). mt is a force that is able to move individuals to work and achieve targets, while js is an employee's attitude towards what they do (lohela-karlsson et al., 2022). however, this research does not support the results of previous research which found that js can improve ip (e.g., (dorta-afonso et al., 2021; kloutsiniotis & mihail, 2020; kong et al., 2018)). the results of this study found that although js is quite strongly and significantly positively correlated, js has no effect on ip. ld studies from the follower's perspective have been widely conducted in asia (asrar-ul-haq & kuchinke, 2016; riaz et al., 2017). however, the research results are still inconsistent and give rise to debate. ld’s outcomes are attitudes, behavior, and effectiveness. mt and js are employee work attitudes, while ip is individual effectiveness and behavior in the workplace. there are still many ld’s outcomes that require research because the results are not consistent. 6. conclusion leaders play a very important role in generating mt and increasing employee’s js, which ultimately can improve ip. employees are satisfied when they are motivated. human resource management (hrm) practices need to be prioritized in organizations in order to motivate and improve ip. hrm is the most valuable resource and cannot be replaced by any other resource. this research contributes to leadership development in smes so that its effectiveness is always evaluated because it impacts mt, js and ip. some of the weaknesses of this research are the use of self-assessment which can increase the beta value and the use of cross-section data to test the mediation model. future research is expected to use otherratings in assessing ip and longitudinal data to test the mediation model. in addition, more research samples can represent the population more optimally. references abdelwahed, n. a. a., soomro, b. a., & shah, n. 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(2021). entrepreneurial passion, orientation and behavior: the moderating role of linear and nonlinear thinking styles. management decision, 59(5), 973-994. https://doi.org/10.1108/md-10-2019-1500 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020934 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.11.006 https://doi.org/10.1177/2329488417731861 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijpl-06-2018-0029 https://doi.org/10.1108/lodj-05-2016-0119 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073670 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.11.008 https://doi.org/10.1108/mabr-03-2018-0007 https://doi.org/10.1108/er-10-2016-0190 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajsl.2019.03.005 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11374 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40497-019-0159-1 https://doi.org/10.36349/easjebm.2022.v05i08.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.10.044 https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajns.20160501.13 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.02.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2019.11.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112098 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00314 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijppm-05-2018-0182 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2018.10.001 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.722080 https://doi.org/10.1108/md-10-2019-1500 59 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 3, 59-68, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5798 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group uptake of health insurance by the informal sector workers at kenyatta market, kibra sub-county, nairobi county, kenya mary okumu1 luketero s. wanyonyi1 kikete d. wabuya1 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3university of nairobi, kenya. 1email: mariaokumu@gmail.com 2email: sluketero@uonbi.ac.ke 3email: kiketedn@googlemail.com abstract the uptake rate of health insurance in many countries is quite low, particularly in africa and east asia. in kenya, the national health insurance has been lowly taken up by employees involved in the informal economy, this has been credited to a host of factors. this paper assessed the influence of education level, income level, marital status, and religious affiliations on the rate at which the national health insurance is taken up by informal sector employees in kenyatta market. the theories of maslow hierarchy of needs and planned behaviour were anchors for the study. descriptive research design was used. a sample of 241 respondents was chosen from the different strata identified based on a simple random sampling technique. instruments validity was checked by experts in the field while cronbach alpha coefficient was used in checking reliability. the findings show that only 64.4% of the sampled respondents had enrolled in nhif scheme despite government policy that every kenyan 18 years and above must enroll for nhif. in addition, based on the binary logistic regression, it was found that education and income were positive significant predictors of nhif uptake, religious affiliations have a negative influence on uptake of nhif, and marital status was not a significant predictor of uptake of nhif. the study findings will be significant to researchers in the area of project management in particular health projects financing. keywords: education level, health insurance uptake, income level, informal sector, marital status and religious affiliations. citation | okumu, m., wanyonyi, l. s., & wabuya, k. d. (2024). uptake of health insurance by the informal sector workers at kenyatta market, kibra sub-county, nairobi county, kenya. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(3), 59–68. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5798 history: received: 21 november 2023 revised: 26 april 2024 accepted: 23 may 2024 published: 8 july 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the ministry of science and technology, kenya has granted approval for this study on 29 november 2023 (ref. no. nacosti/p/22/22284). transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 60 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 60 3. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................... 62 4. data analysis, presentation, and interpretation of findings ................................................................................................. 63 5. discussion of findings .................................................................................................................................................................... 66 6. conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................... 67 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 67 mailto:mariaokumu@gmail.com mailto:sluketero@uonbi.ac.ke mailto:kiketedn@googlemail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5798 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2142-4588 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0690-9891 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 59-68 60 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the paper contributes to knowledge by showing the existence of a significant relationship between level of education, level of income, religious affiliation, and nhif uptake, but marital status had no significant association with nhif uptake. 1. introduction the uptake of healthcare insurance in usa in 2020 stood at those having private healthcare insurance were 66.5 percent and 34.8 percent were dependent on healthcare insurance offered by the government, while those who had not taken up any insurance were 8.6 percent (keisler-starkey & bunch, 2020). germany uses a multi-player healthcare system that integrates a subsidized health care system available for the low-income citizens as well as a private system that takes care of the healthcare needs of the higher income citizens (unger & de paepe, 2019). in asia, laksono, rukmini, tumaji, ipa, and wulandari (2022) carried out research with a view of determining the antecedents to health care insurance subscription, and established that employment status had the highest influence on enrolment while age had the least influence. several countries in the african continent such as tanzania, ghana, senegal, rwanda, nigeria, and kenya finance their healthcare in remote parts of the country by mobilizing the members of the community to subscribe to a community-based or social insurance scheme which mobilize resources from public and the private sector (adebayo et al., 2015). the most common factors that have been posited to influence an individual’s choice of whether to take or not to take a health insurance policy include; sociocultural factors such as age, religion, culture, and household size, (fenny, kusi, arhinful, & asante, 2016). in nigeria, ogundeji, akomolafe, ohiri, and butawa (2019) found that the out-of-pocket payment (oop) account to almost 70% of health expenditure financing, which is greater than the recommended maximum level of 30%. in kenya, despite the efforts made by the government in making sure that universal health coverage is attained by the year 2030 through encouraging all citizens above the age of eighteen (18) years to voluntarily enroll as members in the national health insurance fund, there is still some reluctance by self-employed individuals to do so. this study aimed at examining the influence of hypothesized determinants of health insurance uptake on the decision to enrolment in the national health insurance fund, which is a state health insurance scheme, among the informal sector workers domiciled at kenyatta market, kibra sub-county. 1.1. statement of the problem to achieve universal health coverage (uhc), the kenya government has been pushing for maximum enrolment into the national health insurance fund by all adults. however, this has not been fully complied with, especially in the informal sector where contribution is voluntary. in kenya, close to 83% of the country’s workforce are employed in the informal sector, out of which youth make up 60% while women are 50% (murunga, muriithi, & wawire, 2021). despite the high number of employees in the informal sector, a paltry 39% are covered by nhif (muketha, 2016). notwithstanding the inadequate contribution to the nhif scheme, the informal sector members consume 33% of the benefits paid out (okungu, chuma, mulupi, & mcintyre, 2018). according to the knbs (2019) census report, the population of kibra sub-county was 181,509 with 102,688 being above the age of 18 years. out of these, 74, 411 which represents 72.5% of the adult population are employed in the informal sector. in general, 21.3% of the residents of kibra have enrolled in a health insurance scheme (wanjiku ng’ang’a & odhiambo, 2023) this includes employees working in both the informal and formal economy sectors. a health survey conducted in 2021 by the department of health services of the nairobi county government showed that only 13.6% of the informal sector employees had enrolled in the nhif scheme (www.nairobi.go.ke). in kibra sub-county the report specifically indicated that a paltry 4.7% of the informal sector employees had enrolled in the nhif scheme. this study sought to assess the influence of religious affiliation, education level, marital status, and level of income, on the uptake of the national health insurance fund (nhif) in kenyatta market, kibra sub-county, kenya. 1.2. objectives of the study i. to assess the influence of level of education on the uptake of national health insurance in kenyatta market, kibra sub-county, kenya. ii. to assess the influence of level of income on the uptake of national health insurance in kenyatta market, kibra sub-county, kenya. iii. to examine the influence of religious affiliation on the uptake of national health insurance in kenyatta market, kibra sub-county, kenya. iv. to assess the influence of marital status on the uptake of national health insurance in kenyatta market, kibra sub-county, kenya. 2. literature review 2.1. uptake of health insurance according to kuwawenaruwa, makawia, binyaruka, and manzi (2022) and maurya and mintrom (2020) the best bet to attainment of universal health coverage (uhc) which guarantees improvement in healthcare utilization and financial protection is by use of health insurance. universal health coverage grew out of the need for quality improvement in health services in addition to making it easily accessible (ji & chen, 2016). the uptake of health insurance in countries that are considered to have low-and-middle income (lmics) is generally low with low-income countries having an average uptake of 7.9%, middle-income countries in the lower level having an average uptake of 27.3%, and lastly, middle-income countries in the upper level having an uptake average of 52.5% (hooley, afriyie, fink, & tediosi, 2022). israel has 95% coverage by the national health insurance which is obligatory for all except foreigners, army, and prison service officers who are supposed to take up private insurance (tikkanen, osborn, mossialos, djordjevic, & wharton, 2020). a study done by barasa, kazungu, nguhiu, and ravishankar (2021) to examine the level of take up of health insurance across various sub-sahara africa countries painted a bleak picture of a paltry 10% or less of the adult populace had taken up health insurance. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 59-68 61 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group with limited income majority of the informal workers do not usually take up health insurance, they opt for outof-pocket payment which put them at risk when they need health services but do not have money. this sought to add onto the research by establishing the influence of selected hypothesized determinants on the rate at which national health insurance fund scheme is being taken up by informal sector employees in kenyatta market in kibra sub-county. 2.2. level of education and uptake of health insurance the highest education level attained by an individual has been found to be key in decision making. ngetich, aruasa, too, and newa (2021) conducted a study at a referral hospital in eldoret town, kenya to try and establish the antecedents to enrolment to a health insurance scheme by the patients visiting the moi teaching and referral hospital, and they established that education positively influenced the decision made by an individual on whether to or not to take up a health insurance policy. in ghana, seddoh and sataru (2018) carried out a household survey and found that education was positively correlated with nhis enrolment. dror (2020) conducted descriptive research in lmics and established that the registration into the national/community/social-based health insurance was positively associated with education level of the household head, they conceptualized education level in terms of the years of education. another study was carried out by nguru, kodhiambo, and yitambe (2018) in embu town among patients attending private and public health facilities and found that acceptance of health insurance was greatest amongst the research respondents who had attained university/college education and least among the respondents with no education. a similar study was conducted by sundays, ngaira, and mutai (2015) among workers involved in the informal sector of kakamega town in kakamega county and found that education level was significantly linked with subscription to the nhif scheme. 2.3. level of income and uptake of national health insurance mukhwana, ngaira, and mutai (2015) did a study in kakamega among the employees in the informal sector and found that individuals in the informal segment who had superior income monthly (more kshs. 10,000) had a higher likelihood of registering in a health insurance scheme and in particular nhif as compared to those with a lower income. basaza et al. (2019) conducted a survey among taxi drivers in kampala to ascertain the influence of income on their eagerness to subscribe to a community health insurance (chi) and concluded that respondents who were wealthy, in particular those belonging to the fourth and fifth quantiles, were more ready to pay for chi as compared to those who were not wealthy. muiya (2017) using a randomly selected sample of four hundred and fifty-six respondents gotten from the nairobi and machakos counties informal areas carried out research to determine the antecedents to social-based health insurance enrolment and established that the income level of a household determines the choice of whether not to join or to join a health insurance scheme. similarly, negera and abdisa (2022) in their study on the factors linked with eagerness to subscribe to community-based health insurance by payment of monthly premiums found that among the 400 sampled respondents located in the south west shoa zone of ethiopia, the greatest impediment to enrolment was low household income followed by high premiums. nurhasana et al. (2022) studied the association between financial hardship and health insurance enrolment in the rural areas of indonesia and established the presence of a direct correspondence between the two variables. njogu (2019) analysed the link that subsists between income and uptake of health insurance in nyeri county using the probit model and established that income positively influenced subscription to a health insurance scheme. to determine the connection between household income and registration to a health insurance plan, kagaigai, anaeli, mori, and grepperud (2021) carried out a study of cross-sectional nature in dodoma region that involved 722 households. income was found to be statistically significant but having a very low influence on enrolment, this was based on the strength of association (odds ratio). iyalomhe, adekola, and cirella (2021) also found a significant positive link exists between keenness to pay for health insurance that is community-based and the income level of an individual among dwellers of awka slums, nigeria. 2.4. marital status and uptake of national health insurance mukhwana et al. (2015) found that among the informal sector employees in kakamega county. people who are married and have families were more likely to join the nhif scheme followed by single individuals, widowed, and divorced respectively. in ghana, a study by badu, agyei-baffour, ofori acheampong, preprah opoku, and addaidonkor (2018) applying a cross-sectional methodology to ascertain the effect of sociodemographic factors on the utilization and the rate of take up of health insurance established that marital status influence the choice of whether to register or not to register in a health insurance scheme. njogu (2019) did research whose objective was to establish the link that exists between the status of marriage of an individual and enrolment into a health insurance scheme in nyeri county, and established that a change in marital status from single to married or divorced to married led to a 0.02% increase in the likelihood of an individual procuring a health insurance. marriage has generally been shown to increase enrolment in a health insurance scheme (ying, wang, bai, & li, 2020). owusu-sekyere and chiaraah (2014) looked at how marital status among ghanaians influenced their registration into a health insurance programme, and the findings indicated that the status of marriage of an individual was a strong indicator for enrolment. kong (2010) also studied the nexus between subscription into a health insurance and marital status in usa, found that married adults had a higher chance of registering in a health insurance scheme as compared to the widowed, divorced, and single adults. maina, kithuka, and tororei (2016) did research in kenya to establish the nexus between health insurance subscription and marital status of women, and found that married women had higher chances of enrolling in a health insurance scheme in comparison to those not in marriage. in bungoma, masengeli, mwaura-tenambergen, mutai, and simiyu (2017) established that married respondents were 10 times more probable to take up a health insurance plan in comparison to unmarried respondents. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 59-68 62 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.5. religious affiliation and uptake of national health insurance with regard to uptake of a health insurance scheme, badu et al. (2018) conducted a comprehensive study in ghana and found that in central and eastern ghana, affiliation of a household with a certain religious outfit, whether islam, christianity, or traditional increased the chances of that household enrolling in a health insurance scheme. in nepal, bhusal and sapkota (2021) found that respondents who were hindus had higher chances of registering in a health insurance scheme in comparison to the ones who were not hindus. similarly, hassan, mwaura-tenambergen, and eunice (2017) conducted a study in nairobi county, kenya, and established that shariah teachings and religious beliefs were the main reason as to why a good proportion of the sampled respondents did not choose to register in a healthcare insurance scheme of any kind. musonda and chowa (2022) did a study in kalumbili mining community in zambia and established religion combined with culture had no influence on uptake of life insurance. ewulum et al. (2022) established that among the formal sector employees, one of the significant and common barriers to health insurance uptake was found to be the religious belief of the respondent. in contrast to the findings of the study done by ewulum et al. (2022) and nguru et al. (2018) [2827 in her master thesis established that religion did not in any way influence registration of the respondents into a health insurance scheme. gitau and sile (2016) using a sample of 100 respondents selected randomly from a population of 160 in the nairobi central business established that religion significantly influenced the rate of health insurance uptake among the sample respondents. ng’ang’a (2021) while using the probit model with uptake of health insurance being taken as the response variable and religion being one of the six independent variables established that religion was significant influencer of the rate of enrolment into nhif in kibera, nairobi among the low-income populations. 2.6. theoretical framework this study was anchored upon the theories of maslow’s hierarchy of needs, theory of reasoned action (tra) and theory of planned behavior (tpb). maslow’s theory underpins the fact that the seeking behaviour for health insurance being a safety need is motivated by attainment of physiological needs, which in this case are food, water, clean air, and shelter. the tra refers to behaviors which are voluntary because they involve conscious decision on the part of an individual, (hale, householder, & greene, 2003). they argue that an individual may fail to perform behaviour because of insufficient skills, lack of opportunity, and lack of support from others but not because of voluntary decisions. the theory of planned behaviour states that the actual execution of a behaviour is proportional to the magnitude of domination that the person has over the given behaviour and the strength of his intention towards performing that particular behaviour (ajzen, 2011). the tpb comprises of three components that direct the intention of a person performing a certain behaviour and they include, subjective norm, attitude, and perceived behavioral control (orbell, hodgkins, & sheeran, 1997). randall and wolff (1994) reviewed fishbein and ajzen theory and established that the behaviour type that an individual adapts is usually linked to the strength of the connection that exists between the behaviour and intentions. according to ajzen (2011) the behaviour of an individual is normally guided by the beliefs they have of the likely repercussions of his/her behaviour and the assessments of the repercussions. 2.7. conceptual framework a conceptual framework is given that shows the hypothesized relationship among the variables in the research. the independent variables; level of education, level of income, marital status, and religious affiliations, are assumed to influence the uptake of the national health insurance fund (nhif). independent variables dependent variable 3. research methodology 3.1. research design this study utilized a descriptive research design because it enabled the study to compute a correlation coefficient that was used to determine how strong the relationship between two variables is and also the direction of relationship if it exists (huntington-klein, 2021). 3.2. sample size and sampling procedure the target population for the research study was 608 members of kenyatta market located in kibra sub – county, nairobi county, kenya, and who are registered by the county government of nairobi. table 1. target population. business number of members food vendors 132 retail and wholesale shops 191 saloons and kinyozi 221 motor vehicle mechanics 64 total 608 source: https://nairobi.go.ke/downloads/. level of education level of income marital status religious affiliations nhif uptake https://nairobi.go.ke/downloads/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 59-68 63 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 1 presents the target population of a research study focused on members of the kenyatta market located in kibra sub-county, nairobi county, kenya. these individuals are registered by the county government of nairobi. the total target population is 608 members, distributed across various business sectors. a sample of 241 individuals from a population of 608 was used as determined by using the formula due to yamane (1967). this sample of 241 was distributed proportionately as shown in table 2. table 2. sample size. business number of members food vendors 52 retail and wholesale shops 76 saloons and kinyozi 88 motor vehicle mechanics 25 total 241 this study adopted simple random sampling technique to select study respondents in each stratum, where the stratum represents the different informal businesses that are involved in economic activities in kenyatta market. 3.3. research instruments the instrument utilized in the collection of data was semi-structured questionnaires. the semi-structured questionnaires were used for gathering of both quantitative and qualitative data of primary nature. 3.4. pilot testing of the research instruments the research instruments were piloted in toi market located in kibra sub-county with a sample of 24 respondents, which represents 10% of the study sample. 3.5. validity of the research instruments the delphi method was used in measuring content validity where the expert looked at the content of the research instruments individually, then compared their rating before making a final decision on the constructs and advised on their appropriateness in achieving the desired research objectives. 3.6. reliability of the research instruments stability reliability also known as test – retest reliability was checked by administering the research instrument (semi – structured questionnaire) a sample from the study population twice within a period of seven days, then a correlation coefficient was generated based on the pearson’s product moment correlation technique. 3.7. data collection procedure the questionnaires were self-administered and collected by the researcher; and this enhanced the response rate of the questionnaires. 3.8. data analysis technique quantitative data was analyzed for descriptive statistics as well as for inferential statistics, where a logistic regression technique of binary nature was applied to help determine the input and significance of each of the independent variables. qualitative data that was collected from the open – ended questions was thematically analyzed and the findings corroborated with those of the quantitative data analysis for presentation. 4. data analysis, presentation, and interpretation of findings 4.1. questionnaire response rate a total of 241 semi-structured questionnaires were issued by the researcher to the research participants. out of which, 216 (89.6%) were duly filled and useable for research. 4.2. gender of the respondents the results indicated in table 3 shows that 58.8% of the sampled research respondents belonged to the female gender while the remaining 41.2% indicated that they belonged to the male gender. table 3. gender of respondents. gender frequency percent female 127 58.8 male 89 41.2 total 216 100.0 4.3. age of respondents the results of the age analysis is as shown in table 4. cumulatively, it was found that 77.3% of the research respondents were mature adults aged over 30 years. table 4. age of respondents. age (years) frequency percent 18 30 49 22.7 31 40 107 49.5 over 40 60 27.8 total 216 100.0 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 59-68 64 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.4. nature of business summary of nature of business undertaken by respondents is shown in table 5. table 5. nature of business. nature of business frequency percent food vendors 33 15.3 retail and wholesale shops 52 24.1 saloon and kinyozi 113 52.3 motor vehicle and motor bike mechanics 18 8.3 total 216 100.0 4.5. duration of business operation table 6 results indicate the period which vendors have been operating the businesses. table 6. duration in business. duration (years) frequency percent under 1 102 47.2 1 less than 3 61 28.2 3 less than 5 33 15.3 over 5 20 9.3 total 216 100.0 4.6. enrolment in national health insurance fund (nhif) table 7 results show that majority of the sampled respondents 139 (64.4%) had enrolled in nhif while the remaining 77 (35.6%) had not enrolled into nhif. table 7. enrolment in nhif. response number percent yes 139 64.4 no 77 35.6 total 216 100.0 4.7. level of education and uptake of national health insurance fund (nhif) the first objective of the study was to assess the influence of education level on enrolment into a health insurance scheme, in particular, the uptake of national health insurance fund (nhif). this was done in two parts, first establishing the extent of influence of level of education, on uptake of nhif, and results are as shown in table 8. table 8. extent of influence of level of education on the uptake of national health insurance fund (nhif). extent frequency percent not at all 3 1.4 little extent 19 8.8 moderate extent 33 15.3 great extent 157 72.7 very great extent 4 1.8 total 216 100.0 secondly, the study aimed at assessing the influence of constructs of level of education on uptake of national health insurance fund and findings are as shown in table 9. table 9. level of education indicators. no statement mean std. dev. 1 i have never attended school 1.04 0.13 2 i dropped out of primary school 1.98 0.79 3 i finished primary level education 2.91 0.87 4 i dropped out of secondary school 3.14 0.89 5 i finished secondary school 4.29 0.33 6 i have never attained any post-secondary education 3.99 1.17 7 i have post-secondary school training 2.06 0.24 8 composite 2.77 0.87 4.8. level of income and uptake of national health insurance fund (nhif) the study aimed at assessing the role that the income level of an individual plays in their decision to take up health insurance, in particular, the national health insurance fund (nhif). this was done in two parts, first establishing the extent of influence and next establishing the influence of constructs of level of income. results are as shown it tables 10 and 11. table 10. extent of influence of level of income on uptake of national health insurance fund (nhif). extent frequency percent not at all 2 0.9 little extent 11 5.1 moderate extent 16 7.4 great extent 169 78.2 very great extent 18 8.3 total 216 100.0 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 59-68 65 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 11. level of income indicators. no statement mean std. dev. 1 i earn less than kshs. 10,000 a month 3.67 0.30 2 i earn between kshs. 10,000 – kshs. 20,000 a month 3.71 0.18 3 i earn between kshs. 20,000 – kshs. 30,000 a month 2.79 0.86 4 i earn more than kshs. 30,000 a month 2.64 0.71 5 combined 3.20 0.53 4.9. marital status and uptake of national health insurance fund (nhif) the third research objective was assessment of the influence of marital status on the uptake of the national health insurance fund (nhif). this was done in two parts, first establishing the extent of influence and next establishing the influence of constructs of marital status as shown in table 12. table 12. extent of influence of marital status on the uptake of national health insurance fund (nhif). extent frequency percent not at all 39 18.1 little extent 48 22.2 moderate extent 41 19.0 great extent 53 24.5 very great extent 35 16.2 total 216 100.0 the study assessed the influence of constructs of marital status on the uptake of the national health insurance fund (nhif) whose summary is in table 13. it is generally concluded that marital status has some influence on the uptake of the national health insurance fund (nhif). this is in line with studies done by other researchers such as reshmi et al. (2021), kituku and amata (2016) and dror (2020) who all concluded that marital status influences uptake of health insurance. dror (2020) based on the relative importance index (rii) found that married individuals had the highest likelihood of taking up health insurance in comparison to the other classes of marriage, while single individuals had the least chance of taking up health insurance. table 13. marital status aspects. no statement mean std. dev. 1 i am married 3.87 0.61 2 i am single 2.39 0.65 3 i am divorced 2.88 0.38 4 i am widowed 2.24 0.42 5 composite 2.85 0.74 4.10. religious affiliation and uptake of national health insurance fund (nhif) the research aimed to first establish the extent to which religious affiliation influences the uptake of national health insurance fund (nhif). this was achieved by asking respondents to indicate the extent to which they believed an individual’s education level influences their intention to take the national health insurance fund. the findings are presented in table 14. table 14. extent of influence of religious affiliation on the uptake of national health insurance fund (nhif). extent frequency percent not at all 10 4.7 little extent 23 10.5 moderate extent 17 7.9 great extent 122 56.5 very great extent 44 20.4 total 216 100.0 the study was also to assess the influence of constructs of religious affiliation on uptake of national health insurance fund. statements measuring religious affiliation of an individual were constructed and measured on a likert scale. the respondents were required to respond to the statements by ticking just a single box. the results are shown in table 15. table 15. religious affiliation indicators. no statement mean std. dev. 1 i am a christian 4.04 0.11 2 i am a muslim 2.98 0.29 3 i am a hindu 2.73 0.52 4 i am a traditionalist 1.42 0.16 5 i do not subscribe to any religion 2.14 0.62 6 composite 2.66 0.38 4.11. inferential statistics the study employed a binary logistic regression technique since the dependent variable was of a binomial nature, where the respondents were either enrolled or not enrolled in the national health insurance fund (nhif), while the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 59-68 66 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group independent variables were; level of education, level of income, marital status, and religious affiliation. the results of the analysis are presented in table 16. table 16. omnibus tests of model coefficients. chi-square df sig. step 1 step 63.127 4 0.000 block 63.127 4 0.000 model 63.127 4 0.000 the results in table 16 show that the model is a good fit since the p-values are less that 0.05. the model summary gives a description of the percentage of variability/changes in the response variable (uptake of health insurance) that can be attributed to the predictor variables (religious affiliation, education level, marital status, income level) in the model generated. the results of the analysis are presented in table 17. table 17. model summary. step -2 log likelihood cox & snell r square nagelkerke r square 1 43.064a 0.351 0.617 the results in table 17 show the nagelkerke r square value of 0.617 which implies that 61.7% of the variability in enrolment in nhif can be accounted for by the predictor variables in the model which in this case are; education level, level of income, marital status, and religious affiliation. this section is used to determine which of the predictor variables has a statically significant influence on the decision of an individual to enroll in nhif. the results of the data analysis are shown in table 18. table 18. variables in the equation. variable 𝜷 s.e wald 𝒅𝒇 𝒑 𝑬𝒙𝒑(𝜷) step 1a level of education 0.103 0.012 8.746 1 0.001 1.108 income level 1.950 0.537 21.173 1 0.000 7.029 marital status 0.006 0.038 0.065 1 0.327 1.006 religious affiliation -0.071 0.025 4.266 1 0.039 0.931 constant 1.636 0.689 3.761 1 0.052 3.807 the results in table 18 show the connection that exists among the outcome and predictor variables. beta (β) denotes the anticipated change in the log odds (exp(β)). in this case, it is observed that the probability of an individual enrolling in nhif if they are educated or for every year of increased education is 1.108 higher than those individuals who have a low education level, given a p-value of 0.001 < 0.05 this implies that education level is significant forecaster of enrolment in nhif. the probability of an individual enrolling in nhif if they have a higher income is 7.026 times greater than those individuals who have a low level of income, since the p-value is 0.000 < 0.05, this implies that income level is significant predictor of enrolment in nhif. marital status was found not to be a significant forecaster of enrolment in nhif (0.327 > 0.05). lastly, religious affiliation was established as being a statistically significant forecaster of enrolment in nhif (0.039 < 0.05), the negative value of the beta coefficient however indicates that the more affiliated the people were to their religion the less they were to enroll in nhif. 5. discussion of findings it was established that there existed a direct association which was significant at the 5% significant level between an individual’s education level and national health insurance fund (nhif) uptake. in particular, an increase in the level of education by one unit increased the chances of an individual enrolling in nhif by 1.108. the research findings are in tandem with those of ngetich et al. (2021); seddoh and sataru (2018) and dror (2020) who all conducted studies on the association between the two variables and found that there existed a strong statistically significant direct link between the level of education of a person and their willingness to register in a national/community/social-based health insurance in their different jurisdictions using the linear regression technique and the pearson’s correlation coefficient. it was found that there existed a strong direct correlation which was significant statistically at the 5% significant level between level of income and uptake of national health insurance fund (nhif). the research results concur with those of mukhwana et al. (2015) who based on logistic regression established that a growth in the income of an individual resulted in a rise in the chances of the individual taking up health insurance of any type. the findings also in agreement with those of basaza et al. (2019) who carried out a study in kampala and established that taxi drivers with low income were least likely to register in a health insurance. based on the binary logistic regression results, it was found out that there existed a very weak direct correlation which was not significant at the 5% significant level between national health insurance fund (nhif) uptake and marital status. the research findings contradict the verdicts of studies done by other researchers such as, mukhwana et al. (2015); masengeli et al. (2017); njogu (2019) and badu et al. (2018) who all established the existence of a positive association between marital status and uptake of health insurance based on both logistic and linear regression techniques. the study established that an increase in religious affiliation, that is, the more religious a person is, the uptake of health insurance decreases. the research findings corroborate those of hassan et al. (2017) and ewulum et al. (2022) who also established a negative association between the two variables. on the flipside, the findings are in contrast with those of badu et al. (2018) and bhusal and sapkota (2021) who all found a positive significant association between religious affiliation and uptake of health insurance. in addition, the findings do not agree with those of note: a. estimation terminated on iteration number 7 because parameter estimates changed by less than .001. note: a.variable(s) entered on step 1: level of education, income level, marital status, religious affiliation. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 59-68 67 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group nguru et al. (2018) and musonda and chowa (2022) who carried out a study in zambia and established the existence of no association between religious affiliation and uptake of health insurance. 6. conclusion and recommendations the study concludes that: i. the level of education of an individual had a great influence on the decision of an individual to take up national health insurance fund. ii. the level of income of an individual had a very great influence on the uptake of national health insurance fund. iii. the marital status of an individual had little influence on the uptake of national health insurance fund. iv. the religious affiliation of an individual had little influence on the uptake of national health insurance fund. the study recommends that the government should educate the informal sector employees on the benefits of having health insurance. in addition, adult education should be enhanced particularly in slum and rural areas where the level of education of the people in such areas is particularly low. furthermore, the government should increase the minimum wage so that the informal sector employees can be able to take care of their basic needs as well as sparing some money for health insurance. finally, religious leaders should be mandated to educate their followers on the importance of health insurance so as to increase the level of uptake. references adebayo, e. f., uthman, o. a., wiysonge, c. s., stern, e. a., lamont, k. t., & ataguba, j. e. 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(2020). rural-urban differences in health outcomes, healthcare use, and expenditures among older adults under universal health insurance in china. plos one, 15(10), e0240194. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240194 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-022-08086-z https://doi.org/10.46527/2582-3264.133 https://irlibrary.ku.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/123456789/18995/uptake%20of%20health%20insurance%20among%20patients.pdf?sequence=1 https://irlibrary.ku.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/123456789/18995/uptake%20of%20health%20insurance%20among%20patients.pdf?sequence=1 https://doi.org/10.4081/jphr.2021.2392 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220558 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-017-2805-z https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297239004 https://doi.org/10.12691/ajphr-2-1-6 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01037.x https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-050077 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-018-3155-1 https://doi.org/10.13189/ujph.2015.030405 https://www.researchgate.net/profile/roosa-tikkanen/publication/347011106_international_profiles_of_health_care_systems_2020/links/5fd7897292851c13fe865e6a/international-profiles-of-health-care-systems-2020.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/profile/roosa-tikkanen/publication/347011106_international_profiles_of_health_care_systems_2020/links/5fd7897292851c13fe865e6a/international-profiles-of-health-care-systems-2020.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/profile/roosa-tikkanen/publication/347011106_international_profiles_of_health_care_systems_2020/links/5fd7897292851c13fe865e6a/international-profiles-of-health-care-systems-2020.pdf https://doi.org/10.1177/0020731419847113 https://esipreprints.org/index.php/esipreprints/article/view/376 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240194 109 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 3, 109-115, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.5017 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group job turnover rates and the nigerian banking industry: benefits, causes, challenges, and policy recommendations francis ndudi ejimofor1 justice taiwo ogundare2 ( corresponding author) 1department of business administration, faculty of management and social sciences, dennis osadebay university, asaba, delta state, nigeria. email: francis.ndudi@dou.edu.ng 2department of marketing, faculty of management and social sciences, dennis osadebay university, asaba, delta state, nigeria. email: kentromaster@yahoo.com abstract the study focuses on the essential causes of high job turnover rates in order to improve employee retention, reduce costs, and improve organizational performance. the study focused on two selected banks in asaba, delta state: first bank of nigeria plc and access bank branches at nnebisi road, asaba, delta state. a cross-sectional survey design was adopted in the study. the total population is 100, which consists of the employees of first bank nigeria plc and access bank. the probability sampling methodology employed was a stratified random procedure. the findings of the study revealed that poor management practices, low pay, and the working environment have a significant effect on the performance of the banking sector. the findings emphasized the significance of initiatives like opportunities for growth and development, competitive pay and benefits, fostering a happy work environment, and lowering employee turnover rates. the study concludes that the relationship between job turnover rates and performance is complex and may be prejudiced by a diversity of factors, including individual differences, organizational culture, and external factors such as economic conditions and industry trends. the study recommends that banks create a positive work environment that fosters a sense of community, respect, and open communication. this can include initiatives such as employee recognition programs, open-door policies, and regular team-building activities. keywords: job turnover rates, low pay, performance, poor management practices, working environment. citation | ejimofor, f. n., & ogundare, j. t. (2023). job turnover rates and the nigerian banking industry: benefits, causes, challenges, and policy recommendations. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(3), 109–115. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.5017 history: received: 23 june 2023 revised: 17 august 2023 accepted: 4 september 2023 published: 26 september 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the dennis osadebay university, nigeria has granted approval for this study on 12 march 2023 (ref. no. dou/qau/10). transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: both authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. both authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................................110 2. literature review.......................................................................................................................................................................................110 3. review of theories ....................................................................................................................................................................................112 4. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................................112 5. results and discussions ...........................................................................................................................................................................113 6. hypotheses testing ...................................................................................................................................................................................113 7. discussion of findings..............................................................................................................................................................................114 8. conclusions...................................................................................................................................................................................................114 9. recommendations ......................................................................................................................................................................................114 references .........................................................................................................................................................................................................115 mailto:francis.ndudi@dou.edu.ng mailto:kentromaster@yahoo.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.5017 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7171-5279 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 109-115 110 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the study gave an insight into other constructs of job turnover rates; these constructs has not been used by any researchers in the context of nigerian banking sector. constructs includes: poor management practices, low pay and working environment. this study focuses on the effects of how poor management practices, low pay and working environment affect marketing performance. 1. introduction the nigerian financial industry has gone through massive changes as of late, with expanded rivalry, administrative changes, and mechanical head-ways driving development and development (adegbaju, adegbaju, & iyiola, 2020). however, one critical issue that continues to affect the industry's performance is job turnover rates. high job turnover rates can have a significant impact on organizational performance, resulting in increased costs, loss of knowledge, and decreased productivity (huang & huang, as cited in li, yu, huang, and jin (2019)). the causes of job turnover rates in the nigerian banking industry are attributed to poor management practices, lack of career growth opportunities, and low pay (ogbechie & harris, 2014). addressing job turnover rates in the nigerian banking industry is critical for promoting sustainable growth and improving organizational performance. effective strategies to address job turnover rates include improving management practices, providing career growth opportunities, and offering competitive pay (ogbechie & harris, 2014). these tactics can boost employee engagement and job happiness, assist recruit and keep talented staff members, and ultimately enhance organizational performance. therefore, this study aims to identify effective strategies to address job turnover rates in the nigerian banking industry, with a focus on enlightening performance of the organization. the study will sight-see the causes of job turnover rates in the industry, the benefits of job turnover rates, and the challenges associated with addressing job turnover rates. additionally, the study will provide policy recommendations for addressing job turnover rates in the nigerian banking industry, based on best practices and lessons learned from other industries. in this course, this study aims to add to the literature on job turnover rates and organizational performance in the nigerian banking industry and provide insights for policymakers and practitioners. high job turnover rates can have negative impacts on organizational performance, including decreased productivity, increased costs associated with recruitment and training, loss of institutional knowledge and expertise, decreased morale among residual employees, and decreased customer satisfaction. these problems can significantly impact the organization's ability to accomplish its goals and objectives, and can be particularly problematic in industries that require specialized skills and knowledge. it is important for organizations to address the underlying causes of high job turnover rates in order to improve employee retention, reduce costs, and improve overall organizational performance. 1.1. the problem statement job turnover rates have turned into a basic issue in the nigerian financial industry, as they can essentially affect hierarchical execution. costs can go up, knowledge can be lost, and productivity can go down, all of which can have a negative impact on profits. the causes of job turnover rates in the nigerian banking industry are attributed to poor management practices, lack of career growth opportunities, and low pay. therefore, there is a need for research that identifies effective strategies to address job turnover rates in the nigerian banking industry, including improving management practices, providing career growth opportunities, and offering competitive pay, to improve organizational performance and promote sustainable growth in the industry. 1.2. research objectives the main objective of the study is to investigate how job turnover rates affect the nigerian banking industry: benefits, causes, challenges, and policy recommendations. the specific goals of the study are to: i. find out how poor management practices affect performance. ii. examine the effects of low pay on performance. iii. find out how performance is affected by the working environment. 2. literature review 2.1. job turnover rates the rate of employees leaving an organization to be replaced by new hires, or job turnover, is a major concern for businesses. the productivity of the remaining workforce can suffer as a result of high turnover rates, as can recruitment and training expenses. in order to develop strategies to reduce turnover and enhance organizational performance, it is essential to comprehend the factors that influence job turnover rates. one study by griffeth and hom (2001) found that job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job alternatives were the three most consistent predictors of employee turnover. other studies have found that job autonomy, job security, and organizational justice are also significant predictors of turnover intentions (zhang, liao, & zhao, as cited in chen, tang, and su (2021)). in addition to the costs associated with employee turnover, organizations may also experience other negative consequences, such as decreased innovation and reduced customer satisfaction. improved job satisfaction, opportunities for employee development, and competitive compensation and benefits packages, according to holtom, mitchell, lee, and eberly (2008), can reduce turnover rates in businesses. high-performance work systems (hpws) shown to be effective in reducing turnover rates. a meta-analysis by allen, bryant, and vardaman (2010) found that hpws, which emphasize employee involvement, training, and development, were associated with lower turnover rates. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 109-115 111 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group overall, the literature suggests that reducing job turnover rates requires a multifaceted approach that addresses job satisfaction, compensation and benefits, leadership, organizational culture, and other factors that contribute to turnover. by addressing these factors, organizations can improve retention rates and ultimately improve organizational performance. 2.2. benefits of job turnover rates 1. increased efficiency: studies have shown that workers who have been with an organization for a longer period of time tend to be more productive than new hires. 2. reduced costs: organizations can incur costs as a result of high job turnover rates because it takes additional resources to find, hire, and train new employees. 3. strong employer brand: organizations with low job turnover rates tend to have a positive employer brand, as they are perceived as stable, secure, and supportive workplaces. 4. improved customer satisfaction: employees who have been with an organization for a longer period of time tends to have stronger relationships with customers, which can result in increased customer satisfaction and loyalty. 5. knowledge retention: when employees stay with an organization for a longer period, they accumulate valuable knowledge and experience that can be difficult to replace. 2.3. causes of job turnover rates 1. low job satisfaction: common reasons for low job satisfaction include poor working conditions, lack of recognition or opportunities for growth, and inadequate compensation. 2. inadequate compensation and benefits: lack of health insurance, retirement plans, and paid time off are additional factors that contribute to insufficient compensation and benefits. 3. limited opportunities for career advancement: whenever representatives feel that there are restricted open doors for professional success inside an association, they might look for potential open doors somewhere else. 4. poor management and leadership: when employees feel that their managers or leaders are ineffective or unsupportive, they may seek opportunities elsewhere. this can be due to a lack of communication, micromanagement, or a lack of trust between employees and their managers. 5. work-life balance: employees may look for work elsewhere if they perceive a lack of work-life balance. long working hours, rigid work schedules, or a lack of support for work-life balance initiatives are all possible causes of this. 2.4. challenges of job turnover rates the high cost of finding, hiring, and training new employees is one reason for high job turnover rates. as per a concentrate by the center for american progress, the expense of supplanting a representative can go from 16% to 213% of the worker's yearly compensation, contingent upon the level of the position and the business (heathfield, 2020). this cost can be a significant burden on organizations, particularly those with high turnover rates. another challenge of high job turnover rates is the impact on organizational productivity and efficiency. after an employee leaves an organization, it may take some time to fill a vacancy and train a new employee, which may result in a temporary decrease in productivity. boushey and glynn (2012) say that high turnover rates can also lead to a loss of institutional knowledge and experience, which can have a negative effect on how well an organization does its job. high work turnover rates can likewise adversely affect representative spirit and occupation fulfillment. employees may experience a sense of instability and uncertainty when they observe their coworkers leaving the organization, which may result in lower job satisfaction and higher intentions to leave (allen et al., 2010). 2.5. policy recommendation of job turnover rates paying employees fairly and competitively is one policy that can help reduce job turnover rates. compensation and benefits are among the most important factors that contribute to employee turnover. by paying employees fairly and competitively, organizations can help improve employee retention rates. another strategy that can assist with diminishing position turnover rates is to give potential chances to profession improvement and headway. by providing employees with opportunities to learn and advance within the company, businesses can assist in increasing employee retention rates. organizations can likewise carry out approaches that advance balance between serious and fun activities, for example, adaptable plans for getting work done and working from home choices. by furnishing representatives with the adaptability to deal with their work and individual lives, associations can assist with further developing representative degrees of consistency. finally, organizations can implement policies that promote a positive organizational culture and supportive management practices. by promoting a positive work environment and supportive management practices, organizations can help improve employee retention rates. 2.6. poor management and performance poor management practices can contribute to job turnover rates by establishing a negative workplace and lessening representative fulfillment and commitment. employees may become disengaged and seek employment elsewhere if they believe their managers do not support or value them. poor management practices such as lack of feedback and recognition, micromanagement, and lack of autonomy can contribute to increased stress and decreased well-being, which can also lead to increased turnover rates. 2.7. low pay and performance employees who feel that they are not being paid decently for their work might become demotivated, withdrew, and less useful. this can lead to decreased performance, lower quality work, and decreased customer satisfaction. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 109-115 112 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group additionally, low pay can contribute to high job turnover rates, which can further decrease organizational performance by increasing recruitment, hiring, and training costs, and decreasing institutional knowledge and experience. on the other hand, paying employees fairly and competitively can improve employee engagement, motivation, and satisfaction, which in turn can improve productivity, work quality, and customer satisfaction. this can ultimately lead to improved organizational performance. it's imperative to memo that pay is just one factor that can impact employee satisfaction and organizational performance. opportunities for career advancement, work-life balance, and a positive organizational culture are important additional factors. there is significant research on the relationship between pay and organizational performance. for instance, a concentrate by the society for human resource management found that associations with more significant salary fulfillment had lower turnover rates and more significant levels of worker commitment and fulfillment. another study by the university of warwick found that paying employees a higher wage led to increased productivity and improved performance. more than just fair and competitive pay, improving organizational performance is influenced overall. businesses should also focus on fostering a positive work environment, providing opportunities for career advancement, and promoting work-life balance in order to improve organizational performance and overall employee satisfaction. 2.8. working environment and performance the working environment can fundamentally affect hierarchical execution. productivity can rise, morale can rise, and retention rates can improve with a positive work environment. then again, an unfriendly workplace can bring about lower representative resolve, higher turnover rates, and lower efficiency. research has shown that a positive working environment is associated with higher levels of employee engagement, job satisfaction, and well-being, which in turn can tip to amplified productivity and better organizational performance. according to bushiri (2014) employees who worked in a positive work environment had higher levels of job satisfaction and were more committed to their organization, which resulted in higher levels of performance. negative working conditions, on the other hand, can have the exact opposite effect. stress, burnout, and low job satisfaction are all possible outcomes of working in a hostile work environment, which can also increase employee turnover and productivity. for instance, a study that was published in the journal of occupational health psychology in 2010 found that workers who were under a lot of stress at work were more likely to burn out and be less productive at work. overall, maintaining high levels of employee engagement, job satisfaction, and well-being can improve organizational performance by creating a positive work environment. this can be accomplished through measures, for example, advancing open correspondence, offering satisfactory help to representatives, and encouraging a feeling of trust and cooperation among workers. 3. review of theories 3.1. goal-setting theory edwin locke proposed the goal-setting theory in 1968. this theory asserts that an employee's motivation to perform at a higher level is significantly influenced by his individual goals. among the required skills is the ability to regularly provide performance feedback, engage employees in the setting of mutual goals, and clarify role expectations. in addition, significant investment will provide significant execution motivations, process control, adequate assets, and workplace preparation. in addition, it suggests that managers and supervisors should prioritize the organization's human side in order to realize its full potential. salaman, storey, and billsberry (2005), the guiding principle is individualized support and encouragement for each employee through human-to-human interaction. according to abbas and yaqoob (2009), employee performance is an important multidimensional construct with a close relationship to an organization's planned goals. performance is the most important multi-character aspect for attaining outcomes that are strongly linked to the planned goals of the company (sabir, iqbal, rehman, shah, & yameen, 2012). according to this notion, if the workplace is inviting, cozy, pleasant, and inspiring, providing employees a sense of pride and purpose in their work, the objectives of the employees ca n be realized. people's attitudes, work output, employer loyalty, and the generation of new knowledge within an organization are all impacted by how a workplace is organized and used (taiwo, 2010). 3.2. expectancy theory the most widely regarded justifications for inspiration were put out by victor vroom. expectancy theory is the name given to his theory. to put it simply, the theory contends that the attractiveness of a specific outcome to an individual and the intensity of anticipation that the act would be followed by that consequence are what determine the strength of a tendency to act in a particular way. according to the expectation theory, a worker can be encouraged to work harder if they believe they will soon receive a favorable performance review and be rewarded for achieving a personal goal. the theory is centered on three relationships: those between efforts and performance, incentives and performance, and personal objectives and rewards, according to salaman et al. (2005). the premise of this idea is that people behave differently within organizations as a result of anticipatory satisfaction with the goals they have set. in order to build and maintain a high level of inspiration, representatives must make sure that every employee's workplace values and goals are in line with the organization's main aim and vision. according to salaman et al. (2005), this can promote teamwork, enhance worker productivity, lower the chance of low staff morale, boost output, and inculcate a positive outlook during trying circumstances . 4. methodology the cross-sectional review research plan technique was utilized in the review since it assists with gathering information from respondents at a specific moment. the fact that surveys are ideal for scientific research studies justifies this approach. the population used is 100 employees, all of whom work for first bank nigeria plc and access asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 109-115 113 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group bank in asaba, delta state. in the study, stratified random sampling was used; this is because the researcher divided the population into strata like senior, middle, and lower management staff. cronbach's alphas were used as a judgment point to determine the instrument's reliability. cronbach's alpha is used to measure internal consistency, or how closely related a set of items are as a whole. table 1. reliability statistics. reliability statistics cronbach's alpha. n of items 0.823 4 table 1 presents an acceptable measure for ca is 0.823. cronbach alpha index was used for estimating the reliability of the questionnaire. favourable reliable scores were obtained from all the items since all values were above the 0.6, exceeding the threshold of cronbach alpha value recommended by malhotra (2004). 5. results and discussions table 2 presents the descriptive statistics' mean and standard deviation of poor management practices, low pay, working environment and performance. table 2. descriptive statistics. descriptive statistics variables mean std. deviation n poor management practices 16.8 3.58 100 low pay 18.2 3.41 100 working environment 48.2 7.61 100 performance 17.7 3.70 100 table 3. correlation matrix between studied variables. correlations variables poor management practices low pay working environment performance poor management practices pearson correlation 1 0.758** 0.788** 0.702** sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 n 100 100 100 100 low pay pearson correlation 0.758** 1 0.603** 0.626** sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 n 100 100 100 100 working environment pearson correlation 0.788** 0.603** 1 0.496** sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 n 100 100 100 100 performance pearson correlation 0.702** 0.626** 0.496** 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 n 100 100 100 100 note: **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). the results in table 3 indicate that there was a significant positive correlation between the variables of job turnover rates and performance, with values ranging from .496 to .788 for the magnitude of the positiv e correlation. the first variable poor management practices (0.702) show the correlation to performance. the second variable low pay (0.626) shows the correlation to performance and lastly, working environment also shows the correlation to performance with (0.496). table 4. model summary. model summaryb model. r. r square. adjusted r square. std. error of the estimate. durbin-watson. 1. 0.723a 0.52 0.51 2.59 1.84 note: a. predictors: (constant), working environment, low pay, poor management practices. b. dependent variable: performance. according to table 4, the four independent variables examined account for 0.52 (52 percent) of the r2's performance. as a result, additional research should be carried out to investigate the additional factors that affect performance (48%). 6. hypotheses testing 6.1. hypothesis one (h01): poor management practices have no significant effect on performance the impact of poor management practices on performance is shown in table 5. table 5 presents regression analysis for poor management practices and performance on the test of hypothesis one. the exact level of significance calculated (0.000) was less than the likelihood of making a type error (0.05). the null hypothesis would be rejected as a result of the alternative being accepted. as a result, this implies that there is a statistically significant connection between poor management practices and performance. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 109-115 114 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 5. multiple regressions. coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig correlations collinearity statistics b. std. error beta zeroorder partial part tolerance vif 1 (constant) 5.626 1.815 0.000 3.100 0.003 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 poor management practices 0.678 0.145 0.658 4.694 0.000 0.702 0.432 0.331 0.253 3.951 low pay 0.239 0.117 0.221 2.043 0.044 0.626 0.204 0.144 0.425 2.352 working environment -0.076 0.056 -0.156 -1.361 0.177 0.496 -0.138 -0.096 0.379 2.640 note: a. dependent variable: performance. 6.2. hypothesis two (h02): low pay has no significant effect on performance table 5 presents the impact of low pay on performance. the probability of making a type one error (0.05) is lower than the exact level of significance (0.044). there is the need in this manner to dismiss the invalid speculation and tolerating the substitute that expressed in any case. as a result, there is a strong correlation between performance and low pay. 6.3. hypothesis three (h03): workplace environment has no significant impact on performance multiple regression table 5 depicts the impact of workplace environment on performance. the exact level of significance calculated (0.177) is greater than the probability of making a type error (0.05), as shown in table 5 of the regression analysis for working environment and performance on the test of hypothesis 3. the result indicates that the null hypothesis should be accepted and the alternative should be rejected. hence, inferring that, there is no factual importance connection working environment and performance. 7. discussion of findings the findings suggest that high job turnover rates can have negative impacts on organizational performance, including increased costs, decreased productivity, and decreased morale. additionally, the studies suggest that reducing turnover rates and retaining employees can lead to better organizational performance. offering competitive compensation and benefits packages, providing opportunities for growth and development, and creating a positive work environment are just a few of the strategies that have been shown to reduce employee turnover and increase employee retention. employee engagement and motivation can be maintained through these methods, resulting in increased output and improved performance. however, it is essential to keep in mind that the connection between job turnover rates and performance is nuanced and subject to change. the industry, type of job, and organizational culture, for instance, may all have an impact on the impact that turnover rates have on performance. turnover rates may also be influenced by external factors like economic conditions and trends in the labor market. overall, the findings suggest that reducing job turnover rates and retaining employees can lead to better organizational performance, and that organizations can take steps to create a workplace culture that supports employee engagement and retention. 8. conclusions 1. high job turnover rates can have significant negative impacts on organizational performance, including increased costs, decreased productivity, decreased morale, loss of knowledge and expertise, and damage to reputation. 2. depending on how they are managed and the resources that are available to employees, job demands can have both positive and negative effects on the performance of the company. 3. productivity can rise, morale can rise, and retention rates can improve with a positive work environment. 4. employee retention strategies, for example, offering cutthroat pay and support agreement, giving open doors to development and advancement, and overseeing position requests and giving position assets to workers, are significant for lessening turnover rates and working on hierarchical execution. 5. individual differences, organizational culture, and external factors like economic conditions and industry trends may all have an impact on the complex relationship between job turnover rates and performance. overall, it is important for organizations to prioritize employee retention and well-being in order to achieve optimal performance and success. 9. recommendations 1. the managers should conduct regular assessments of job demands and resources, and implement strategies to manage job demands and provide job resources to employees. this can include providing social support, offering job control, and providing training and development opportunities. 2. the banks should create a positive work environment that fosters a sense of community, respect, and open communication. this can include initiatives such as employee recognition programs, open-door policies, and regular team-building activities. 3. the banking industry should offer competitive compensation and benefits packages, and regularly review and adjust these packages based on industry benchmarks and employee feedback. 4. provide opportunities for growth and development, and encourage employees to pursue their career goals within the organization. this can include offering mentorship programs, leadership training, and tuition reimbursement. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 109-115 115 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 5. conduct regular employee engagement surveys to gather feedback on the work environment, job demands, and resources, and use this feedback to make improvements and adjustments. references abbas, q., & yaqoob, s. 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(2010). the influence of work environment on workers productivity: a case of selected oil and gas industry in lagos, nigeria. african journal of business management, 4(3), 299-307. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/there-are-significant-business-costs-to-replacing-employees/ https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.699715 https://www.thebalancecareers.com/the-real-cost-of-employee-turnover-1918849 https://www.thebalancecareers.com/the-real-cost-of-employee-turnover-1918849 https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520802211552 75 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 9, no. 4, 75-84, 2022 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v9i4.4349 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group does emotional intelligence influence an employee's job satisfaction? an empirical assessment francis adjei kwabena1 kwabena obeng asare2 richard nana ackah3 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3sunyani technical university, ghana. 1email: francisadjei@yahoo.com 2email: kwabenaobengasare@yahoo.com 3email: nanaackahrich@yahoo.com abstract since job performance is a function of job satisfaction and emotional intelligence, the current research empirically evaluates the association between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction of respondents. the research tests whether emotional intelligence significantly affect job satisfaction or not. the research is based on a quantitative, descriptive cross-sectional survey. the sample size is 140 and they were selected through the convenience sample method. primary data was collected using a self-designed questionnaire in the likert scale format, and were administered at the job places of the respondents. data were analysed using the pearson correlation and the linear regression analysis methods, and presented in tables. the research findings of the study indicated a positive significant association between overall emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. there is also a positive significant association between three out of the four dimensions of emotional intelligence evaluated and job satisfaction. the findings indicate that respondents higher on the emotional intelligence scale are more satisfied than respondents lower on the emotional intelligence scale. the findings imply that emotional intelligence is a multidimensional construct. management of organisations should consider implementing measures that will improve emotional intelligence to ensure job satisfaction of workers. further study should consider the causal analysis and also introduce control variables such as gender and age to determine if the current findings will be replicated. keywords: emotional intelligence, employee satisfaction, own emotions awareness others’ emotions management, own emotions management. citation | kwabena, f. a., asare, k. o. & ackah, r. n. (2022). does emotional intelligence influence an employee’s job satisfaction? an empirical assessment. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 9(4), 75–84. 10.20448/ajssms.v9i4.4349 history: received: 29 july 2022 revised: 21 september 2022 accepted: 16 november 2022 published: 19 december 2022 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 76 2 literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................. 76 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 78 4. theoretical and conceptual framework..................................................................................................................................... 78 5. empirical results and discussions ............................................................................................................................................... 78 6. discussions ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 82 7. conclusions ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 83 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 83 mailto:francisadjei@yahoo.com mailto:kwabenaobengasare@yahoo.com mailto:nanaackahrich@yahoo.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v9i4.4349 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2816-4248 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3831-2723 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5877-4779 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(4): 75-84 76 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the paper contributes to the literature on job satisfaction by examining the effect of total emotional intelligence and its dimensions on job satisfaction of employees. 1. introduction the educational environment is highly demanding and continues to be demanding. due to kin competition, for customers, educational institutions are dealing with complex challenges. hence, there is the need to create a positive working environment that motivates staff to effectively and efficiently handle various pressures from the demanding work they engage in, to be able to create a sound workforce. given the increasing growth of the educational industry in ghana for the past decades, the quality of the workforce is under scrutiny. if proper care of the educational sector is ensured, the satisfaction of the students is dependent on the satisfaction of the staff such as the teaching and the non-teaching staff. it is very appropriate that staff should be healthy to be able to handle students. understanding the import of emotional intelligence in organisations through research is convincing which is well encouraged (srivastava, pathak, mishra, & sharma, 2021). there has been prior empirical research (brackett, rivers, & salovey, 2011; bryant & malone, 2015; güleryüz, güney, aydın, & aşan, 2008; kafetsios & zampetakis, 2008; srivastava et al., 2021) to establish the important role of emotional intelligence in various areas such as workplace performance, employee wellbeing, motivation, social behaviour, personality. studies have shown that emotional intelligence dimensions are a predictor of job satisfaction and job stress (goleman, 1995). these studies conclude that people with higher emotional intelligence can handle stress more effectively and are more satisfied with their job and are also more productive and happier in life. emotional intelligence has been defined by various authors (baron, 1997; cranny, smith, & stone, 1992; goleman, 1995; goleman, 1998; mayer & salovey, 1997). in the works of goleman (1995) emotional intelligence is considered the capacity to acknowledge and control emotions in others and ourselves. in the study by baron (1997) he explained emotional intelligence as associating with and comprehending others, while adjusting and managing the neighbourhood for a successful life. in handling environmental dictate. mayer and salovey (1997) state that emotional intelligence is the potential to recognise, assess, communicate and control one’s emotional responses and that of others. these authors have concluded that individuals high in emotional intelligence can perform better in all aspects of life than individuals low in emotional intelligence. job satisfaction has been also received a lot of empirical research works (cekmecelioğlu, günsel, & ulutaş, 2012; dormann & zapf, 2001; heller, judge, & watson, 2002; robbins, 2002; syptak, marsland, & ulmer, 1999; woods & weasmer, 2002). syptak et al. (1999) state that job satisfaction is an individual’s emotive input to their job. according to the authors, job satisfaction is a function of the considered connection between what an individual expected from the work an individual engages in, and what the individual considered being offered. in the works of cekmecelioğlu et al. (2012) they defined job satisfaction as an individual fulfilment with the work they are carrying out and the gratification thereof. hoppock (1935) states that job satisfaction is a merger of the environmental and psychological and environmental elements for a worker to indicate that he or she is satisfied with the job engaged in. vroom (1964) defined job satisfaction as a worker’s reaction to the present job the worker engages in. spector (1997) states that job satisfaction is the worker's emotional reaction to the present job. the research aims to appreciate the connection between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence to contribute to the body of knowledge in the area of employee job productivity. the research provides answers to these research questions. they are (a) what is the nature of the association between overall emotional intelligence and job satisfaction? (b) what is the nature of the connection between emotional intelligence dimensions and job satisfaction? the assumption underlying the research is that emotional intelligence positively and significantly influences job satisfaction. the limitations of the paper are as follows: some respondents did not complete the questionnaire. some also fused to answer the questions because they are busy. some were also economical with the information they provided. hence, the findings could not be generalised to the larger population. the findings are in addition, limited to the weaknesses of the tools of analysis such as the pearson correlation and the linear regression methods. the study is descriptive and not causal. the rest of the study concentrates on the literature review, methodology, results, discussions, conclusions, and recommendations. 2 literature review previous research efforts on the connection between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction are not enough in the literature in the study area. however, there are many empirical works evaluating job satisfaction-emotional intelligence nexus in other areas of study. the findings on the job satisfaction-emotional intelligence nexus are reported in previous research works (alismail, srinivasan, chauhan, & gangodkar, 2022; alnidawy, 2015; anari, 2012; badawy, srivastava, & sadek, 2014; badawy & magdy, 2015; cekmecelioğlu et al., 2012; chaturvedi, mishra, & yadav, 2017; gonnabathula & chandramohan, 2020; kassim, bambale, & jakada, 2016; kim & kim, 2021; lim, 2017; long, yaacob, & chuen, 2016; psilopanagioti, anagnostopoulos, mourtou, & niakas, 2012; ramirez-asis et al., 2021; sembiring, nimran, astuti, & utami, 2020; srivastava et al., 2021; suleman, syed, mahmood, & hussain, 2020). anari (2012) tests the correlation between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence in a quantitative crosssectional empirical survey, analysing data using correlation and analysis of variance (anova). the research findings show a positive significant link between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence. the study is of interest for adding control variables such as organisational commitment, gender and age of respondents. cekmecelioğlu et al. (2012) empirically explored the relationship between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence in a cross-sectional quantitative research survey. data collected was analysed employing correlation and regression analysis methods. their research findings indicate a significant positive connection between the two variables. their study considered only two dimensions of emotional intelligence. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(4): 75-84 77 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group psilopanagioti et al. (2012) investigated the link between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction in a crosssection and quantitative survey. data analysis was based on structural equation modelling. their research findings indicate a significant positive effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction. their research is of interest for the use of structural modelling analysis which allows for causal interpretations to be made. their empirical model also considered various moderating and mediating variables in examining the role of emotional intelligence in job satisfaction. badawy et al. (2014) studied the relationship between organisational learning capability, job satisfaction and emotional intelligence in a comparative study of india and egypt. their research findings indicate an insignificant effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction. their study is of interest for comparing data from two different economies. alnidawy (2015) analysed the connection between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence in a descriptive quantitative survey. analysis of variance and regression was performed in analysing the data collected. the research findings indicated emotional differences in job satisfaction with emotional intelligence positively influencing job satisfaction. badawy and magdy (2015) evaluated the association between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence with demographic variables as the controlling variables. the study indicates an insignificant effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction levels. this means employees' job satisfaction is not influenced by emotional intelligence levels. the findings are not in support of that of anari (2012); cekmecelioğlu et al. (2012); psilopanagioti et al. (2012) and alnidawy (2015) who reported of positive significant effect on emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. kassim et al. (2016) looked into the connection between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence in crosssectional quantitative research and used correlation and regression analysis methods to analyse data. in their research, some dimensions of emotional intelligence positively significantly influence job satisfaction, whereas some dimensions also did not significantly influence job satisfaction. long et al. (2016) reviewed the effect of emotional intelligence dimensions on job satisfaction and reported different dimensions significantly positively affect job satisfaction differently. dimensions such as emotional selfawareness, and emotional management of others significantly affect job satisfaction. chaturvedi et al. (2017) examined the association between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence in a quantitative, and descriptive survey, analysing data using correction and regression analysis methods. their research findings indicate a positive association between the variables under investigation. lim (2017) studied the effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction, analysing data collected using regression and correlation analysis methods. the research findings of the study indicate a positive influence of emotional intelligence on the job satisfaction of the respondents in the study. the study is not a causal study but descriptive. sembiring et al. (2020) analysed the relationship between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence in a quantitative causal research study. data analysis was based on structural equation modelling. their study findings indicate a significant positive link between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence. their research is of interest for the study been causal research. gonnabathula and chandramohan (2020) assessed the effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction. they performed correlation and regression analysis to analyse the data collected. their research findings indicate according to the correlation and regression analysis show a significant effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction. their study is of interest for using inferential statistics in their analysis. their study examined the effect of demographic features on emotional intelligence, and on job satisfaction separately, and not on the role of the demographic features in explaining the effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction. suleman et al. (2020) investigate the association between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence in their study based on a quantitative, descriptive survey. data collected were analysed using correlation, and regression analysis tools. the findings of the research based on both correlation and regression analysis revealed a positive effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction. their study is also not a causal study but descriptive research. their study is of interest for considering various dimensions of emotional intelligence. lan and trinh (2021) investigate the influence of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction in a cross-sectional quantitative research design. their research findings indicate a positive significant effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction. their research is of interest for using different dimensions of emotional intelligence. kim and kim (2021) in an empirical quantitative study probed the job satisfaction-emotional intelligence nexus, analysing data using the structural modelling analysis method. their research findings indicate positive significant nexus between the two variables in the study. their research is of interest for the use of a causal modelling approach. ramirez-asis et al. (2021) investigates the correlation between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence and reported a positive significant influence of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction in their study. they use correlation and regression analysis methods to analyse the data collected. their study is descriptive and not causal research. srivastava et al. (2021) tested the emotional intelligence-job satisfaction nexus in a cross-sectional quantitative survey study and analysed the results using the multiple regression analysis methods. their research findings show a positive significant effect of emotional intelligence dimensions on job satisfaction. their research is fascinating for the use of moderating variables such as gender in explaining the link between the two variables, and the consideration of various dimensions of emotional intelligence scales. their study, however, is descriptive. alismail et al. (2022) appraised the job satisfaction-emotional intelligence nexus in an empirical study as a crosssectional quantitative study and analysed data using correlation and regression analysis methods. their study findings indicate a positive significant association between the two variables under study. their study is descriptive and not a causal study. the need for the current research emanates from the fact that the education industry has become competitive and has focused on the best teaching delivery for student satisfaction. a worker’s personality is a function of emotional intelligence and that assists the worker to handle the challenging environment of the educational institutions. in ghana, there is a significant gap in student and teacher ratio, resulting in a more challenging job asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(4): 75-84 78 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group environment for the teaching staff. the teaching staff's capacity to handle the emotional and stressful conditions of their work might result in sustained student satisfaction. in the empirical review, in the knowledge of the researcher few works exist in the area of the current study. the current research adds to the literature by filling in this gap. the specific hypothesis tested in the study per the review is (h1) there is a positive significant linear association between overall emotional intelligence and job satisfaction; (h2) own emotional awareness significantly affects job satisfaction; (h3) others’ emotional awareness positively significantly affects job satisfaction; (h4) own emotional management significantly do not affect job satisfaction (h5) others’ emotional management significantly do not affect job satisfaction. 3. methodology 3.1. research design/strategy/type the article uses a quantitative research design to evaluate the role of emotional intelligence in job satisfaction. in the design, the relationship between the two variables is quantified and discussed. in quantitative evaluation, there is objectivity which makes the findings and the conclusions more reliable. the article is also descriptive. therefore, the effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction is described. the paper, in addition, is cross-sectional and not longitudinal. therefore, the data analysed was taken from the respondents once. the cross-sectional approach is used since the research is population-based, and it also makes data collection cost-effective and faster as compared to a longitudinal study. 3.2. target population/sample size/sample selection method the target population is the employees of sunyani technical university. the sample size for the research is 140 respondents. the convenience sampling method was used in selecting the respondents, due to the current pandemic, it has become more challenging in contacting respondents for data. 3.3. research data used/collection tools/analysis methods the empirical assessment of the effect of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction is based on primary and secondary data. primary data used is the data collected from the respondents in the study using the questionnaire, which the researcher designed and administered personally. the questionnaire was in two parts, part a and part b. part a deals with the demographic variables, and part b deals with the subject items. the questionnaire is designed in the five-point likert scale format. all the subject items were positive statements. the order of coding was as follows: strongly agree is equal to 5; agree is equal to 4; neutral is equal to 3; disagree is equal to 2; and strongly disagree is equal to 1. secondary data used in the research was obtained from journal articles and books which were retrieved from the internet. primary data was analysed using percentages, and frequencies, and linear regression method, as well as pearson correlation method. the statistical package for the social sciences (spss) version 26 was used in the analysis. results were depicted in the tables. 3.4. ethical issues data were collected from respondents with their consent after the purpose of the research have been explained to the respondents. also, the data collected were kept confidentially. 4. theoretical and conceptual framework the study is based on the theories proposed by various authors (baron, 1997; goleman, 2001; mayer & salovey, 1997; petrides, pérez-gonzález, & furnham, 2007; salovey & mayer, 1990; ugoani, amu, & kalu, 2015). according to salovey and mayer (1990) emotional intelligence is the capability that affords an individual to recognise, and probe other individuals, and his or her emotions, and feelings to affect objectives, and behaviours. the paper is also based on the works of previous researchers (cekmecelioğlu et al., 2012; dormann & zapf, 2001; heller et al., 2002; hoppock, 1935; robbins, 2002; rowden, 2002; spector, 1997; syptak et al., 1999; vroom, 1964; woods & weasmer, 2002). these researchers have argued that job satisfaction is a function of a worker's work behaviour. to appreciate the connection between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction has attracted a lot of attention in the literature (alismail et al., 2022; ramirez-asis et al., 2021; srivastava et al., 2021). these researchers conclude that workers high in emotional intelligence are more satisfied than those low in emotional intelligence. the study is further based on the works of these researchers. figure 1 depicts the model for the study. in the estimated model, emotional intelligence is the explanatory variable and job satisfaction is the explained variable. figure 1. relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. 5. empirical results and discussions 5.1. demographic information table 1 illustrates the results of the demographic features of the respondents who took part in the study. the results as illustrated show males are the minority (42%) respondents. the distribution by age show majority of the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(4): 75-84 79 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group respondents (39%) is in the age group of 30 years to 39 years. on educational status, the majority (62%) are degree and diploma holders. on work status, the majority of the respondents (44%) belong to the senior member level. table 1. results on demographic features of respondents. variables frequency/percentage (%) gender male female total 59(42.1) 81(57.9) 140(100.0) age 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 total 37(26.4) 55(39.3) 38(27.1) 10(7.1) 140(100.0) educational status first degree/hnd/diploma masters phd total 87(62.1) 41(29.3) 12(8.6) 140(100.0) 5.2. reliability and dimensionality tests results 5.2.1. test of reliability results table 2 and table 3 illustrate the reliability test results. the results as illustrated show higher internal consistency since the value of the cronbach alpha coefficient value are 0.086, and 0.92 in table 2 and, table 3 respectively. cronbach (1951) indicate a value higher than 0.75 means the items on the questionnaire are enough and reliable for the research analysis. table 2. results of reliability for emotional intelligence dimensions. categories of statements cronbach’s alpha no. of items conclusion emotional intelligence 0.86 15 high reliability table 3. results of reliability for job satisfaction factors. categories of statements cronbach’s alpha no. of items conclusion job satisfaction 0.92 20 high reliability 5.2.2. results of dimensionality test the results of the dimensionality to assess either whether uni-dimensional or multi-dimensional exist in the items are illustrated in table 4, table 5, table 6, and table 7. the results as illustrated in the tables indicate the non uni-dimensional scales, because more than 1 component accounts for about 72% as shown in table 4, and about 69% as depicted in table 6. the eigenvalues are used in making these conclusions. the number of components extracted was 4, in all the results depicted in the tables. table 4. test results for dimensionality for emotional intelligence scales. initial eigenvalues extraction sums of squared loadings components totals % of variance cumulative % total % of variance cumulative % 1 5.09 33.89 33.89 5.09 33.89 33.89 2 2.77 18.48 52.37 2.77 18.48 52.37 3 1.69 11.27 63.64 1.69 11.27 63.64 4 1.19 7.93 71.57 1.19 7.93 71.57 5 0.71 4.71 76.27 6 0.66 4.37 80.64 7 0.52 3.48 84.12 8 0.51 3.37 87.49 9 0.41 2.74 90.22 10 0.38 2.55 92.77 11 0.32 2.15 94.92 12 0.24 1.59 96.51 13 0.21 1.41 97.92 14 0.19 1.27 99.18 15 0.12 0.82 100.00 table 5. component matrix. variables emotional intelligence statements 1 2 3 4 1. explanation of emotions of colleagues. 0.64 -0.47 -0.27 0.07 2. discussions of own emotions with colleagues. 0.64 -0.53 -0.35 0.07 3. i can tell my colleagues what will make me feel better if i feel down 0.62 -0.52 -0.36 0.04 4. the emotions i experience i can talk to other colleagues 0.59 -0.55 -0.30 0.06 5. even if i think they are wrong, i respect the opinion of my colleagues 0.58 -0.29 0.19 0.16 6. i can overcome my frustration when i am frustrated with my colleagues 0.52 -0.20 0.55 0.07 7. i try to see all sides of a disagreement before i conclude when deciding on a dispute 0.50 -0.17 0.68 0.22 8. to my colleagues’ ideas i give fair hearing 0.51 -0.07 0.58 0.17 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(4): 75-84 80 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group variables emotional intelligence statements 1 2 3 4 9. even if they try to hide them, i can read my colleague's true feelings. 0.59 0.09 0.05 -0.60 10. i can gauge their true feelings from their body language when i talk to my colleagues. 0.67 0.26 0.11 -0.54 11. when my colleagues don’t mean what they say i can tell 0.69 0.36 -0.04 -0.35 12. for my colleagues my enthusiasm can be contagious 0.61 0.57 -0.06 0.04 13. when they are feeling down, i can cheer my colleagues up 0.56 0.55 -0.15 0.24 14. to share my keenness for a project i can get my colleagues 0.49 0.63 -0.21 0.32 15. to get my colleagues enthusiastic i can provide the spark 0.44 0.55 -0.19 0.36 table 6. test results for dimensionality for job satisfaction variables. initial eigenvalues extraction sums of squared loadings components totals % of variance cumulative % total % of variance cumulative % 1 8.35 41.74 41.74 8.35 41.74 41.74 2 2.77 13.84 55.58 2.77 13.84 55.58 3 1.62 8.12 63.69 1.62 8.12 63.69 1.10 5.51 69.21 1.10 5.51 69.21 4 0.96 4.82 74.02 5 0.78 3.89 77.92 6 0.68 3.41 81.34 7 0.52 2.58 83.92 8 0.47 2.37 86.29 9 0.44 2.21 88.50 10 0.36 1.81 90.31 11 0.34 1.70 92.01 12 0.29 1.47 93.48 13 0.26 1.29 94.76 14 0.23 1.13 95.89 15 0.21 1.03 96.92 16 0.17 0.87 97.79 17 0.16 0.78 98.57 18 0.15 0.73 99.29 19 0.14 0.70 100.00 20 0.96 4.82 74.02 table 7. component matrix. variables whether respondents are satisfied with the following variables 1 2 3 4 1. respect for workers 0.47 0.58 -0.11 0.17 2. salary 0.53 0.39 0.24 -0.31 3. participation in decision making 0.60 0.53 0.26 -0.17 4. devotion to work 0.56 0.57 0.09 0.15 5. the behaviour of supervisor towards employees 0.62 0.41 -0.02 0.39 6. learning from colleagues 0.48 0.63 0.04 0.25 7. leg-pulling sincerity 0.58 0.39 0.03 -0.14 8. physical facilities provided to the workers 0.68 0.12 -0.06 -0.36 9. equality in benefits 0.72 -0.07 -0.13 -0.42 10. problems solving 0.81 0.00 -0.26 -0.17 11. work schedule 0.79 -0.123 -0.30 -0.01 12. performance appraisal 0.71 -0.171 -0.48 0.18 13. clear authority 0.69 -0.343 -0.48 0.02 14. clear responsibility 0.62 -0.225 -0.39 0.11 15. medical facilities 0.72 -0.381 0.06 -0.09 16. transportation services 0.73 -0.294 0.35 -0.05 17. personal office 0.68 -0.319 0.49 -0.05 18. sports facilities 0.64 -0.438 0.41 0.01 19. internet facilities 0.59 -0.388 0.31 0.33 20. working conditions 0.58 -0.209 0.20 0.45 table 8. normality test results for emotional intelligence variables. scales kolmogorov-smirnov shapiro-wilk statistic df sig statistic df sig. 1. explanation of emotions of colleagues. 0.29 140 0.000*** 0.79 140 0.000*** 2. discussions of own emotions with colleagues. 0.29 140 0.000*** 0.83 140 0.000*** 3. i can tell my colleagues what will make me feel better if i feel down 0.25 140 0.000*** 0.85 140 0.000*** 4. the emotions i experience i can talk to other colleagues 0.29 140 0.000*** 0.85 140 0.000*** 5. even if i think they are wrong, i respect the opinion of my colleagues 0.27 140 0.000*** 0.86 140 0.000*** 6. i can overcome my frustration when i am frustrated with my colleagues 0.24 140 0.000*** 0.83 140 0.000*** 7. i try to see all sides of a disagreement before i conclude when deciding on a dispute 0.29 140 0.000*** 0.82 140 0.000*** 8. to my colleagues’ ideas i give fair hearing 0.29 140 0.000*** 0.83 140 0.000*** 9. even if they try to hide them, i can read my colleagues true feelings. 0.23 140 0.000*** 0.88 140 0.000*** asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(4): 75-84 81 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group scales kolmogorov-smirnov shapiro-wilk statistic df sig statistic df sig. 10. i can gauge their true feelings from their body language when i talk to my colleagues. 0.25 140 0.000*** 0.87 140 0.000*** 11. when my colleagues don’t mean what they say i can tell 0.27 140 0.000*** 0.87 140 0.000*** 12. for my colleagues my enthusiasm can be contagious 0.27 140 0.000*** 0.86 140 0.000*** 13. when they are feeling down, i can cheer my colleagues up 0.31 140 0.000*** 0.82 140 0.000*** 14. to share my keenness for a project i can get my colleagues 0.31 140 0.000*** 0.83 140 0.000*** 15. to get my colleagues enthusiastic i can provide the spark 0.26 140 0.000*** 0.85 140 0.000*** note: *** denotes significance at a 1% level. table 9. normality test results for emotional intelligence variables. scales kolmogorov-smirnov shapiro-wilk statistic df sig statistic df sig. own emotions awareness 0.15 140 0.000*** 0.91 140 0.000*** own emotions management 0.14 140 0.000*** 0.94 140 0.000*** others’ emotions awareness 0.14 140 0.000*** 0.94 140 0.000*** others’ emotions management 0.16 140 0.000*** 0.92 140 0.000*** note: *** denotes significance at a 1% level. table 10. normality test results for emotional intelligence. scale kolmogorov-smirnov shapiro-wilk statistic df sig statistic df sig. emotional intelligence 0.12 140 0.001*** 0.95 140 0.000*** note: *** denotes significance at a 1% level. table 11. results of normality test. scales kolmogorov-smirnova shapiro-wilk statistic df sig statistic df sig. 1. respect for workers 0.24 139 0.000*** 0.79 139 0.000*** 2. salary 0.21 139 0.000*** 0.895 139 0.000*** 3. participation in decision making 0.23 139 0.000*** 0.89 139 0.000*** 4. devotion t work 0.29 139 0.000*** 0.85 139 0.000*** 5. the behaviour of supervisor towards employees 0.25 139 0.000*** 0.86 139 0.000*** 6. learning from colleagues 0.27 139 0.000*** 0.86 139 0.000*** 7. leg-pulling sincerity 0.24 139 0.000*** 0.89 139 0.000*** 8. physical facilities provided to the workers 0.28 139 0.000*** 0.87 139 0.000*** 9. equality in benefits 0.22 139 0.000*** 0.88 139 0.000*** 10. problems solving 0.28 139 0.000*** 0.86 139 0.000*** 11. work schedule 0.26 139 0.000*** 0.87 139 0.000*** 12. performance appraisal 0.27 139 0.000*** 0.86 139 0.000*** 13. clear authority 0.29 139 0.000*** 0.85 139 0.000*** 14. clear responsibility 0.29 139 0.000*** 0.86 139 0.000*** 15. medical facilities 0.24 139 0.000*** 0.89 139 0.000*** 16. transportation services 0.19 139 0.000*** 0.89 139 0.000*** 17. personal office 0.21 139 0.000*** 0.90 139 0.000*** 18. sports facilities 0.19 139 0.000*** 0.91 139 0.000*** 19. internet facilities 0.23 139 0.000*** 0.89 139 0.000*** 20. working conditions 0.19 139 0.000*** 0.91 139 0.000*** note: *** denotes significance at a 1% level. 5.2.3. normality test results kolmogorov-smirnov and shapiro-wilk tests were employed to assess the nature of normality in the data set used. table 8 to table 12 illustrate the test outcome. the test outcome shows the data is skewed because the probability values are less than 0.05, except for the results in table 12. the results in table 12 indicate the data set is normally distributed since the value of 0.06 is more than 0.05, using the shapiro-wilk test. table 12. normality test results for job satisfaction variable. scales kolmogorov-smirnov shapiro-wilk statistic df sig statistic df sig. overall, job satisfaction 0.06 140 0.000*** 0.982 140 0.064* note: * and *** denotes significance at a 10% and 1% levels. 5.3. correlation results on emotional intelligence and job satisfaction the correlation results in the association between overall job satisfaction and overall emotional intelligence is exhibited in table 13. the results show a significant positive association between overall job satisfaction and overall emotional intelligence. the association between the four emotional intelligence dimension scales and job satisfaction are indicated in table 14. the results show a positive association between overall job satisfaction and the four emotional dimension scales examined. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(4): 75-84 82 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 13. correlation results on overall emotional intelligence and overall, job satisfaction. variable emotional intelligence job satisfaction emotional intelligence 1 job satisfaction 0.58*** 1 note: ***. denotes correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). table 14. correlation results on emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. variables oea oem osea osem js oea 1 oem 0.39*** 1 osea 0.32*** 0.37*** 1 osem 0.14 0.21** 0.49*** 1 js 0.46*** 0.31*** 0.51*** 0.32*** 1 own emotions awareness (oea); own emotions management (oem); others’ emotions awareness (osea); others’ emotions management (osem); job satisfaction (js) note: ***. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (for 2-tailed). **. correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (for 2-tailed). 5.4. regression results on emotional intelligence and job satisfaction the results of the linear regression performed are depicted in table 15 and 16. in table 15, the depicted results show evidence of positive significant influence on job satisfaction of awareness of others’ emotions and awareness of own emotions, at the significance level of 1%. the results indicate that, job satisfaction increase by about 24% when awareness of others’ emotions increase by 1%, and also increase by about 23%, when awareness of own emotions increases by 1%. the results exhibited in table 16 look at the total job satisfaction and total emotional intelligence connection. at the significant level of 1%, the results show a positive significant relationship between the two variables. total job satisfaction increases by almost 65% when total emotional intelligence rises by 1%. the value of the adjusted r-square of 0.347 indicates the overall emotional intelligence explains about 35% of the variation in overall job satisfaction. table 15. results of the effect of emotional intelligence scales on job satisfaction. variables coefficients std error t-ratios p-value constant 1.36 0.32 4.26 0.000*** own emotions awareness 0.23 0.05 4.33 0.000*** own emotions management 0.03 0.07 0.37 0.713 others’ emotions awareness 0.24 0.06 3.99 0.000*** others’ emotions management 0.09 0.07 1.32 0.188 dependent variable: job satisfaction r=0.61 r-square=0.37 adjusted r-square=0.35 note: *** denotes significance at 1% level. table 16. results of the effect of overall emotional intelligence on overall job satisfaction. variables coefficients std error t-ratios p-value constant 1.08 0.31 3.519 0.001*** overall emotional intelligence 0.65 0.08 8.250 0.000*** dependent variable: job satisfaction r=0.575 r-square=0.330 adjusted r-square=0.325 note: *** denotes significance at a 1% level. 6. discussions the study provides further understanding to the body of knowledge in the area of emotional intelligence and job satisfaction in linear empirical modelling. the findings corroborate the previous findings that emotional intelligence contributes to the explanation of job satisfaction and worker job commitment since emotional labour is considered one of the key elements of the work of public workers. the research findings indicate a positive significant connection between overall emotional intelligence and overall job satisfaction using both the correction and regression analysis methods. there is also a significant positive association between job satisfaction and three emotional intelligence dimensions investigated except own emotional management. the finding of a positive significant connection is in support of that of previous research efforts (kim & kim, 2021; lan & trinh, 2021; ramirez-asis et al., 2021; srivastava et al., 2021) on the role of emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. the findings of these studies indicate that respondents higher on emotional intelligence are higher on the job satisfaction scale, and are more satisfied with their job than respondents lower on the emotional intelligence dimensions scale. the findings also support some previous research (badawy & magdy, 2015; kassim et al., 2016; long et al., 2016) findings that not all emotional intelligence dimensions positively significantly influence job satisfaction. for example, in the badawy and magdy (2015) study, all the dimensions evaluated did not significantly influence job satisfaction, whereas in the kassim et al. (2016) study, some dimensions of emotional intelligence positively significantly influence job satisfaction, whereas some dimensions also did not significantly influence job satisfaction. similarly, in the study of long et al. (2016) only dimensions such as emotional self-awareness, and emotional management of others significantly affect job satisfaction. the implication is that the management of organisations should put in place measures that will contribute to the development of strong and stable emotional intelligence of their workers since their job satisfaction is a key function of emotional intelligence. theoretically, the current research findings support the theoretical proposition that emotional intelligence is a multidimensional construct since the dimensions evaluated positively significantly influence job satisfaction differently. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(4): 75-84 83 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 7. conclusions in the research, the association between overall job satisfaction and overall emotional intelligence as well as emotional intelligence dimensions have been studied using correction and regression analysis. the empirical findings show that emotional intelligence and its dimensions affect job satisfaction differently. overall emotional intelligence positively significantly influences overall job satisfaction, whereas three of the emotional intelligence dimensions evaluated significantly influence job satisfaction, with one dimension not significantly influencing job satisfaction. respondents higher on the emotional intelligence scale are more satisfied with their job than those lower on the scale. this call for improvement in skills that will enhance respondents’ emotional intelligence and hence job satisfaction. the research though not a causal study is appropriate since the findings are indicative of the advantage emotional intelligence has in supplementing employees' job satisfaction. this indicates that emotional intelligence is a dispositional variable that precedes job satisfaction. further research using causal modelling is worth embarking on with the introduction of other control variables such as gender, age, and educational level. a longitudinal study is also recommended in further research since the current research is cross-sectional research. this is necessary to determine whether the current findings will be replicated or corroborated. references alismail, s. s., srinivasan, k., chauhan, s., & gangodkar, d. 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(2002). maintaining job satisfaction: engaging professionals as active participants. clearing house, 75(4), 186189.available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/00098650209604928. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 80 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 3, 80-86, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.4955 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group intimate partner violence among minority groups: a view from northern bangladesh bokul hossain1 zamil hosain2 shirazul islam3 siddiqur rahman4 ( corresponding author) 1,2department of sociology, varendra university, rajshahi, bangladesh. 3,4department of sociology, university of rajshahi, rajshahi, bangladesh. 1email: bokulhossain2625@gmail.com 2email: zamilhosainru@gmail.com 3email: shiraz.soc.ru@gmail.com 4email: siddik2008@gmail.com abstract this study investigates the prevalence, characteristics, and associated factors of intimate partner violence (ipv) among minority groups of bangladesh. a mixed methods approach was employed, combining a survey of 128 participants from minority groups with 10 in-depth case studies. the survey collected quantitative data, while case studies provided qualitative insights. the study reveals a pervasive prevalence of ipv within marginalized communities, with 40.6% of females reporting experiences of ipv. husbands were identified as the primary abusers (91.4%) of ipv. various determinants were identified as contributing factors to ipv. these include poor mental health, substance abuse, exposure to childhood violence, patriarchal attitudes, financial pressures, conventional drug use, adherence to cultural and societal norms, and limited education regarding healthy relationships, communication, and conflict resolution skills. surprisingly, the study highlights that ipv is bidirectional, with 33.6% of respondents admitting to physically harming their spouse during violent incidents. gender inequality or rigidity was not the predominant determinant of ipv among minority communities in northern bangladesh. the study underscores the necessity of culturally sensitive strategies to address ipv within marginalized communities. the findings underscore the need to address both sides of the ipv dynamic and advocate for holistic interventions that acknowledge and respect cultural norms and values. keywords: bangladesh, intimate partner violence, minority groups, rajshahi. citation | hossain, b., hosain, z., islam, s., & rahman, s. (2023). intimate partner violence among minority groups: a view from northern bangladesh. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(3), 80–86. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.4955 history: received: 12 june 2023 revised: 20 july 2023 accepted: 8 august 2023 published: 31 august 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the varendra university, bangladesh has granted approval for this study (ref. no. 10/07/2022/soc/2230). transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 81 2. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 81 3. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 81 4. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 84 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 85 6. recommendations ............................................................................................................................................................................ 85 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 85 mailto:bokulhossain2625@gmail.com mailto:zamilhosainru@gmail.com mailto:shiraz.soc.ru@gmail.com mailto:siddik2008@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.4955 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4328-9356 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1544-3563 https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1628-5927 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7192-2729 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 80-86 81 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study highlights the complicated nature and bidirectional dynamics of intimate partner violence (ipv) among bangladeshi minority communities. it reveals that ipv is not a one-way street among minority groups and signaling that women can also be violent perpetrators. 1. introduction intimate partner violence (ipv) is a significant global public health issue that has wide-ranging impacts on people, families, and communities. in the context of bangladesh, intimate partner violence (ipv) has emerged as a significant issue, with a special focus on its prevalence among minority communities. surprisingly little information exists on the prevalence, nature, and underlying causes of intimate partner violence in this group, despite the fact that it occurs frequently and has an immense effect. this study explored the prevalence of ipv in underprivileged areas of rajshahi, bangladesh, in an effort to address this knowledge gap. according to rahman, nakamura, seino, and kizuki (2012), empirical evidence suggests that a significant proportion of females in bangladesh, namely twothirds, are at risk of experiencing intimate partner violence (ipv) over their lifetime. according to the findings of the national institute of population research and training (niport) mitra and associates & icf international (2014), a significant proportion of married women, specifically 26 percent, reported instances of partner abuse encompassing physical, sexual, or psychological forms. additionally, data showed that ipv is under-reported in bangladesh, especially among minorities, because of cultural norms that keep gender inequality and male dominance in intimate relationships (bhogal, 2019; shankar, das, & atwal, 2013). a study conducted by yount, halim, head, and schuler (2012) in bangladesh, it demonstrated that women who presented straightforward responses faced a higher risk of experiencing physical or sexual violence from their spouses. furthermore, these women had less autonomy in terms of making decisions related to their own health and household matters. according to field and caetano (2004) and lacey, mcpherson, samuel, powell sears, and head (2013), the impact of ipv on the mental and physical health of women from various ethnic groups in bangladesh also denotes the associated factors of ipv in the area, which include socio-demographic factors like age, education, income, and social support. gender and racial disparities exist in the comprehension of intimate partner violence (ipv) legislation in bangladesh, as shown by karim, wahab, hossain, and swahnberg (2023). ipv affects women of all cultures and backgrounds, but certain forms of violence pose a greater threat to some than to others. women of african american and hispanic ethnicity, for example, were more likely to be victims of physical assault and financial mistreatment (davila, johnson, & postmus, 2021). significant evidence suggests that intimate partner violence (ipv) is associated with negative mental and physical health outcomes for women, including depression, anxiety, and long-term health difficulties (stockman, hayashi, & campbell, 2015). fanslow, robinson, crengle, and perese (2010) showed that, despite high rates of ipv, new zealand women still believed in traditional gender roles. according to whitaker et al. (2007) culturally competent interventions are essential to preventing intimate partner violence and sexual assault in racial/ethnic minorities. hyman, forte, du mont, romans, and cohen (2009) assert that ethnic minority females residing in canada encounter distinct challenges when attempting to access assistance, including apprehensions regarding immigration status and a lack of confidence in law enforcement agencies. the potential risk factors of intimate partner violence (ipv) have been examined in previous research, with specific attention given to drug addiction, stress, and poverty (schafer, caetano, & cunradi, 2004). klevens (2007) provided an overview of intimate partner violence (ipv) among hispanics and emphasized the need for culturally specific approaches to combat the problem. therefore, research on ipv among minority groups of bangladesh is essential for illuminating this undercounted issue and guiding the development of effective initiatives to minimize ipv and promote equality for women. the purpose of this study is to shed light on the demographic and socioeconomic factors, incidence rate, nature of ipv, and determinants that contribute to the high rates of incidences of intimate partner violence (ipv) among members of minority groups in rajshahi, bangladesh. this study examined to ipv research and the development of effective solutions to address this crucial public health concern by collecting and assessing these data. 2. methodology the present study applied a mixed-methods approach to examine the prevalence, nature, and factors influencing intimate partner violence (ipv) within minority populations residing in rajshahi, bangladesh. to ensure a precise evaluation of the problem, both quantitative and qualitative data have been gathered. among 1710 women from santal, orao, mahali and horizon minority populations, 128 (santal-32, orao-32, mahali-32 and horizon-32) have been selected as sample by using the sample size calculator of australian bureau of statistics (abs) which is 10% of the total population (confidence level = 95%, population size = 1710, proportion = 0.1, confidence interval = 0.05, confidence interval: upper = 0.15000 and lower = 0.05000, standard error = 0.02551, relative standard error (rse) = 25.51, sample size = 128). these 128 women from minority populations in the tanore and godagari upazilas of rajshahi district were surveyed using a combination of self-completed survey questionnaires and face-toface interviews to collect these data. furthermore, a total of ten case studies were executed. the face-to-face interviews provided additional qualitative data on experiences with ipv and the broader social, cultural, and financial context. using descriptive statistics and content analysis, the data were examined after being gathered by qualified research assistants. by combining quantitative and qualitative data, this study will offer insights into the occurrence, form, and underlying reasons for ipv in this community, as well as the demographic and socio-economic variables related to ipv. 3. results the data provided presents a complete picture of the social, demographic and economic status of 128 individuals from a specific population group table 1. the age of the participants ranged from 20 to 40 years, with the 26 to 30 year olds (26.6%) forming the largest group. the people belong to four different ethnic groups: santal, orao, mahali and horizon. each of these groups has 25% of the total population. most people in this sample are housewives (88.3%) and few work in the service sector (3.9%) or do anything else (7.8%). most individuals (40.6%) have completed their asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 80-86 82 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group ssc (secondary school certificate), while only a small proportion of individuals are illiterate (1.6%), and even fewer have post-graduate degrees (2.3%). regarding the age at marriage, most people (57%) married before the age of 18, while the other 43% married at the age of 18 or older. most of the individuals (60.2% of them) are from nuclear families, while the other 39.8% are from extended families. most families (39.1%) have monthly incomes between 5,000 and 10,000 taka, while a smaller number have monthly incomes of less than 5,000 taka (34.4%) or more than 25,000 taka (0.8%). eighteen percent of those surveyed gave no data about their monthly income. most respondents' families earn between 10,000 and 20,000 taka per month (53.9%), while a smaller number earn less than 10,000 taka (23.4%) or more than 30,000 taka (9.4%). most husbands in this sample work as day laborers (55.5%), but some work in agriculture (36.7%) or in the service sector (2.3%). most respondents' families spend between 5,000 and 10,000 taka each month (35.9%), while a smaller number spend less than 5,000 taka (7.8%) or more than 25,000 taka (6.3%). most of the families that took part in the survey spend the most on food (71.1%), followed by their children's education (10.2%) and medical care (10.2%). the majority of respondents (58.6%) live in earth houses, while a smaller ratio lives in tin (22.7%) and shebang/thatch (18.7%) houses. most respondents to the study are treated with biomedicine (65.6%), then homeopathy (7.8%) and then folk medicine (15.6%). most of the population who responded watch tv for entertaining (31.3%) or talk about other people (29.7%), while the rest do other things for fun (39.1%). 57% didn't say how they spend their free time. table 1. socio-economic and demographic status of the respondents. age frequency percent 15-20 (years) 16 12.5 21-25(years) 24 18.8 26-30 (years) 34 26.6 31-35(years) 20 15.6 36-40 (years) 34 26.6 total 128 100.0 ethnicity frequency percent santal 32 25.0 orao 32 25.0 mahali 32 25.0 horizon 32 25.0 total 128 100.0 occupation frequency percent service 5 3.9 housewife 113 88.3 others 10 7.8 total 128 100.0 educational qualification frequency percent illiterate 2 1.6 pec (primary education certificate) 22 17.2 jsc (junior school certificate) 19 14.8 ssc (secondary school certificate) 52 40.6 hsc (higher secondary school certificate) 26 20.3 graduate 4 3.1 post-graduate 3 2.3 total 128 100.0 marriage age frequency percent less than 18 (years) 73 57.0 18 and above (years) 55 43.0 total 128 100.0 types of family frequency percent nuclear family 77 60.2 extended family 51 39.8 total 128 100.0 monthly income of the respondents frequency percent <5000 (taka) 44 34.4 5000-10000 (taka) 50 39.1 10001-15000 (taka) 9 7.0 25001-30000 (taka) 1 .8 na 24 18.8 total 128 100.0 monthly income of the respondent’s family frequency percent < 10000 (taka) 30 23.4 10000-20000 (taka) 69 53.9 20001-30000 (taka) 17 13.3 >30000 (taka) 12 9.4 total 128 100.0 occupation of husband frequency percent agriculture 47 36.7 business 2 1.6 services 3 2.3 day labor 71 55.5 others 5 3.9 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 80-86 83 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group age frequency percent total 128 100.0 monthly expenditure of the respondent’s family frequency percent less than 5000 (taka) 10 7.8 5000-10000 (taka) 46 35.9 10001-15000 (taka) 40 31.3 15001-20000 (taka) 15 11.7 20001-25000 (taka) 6 4.7 25001-30000 (taka) 8 6.3 above 30000 (taka) 3 2.3 total 128 100.0 main source of expenditure frequency percent food 91 71.1 child's education 13 10.2 treatment 13 10.2 others 11 8.6 total 128 100.0 types of houses frequency percent soil made 75 58.6 tin made 29 22.7 shebang/ straw made 24 18.8 total 128 100.0 kinds of treatment frequency percent biomedicine 84 65.6 homeopathic 10 7.8 folk medicine 20 15.6 bio+homeo 14 10.9 total 128 100.0 sources of entertainment frequency percent watching tv 40 31.3 gossiping 38 29.7 others 50 39.1 total 128 100.0 not applicable 73 57.0 total 128 100.0 3.1. incidence, pattern and underlying casual mechanism of intimate partner violence the data presented in table 2 encompasses responses from 128 individuals who had been subjected to torture. the data is presented in the form of frequencies and percentages for each question. the questions cover different aspects of the torture experience, such as the type nature of torture, which performed it and how bad it was for the victim. of the 128 people interviewed, 33 (24.8%) reported being physically tortured, 43 (33.6%) reported being tortured mentally, and 52 (40.6%) reported being physically and mentally tortured to have been tortured. among the 117 respondents who said their husband was the main torturer, 3.9% said their mother-in-law, 1.6% their brotherin-law, 1.6% their father, and 1.6% others. of the 128 total, 43 (or 33.6%) said they had attempted to attack their partner after being ill-treated by torturers, while 85 (or 66.4%) said they had not. according to the results, 34.4% of respondents reported having been thrown, 35.9% had been hit, 36.7% had their hair pulled, and 17.2% had been kicked. additionally, 16 respondents (12.5%) reported being hit by something dangerous and 7 (5.5%) reported being hit by something sharp. it also observed that 17 respondents (13.3%) were tortured for refusing to have sex, 22 (17.2%) starved after the torture and 30 (23.4%) didn’t able to go out of house after being the torture. in addition, 13 respondents (10.2%) said they had difficulty taking care of their child after being tortured. through in-depth interviews, researchers have tried to understand the overall history of ipv among bangladesh's minorities and have found that ipv is a multifaceted problem with multiple causes. the ipv is a pivot in the lives of minority women. under the pretense of maintaining family peace, respondents said that every woman has been tortured at least once in her life by a male family member. cultural and socio-economic standards such as patriarchal views and traditional drug use/intake such as haria pochani and chuani (a local drug made by minorities in northern bangladesh according to their own conventional method and which they acquire through inheritance) are also mentioned as roots for ipv in these communities. ipv is compounded by financial stressors and financial challenges as they exacerbate already tense situations. in addition, poor mental health, alcoholism, and early childhood exposure to violence all play a role in either the practice or experience of ipv. ipv exists among minorities in northern bangladesh and research has revealed that gender inequality and rigidity play a role in this process, but do not play a dominant role. it is interesting to note that in minority groups of northern bangladesh, ipv is not one-way matter, as 43 people (33.60%) of the 128 respondents said they had attempted to harm their partner during an ipv incident. in addition, it was found that women's financial independence is a crucial factor in why they are more likely to engage in violence against their partners in times of conflict. other factors encompass witnessing or experiencing family violence as a child. physical injuries, mental health problems, social isolation, financial difficulties, impact on children’s mental physical and mental health, increased risk of future violence, legal consequences are some of the negative effects of ipv among the ethnic minorities of northern bangladesh. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 80-86 84 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 2. levels of intimate partner violence and analysis of prevalence rate. what kind of torture do you suffer? frequency percent physical 33 25.8 mental 43 33.6 both physical and mental 52 40.6 total 128 100.0 by whom do you become more tortured? frequency percent father 2 1.6 husband 117 91.4 brother-in-law 2 1.6 mother-in-law 5 3.9 others 2 1.6 total 128 100.0 after you were abused, did you attempt to hit your partner? frequency percent yes 43 33.6 no 85 66.4 total 128 57.0 whatever throws something at you? frequency percent yes 44 34.4 no 84 65.6 total 128 100.0 have you ever been slapped? frequency percent yes 46 35.9 no 82 64.1 total 128 100.0 has your hair been tortured? frequency percent yes 47 36.7 no 81 63.3 total 128 100.0 have you been hit with something harmful? frequency percent yes 16 12.5 no 112 87.5 total 128 100.0 have you ever been kicked? frequency percent yes 22 17.2 no 106 82.8 total 128 100.0 has your body been burned? frequency percent yes 3 2.3 no 125 97.7 total 128 100.0 have you been hit with something sharp object? frequency percent yes 7 5.5 no 121 94.5 total 128 100.0 are you tortured for disagreeing for having sex? frequency percent yes 17 13.3 no 111 86.7 total 128 100.0 have you ever been starved after torture? frequency percent yes 22 17.2 no 51 39.8 total 73 57.0 system 55 43.0 total 128 100.0 have you ever stopped going out of the house after torture? frequency percent yes 30 23.4 no 43 33.6 total 73 57.0 system 55 43.0 total 128 100.0 has it ever been difficult to take care of a child after torture? frequency percent yes 13 10.2 no 60 46.9 total 73 57.0 n/a 55 43.0 total 128 100.0 4. discussion the following section reviews the prevalence, type, and associated factors of intimate partner violence (ipv) among 128 women. psychological torture was found to be the most common form of ipv (33.6%), while 40.6% of respondents had experienced both physical and psychological torture. psychological torture is rarely discussed in ipv conversations, yet it can have long-term impacts on victims' mental health and well-being (dillon, hussain, loxton, & rahman, 2013). the majority of the respondents said they were tortured by their spouses (91.4%), while 33.6% reported attempting to strike their partners in response to abuse. in addition, more than one-third of those asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 80-86 85 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group interviewed admitted to being struck, having their hair yanked, and being kicked. a significant proportion of participants did not leave the house (23.4%), and 10.2% found it challenging to care for their children after experiencing ipv. semahegn and mengistie (2015) discovered that lifetime domestic physical violence by a husband or intimate partner against females varied from 31 to 76.5 percent. this is a significant difference compared to the current study, in which 25.8% of women reported experiencing physical torture. according to koenig et al. (2003), the most prevalent forms of domestic violence in rural india were mental and financial. in the present investigation, psychological torture was identified as the most prevalent form of abuse, followed by physical and psychological torture. the majority of respondents (91.4%) were abused by their spouse, followed by their mother-in-law (3.9%), father-in-law (1.6%), and brother-in-law (1.6%). it is consistent with previous research on intimate partner violence, which has repeatedly affirmed that husbands or male partners are the most common perpetrators of ipv (heise, ellsberg, & gottemoeller, 1999; johnson, 2008; mundhra, singh, kaushik, & mendiratta, 2016; straus, 2004; world health organization, 2017). ipv is influenced by cultural and societal norms, as evidenced by a study of rural women in bangladesh (naved & persson, 2005), which found that the husbands of ipv victims were more likely to exhibit typical patriarchal views and dominance over their wives. this finding is also reflective of the current study. in bangladesh, a lack of education and understanding of healthy relationships, communication, and conflict resolution has been cited as a factor in intimate partner violence (ali, ali, khuwaja, & nanji, 2014; koenig et al., 2003). substance addiction and traditional drug use have also been associated with the practice or experience of ipv in minority groups in northern bangladesh which is also consistent with prior studies (cafferky, mendez, anderson, & stith, 2018; ellsberg, jansen, heise, watts, & garcia-moreno, 2008; gilberta, el-bassela, changa, wua, & roya, 2012; roberts, gilman, fitzmaurice, decker, & koenen, 2010). childhood exposure to violence correlates with intimate partner violence among minority communities in northern bangladesh (fulu et al., 2017). in addition, the literature demonstrates the role of gender inequality and rigidity in the development of intimate partner violence (heise, 1998). surprisingly, the current study did not identify a significant role in gender inequality and rigidity in the intimate partner violence (ipv) process among minority communities in northern bangladesh. in addition, the present study contributes to the existing literature on ipv by emphasizing that ipv is not a oneway street among minority groups and by demonstrating that women can also be violent offenders (conradi, geffner, kevin hamberger, & lawson, 2009; fiebert, 2004). as it can contribute to a cycle of violence and exacerbate the situation for both parties, hitting companions in response to abuse is also cause for concern. concerning the effects of ipv on victims, the evidence indicates that a significant proportion of respondents (23.4%) remained at home after the abuse, while 17.2% starved after being tortured. in addition, after the assault, 10.2% of respondents found it challenging to care for their children. intimate partner violence has detrimental effects on the mental and physical health of victims, their offspring, and society (campbell, 2002; coker, smith, mckeown, & king, 2000; loxton, schofield, & hussain, 2006). this underscores the demand for support services that address the shortand long-term consequences of ipv on victims' lives. this study provides a comprehensive understanding of the frequency, characteristics, and factors that contribute to both the perpetration and victimization of intimate partner violence (ipv) among minority populations in northern bangladesh, and highlights the need to implement multifaceted interventions that concentrate on individual, relational, communal, and societal factors to prevent and mitigate ipv. 5. conclusion intimate partner violence (ipv) is a pervasive and consequential issue in developing countries such as bangladesh, where minority groups experience a disproportionate impact as a result of biases connected to ethnicity, religion, language, and economic status. the prevalence of self-defense efforts undertaken by women in response to instances of abuse serves to exacerbate the problem of ipv at hand. to effectively tackle the root causes of both victimization and perpetration, it is imperative to implement comprehensive and culturally sensitive approaches. these approaches may include the promotion of human rights, awareness campaigns, legal reforms, and the provision of support services for victims. by using the aforementioned techniques, we can facilitate a transformation towards more favorable relationship dynamics and improved overall welfare among the minority communities in bangladesh. 6. recommendations in light of the findings of the paper, it is recommended that culturally appropriate approaches be used to address ipv in minority communities in bangladesh. these approaches should include human rights promotion, awareness campaigns, legislative modifications, and victim support services. it is important to consider the experiences of both victims and perpetrators of ipv when developing strategies to address this issue. long-term solutions that focus on changing societal attitudes and norms are needed to effectively reduce the prevalence of ipv in bangladesh. by working together to address this issue, we can create a safer and more equitable society for everyone. references ali, n., ali, f., khuwaja, a., & nanji, k. 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(2012). indeterminate responses to attitudinal questions about intimate partner violence against women in rural bangladesh. population research and policy review, 31(6), 797-830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-0129241-x asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/313909 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(08)60522-x https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801210373710 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-004-1001-6 https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838004269488 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025869 https://vawnet.org/ https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801298004003002 https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605221081926 https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801206296979 https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512454743 https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506290290 https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-0218.183589 https://www.healthynewbornnetwork.org/hnn-content/uploads/bangladesh-dhis-2014.pdf https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2005.00071.x https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-913 https://doi.org/10.1097/ede.0b013e3181f39f03 https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260503260244 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-015-0072-1 https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2014.4879 https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801204265552 https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801206296984 https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/85239 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-012-9241-x https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-012-9241-x 69 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 3, 69-77, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5882 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group sustainability of donor funded food security projects in bumula sub-county, bungoma county, kenya doris nambuye walukano1 luketero stephen wanyonyi2 ( corresponding author) 1,2university of nairobi, kenya. 1email: dorisnambuye@gmail.com 2email: sluketero@uonbi.ac.ke abstract donors fund several projects that are geared towards food security. however, sustainability is key in ensuring that these projects serve their purpose after the funders cease funding these projects. this study investigated factors influencing the sustainability of donor-funded food security projects in bumula sub-county, kenya. it focused on stakeholder participation, education, training, and funding. using a descriptive research design, the study surveyed 274 participants from 11 donorfunded projects. results showed strong positive correlations between all four factors and project sustainability, with stakeholder participation having the strongest influence. participants reported high levels of involvement across project stages, good agricultural knowledge, well-executed training programs, and effective financial management. projects were generally perceived as successful, particularly in meeting quality expectations and timelines. however, areas for improvement were identified in budget management and stakeholder satisfaction. the study concludes that a comprehensive approach addressing all four factors, with emphasis on stakeholder involvement, is most effective for ensuring project sustainability. recommendations include enhancing stakeholder participation in evaluation, bridging technology awareness gaps, optimizing training programs, maintaining strong financial management, and improving budget control measures. these findings provide valuable insights for improving the long-term impact of donorfunded food security initiatives in similar contexts. keywords: agricultural education, project funding, project sustainability, stakeholder participation, training. citation | walukano, d. n., & wanyonyi, l. s. (2024). sustainability of donor funded food security projects in bumula sub-county, bungoma county, kenya. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(3), 69–77. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5882 history: received: 1 march 2024 revised: 18 july 2024 accepted: 31 july 2024 published: 12 august 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the university of nairobi, kenya has granted approval for this study on 16 october 2023 (ref. no. nacosti/p/23/28477). transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 70 2. literature review ......................................................................................................................................................... 71 3. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................ 72 4. research findings ........................................................................................................................................................ 72 5. discussion of findings ................................................................................................................................................ 75 6. conclusion and recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 76 references .......................................................................................................................................................................... 76 mailto:dorisnambuye@gmail.com mailto:sluketero@uonbi.ac.ke https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5882 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2142-4588 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 69-77 70 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study analyzes factors influencing sustainability in donor-funded food security projects in rural kenya. it examines stakeholder participation, education, training, and funding simultaneously, offering a holistic view. findings emphasize the critical role of stakeholder involvement and effective financial management for long-term success in similar contexts. 1. introduction international donors have long supported sub-saharan african governments in improving their citizens' lives across various sectors, including health, education, food security, and environmental protection. non-governmental organizations (ngos) implement donor-funded projects aimed at enhancing social justice and empowerment (kamaara & ouma, 2018). in kenya, development aid has increased significantly, with ngos receiving kenya shillings (kes) 158.7 billion in the 2019/2020 financial year (annual ngo sector report, 2020). sustainability in donor-funded projects is crucial, defined by baumgartner and ebner (2010) as the ability to maintain project goals, results, and products indefinitely. however, donor agencies believe few projects achieve long-term sustainability (nyakundi & musembi, 2021). kenya's sustainability rating stood at 49% between 2000-2014, lower than neighboring countries like tanzania (70.1%) and uganda (59.5%). okun (2012) notes that project benefits often last for only a short period due to lack of sustainability measures. stakeholder involvement, particularly community participation, is vital for project success. bourne (2015) defines stakeholders as people whose support is critically important and whose actions or decisions affect an entity. successful examples include the camel milk project in ethiopia, where community participation enabled beneficiaries to own and sustain the project after donors left (issa, 2018). similarly, the mekong delta region urban upgrading project in vietnam succeeded due to serious community consultation (the world bank, 2020). conversely, failed projects, such as world vision's initiative in malawi, were attributed to a lack of alignment with community needs (pensulo, 2020). adequate funding is essential for project sustainability. pensulo (2020) highlights how human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (aids) support groups in malawi closed after donor funding ceased. wabwoba and wakhungu (2013) assert that the amount of money allocated to projects directly impacts their longevity, especially in food security initiatives. ndegwa (2015) adds that while funding helps projects withstand the test of time, lack of funding makes longterm sustainability difficult. training in governance, funding functions, and policies is crucial for building organizational capacity and achieving project goals. this was demonstrated in community projects in nepal, where training contributed to improved outcomes and sustainability. literacy levels within the community also play a significant role in genuine participation and decision-making. mohammed (2018) note that low literacy can result in apparent participation without real influence on project decisions. in conclusion, the success and sustainability of donor-funded development projects in africa depend on a complex interplay of factors, including community involvement, adequate funding, training, and literacy levels. by the time donors exit a project, target beneficiaries need to have sustenance and management structures in place to continue running the project, a goal that has not been achieved by most projects in developing countries (okun, 2012). addressing these elements holistically can lead to more effective and long-lasting development initiatives. 1.1. statement of the problem despite proper implementation, over 50% of projects in sub-saharan africa fail (ika, 2012). food security remains a significant challenge in developing countries, including kenya. bungoma county, with a poverty index of 3.79%, is among the top five affected counties. the bungoma county government's 2013 report indicates that out of 2800 km2 of arable land, 70% is used for food production and 29.9% for cash crops. land scarcity due to population growth has led to uneconomical land subdivisions, with small farms averaging 1.5 acres and large farms 10 acres. numerous donor-funded food security projects have been implemented in bumula sub-county, including national agriculture and livestock extension programme (nalep), national accelerated agricultural inputs access program (naaiap), new rice for africa, and others (bungoma county integrated development plan, 2018-2022). despite these efforts, 42% of the county's population remains food insecure (county government of bungoma, 2013). given the persistent food insecurity despite multiple interventions, this study aims to investigate factors influencing the sustainability of donor-funded food security projects in bumula sub-county. the research seeks to understand why beneficiary communities fail to enjoy long-term benefits after project completion, focusing on identifying key elements that contribute to project sustainability in this context. 1.2. objectives of the study this study sought to achieve the following objectives: 1. to determine how stakeholders’ participation influences sustainability of donor funded food security projects in bumula sub-county. 2. to assess how education influences sustainability of donor-funded food security projects in bumula subcounty. 3. to examine the influence of training on sustainability of donor funded projects in bumula sub-county. 4. to assess how the level of funding influences sustainability of donor funded food security projects in bumula sub-county. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 69-77 71 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2. literature review 2.1. theoretical framework this study adopted the stakeholder and resource dependency theories which served as the basis for which this study was based on. 2.1.1. stakeholder theory this theory was advanced by freeman, who introduced the concept in a book he published in 1984 which was titled "strategic management: a stakeholder approach”. freeman argued that businesses should consider the interests as well as the needs of each and every stakeholder, but not just the shareholders or owners, and that this approach could lead to long-term success and sustainability (keup, 2022). to explore the sustainability of projects financed by donors, researchers apply stakeholder theory by prioritizing the interests and requirements of all stakeholders involved in the project. donor-funded projects usually involve several stakeholders, including the donor organization, implementing organization, local community, and other beneficiaries. to effectively implement stakeholder theory, the project team must start by identifying all stakeholders and engaging with them from the inception of the project. mcabee (2022) contends that in some projects, some stakeholders are usually seen to have more influence or authority over the project compared to others, this in turn has the ability of creating discord and tension among the stakeholder. this theory will address the first objective concerning the involvement of stakeholders as one of the variables that affect sustainability. 2.1.2. resource dependency theory this theory was advanced by pfeffer and salancik (2003). as per this theory, organizations are not capable of producing each and every resource that they need for their operations and thus must rely on the external environment for attainment of their objectives (pfeffer & salancik, 2003). the theory assumes that an entity must engage with other players and organizations within their operating environment to be able to acquire resources (archibald, 2017). the organization that has the resources (labour, capital raw materials) that are relied upon by other players then has power over them. since donor funded food security projects rely on financial resources from donors this makes them to be highly dependent on the donor. the theory holds the opinion that organizations are not formations with similar interests, but it views organizations as not having similar interests and formations (nienhuser, 2008). it only focusses on the relevance of power, structures and process; it does not look at how factors such as costs, efficiency and mergers between firms when looking at their behaviors. the use of the theory on this study will be to address how funding levels affects sustainability of projects that are meant to enhance food security projects. nevertheless, the stakeholder theory is more anchored to the study. 2.2. empirical review 2.2.1. stakeholders participation and sustainability of donor funded food security projects project success heavily relies on effective stakeholder engagement throughout the project lifecycle. this process, known by various terms like public participation or community involvement, is crucial for including citizens and representatives in decision-making processes that affect their daily lives (marzouki, mellouli, & daniel, 2022). when executed well, stakeholder management fosters collaboration and enhances project sustainability (habumuremyi & tarus, 2021). kimando, njogu, and kihoro (2012) recommends engaging stakeholders from project identification through monitoring and evaluation stages. this approach ensures local perspectives are considered and provides a platform for community voices. stakeholder participation helps establish agreed-upon metrics and actions for project outcomes (gitonga, 2012). ouma and mburu (2017) studied kenya's construction industry, showing positive impacts of stakeholder engagement on project execution. however, ondiek (2016) found that stakeholder contributions to monitoring and evaluation can be limited due to lack of technical expertise. sulemana, musah, and simon (2018) noted that measures restricting community participation in these processes negatively affected project sustainability by reducing transparency and accountability. onziru and kimutai (2022) explored the connection between stakeholder participation and sustainability of world bank-funded projects in karamoja, uganda. the study emphasized the critical role of stakeholder involvement in ensuring project sustainability. overall, effective stakeholder engagement is widely recognized as a key factor in project success and long-term viability. 2.2.2. education and sustainability of donor funded food security projects education is a powerful tool for changing the world, as nelson mandela asserted (nelson mandela foundation, 2017). it enables people to learn from history and address current and future challenges, fostering sustainability. unesco (2015b) emphasizes that education must contribute to sustainable global development. hamdan, andersen, and de boer (2021) found that lack of formal education can hinder project understanding, affecting sustainability. literate communities are better equipped to adapt to technological advancements and climate change, promoting food security project sustainability despite environmental shifts (kapari, hlophe-ginindza, nhamo, & mpandeli, 2023). educated community members can make informed decisions about agricultural tools, inputs, and crop selection for optimal harvests (achichi, sennuga, osho-lagunju, & alabuja, 2023). mohammed (2018) discovered a significant correlation between education and food security project execution. educated farmers demonstrated improved ability to cope with changing situations, utilize modern farming tools, and add value to their produce. education empowers communities to navigate complexities in project implementation and sustainability. it enhances adaptability, technological adoption, and decision-making in agricultural practices. as global challenges evolve, education remains crucial for fostering sustainable development and ensuring long-term project success, particularly in food security initiatives. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 69-77 72 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.2.3. training and sustainability of donor funded food security projects training is essential for effective project implementation and sustainability. it equips staff with the necessary knowledge and skills to achieve project objectives and avoid errors due to ignorance. while training can be costly, its absence may lead to misguided actions and ineffective implementation. hacker et al. (2012) emphasize that community training promotes project sustainability by enabling the application of learned lessons postimplementation. despite sound management strategies, project objectives cannot be accomplished without adequately trained staff (mondy & martocchio, 2016). ogada (2016) found that the level of training is crucial for project sustainability in a study of safaricom foundation-funded education projects in nairobi county. the farmers' field schools (ffs) approach has proven successful in kenya, as demonstrated by a poverty eradication network (pen) study in kalama division, which showed increased crop production capacity among trained farmers (bunyatta, mureithi, onyango, & ngesa, 2006). similar success has been observed in tanzania, where ffs has enhanced agricultural technology adoption (mvena et al., 2013). in malaysia, trained farmers demonstrated improved farm management skills (khairul & kamariah, 2011). these examples highlight the importance of training in various contexts, particularly in agricultural projects. effective training programs contribute significantly to project success, sustainability, and long-term impact on communities. 2.2.4. funding and sustainability of donor funded food security projects developing countries heavily rely on funds from wealthy nations to improve the livelihoods of their populations and drive economic growth (qian, 2015). ochieng (2016) suggests that project managers often focus on completing projects within the set timeline rather than ensuring sufficient funds are available for all related activities. if a project exhausts previously disbursed funds without adhering to donor guidelines, it cannot secure additional funding until proper accounting is done, complicating project implementation. these financial guidelines serve as control measures to ensure spending aligns with donor requirements (zdunek, 2017). funding disbursements can sometimes be delayed, causing lapses that impact project activities as well as sustainability (amaya, 2015). many ngos are highly dependent on donors, leading to sustainability challenges over time (lango, 2020). plan international homabay pu (2014), cited in ochunga and awiti (2017) found that plan international’s community development projects often fail to sustain beyond six months after funding ends. this indicates that projects become unsustainable once donors withdraw. marcelino-sádaba, gonzález-jaen, and pérez-ezcurdia (2015) note that there is increasing pressure for all stakeholders to incorporate sustainability into their projects. 3. research methodology this study employed a descriptive research design, which cohen, manion, and morrison (2017) defined as a framework for answering research questions. the design aimed to provide information about a phenomenon's what, how, when, and where (lambert & lambert, 2012) using survey questionnaires for data collection. the target population consisted of beneficiary farmers, project managers, officers, donor representatives, and group leaders from 11 donor-funded food security projects implemented in bumula sub-county by 2021. the sample size (274 in total) was determined using the yamane (1967) formula, with stratified sampling based on seven wards and simple random sampling within each ward. purposive sampling was used for key informants. semi-structured questionnaires served as the main research instrument. piloting was conducted on a separate population with similar characteristics, as suggested by kumar (2011) who recommended a 5-10% pilot sample. validity, defined by robson (2011) as the accuracy of measurement, was tested using a pilot sample. data collection involved distributing questionnaires to the sampled population. for analysis, quantitative data was processed using spss version 27, employing both descriptive and inferential statistics, while qualitative data was organized thematically and triangulated with quantitative results. 4. research findings 4.1. stakeholder participation and sustainability of donor funded food security projects the first objective of the study was to establish the influence of stakeholder participation on the sustainability of donor funded food security projects. the respondents were required to indicate their level of agreement with items measuring stakeholder participation and the results are shown in table 1. table 1. stakeholder participation. parameters mean std. dev we were involved in identification of the project 4.31 0.91 we are usually part of the planning team 4.35 0.49 our opinions are usually taken seriously 4.26 0.96 we provide services for project implementation 4.33 1.04 we developed metrics for monitoring progress 4.10 0.64 we get involved in monitoring progress 4.17 0.99 we evaluate project progress 4.02 0.76 composite mean 4.22 0.83 the results in table 1 show that stakeholder participation in the donor-funded projects was generally high, with a composite mean of 4.22 on a 5-point scale and a standard deviation of 0.83. this suggests that stakeholders were significantly involved in various aspects of the project lifecycle. the highest level of agreement was reported for stakeholders being part of the planning team (mean = 4.35, sd = 0.49), closely followed by involvement in project identification (mean = 4.31, sd = 0.91) and providing services for project implementation (mean = 4.33, sd = 1.04). these high scores indicate that stakeholders were actively engaged in the early stages of project development and execution. stakeholders also reported that their opinions were taken seriously (mean = 4.26, sd = 0.96), suggesting a good level of respect for their input. involvement in monitoring progress (mean = 4.17, sd = 0.99) and developing metrics for monitoring (mean = 4.10, sd = 0.64) were also rated highly, indicating stakeholder engagement in the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 69-77 73 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group project's ongoing management. the lowest-rated aspect, though still scoring above 4, was stakeholder involvement in evaluating project progress (mean = 4.02, sd = 0.76). while this suggests room for improvement, it still indicates a substantial level of stakeholder participation in project evaluation. overall, these results indicate that stakeholders were actively involved across all stages of the project lifecycle, from identification and planning to implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. this high level of participation suggests a collaborative approach to project management, which could potentially contribute positively to project sustainability. 4.2. education and sustainability of donor funded food security projects the second objective sought to determine the influence of education on sustainability of donor funded food security projects. the results are shown in table 2. table 2. education. parameters mean std. dev i have knowledge on the current farming methods 4.10 0.76 i have knowledge on climate change and how it affects agriculture 4.02 1.02 i am aware of new farming technology 3.96 1.32 agricultural education is necessary 3.99 0.91 composite mean 4.01 1.00 table 2 shows that the respondents generally had a positive perception of their agricultural knowledge and education, with a composite mean of 4.01 on a 5-point scale and a standard deviation of 1.00. this suggests that the farmers in the study area had a relatively high level of agricultural awareness and education. the highest-rated item was knowledge of current farming methods (mean = 4.10, sd = 0.76), indicating that respondents felt well-informed about contemporary agricultural practices. this was closely followed by knowledge of climate change and its effects on agriculture (mean = 4.02, sd = 1.02), suggesting a good awareness of environmental factors impacting farming. respondents also strongly agreed that agricultural education is necessary (mean = 3.99, sd = 0.91), demonstrating an appreciation for the importance of learning in the agricultural sector. the lowest-rated item, though still scoring relatively high, was awareness of new farming technology (mean = 3.96, sd = 1.32). while this indicates a generally good level of technological awareness, the higher standard deviation suggests more variability in responses to this item compared to others. overall, these results indicate that the respondents had a good level of agricultural knowledge and education, with a particular strength in understanding current farming methods and climate change impacts. 4.3. training and sustainability of donor funded food security projects the third objective of the study was to establish the influence of training on sustainability of donor funded food security projects. the results are shown in table 3. table 3. training. parameters mean std. dev we receive training on to enhance agricultural productivity 4.21 1.00 we usually have several trainings 4.16 0.68 the content of the trainings are usually geared towards increasing production 4.24 0.92 the training venues are usually okay 4.31 0.73 the training timings are usually okay 4.48 0.76 composite mean 4.28 0.82 the results in table 3 show that the respondents had a very positive perception of the training provided in the donor-funded projects, with a high composite mean of 4.28 on a 5-point scale and a standard deviation of 0.8192. this indicates that training was generally well-received and considered effective by the participants. the highestrated aspect was the timing of the trainings (mean = 4.48, sd = 0.76), suggesting that the scheduling of training sessions was convenient for most participants. this was followed by the suitability of training venues (mean = 4.31, sd = 0.73), indicating that the locations chosen for training were generally appropriate and accessible. respondents strongly agreed that the content of the trainings was geared towards increasing production (mean = 4.24, sd = 0.92), which aligns well with the goal of enhancing agricultural productivity. they also reported receiving training to enhance agricultural productivity (mean = 4.21, sd = 1.00), confirming that the training programs were focused on practical, productivity-enhancing skills. the frequency of training sessions was also rated positively (mean = 4.16, sd = 0.68), suggesting that participants felt they had adequate opportunities for learning and skill development. overall, these results indicate that the training component of the donor-funded projects was well-executed, with appropriate timing, venue selection, content relevance, and frequency. the high composite mean suggests that training was a strong and effective aspect of the projects, likely contributing positively to the overall project performance and the enhancement of agricultural productivity among the participants. 4.4. funding and sustainability of donor funded food security projects the fourth objective was to determine the influence of funding on the sustainability of donor funded food security projects. the results are shown in table 4. the results in table 4 indicate a highly positive perception of the funding aspects of the donor-funded projects, with a composite mean of 4.28 on a 5-point scale and a standard deviation of 0.84. this suggests that overall, respondents were very satisfied with the funding arrangements and management. the highest-rated aspect was the provision of spending guidelines (mean = 4.48, sd = 0.81), indicating that clear instructions were given on how to utilize the funds. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 69-77 74 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 4. funding. parameters mean std. dev these projects are well funded 4.30 1.02 the funds are usually disbursed on time 4.09 0.67 the funds are readily available 4.27 0.95 the funds disbursed are usually enough 4.27 0.73 spending guidelines are usually provided 4.48 0.81 composite mean 4.28 0.84 this is crucial for ensuring proper fund management and accountability. respondents strongly agreed that the projects were well-funded (mean = 4.30, sd = 1.02), suggesting that the overall funding levels were perceived as adequate. they also reported high agreement on the availability of funds (mean = 4.27, sd = 0.95) and the sufficiency of disbursed funds (mean = 4.27, sd = 0.73). these scores indicate that not only were the funds available, but they were also perceived as sufficient for project needs. the timeliness of fund disbursement received the lowest score, though still high (mean = 4.09, sd = 0.67). this suggests that while there might be some room for improvement in the speed of fund release, it was generally not a significant issue. overall, these results paint a picture of well-managed project funding. the high scores across all parameters indicate that funding was adequate, readily available, sufficiently disbursed, and accompanied by clear spending guidelines. the relatively low standard deviations suggest a consistent experience among respondents. this positive perception of funding aspects likely contributed to the smooth operation and effectiveness of the donor-funded projects. 4.5. sustainability of donor funded food security projects respondents were also asked to respond to statement that sought to establish the sustainability of their projects. the findings are shown in table 5. table 5. sustainability of donor funded food security projects. parameters mean std. dev project met time limit 4.37 0.72 project within budget 3.95 1.25 project within scope 4.05 0.80 project meets quality expectation 4.42 0.76 stakeholder are satisfied with the project 3.95 0.87 composite mean 4.15 0.88 the results in table 5 indicate a generally positive perception of the sustainability of donor-funded food security projects, with a composite mean of 4.15 on a 5-point scale and a standard deviation of 0.88. this suggests that overall, the projects were perceived as successful and sustainable across various parameters. the highest-rated aspect was that the projects met quality expectations (mean = 4.42, sd = 0.76), indicating that the outputs or outcomes of the projects were of high standard. this was closely followed by projects meeting time limits (mean = 4.37, sd = 0.72), suggesting that most projects were completed within their scheduled timeframes. projects staying within scope received a relatively high score (mean = 4.05, sd = 0.80), indicating that the projects generally adhered to their planned objectives and activities without significant deviation. the lowest scores, though still above average, were for projects staying within budget (mean = 3.95, sd = 1.25) and stakeholder satisfaction (mean = 3.95, sd = 0.87). the higher standard deviation for budget adherence suggests more variability in this aspect across projects or respondents. while these scores are still positive, they indicate potential areas for improvement in future projects. overall, these results suggest that the donor-funded food security projects were largely successful and sustainable. they particularly excelled in meeting quality expectations and time limits. however, there might be room for improvement in budget management and enhancing stakeholder satisfaction. the generally positive scores across all parameters indicate that these projects were well-managed and achieved their intended goals, contributing to food security in the target areas. 4.6. inferential statistics to establish the influence of the independent variables on sustainability of donor funded food security projects, a regression analysis was carried out and the results described as follows: 4.7. correlation analysis a correlation analysis was carried out and the results shown in table 6. table 6. correlation matrix. variable project sustainability stakeholders’ participation (r) 0.773 p-value 0.036 education (r) 0.463 p-value 0.018 training (r) 0.618 p-value 0.025 funding (r) 0.652 p-value 0.031 the results in table 6 show the correlations between project sustainability and four key factors: stakeholders' participation, education, training, and funding. all correlations are positive and statistically significant (p < 0.05), asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 69-77 75 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group indicating that each factor has a meaningful relationship with project sustainability. stakeholders' participation demonstrates the strongest correlation with project sustainability (r = 0.773, p = 0.036). this strong positive relationship suggests that higher levels of stakeholder involvement are associated with greater project sustainability. funding shows the second strongest correlation (r = 0.652, p = 0.031), indicating that adequate financial resources are also strongly linked to project sustainability. training exhibits a strong positive correlation with project sustainability (r = 0.618, p = 0.025), implying that effective training programs contribute significantly to the longterm success of projects. education shows a moderate positive correlation with project sustainability (r = 0.463, p = 0.018). while still significant, this relationship is not as strong as the others, suggesting that educational levels play a role in project sustainability, but perhaps to a lesser extent than the other factors. overall, these results indicate that all four factors are important contributors to project sustainability, with stakeholders' participation appearing to be the most crucial. the findings suggest that a comprehensive approach addressing all these aspects, but particularly emphasizing stakeholder involvement, could be most effective in ensuring the sustainability of donorfunded food security projects. 4.8. model summary the study sought to determine the fit of the regression equation using the coefficient of determination between the independent variables and sustainability of donor funded food security projects. table 7. model summary. model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 0.921a 0.849 0.845 0.041 the model summary in table 7 reveals a strong predictive relationship between project sustainability and the factors of training, stakeholder participation, education, and funding. with an r value of 0.921, the model indicates a very strong positive correlation between these predictors and project sustainability. the r square of 0.849 suggests that 84.9% of the variance in sustainability can be explained by these factors, demonstrating the model's high explanatory power. the adjusted r square of 0.845, being close to the r square, indicates good generalizability. the low standard error of the estimate (0.04131) suggests accurate predictions. overall, this model provides a robust framework for understanding and enhancing project sustainability through these key factors. 4.9. multiple regression analysis a multiple regression analysis was carried out to establish the contribution of each variable on the sustainability of donor funded food security projects. the results are shown in table 8. table 8. correlation coefficients. variable un-standardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta (constant) 3.77 0.451 8.36 0.004 stakeholders’ participation 0.782 0.121 0.146 6.46 0.003 education 0.463 0.079 0.126 5.86 0.001 training 0.473 0.073 0.045 6.48 0.005 funding 0.532 0.073 0.142 7.29 0.004 the results in table 8 show the correlation coefficients from a multiple regression analysis, indicating the relationships between project sustainability and the predictor variables. all predictors have statistically significant positive relationships with project sustainability (p < 0.05). stakeholders' participation has the strongest influence (b = 0.782, β = 0.146, p = 0.003), followed by funding (b = 0.532, β = 0.142, p = 0.004). training (b = 0.473, β = 0.045, p = 0.005) and education (b = 0.463, β = 0.126, p = 0.001) also contribute positively to project sustainability. the constant (3.77) represents the baseline level of project sustainability when all predictors are zero. the standardized coefficients (beta) allow for direct comparison of predictor impacts, with stakeholders' participation and funding having the largest effects. these results suggest that enhancing stakeholder participation and ensuring adequate funding, while also focusing on training and education, can significantly improve the sustainability of donor-funded food security projects. the model provides a quantitative basis for prioritizing efforts in project management and resource allocation. 5. discussion of findings this comprehensive discussion compares the findings of the current study with the reviewed literature, highlighting similarities, differences, and new insights across the key factors influencing the sustainability of donorfunded food security projects: the study found a strong positive correlation (r = 0.773) between stakeholder participation and project sustainability, aligning with previous research. this supports marzouki et al. (2022) and habumuremyi and tarus (2021) who emphasized the importance of stakeholder engagement for project success and sustainability. the high mean scores for stakeholder involvement in various project stages (composite mean 4.22) echo (kimando et al., 2012) recommendation for engaging stakeholders throughout the project lifecycle. however, the slightly lower score for stakeholder involvement in project evaluation (mean 4.02) suggests room for improvement, which aligns with ondiek (2016) finding that stakeholder contributions to monitoring and evaluation can be limited due to lack of technical expertise. this highlights an area for potential capacity building to enhance stakeholder participation in all project phases. note: a predictors: (constant), training, stakeholder’s participation, education, and funding. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 69-77 76 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the study revealed a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.463) between education and project sustainability. this supports the literature's emphasis on education's role in fostering sustainability, as highlighted by unesco (2015b) and the nelson mandela foundation (2017). the high mean scores for knowledge of current farming methods (4.10) and climate change impacts (4.02) align with (achichi et al., 2023) assertion that educated communities are better equipped to adapt to technological advancements and climate change. however, the slightly lower score for awareness of new farming technology (3.96) suggests a potential gap in technological knowledge transfer, which could be addressed to further enhance project sustainability. this finding adds nuance to mohammed (2018) discovery of a significant correlation between education and food security project execution. the study found a strong positive correlation (r = 0.618) between training and project sustainability, supporting the literature's emphasis on training's importance. the high composite mean (4.28) for training aspects aligns with and jehanzeb and bashir (2013) assertions about training's essential role in project implementation and sustainability. the particularly high scores for training timing (4.48) and venue suitability (4.31) suggest effective training logistics, which were not specifically addressed in the reviewed literature. this highlights an important aspect of training implementation that contributes to its effectiveness and, consequently, to project sustainability. the study revealed a strong positive correlation (r = 0.652) between funding and project sustainability, consistent with the literature's emphasis on funding's critical role. the high composite mean (4.28) for funding aspects suggests well-managed project finances, contrasting with some literature findings. for instance, the high score for timely fund disbursement (4.09) differs from amaya (2015) observation of frequent delays in funding disbursements. the highest score for provision of spending guidelines (4.48) aligns with zdunek (2017) emphasis on financial guidelines as control measures. however, the overall positive perception of funding contrasts with lango (2020) and ochieng (2016) findings of sustainability challenges due to donor dependency, suggesting that the projects in this study may have implemented more effective financial management strategies. 6. conclusion and recommendations based on the findings and discussion presented in this study, the following conclusion and recommendations are provided: 6.1. conclusion this study investigated the factors influencing the sustainability of donor-funded food security projects in bumula sub-county, focusing on stakeholder participation, education, training, and funding. the results indicate that all four factors significantly contribute to project sustainability, with stakeholder participation showing the strongest correlation. the high levels of stakeholder involvement across all project stages suggest a collaborative approach to project management, which positively impacts sustainability. the generally positive perceptions of agricultural knowledge and education among participants indicate a good foundation for project success. the training component of the projects was well-executed, contributing to enhanced agricultural productivity. funding aspects were also well-managed, with clear guidelines and adequate resources available. overall, the donor-funded food security projects in bumula sub-county were perceived as largely successful and sustainable, particularly in meeting quality expectations and time limits. however, there is room for improvement in areas such as budget management and stakeholder satisfaction. 6.2. recommendations 1. enhance stakeholder participation: given the strong correlation between stakeholder participation and project sustainability, project managers should further strengthen stakeholder involvement, particularly in the evaluation phase where participation was slightly lower. 2. bridge the technology awareness gap: while participants showed good knowledge of current farming methods, there is a need to improve awareness of new farming technologies. this could be addressed through targeted training programs and demonstrations. 3. optimize training programs: building on the success of current training initiatives, project managers should continue to focus on convenient timing and accessible venues. they should also ensure that training content remains relevant and practical for increasing agricultural productivity. 4. maintain strong financial management: the positive perception of funding aspects should be maintained. project managers should continue to provide clear spending guidelines and ensure timely fund disbursement. 5. improve budget management: given the relatively lower score for staying within budget, project managers should implement more robust budget monitoring and control measures. by 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https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/473361594310141972/text/burkina-faso-agricultural-productivity-and-food-security-project.txt https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/473361594310141972/text/burkina-faso-agricultural-productivity-and-food-security-project.txt http://www.uis.unesco.org/education/documents/43-indicators-to-monitor-education2030.pdf https://doi.org/10.1186/2048-7010-2-9 www.interact-eu.net/download/file/fid/6519 www.interact-eu.net/download/file/fid/6519 301 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 4, 301-306, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.301.306 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group utterances functions and the negotiation of power in courtroom interactions: a survey of high courts in ota, ogun state, nigeria darasimi favour akinbinu1 david olorunsogo2 ( corresponding author) 1department of english, university of ibadan, ibadan, nigeria. 2school of media and communication, pan-atlantic university and department of english, university of ibadan, ibadan, nigeria. abstract this study investigated the negotiation of power and the pragmatic implication of utterances in courtroom proceedings in ota, ogun state, nigeria. teun van dijk’s approach to critical discourse analysis and jacob mey’s pragmatic acts theory are theoretical frameworks adopted in the study. data was collected from five high courts’ trial cases in ota, ogun state, nigeria. in the high courts, the judge wills the highest power in the court and controls the proceedings in the high court. the judge dominates the counsels, and litigants while the counsels dominate the litigants. the litigants are observed to be at the receiving end of the discourse as they accept and legitimize this power and dominance. certain pragmatic acts such as acknowledging, protesting, accusing, justifying were deduced from the discourses. the role played by courtroom participants in the social structure influences power relations in courtroom proceedings. thus, power, dominance, inequality and hegemony are notable features in the language of high court proceedings in ota. keywords: power, dominance, inequality, utterance functions, negotiation, courtroom discourse. jel classification: k49 legal procedure, the legal system, and illegal behavior: other. citation | darasimi favour akinbinu; david olorunsogo (2020). utterances functions and the negotiation of power in courtroom interactions: a survey of high courts in ota, ogun state, nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(4): 301306. history: received: 9 october 2020 revised: 11 november 2020 accepted: 25 november 2020 published: 7 december 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 302 2. literature review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 302 3. methodology .................................................................................................................................................................................. 303 4. participants and social structure in state high courts in ota, ogun state .................................................................... 303 5. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 306 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 306 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.74.301.306&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/2397 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3161-4609 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9353-6864 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 301-306 302 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to existing literature by investigating the negotiation of power and the pragmatic implication of utterances in courtroom proceedings in ota, ogun state, nigeria. 1. introduction language is a major tool used in effective communication among humans (olorunsogo, 2020). hence, the talk about variations of language, and language for specific purposes; such as the language of law (legal document), the language of religion, the language of the military, the language of agriculture, the language of economics, language of journalism, and language of medicine among others. there is a difference between the language used in the courtroom and the language used for daily communications among humans (santos, 2004). gibbons (2003) therefore, records that the language of law connotes power and influence. this language has become a means of social control and power in given discourses. the nigerian courtroom employs the adversarial model whereby two opposing sides are made to confront each other and plead their cases with strong physical evidence (exhibits) and verbal testimonies (from witnesses) before a presiding judge who is vested with the capacity to settle on an ultimate conclusion. although, these courtroom participants are expected to play specific roles to bring about law and order, the power exhibited by each of these participants differs. interrogative strategies are one of the key instruments for achieving the basic institutional role of the court (richard and nwizug, 2017; farinde, 2008). therefore, both the presiding judge and counsels rely on interactions based on interrogative processes and patterns to extract information and elicit facts that will form the basis of fulfilling the social functions of the court. in other words, the primary concern of this paper is to examine how direct questioning and answering are used to create unequal relationships among courtroom participants in the high court, and how this manifest through the use of language. 1.1. courtroom discourse courtroom discourse can easily be translated to the use of language in the courtroom. maley (1994) characterizes courtroom discourse as “an interactive form of discourse”. this connotes that courtroom discourse involves interactions among certain participants who are peculiar to the courtroom settings. these participants include the presiding judge or magistrate (as the case may be), the lawyers, the accused, witnesses, the court clerk and security. there are some perceived dormant participants known as members of the public who sit to watch the proceedings of the court, and who could also include families of the accused/witness. conflict and confrontation referred to by harris (1988) often manifest during the examination phase of legal proceedings. at this point, interrogatives are used in which the witness/accused is asked certain questions by the counsel. courtroom questions are indeed linguistic tools used to exercise power and control by counsel. the courtroom discourse also involves other conversational acts such as the use of command, assertive, accusatives, declarations amongst others. farinde (2008) also identifies three major components of dominance in the courtroom. he identified the quantitative dominance which is the amount of speech measured by an analyst in which the size of utterance as well as who says the most words is determined. in this case, the lawyers and judge are said to use the highest number of utterances as they are said to be the parties who ask the questions and guide the utterances made by the witnesses/accused. farinde also identifies the topic dominance which deals with the person who initiates the topic of conversation that is the judge and the lawyers who initiate the topic and changes the topic at their will. he also refers to the interactional dominance which deals with the initiation-response patterns in which the dominant speakers ask leading questions and avoids being dominated and controlled by the other party. another aspect of conversation in the courtroom is its "double frame" of listeners. for example, the trial session in the courtroom, which is examination and cross-examination of witnesses, directed to a set of listeners beyond the immediate speaker and hearer that is the judge, magistrate, the courtroom staff, and so on. while legal conversation is designed to serve a functional purpose for these second-level listeners, they rarely play an active role in the conversation. 2. literature review a lot of studies have been carried out on courtroom discourse. for instance, ahmadu (2014) analysed power relations in courtroom language and how this power is used between authorities in courtroom conversation. in his study, it is deduced that courtroom conventions do not give room for the style and the form of language used by laypersons and this has an effect on their use of language and makes it difficult for understanding and comprehension of conversation. furthermore, richard and nwizug (2017) applied the use of critical discourse analysis to legal discourse to expose how the question-answer sequences of a direct and cross-examination, turn-taking, objections, and other legal proceedings create unequal relationship among participants in high court proceedings and supreme court quarterly report 1990. the study concluded that there is an unequivocally legitimized inequality in the courtroom which manifests through language and that language is the most powerful natural weapon used to effectuate justice in societies. aina, anowu, and opeibi (2018) studied the nature of power and control in the interrogative patterns of selected nigerian courtroom discourse. the study examined power relations in two different but interrelated courtroom trials within the nigerian socio-judicial space. the findings of the study support the interplay between socio-cultural circumstances and legal considerations in some typical courtroom trials in nigeria. kiguru (2008) undertook a critical analysis of power asymmetry among discourse participants in sampled kenyan courts. the study explored the scrutinizing and pragmatics strategies utilized by lawyers, police investigators and unrepresented accused people during direct examination and cross-examination phases of trials. from the research, it is established that evidentiary rules empower those who assume the examiner role by placing them in control of topic choice and change and giving them the means to constrain the contributions of others. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 301-306 303 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group however, lay litigants are not always able to exploit the language and pragmatic resources available to the examiner. while these studies have investigated power relations in courtroom interactions in and outside nigeria, none has explicitly considered the pragmatic functions of the utterances of participants in courtrooms, with special consideration given to state high courts. 3. methodology the study focused on courtroom discourse in high courts in ota, ogun state, nigeria. the data was collected from five trial cases in high courts in ota, ogun state. proceedings of issues on theft, assault, land matters and destruction of public property were selected. the judges of each court gave their consents, however, the identity of participants were made anonymous in the study. the study employed (van dijk, 1993) principles of critical discourse analysis to investigate how power is enacted in the courtrooms. the study also made use of mey (2001) pragmatic acts theory to identify the various functions courtroom participants perform with their utterances. the courtroom proceedings were audio-recorded; the audio recordings were transcribed accurately and analysed using the two theories. 4. participants and social structure in state high courts in ota, ogun state the participants in the state high courts include the judge, counsels, litigants, court clerks and members of the public who are passive participants in the courtroom. 4.1. judge the social structure of the courtroom setting has the judge as the highest-ranked participant. judges play several roles in courtroom proceedings, they interpret the law, assess the evidence presented to them during proceedings and control how hearings and trials unfold in the courtroom. the judge is referred to as the ‘trier of fact’ as he decides whether the evidence is credible or not. he also determines whether a case is to be heard or dismissed or adjourned. more so the judge decides whether the accused is guilty or not guilty at the end of the trial session. if the defendant is convicted of a crime, the judge passes sentence, imposing a penalty that can range from a fine to a prison sentence depending on the severity of the offence. 4.2. counsel the counsels are the barristers in the courtroom. the counsels are next to the judges in terms of their social structure. they are divided into the defence counsel and claimant counsel in civil cases. the defence counsel is one who represents the defendant that is the accused while the claimant counsel represents the claimant that is the person who filed the case. while during criminal cases we have prosecutor or the state counsel who is also a barrister representing the claimant. the counsels represent clients who include individuals, corporations and organizations. they present arguments in forms of examination-in-chief, cross-examination and re-examination before the judge while they may negotiate on their clients’ behalf as in the case of hegemony during hearings. they make use of skills such as analytical skills, persuasion, negotiation, communicative skills and so on to have the judgement in their favour. 4.3. litigants the litigants are ranked the lowest in the social structure. the litigants are those involved in a lawsuit. the person who sues and the accused who got sued are both litigants, this implies that the accused or defendant that is the one who got sued, the claimant that is the one who sued and the witness that is the one who testifies in a case trial are all known as litigants. the litigants are involved in examinations, cross examinations and reexaminations in which they are not permitted to ask questions instead they are required to answer every question directed at them. 4.4. court clerks court clerks are administrative workers in the courtroom who manage secretarial duties including maintaining court records, distributing orders of the court and preparing meeting agendas. the court clerks maintain order in the courtroom, and they announce the arrival of the judge, announces the case and the charges in the case of criminal cases and engage in the swearing of oath by the litigants. figure 1 is the hierarchical representation of the relationship among participants in the high-courts in ota, ogun state. the schema is derived from the observation of the courtroom proceedings and the data that were gathered for this study. 4.5. negotiation of power and dominance among participants power and dominance are negotiated by various participants within the social structure of the courtroom. power and dominance are evident among judge and counsels, defense counsel and claimant counsel, counsels and litigants. 4.5.1. judge versus counsels the judge who is the highest-ranked participant exhibits power and dominance over the counsels during the courtroom proceedings. the court clerk announces the case and the judge signals to the lawyers who are expected to mention their names and mention the party they are representing in the case. the excerpt below shows this. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 301-306 304 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure-1. hierarchical representation of the state high courts social structure. excerpt 1: court clerk: suit number fct/hc/cv/7361/2019 between mr taiwo orimolade versus mr idris buba. judge: (nods in approval) plaintiff counsel: respectfully my lord, i appear for the claimant. i am oluwasegun olaseinde judge: (jots down) yes defense counsel: my lord, i am alao adesanya, representing the accused. judge: (jots down) yes plaintiff counsel: my lord…… in the excerpt above, it can be deduced that the judge wills the ultimate power and control in the legal institution. he also influences decisions made in the courtroom as his approval is sought after by other participants in the courtroom all through the court proceedings. the judge decides when and if the proceedings should continue and nothing can be done without the approval of the judge. this implies that the presiding judge dominates the prosecuting counsel and the defence counsel who in return accept this dominance. the judge and the counsels both have a personal and social cognition as the counsel can detect that a nod or a ‘yes’ means a go-ahead from the judge. in this excerpt, the pragmatic function of acquainting is being achieved. the counsel introduces themselves to court and states who they are representing in the trial. there also exists a shared knowledge (ssk) among the counsels who can infer (inf) that the judge’s physical act of nodding and the use of ‘yes’ implies that the counsels can go ahead with their introduction. more so, the judge has the power to negotiate dates with the counsels before adjourning a case. hegemony occurs between the counsels and the judge who decide on a favourable date for the next trial or hearing of the case, the judge then uses his institutional power to adjourn the case to the agreed date. excerpt 2: defence counsel: my lord, i refer to the motion dated 6/6/19 it is for amendment of our statement of defence. claimant counsel: we are served. we are not opposing it. defence counsel: i move the motion dated 6/6/19 in terms as it is not opposed. judge: order as prayed defence counsel: i refer to motion dated 19/8/19. it was filled and served this morning. claimant counsel: i seek to oppose the motion. we agree 5/9/19 judge: does the defence counsel find this date favourable? defence counsel: yes your honour judge: case is adjourned to 5/9/19 for hearing of the pending application all: as the court pleases. in this conversation, the judge wills his power by adjourning the case. the counsels, thereafter, acknowledge this power by saying ‘as the court pleases’. in this case, the will of the judge is all that is accepted by the counsels who have legitimized his/her power over them. to achieve the pract of negotiating in this excerpt, the judge seeks the approval of both counsels before adjourning the hearing. the judge, therefore, makes use of his institutional voice (vce) in declaring the adjournment of the case. 4.5.2. defence counsel versus claimant counsel there exists a form of power between the learned colleagues that is the defence counsel and the claimant counsel. they both state their claims and state their arguments before the judge during the legal proceedings. they have the power to cross-examine witnesses presented by each other and ask question aiming to discredit the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 301-306 305 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group witness. in addition to this, the counsels have the power to object to certain questions or claims made by the opposing party. excerpt 3: defence counsel: i refer to motion dated 19/8/19. it was filled and served this morning. claimant counsel: i seek to oppose the motion. we agree 5/9/19 judge: does the defence counsel find this date favourable? defence counsel: yes your honour the excerpt above shows that counsels have the power to oppose claims and questionings which might be at the detriment of his/her clients. the opposing party accepts or resists this power through the verdict of the judge who either approves or disapproves the objection. the pragmatic act of opposing is used by the claimant counsel in both instances who refers (ref) to the claims made by the defence counsel which he disapproves of. the defence counsel in the second instance above exhibits the pragmatic act of justifying. he justifies his claims by referring (ref) to the rules of conduct. while the claimant counsel exhibits the pract of accepting as he is forced to accept the decision of the judge. 4.5.3. counsel versus litigants due to the social structure of the counsels which puts them above the litigants due to their institutional knowledge, the counsels exercise power and dominance over the litigants during trial sessions. for example, in the courtroom setting especially during cross-examinations, the counsel is believed to control the topic of the conversation. the lawyer asks required questions which he thinks will assist in solving the case and he does this with the use of questions such as ‘wh’ questions, polar questions, indirect questions and so on. the witness is required to give adequate responses to the questions asked by the lawyer. an example of this is seen in the excerpt below. excerpt 4: counsel: what is your name? witness: my names are hrh oba alani adufai matanmi counsel: where do you live witness: i live at no 22 …. counsel: when did you make this statement of oath? witness: i made a statement of oath on 8/04/2018 counsel: do you adopt it as an evidence in this case witness: yes, i adopt as an evidence in this case counsel: did you make any other statement? witness: yes, i made an additional statement. counsel: do you adopt it as evidence? witness: i adopt it as my evidence also it can be deduced from this excerpt, that control over a topic of conversation is a major form of power, and from the excerpt above, it is evident that the counsel who is equipped with legal knowledge and legitimized power, dictates the topic, and directs the flow of the discourse during a cross-examination. the witness is required to answer questions not as he wants to but to satisfy the counsel. here the witness is presented as a passive participant in the discourse, open to various influences and control while the lawyer is said to be an active participant in the conversation. the excerpt also reflects the pract of investigating. the counsel asks leading questions which he thinks are relevant to the solving of the case. investigation, therefore, requires questioning and answering and the witness exhibit pract of accepting by accepting the topic dominance by the counsel. he also gives relevant (rel) answers to questions directed at him by the counsel. 4.5.4. judge versus litigants the judge exercises his dominance over accused by pronouncing him/her guilty or not guilty and as well stating out the penalties for the crime committed. the judge’s verdicts are final and are not to be contended with due to his role in the social structure. excerpt judge: after a review of the evidence tendered before me and after a consideration of the defences open to the accused along with the applicable laws, i have come to the conclusion that, the prosecution had proved beyond reasonable doubt that the accused on the 16th day of february, 2019 with intent to harm the deceased unlawfully killed the deceased. you are hereby found guilty of murdering the deceased contrary to section 316(2) of the criminal code law. an offence punishable under section 319 (1) of the same law. you are hereby, sentenced to death by hanging” court: as the court pleases there is the pronouncement of a judgement by the judge. he specifically spells out the crime of the accused and finds the accused either guilty or not guilty and states the punishment to be served by the accused if found guilty. the judge is the only participant in the courtroom that is given the right to pronounce judgement due to the power invested in him by the social structure. the pragmatic act of declaring is used by the judge in this instance. he does this by using his institutional voice (vce) in pronouncing the punishment to be served by the accused. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(4): 301-306 306 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 5. conclusion it is observed from the social structure that the high court social structure consists of the judge who wills the highest power, the counsels which include the defence counsel and the claimant counsel, the court clerk, then the lay litigants who include the accused, witness and the claimant. it is also observed that the language use and the social relation that exist between the participants in the courtroom are determined by the role each participant occupies and plays. for instance, the judge wields the highest power and control the text and talk in courtroom proceedings due to his position in the social structure. the counsels defend, interrogate and aim to discredit or support the testimonies of the witnesses in their linguistic usage. their linguistic usage could be argumentative, imperative, descriptive or intimidating depending on what the counsel aims to achieve. the accused, claimant and witnesses known as the litigants who wields the lowest power in the courtroom discourse structure are at the receiving end of the power interplay in the courtroom due to their institution role. their speech is dependent on what they are asked as they do not have the power to ask questions but are expected to answer questions directed to them. in addition to these, various practs were deduced from the in the courtroom conversation analysed pract of interrogating, pract of approving, pract of declaring, pract of objecting, pract of negotiation and so on. legal discourse is different from everyday discourse. it solely makes use of the concept of hegemony. it is highly structured and strictly follows dogmas of power relations; dominance, inequality and mind control which are manifested through discourse structures. references ahmadu, m. (2014). power relations in courtroom language. unpublished project. usmanu danfodiyo university sokoto, nigeria. aina, o., anowu, a., & opeibi, t. (2018). the nature of power and control in the interrogative patterns of selected nigerian courtroom discourse. in d. kurzon & b. kryk-kastovsky (eds.), legal pragmatic (pp. 133–156). amsterdam: john benjamins. richard, b. & nwizug, s. (2017). a critical discourse analysis of courtroom proceedings in nigeria. international journal of arts and humanities ethiopia, 6(4), 93-102. farinde, r. (2008). forensic linguistics: an introduction to the study of language and the law. ago-iwoye: olabisi onabanjo university press. gibbons, j. (2003). forensic linguistics: an introduction to language in the justice system. malden: blackwell publishing. harris, s. (1988). court discourse as a genre. in r. fawcett and d. young (eds.), new development in systemic linguistics, chapter 2. london: bloomsbury. kiguru, g. (2008). a critical discourse analysis of language used in selected courts of law in kenya. unpublished phd dissertation, school of humanities and social sciences of kenyatta university, kenya. maley, y. (1994). language and the law. in john gibbons (ed.), language and the law (pp. 11-50). essex: longman. mey, j. (2001). pragmatics. an introduction. oxford: blackwell. olorunsogo, d. (2020). pilot study: politeness strategies in selected doctor-patient interactions in ibadan private hospitals. international journal of research and innovation in social science, 4(8), 489 – 493. santos, m. (2004). a pragmalinguistic analysis of courtroom questions in a multilingual context. retrieved from https://www.tesionline.it/tesi/preview/a-pragmalinguistic-analysis-of-courtroom-questions-in-a-multilingual-context/18309/1. [accessed14 september 2020]. vandijk, t. a. (1993). principles of critical discourse analysis. discourse & society, 4(2), 249-283.available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926593004002006. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.tesionline.it/tesi/preview/a-pragmalinguistic-analysis-of-courtroom-questions-in-a-multilingual-context/18309/1 http://www.tesionline.it/tesi/preview/a-pragmalinguistic-analysis-of-courtroom-questions-in-a-multilingual-context/18309/1 1 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 1, 1-8, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4356 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group social intelligence skills of high school students at sabah al ahmad center for giftedness and creativity in the state of kuwait and its relationship to some demographic variables heba ahmed al-kandari ministry of education, state of kuwait. email: ox.545@hotmail.com abstract the purpose of this study is to identify the degree of possession of social intelligence skills of high school students at sabah al ahmad center for giftedness and creativity in the state of kuwait. it also purposes to study the relationship between students' possession of social intelligence skills and other variables. the researcher designs a questionnaire to collect data, and the study methodology used the descriptive analytical approach. the sample consisted of 163 high school students at the center for giftedness and creativity, 94 boys and 69 girls. using statistical methods, the finding indicated that high school students at sabah al ahmad center for creativity and giftedness possessed social intelligence skills at a degree between medium and slightly high, as the general average reached (3.89). the finding showed that the students possess (social competence skills, empathy skills, with others, and communication skills with others) to a high degree, and leadership and organization skills to a degree that tends to decrease somewhat. the study did not find statistically significant differences according to the variables of gender, academic phase and number of brothers and sisters. keywords: gifted and talented students, high school, sabah al-ahmad center for giftedness and creativity skills, skills, social communication skills, social intelligence. citation | al-kandari, h. a. (2022). social intelligence skills of high school students at sabah al ahmad center for giftedness and creativity in the state of kuwait and its relationship to some demographic variables. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(1), 1–8. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4356 history: received: 6 september 2022 revised: 18 november 2022 accepted: 2 december 2022 published: 22 december 2022 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 2. previous literature and theoretical framework ........................................................................................................................ 2 3. motivation and objectives ................................................................................................................................................................ 3 4. data and methods ............................................................................................................................................................................... 4 5. results ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5 6. suggestions .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 references ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8 mailto:ox.545@hotmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4356 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5856-5579 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 1-8 2 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature: this research contributes to assisting educational institutions in looking at the reality of their practice with regard to the use of methods that help develop social intelligence skills, and taking the correct method to encourage students to do so. 1. introduction a person’s success and happiness in life depends not only on skills related to his degree and educational attainment, but also on his social intelligence, interaction and relationships with others. a person does not live in his society apart from others, but rather has his relations with the members of the society in which he lives, and who should understand their psyche and personalities. the issue of caring for talented and talented students and studying their characteristics and problems has become one of the essential and important issues in any society that realizes the importance of this group of students, starting from considering it a national wealth if it is properly invested and directed. researchers stress the importance of the individual's social intelligence and even beyond that to its importance for the cohesion of society in general. good behavior in social situations, compatibility with all circumstances, dealing effectively with others and influencing them helps to strengthen relations between members of society. hence, it can be one of the important breeding tools if it is properly invested (shehata, 2017). some studies have shown that these students have many positive features such as : emotional stability, self independence, self-confidence, inquisitiveness, leadership abilities , and the ability to communicate. on other hand , other studies have shown that those students suffer from psychological problems and have special needs due to their unique psychological features, it showed that they suffer from social isolation, psychological difficulties and social problems which found clearly in there asynchronous growth between mental abilities and social abilities, a sense of differentiation or difference and a predisposition to isolation. reaching advanced levels in the development of the student’s knowledge does not necessarily mean that a similar progress has been made to him in social development, primarily that social development is not considered a school subject that’s why it has no place in the school curricula (groun, 2021). researchers have confirmed that mental intelligence affects only 20% of our success in life, while emotions affect the remaining 80%. non-mental factors are necessary to predict the abilities of an individual’s success in life. non-mental factors are meant: emotionality , personal, social factors all these factors with mental abilities are contributing in determining the intelligent behavior (al-anizat, 2017). since its establishment in 1976, the kuwait foundation for the advancement of sciences has been interested in supporting scientific development and its various activities carried out by scientific bodies in the state of kuwait, as a contribution to the dissemination of science and scientific culture among the community through the development of science and technology. the foundation's contributions varied in supporting scientific, technological and intellectual development and supporting scientific research projects in its various fields. believing in the effective role of talented people in scientific development, and that major countries are measured by the extent of their inventions or technology, and the minds they possess that contribute to the development and diversification of the production base, kuwait foundation for the advancement of sciences established sabah al ahmad center for giftedness and creativity in 2010, on the sublime initiative of his highness prince sheikh sabah al ahmad al gaber al sabah. the center takes care of talented and creative kuwaitis through providing an appropriate environment that highlights and develops their talent, and provides an opportunity to transform ideas into a tangible reality. the center is interested in supporting innovation and nurturing kuwaiti individuals who come up with innovative non-traditional projects and ideas. the center provides them with means of support, such as training, education, awareness-raising and promoting a culture of creativity in the community. the center offers several programs that support innovation, such as the program to support and sponsor inventors, the program to incubate and support inventions and innovations to invest them commercially, and the program for governance of the creativity system in kuwait. it also offers applied sciences workshops and enrichment activities such as the fab lab program, the math club program, the ceramic and plastic arts program, and the scientific olympiad program. cenkseven and akbaş (2007) & deniz and yilmaz (2004) confirmed the existence of a relationship between social intelligence, individual self-satisfaction, self-efficacy, self-esteem and the belief that a person bears responsibility for his behavior and that he can control his own environment. mikolajcazak and limunet (2008) indicated that individuals with high social intelligence are more successful in regulating their emotions, and have the ability to establish many social relationships. the study of ahmetoglu, leutner, and chamorro-premuzic (2011) confirmed that a person with high social intelligence is more positive and has self-confidence, which is reflected in his satisfaction, as social intelligence is linked to self-confidence and self-esteem. also, social intelligence predicts the internal satisfaction of the individual, and enables individuals to deal efficiently with the pressures they are exposed to, which is reflected in their positive attitudes towards life (chan, 2006). 2. previous literature and theoretical framework social intelligence is one of the types of intelligence referred to by theories such as: 1howard gardner theory: where he sees that intelligence is a complex structure consisting of a large number of relatively separate abilities, so that each ability constitutes a special type of intelligence that is specific to a particular region of the brain, and he believes that superiority does not mean superiority in other mental abilities. his theory came as a result of observations of many individuals who have superior mental abilities in some aspects but do not get high scores on the rest of the intelligence tests (zaghloul, 2009). gardner has stated that social intelligence is interpersonal intelligence that includes: leading others, resolving conflicts, maintaining relationships with others, and empathizing with others (qatami & youssef, 2010). 2gilferd's theory: intelligence, according to gilfred, is a complex structure consisting of three dimensions: 1. operations dimension: knowledge, remembering, convergent thinking, divergent thinking, evaluation, temporary memory recording. 2. contents dimension: it relates to the material involved in the problem in which the human mind is active, and is divided into: visual, audio, symbolic content, meaning content and behavioral content. 3. output dimension: it relates to the type of thing on which the individual’s mental activity depends, regardless of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 1-8 3 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the type of mental process or the content of the problem. gilfred identified six types: units, categories, relationships, systems, transformations, and applications. 3sternberg's theory: sternberg argues that individuals are governed by three aspects of intelligence: the environmental dimension in which behavior occurs (such as class, work, and home), the factor dimension, which defines the mental components involved in analytical thinking (such as planning, organizing, remembering facts and applying them to new situations) and the dimension of experience that it refers to how individuals encounter new situations and use intuition, foresight, and creativity to help manage these situations (ababneh, 2016). one of the previous studies on this subject (lamoza & jassem, 2018) conducted a study aimed at identifying the relationship between tolerance and social intelligence of primary school students. the descriptive analytical approach was adopted, and the sample consisted of (500) male and female students, who were chosen by random method. the sample concluded that the sixth graders have a good level of tolerance and social intelligence. there are statistically significant differences according to the gender variable in the tolerance scale in favor of females. alanizat (2017) conducted a comparative study between academically superior students and ordinary students in the basic phase in jordan. the sample was chosen randomly from the seventh and tenth grades students between the ages of (13-17) years for the sample of academically superior students and ordinary students. the total number of study members was (505) male and female students. the study used the bar-on emotional intelligence scale, and the results showed that there were no differences between the outstanding and normal students on the scale as a whole except for the adjustment dimension in favor of the outstanding students, and the presence of differences between male and female talented students on the scale as a whole and on the dimensions of: social competence, adaptation, general mood and positive expression in favor of females (clapp, 2016) conducted a study to identify the social intelligence of adolescents and its relationship to self-esteem and the level of academic ambition. the study sample consisted of (778) adolescents, aged 13-18 years of both sexes. the results revealed that the overall social intelligence and its dimensions (information processing and social skills) and self-esteem, as well as the level of total ambition and its dimensions (optimism and the ability to set goals) are higher in females, especially at the age of 16 years. in a study al-thuwaini, al-jassem, and al-faqih (2016) aimed at assessing the quality of life of gifted students at the secondary phase in the state of kuwait, the sample consisted of (142) students of the eleventh grade at the secondary phase in kuwait. the study followed the descriptive approach and torrance tests of creative thinking, raven successive matrices test, and academic achievement records were used as tools to detect gifted categories and the use of the arabic abbreviated form of the quality of life scale issued by the world health organization as a tool for the study. the study concluded that the gifted categories are distinguished by high quality of life, and that there are statistically significant differences in the levels of quality of life dimensions among the gifted students in the social and environmental dimensions. it also found a correlation between the level of performance of gifted and high creativity students, high intelligence and academic achievement on the test of creativity with the level of the psychological dimension of quality of life. on the other hand, ababneh (2016) conducted a study aimed at identifying the relationship between social and emotional intelligence as predictors of behavioral problems in adolescents. the sample consisted of (1030) male and female students, from the schools of irbid first district, selected by the random cluster method. the study showed that social and emotional intelligence are predictive of behavioral problems. the study of saxena and jain (2013) aimed to reveal the levels of social intelligence among university students in light of their gender and academic specialization. the study sample consisted of (120) male and female students from the bachelor’s phase (60 males and 60 females) in the scientific and humanities disciplines at bayhli university. the results revealed that the level of social intelligence was higher in females than in males, while social intelligence in all dimensions was higher among students of humanities than students of applied sciences, especially in the dimensions of fun, cooperation, honesty and sensitivity. al-ali, singh, and smekal (2011) conducted a study that aimed to reveal the relationship between social skills, aggression and social anxiety among secondary school students. the sample consisted of (300) male and female students from the twelfth grade in the state of kuwait. the study showed a negative relationship between social anxiety and aggression with social skills. the study qualter, whiteley, morley, and dudiak (2009) aimed to find out the relationship between emotional intelligence and professional success. the sample consisted of (456) male and female students at the university, in australia, and the results showed that students who have a higher level of social intelligence are more willing to succeed and professionally excel. it was also found that students who develop a higher level of social intelligence become more persistent in their studies. the study of chan (2008) aimed at examining the relationship; between social, emotional maturity, leadership traits, and social relations among a sample of gifted and ordinary students. the sample consisted of (498) male and female students in hong kong. the study found that gifted students were more interested in leadership activities and problem-solving behavior, but they were less emotionally intelligent and less interested in social relationships. parker, summerfeldt, hogan, and majeski (2004) also conducted a study that aimed at identifying the relationship between social intelligence and academic achievement on a sample of (667) male and female students from the secondary phase , divided into two groups: the first: experimental consisting of two levels: high-achieving and low-achieving, and the second: then the experimental group was exposed to enrichment programs for social intelligence skills. the results showed that social intelligence can partially predict academic achievement (16%). it also showed that those with a high level of social intelligence were more successful than those with a low level of social intelligence. 3. motivation and objectives the individual goes through different phase s of life with different developmental periods, and each developmental phase has its requirements and needs. the phase of adolescence is one of the most important phase s of human life, as the individual at this phase needs to adapt to the social environment in which he resides and to satisfy his emotional needs of love and acceptance by society. the adolescent also needs to be treated with respect as an integral being from a social, emotional and cognitive point of view. therefore, adolescents shall develop intelligent behaviors while dealing with themselves or others in order for them to adapt to society. for a long time in educational circles it was believed that success in life and school depended primarily on mental abilities represented by excellent performance on official intelligence tests and academic achievement rates; forgetting the modern theories that believe that success depends on multiple intelligences, such as “gardeners' theory, 1983”. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 1-8 4 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group this is supported by what was stated in the report issued by the national clinical center for children's programs in america that social and emotional measures predict a child's success more than his knowledge or early reading ability. the report presented seven foundations for the formation of the critical ability to learn, all of which are related to social intelligence: self-confidence, curiosity, persistence, self-control, the ability to form relationships and bond with others and the ability to communicate and collaborate (al-anizat, 2017). the study of cross, gustbrey, and ball (2002) indicated that a set of social and psychological factors related to social intelligence led the outstanding students to multiple problems. these include poor social relationships, difficulties in establishing social relationships with peers, frustration, anger, introversion, shyness, and inhibition as they were suppressing their anger above the normal limit. people who have deficiencies in social intelligence and social skills may have problems interacting with others. when some people lack social intelligence, they become more likely to fail in their social lives and to recur problems resulting from mistreatment of others (helal, 2011). the weak intelligence of the individual makes him more likely to suffer from the risks of serious psychological disorders such as depression and feelings of helplessness, as social intelligence is one of the main determinants of positive mental health, as it shows its role in interaction with others and harmony with them (qassem, 2009). as social intelligence is an important link in the scientific and practical life of the individual and its weakness makes the individual vulnerable to psychological, behavioral and personal disorders, it shall be an important axis in the formation of the students of sabah al ahmad center. the goal we seek as educators is to prepare students scientifically, professionally, psychologically and behaviorally. therefore, it has become necessary to pay attention to the social aspects of preparing students. this is what the researcher has noticed in general in our curricula in kuwait, which is that they are free from developing the social aspect and the lack of stimulating the student’s social skills and focus only on the scientific aspect, affecting the weakness of social intelligence. 4. data and methods 4.1. set of data the research community consisted of high school students from the sabah al-ahmad center for giftedness and creativity for the year 2021-2022 ad. a deliberate sample of (163) individuals was selected. the researcher prepared a questionnaire that included (23) items to measure social intelligence, divided into four axes, the first axis (social competence skills) from 6 items (1-6), the second axis (communication skills with others) from 7 items (713), the third axis (the skills of empathy with others) of 6 items from (14-19), the fourth axis (leadership and organization skills) of 4 items (20-23). it is answered according to a quintuple likert (always = 5, often = 4, sometimes 3, rarely = 2, never = 1). table 1 shows the most important characteristics of the study sample according to the study variables. table 1. sample description. percent frequency properties variables 35.6 58 tenth grade educational level 25.8 42 eleventh grade 38.7 63 twelfth grade 57.7 94 male gender 42.3 69 female 38.0 62 one the number of brothers and sisters 21.5 35 two 16.0 25 three 11.7 19 four 12.9 21 five or more it is clear from the analysis of the results of the first section of the questionnaire, presented in table 1 that (57.7%) of the study sample members are males, and the remaining percentage (42.3%) are females. it is also noted that the majority of them are from the twelfth phase with a percentage of (38.7%). this enhances confidence in the results that the number of siblings varies between an individual and more than 5 of the above. it is clear that the respondents have the necessary knowledge and ability to understand the questions and answers of the questionnaire. 4.2. measuring students' responses after reviewing the previous studies related to the subject of the study, such as a study (clapp, 2016) and a study (abdel-razzaq, alnaimy, & abdalstar, 2016) articles and websites of electronic libraries and kuwait university library. a questionnaire was made to measure the responses of students, members of the research community, on the mental health scale. the results of the research were presented according to the type of statistic used as follows: (1) descriptive statistic that includes measures of central tendency was used to answer the first question related to the extent to which secondary school students at sabah al-ahmad center for giftedness and creativity possess social intelligence skills. (2) inferential statistics, which was used to answer the second question related to identifying the existence of statistically significant differences according to the study variables (gender academic phase number of brothers and sisters). the researcher made sure of the moderation of the distribution of degrees to choose the appropriate statistical method through the smirnov test, and the results came that the level of significance is greater than 0.05, which means the moderation of the distribution of degrees. 4.3. experimental model: questionnaire is the research tool the researcher prepared a questionnaire that included (23) items to measure social intelligence skills, divided into four axes. the first axis (social competence skills) consists of 6 items (1-6), namely (i advise my colleagues when they make mistakes i treat others equally i do not feel embarrassed when i apologize to colleagues i do not interrupt colleagues when they are talking in front of others i deal kindly with others i care about the feelings of others when i deal with them). the second axis (communication skills with others) consists of 7 items asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 1-8 5 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group from (7-13) which are (i take the initiative to talk to others i seek to gain the trust of those around me i get along easily in social situations the cheerful face brings me closer to my colleagues i understand the expressions and movements of colleagues i am pleased to share colleagues in parties and social events i seek to build good relationships with my colleagues). the third axis (the skills of empathy with others) consists of 6 items from (14-19), which are (i ask about colleagues when they are absent from school i help my colleagues if they are subjected to something bad i miss my colleagues when i leave them for a period of time i feel the same feelings as my colleagues when they have a problem i feel joy for the joy of others i use facial expressions to show sympathy to colleagues). the fourth axis (leadership and organization skills) consists of 4 items from (20-23) which are (i organize my school work i participate in planning in school celebrations my colleagues talk to me about their problems without embarrassment i organize the work of colleagues when they need me). to verify the validity of the tool (the questionnaire), it was presented to a group of colleagues (dr. huda al-kandari ministry of education kuwait, dr. safwat hassan educational research center ministry of education kuwait, dr. alaa seif al-islam information systems center zakat house kuwait). all their observations were taken in terms of form and content, and included in the last version. the researcher also verified the validity of the internal consistency by applying the tool to an exploratory sample consisting of (20) individuals from the same academic community students. correlation coefficients were calculated between each axis score and the overall score for the resolution > the results of the correlation coefficients indicated that there is a significant positive function correlation between the scores of each axis, and the total score at the 0.01 level. this indicates that each of the axes measures the same function measured by the questionnaire, as shown in table 2. finally, the researcher calculated the reliability by using cronbach alpha reliability coefficient for the study tool as a whole on the exploratory sample, which came high, with a value of 0.874. table 2. correlation coefficient of each axis score with the total score. pivots correlation coefficient result first pearson correlation 0.552 sig. (2 – tailed) 0.12 n 20 second pearson correlation 0.808 sig. (2 – tailed) 0.00 n 20 third pearson correlation 0.769 sig. (2 – tailed) 0.000 n 20 fourth pearson correlation 0.740 sig. (2 – tailed) 0.000 n 20 5. results 5.1. first question results the results of the first question of the study included about the degree of possession of social intelligence skills by high school students at sabah al ahmad center for giftedness and creativity. the result was between medium and slightly high, with the general average reaching 3.89 (in table 3). by comparing the arithmetic averages of all axes in general, the special arithmetic averages of the responses of the members of the private study community towards high school students' possession of social intelligence skills at the sabah al ahmad center for giftedness and creativity came to a high degree (empathy skills, social competence & interpersonal communication). this is due to the fact that those who are characterized by high intelligence have internal satisfaction and can deal efficiently with social life skills (chan, 2006) and to a degree that tends to decrease somewhat in leadership and organization skills. table 4 shows the frequencies, percentages, and arithmetic averages of the study sample's responses to the axes of social intelligence skills, and the results show the extent to which students possess social intelligence skills. it was noted the importance of the two items (15, 18) and their role in enhancing the skill of feeling empathy, as the following was noted: (1) that item (18) “i feel joy for the joy of others” presented in the introduction with a response rate often and always (81%), followed by item (15) “i do with the help of my colleagues if they are subjected to something bad, with response rates often and always (78.5%). the researcher attributes the reason that gifted students have an interest in solving problems (chan, 2008). the reason may be that gifted students appreciate the feeling of achievement, striving and joy to reach their goals. (2) while their average response rates in item (17) tended to be lower than the rest of the paragraphs of the axis, which is “i feel the same feelings as my colleagues when they are exposed to a problem.” then the axis (social adequacy) came in second place with an arithmetic average of (3.98). in particular, it was noted the importance of items (1, 4) and their role in enhancing the skill of social competence. the following is noted: (1) item (4) “i do not interrupt colleagues when they speak in front of others” in the introduction with a response rate of often and always (84.6%), followed by item (1) “i advise my colleagues when they make mistakes” with response rates often and always (83.5%). the reason may be that the students in this age phase “adolescence” need the adolescent for love and belonging to his peers, so he provides them with advice and assistance. (2) while the percentages of their responses in item (3) tended to be lower than the rest of the paragraphs of the axis, especially “i do not feel embarrassed when i apologize to colleagues.” the axis (communication with others) came in third place, with a mean of (3.93). it was noted the importance of items (13, 12) and their role in enhancing the skill of communication with others, as the following was noted: (1) item (13) “i seek to build good relations with my colleagues” in the introduction, with response rates often and always (78.6%), followed by item (12) i am pleased to share colleagues in parties and social events “with response rates often and always with a rate of (76%). (2) while their responses in item (9) tend to be lower than the rest of the axis items, which are social attitudes. this may be due to the fact that outstanding students face a problem in getting along easily in social relations (cross et al., 2002). finally, and in fourth place, the axis (leadership and organization skills) with a mean of (3.46) with a degree that tends to decrease, it was noted asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 1-8 6 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the importance of the two items (23, 22) and their role in enhancing leadership and organization skill, where the following was noted: (1) item (23) “i organize the work of colleagues when they need me” in the introduction, with response rates often and always (62.5%), followed by item (2) “my colleagues talk to me about their problems without embarrassment” with response rates often and always (52.8%) only. 2) while their response in item (21) tends to be lower than the rest of the paragraphs of the axis, which is "i participate in planning the school's celebrations." the response rates were mostly and always (32.5%) only, i.e. about one third of the sample. the researcher attributes the reason for this to the prevailing school system in kuwait, where the planning and implementation of celebrations is the responsibility of the school administration only, without allowing students to participate and cooperate in the preparation and implementation. table 3. arithmetic averages and standard deviations of the study axes. pivots n minimum maximum mean std. deviation first 163 2 5 3.98 0573 second 163 2 5 3.93 0669 third 163 2 5 4.06 0762 fourth 163 2 5 3.46 0.810 all 163 2 5 3.89 0.529 table 4. frequencies, percentages and arithmetic averages of the study sample's responses to items and axes of social intelligence skills for high school students at sabah al ahmad center for giftedness and creativity (n = 163). st.d mean always often sometimes rarely never skills ser. 0.82 4.24 44.2% 39.3% 12.9% 3.7% i often advise my colleagues when they make mistakes 1 1.26 3.78 38.0% 26.4% 18.4% 9.8% 7.4% i treat others equally 2 1.15 3.65 25.8% 35.6% 22.7% 9.8% 6.1% i don't feel embarrassed when i apologize to colleagues 3 0.89 4.21 42.9% 41.7% 11.0% 1.8% 2.5% i do not interrupt colleagues when they are talking in front of others 4 1.09 4.09 45.4% 32.5% 11.0% 7.4% 3.7% i am kind to others 5 1.23 3.91 44.2% 22.7% 21.5% 3.7% 8.0% i care about other people's feelings when i interact with them 6 0.57 3.98 social adequacy axis 1.07 3.61 25.2% 27.6% 33.1% 11.0% 3.1% i start talking to others 7 1.01 3.94 38.0% 26.4% 28.2% 6.1% 1.2% i am trying to gain the trust of those around me 8 1.04 3.56 20.2% 34.4% 29.4% 13.5% 2.5% i fit in easily in social situations 9 1.07 3.88 36.2% 28.2% 25.2% 8.0% 2.5% a cheerful face brings me closer to my colleagues 10 0.95 4.05 39.3% 34.4% 19.0% 6.7% 0.6% i understand the expressions and movements of colleagues 11 0.98 4.21 52.1% 23.9% 17.2% 6.1% 0.6% i am happy to participate with colleagues in parties and social events 12 0.99 4.24 53.4 25.2 15.3% 4.3% 1.8% i seek to build new relationships with my colleagues 13 0.67 3.93 communicate with others axis 1.06 3.98 41.7% 25.8% 23.3% 7.4% 1.8% i ask about colleagues when they are absent from school 14 0.99 4.26 55.8% 22.7% 15.3% 4.3% 1.8% i help my colleagues if they are hurt 15 1.10 3.99 44.2% 24.5% 19.6% 9.8% 1.8% i miss my colleagues when i leave them for a while 16 1.05 3.83 33.1% 28.8% 27.6% 8.6% 1.8% i feel the same as my colleagues when they have a problem 17 0.89 4.38 60.7% 20.9% 14.7% 3.1% 0.6% i feel joy for the joy of others 18 1.10 3.93 39.9% 27.0% 21.5% 9.2% 2.5% i use facial expressions to show sympathy to colleagues 19 0.76 4.06 empathy for others axis 1.23 3.49 25.2% 27.6% 27.0% 11.7% 8.6% i organize my school chores 20 1.30 2.96 17.2% 15.3% 29.4% 22.7% 15.3% participate in planning school celebrations 21 1.15 3.53 22.7% 30.1% 31.9% 8.0% 7.4% my colleagues talk to me about their problems without embarrassment 22 1.03 3.85 33.1% 29.4% 29.4% 5.5% 2.5% i organize the work of colleagues when they need me 23 0.81 3.46 leadership and organization axis 0.53 3.89 arithmetic mean of the tool as a whole 5.2. second question results these results focus on the existence of statistically significant differences in students' social intelligence skills according to the study variables (academic phase, gender, and number of brothers and sisters). the multiple analysis of variance tests was used after confirming the moderation of the distribution of scores, and the results are presented in table 5. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 1-8 7 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 5. one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov test. pivots first second third fourth result n 163 163 163 163 163 normal parametersa,b mean 3.98 3.93 4.06 3.46 3.89 std. deviation 0.573 0.669 0.762 0.810 0.529 most extreme differences absolute 0.091 0.105 0.147 0.089 0.084 positive 0.048 0.085 0.109 0.089 0.047 negative -0.091 -0.105 -0.147 -0.088 -0.084 kolmogorov-smirnov z 1.161 1.340 1.873 1.131 1.069 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) 0.135 0.055 0.002 0.155 0.203 note: a. test distribution is normal. b. calculated from data. table 5 shows that there are no statistically significant differences for the study variables. table 6. results of the multivariate analysis to determin the differences between groups according to the varible of school stage , gender, and the number of brothers and sisters. sig. f mean square df type iii sum of squares source 0.604 0.506 0.166 2 0.332 social adequacy academic phase 0.725 0.323 0.147 2 0.294 communication with others 0.743 0.297 0.172 2 0.343 empathy with others 0.521 0.655 0.437 2 0.875 leadership and organization 0.988 0.012 0.004 2 0.007 total degree 0.141 2.188 0.719 1 0.719 social adequacy gender 0.383 0.766 0.349 1 0.349 communication with others 0.208 1.601 0.925 1 0.925 empathy with others 0.786 0.074 0.049 1 0.049 leadership and organization 0.751 0.101 0.029 1 0.029 total degree 0.660 0.604 0.198 4 0.794 social adequacy no. of brothers 0.677 0.581 0.265 4 1.059 communication with others 0.235 1.403 0.811 4 3.243 empathy with others 0.615 0.668 0.446 4 1.785 leadership and organization 0.806 0.404 0.117 4 0.468 total degree 155 50.902 social adequacy error 155 70.599 communication with others 155 89.554 empathy with others 155 103.527 leadership and organization 155 44.887 total degree 163 2634.500 social adequacy total 163 2585.347 communication with others 163 2783.917 empathy with others 163 2056.063 leadership and organization 163 2517.459 total degree table 6 shows that there is no influence or relationship for each of the academic phase, gender and number of siblings. the values of significance (p) for the axes and the total score came at a level less than 0.05. table 2 shows the results of a multivariate analysis to determine the differences between groups under the variables of academic phase, gender, and number of brothers and sisters. 6. suggestions • in light of the study results, the researcher recommends doing community activities to integrate more talented students (such as volunteering, participating in cooperative activities within the school and going to field trips) and benefiting from them in community service. • conducting survey tests to measure students’ multiple intelligence skills, to take advantage of them by making remedial programs at points of decline in behaviors related to students’ social skills. • training students to be more satisfied with themselves and their scientific and public life, and giving the training programs that enhance the positive social characteristics of talented people, such as self-confidence, independence, decision-making, and adapting to social situations. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 1-8 8 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group • it is necessary for the school to pay attention to social behaviors, which are an indicator of positive attitudes towards life, and to conduct developmental workshops for gifted teachers in terms of enhancing positive social skills. references ababneh, f. 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(2009). principles of educational psychology. jordan: university book house. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.08.016 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2006.04.005 https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410701668372 https://doi.org/10.52839/0111-000-057-012 https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.12.012 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00076-x https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00076-x https://doi.org/10.1080/13596740903139255 25 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 9, no. 2, 25-30, 2022 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v9i2.3828 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group analysis of social economic factors affecting cocoa production in ile oluji community of ondo state, nigeria akinfiresoye, w.a.1 adebayo, s.a.2 olarewaju o.o. 3 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3agricultural technology department, federal polytechnic, ile-oluji, ondo state, nigeria. 1email: waleolaakinfiresoye@gmail.com tel: +2348033573716 2email: adebayoayodeji90@gmail.com tel: +2347061142361 3email: olarewaju4abidemi2016@gmail.com tel: +2348151511882 abstract ile oluji is one of the communities known for cocoa production in the south west of nigeria and thus selected to examine the factors responsible for decline in cocoa production in the country. primary data was collected using a well-structured questionnaire and oral interview administered to 250 cocoa farmers selected across the 6 wards of the community using a multi-stage sampling technique. data obtained were analyzed descriptively using statistical package for the social sciences (spss, 23). further analysis of the data through linear regression and analysis of variance at p ≤ 0.05 showed that all the factors, such as gender, sex, age, fungicides used and household size investigated are significant to the production of cocoa in this community. younger ones, as well as women are to be encouraged to go into cocoa farming while the local breeds should be replaced with the hybrid for improved production. keywords: cocoa, cocoa farmers, cocoa production, socio-economics, ile oluji, ondo state, nigeria. citation | akinfiresoye, w.a.; adebayo, s.a.; olarewaju o.o. (2022). analysis of social economic factors affecting cocoa production in ile oluji community of ondo state, nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 9(2): 25-30. history: received: 4 february 2022 revised: 9 march 2022 accepted: 24 march 2022 published: 6 april 2022 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 26 2. materials and method ..................................................................................................................................................................... 26 3. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 26 4. regression analysis and analysis of variance (anova) ........................................................................................................ 30 5. conclusion and recommendation ................................................................................................................................................ 30 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 30 mailto:waleolaakinfiresoye@gmail.com mailto:adebayoayodeji90@gmail.com mailto:olarewaju4abidemi2016@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v9i2.3828 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0528-1131 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3805-4111 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0422-7857 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 25-30 26 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the study revealed factors responsible for a decline in cocoa production in ile-oluji community of ondo state, nigeria. these factors when properly addressed will improve cocoa production in the community, and this can be applied to the state and by extension in nigeria. 1. introduction cocoa (theobroma cacao) is one of the tropical agriculture major cash crops to be traded worldwide having its origin to the amazon river in south america (akinniran & taiwo, 2016). it was introduced into many countries in west africa during the nineteenth century, and it has become an important export crop in ghana, cote d'ivore, nigeria, togo and equatorial guinea who supply more than two-third of the world's cocoa (akinniran & taiwo, 2016; folayan, daramola, & oguntade, 2006). it is the principal source of income for millions of farm workers in the cocoa producing states of nigeria (oguntade, 2013). the quantity of cocoa beans exported from nigeria between 1976 -1977 and 2021 2003 was an average of 166,813 tons annually according to oguntade (2013). soneye (2014) observed that the high yield of cocoa was as a result of the local weather in nigeria, coupled with the climatic condition of the producing environments and the joint possibility of growing arable food crops on the same plot by the peasant farmers especially when the cocoa seedlings are still young and there are also free space to support that. however, there have been a declining growth rate and production of cocoa in nigeria (folayan et al., 2006). onyeiwu, pallant, and hanlon (2009) substantiated the declining growth rate and production of cocoa in nigeria while job, nmadu, and busayo (2015) observed factors such as age, sex, education and adaptation to innovation as responsible for this decline in africa. in the work of ajayi, afolabi, ogunbodede, and sunday (2010) ile oluji was seen to have the potential of producing greater yield of cocoa annually if there is a federal government of nigeria intervention. although these researchers worked on the effect of rainfall on cocoa, this study investigated other factors that may influence cocoa production in ile oluji. 2. materials and method the study was carried out in ile-oluji, an agrarian community in ile-oluji / oke-igbo local government area of ondo state, nigeria prominent for cocoa production (ajayi et al., 2010). a three stage random sampling technique was used in the cross sectional surveying of the study area. the study area was grouped into six (6) according to the number of wards in the community. in each ward, simple random sampling was used to select 35 cocoa farmers and 6 cocoa buyers. then 4 cocoa retail shops owners selling cocoa farm tools, fungicides, pesticides and the likes were also interviewed. this gave two hundred and fifty (250) total respondent for the study. the research employed the use of primary data through structured questionnaire and oral interview schedule. information about the social and economy lifestyle of cocoa farmers were obtained. this include age of cocoa farmers, marital status, size of family, gender, size of farm, level of education, ownership, type of breed and fungicides used. these factors formed the independent variables while the tons of cocoa produced per year formed the dependent variable. data collected were analyzed using statistical package for the social science (spss) 2013 version. both descriptive statistics such as means, frequencies and percentage were used to determine the levels of each of the independent factors. linear regression and analysis of variance (anova) were also used to establish the level of relationship between the dependent and independent variables. 3. results and discussion the social economy factors affecting cocoa production in ile-oluji is as presented in figure 1 to 6. it was seen from figure 1 that 76 % farmers growing cocoa in this community were males while about 24 % were females. this was the trend as observed also by osarenren, ejuetueyin, and eweka (2016) in a similar study carried out in edo state, nigeria. therefore, more females should be encouraged to go into cocoa farming for production boosting. as shown in figure 2, about 37 % of cocoa farmers are 50 years and above, while about 25 % are between age 41 and 50. those within ages 21 and 30, and 31 and 40 were just 17 % and 21 % respectively. however, the cumulative percentage of cocoa farmers within the age range of 21 and 50 was 63 % which was higher than those in the 50 years and above range. this implied that there should be an improvement in cocoa production based on the percentage of farmers within the economy active age as corroborated by akinniran and taiwo (2016) in a related study. figure 1. bar chart showing gender distribution. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 25-30 27 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 2. bar chart showing age distribution. the marital status of these farmers as shown in figure 3 revealed that 32 % of them have lost their spouses, 22 % were divorced, 18 % have compromised relationship status while 18 % were married and another 18 % were still single. the family size presented in figure 3 showed that 35 % of the farmers have between 7 and 9 family members of the father, mother and children. about 29 % of the farmers have between 4 and 6 family members while 20 % of them have 1 to 3 family members and only 16 % have more than 9 family members. the oral interview conducted showed that the farmers leverage on the size of the family as labour for an increase in cocoa production. figure 3. bar chart showing marital status distribution. figure 4. bar chart showing household distribution. as shown in the bar chart of figure 5, it was discovered that 36.1 % of the farmers have been farming on cocoa between 11 and 20 years. about 30.2 % have been on cocoa farming for 30 years while only 17.9 % have 10 years and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 25-30 28 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group below experience. about 37 % of these farmers have secondary education, 25 % have tertiary education while 18 % have primary education as shown in figure 6. the farm experiences and elementary education is enough to positively affect cocoa production as equally observed by akinniran and taiwo (2016). figure 5. bar chart showing farming length status distribution. figure 6. bar chart showing educational distribution. it was observed from figure 7 that about 44 % of the farmers have between 6 and 10 hectare of cocoa plantation, while only 14 % has 10 ha and above whereas 18 % of the farmers has between 1 and 5 ha of cocoa farm. it was also discovered as shown in figure 8 that only 18 % of these farmers cultivated their cocoa farm from the scratch, while 44 % inherited their farms. the implication of this is that the self-cultivated farm has an history known to the farmer when compared to the one inherited. hence, it is easier for the former to improve productivity than the latter. figure 7. bar chart showing farm size. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 25-30 29 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 8. bar chart showing ownership status. it was shown in figure 9 that 64 % of cocoa plantation in ile-oluji were local breeds while only 36 % were hybrids. this corroborate the ownership status percentage whereby 44 % of these farms were inherited. there will be low production of cocoa beans if there is no improvement in increasing the percentage of the local breeds to hybrid. this was also the observation of akinniran and taiwo (2016) in a related study. the researchers also discovered a reduction in harvest years due to the introduction of improved cocoa hybrids which will also work same for ile oluji community if the 36 % of cocoa hybrids presently planted can be increased. as shown in figure 10, about 36 % of the farmers used more than three types of fungicides, while 28 % used more than three types of fungicides, 22 % used two types and only 14 % used one type of fungicides. majority of these famers used more than two fungicides as also observed by akinniran and taiwo (2016). figure 9. bar chart showing cocoa breed. figure 10. bar chart showing fungicide used. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2022, 9(2): 25-30 30 © 2022 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4. regression analysis and analysis of variance (anova) the regression analysis carried out as shown in table 1 revealed a high degree of correlation, r, between the dependent and independent variables which value was 97.4 %. the r2 value was 94.7 % which signified an existence of a large relationship between dependent and independent variables. in other words, about 95 % of the dependent variable is being explained by the explanatory variables. table 1. regression analysis. model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 0.974a 0.949 0.947 0.229 note: a predictors or independent variables. the analysis of variance (anova) represented in table 2 showed that the regression model at significant level of p ≤ 0.05 predicts the dependent variable significantly well. this was so because the p value here was 0.000, which is less than 0.05. hence the independent variables played significant roles in determining the output of the dependent variable. table 2. analysis of variance. model sum of squares df mean square f sig, 1 regression residual total 233.196 12.600 245.796 8 241 249 29.149 0.052 557.535 0.000a note: a significant at p≤ 0.05. 5. conclusion and recommendation the socio-economic factors affecting cocoa production in ile oluji, ondo state, nigeria was assessed. the study established a strong relationship between the independent and the dependent variables. the independent variables include the age of cocoa farmers, sex, marital status, fungicides used and the breed of cocoa among others; while the dependent variable was the ton of cocoa produced annually. more females should be encouraged to go into cocoa farming and farmers within age 21 and 50 should maximize this productive age to boost cocoa production in the community. improved hybrid of cocoa should be planted to replace the older ones inherited by farmers in this community. it is however recommended that more study should be carried out on the specific effects of fungicides on the cocoa production as this community used up to three types of fungicides annually. references ajayi, i. r., afolabi, m. o., ogunbodede, e. f., & sunday, a. g. (2010). modeling rainfall as a constraining factor for cocoa yield in ondo state. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273009787_modeling_rainfall_as_a_constraining_factor_for_cocoa_yield_in_ondo_s tate. akinniran, t., & taiwo, k. (2016). economic analysis of cocoa production in ilesha metropolis of osun state. journal of agriculture and veterinary science, 9(10), 84-85.available at: https://doi.org/10.9790/2380-0910018288. folayan, j., daramola, g., & oguntade, a. (2006). structure and performance evaluation of cocoa marketing institutions in south-western nigeria: an economic analysis. journal of food agriculture and environment, 4(2), 123-128. job, n., nmadu, h. s., & busayo, v. o. (2015). socio-economic factors affecting adoption of innovations by cocoa farmers in ondo state, nigeria. european journal of business, economics and accountancy, 3(2), 58-66. oguntade, a. (2013). assessment of poverty status among cocoa farmers in osun state of nigeria. ife journal of agriculture, 26(1), 111-121. onyeiwu, s., pallant, e., & hanlon, m. (2009). sustainable and unsustainable agriculture in ghana and nigeria: 1960 – 2009. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47416602_sustainable_and_unsustainable_agriculture_in_ghana_and_nigeria_1960 _-_2009. osarenren, c., ejuetueyin, j., & eweka, k. (2016). socio-economic characteristics of registered cocoa farmers in edo state, nigeria. journal of applied sciences and environmental management, 20(2), 261-266.available at: https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v20i2.5. soneye, a. s. o. (2014). farm holdings in northern nigeria and implication for food security: a remote sensing and gis assessment. african journal of food, agriculture, nutrition and development, 14(2), 1-15. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/273009787_modeling_rainfall_as_a_constraining_factor_for_cocoa_yield_in_ondo_state http://www.researchgate.net/publication/273009787_modeling_rainfall_as_a_constraining_factor_for_cocoa_yield_in_ondo_state http://www.researchgate.net/publication/47416602_sustainable_and_unsustainable_agriculture_in_ghana_and_nigeria_1960_-_2009 http://www.researchgate.net/publication/47416602_sustainable_and_unsustainable_agriculture_in_ghana_and_nigeria_1960_-_2009 41 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 3, 41-52, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5706 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group impact of finance act 2022 on tax compliance among smes in nigeria: a primary research study adeyemi wasiu alabi1 ishola rufus akintoye2 ( corresponding author) 1,2department of accounting, babcock business school, babcock university, ilishan remo, ogun state, nigeria. 1email: alabi0696@babcock.edu.ng 2email: akintoyer@babcock.edu.ng abstract the study evaluated the impact of finance act 2022 on tax compliances among smes in nigeria adopting a primary research study. the study considered the finance act 2022 for company income tax (cit), value added tax (vat) and personal income tax (pit) as the predictors, and voluntary and non-voluntary tax compliances as outcome variables. according to the latest survey report by msmes in 2021, there are 472,654 registered smes across the selected states of the sixgeopolitical zones in nigeria, this number represents the study population. a sample size of 400 smes was selected across the sampled states using a multistage sampling method. the regression analysis results disclosed that finance act 2022 on cit and finance act 2022 on vat has a positive significant and negative insignificant effect respectively on tax compliance in nigeria. finally, it was disclosed that the finance act 2022 on pit has a positive but insignificant effect on tax compliance. the study concluded that the finance act reform on various forms of taxes in 2022 stimulate a statistically positive impact on tax compliance among smes in nigeria. thus, it was recommended that revenue generated through cit should be adequately utilized towards stimulating the growth and development of the industrial sector in nigeria. keywords: company income tax, finance act, non-voluntary compliance, personal income tax, tax compliance, tax compliance, value added tax, voluntary compliance. citation | alabi, a. w., & akintoye, i. r. (2024). impact of finance act 2022 on tax compliance among smes in nigeria: a primary research study. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(3), 41–52. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5706 history: received: 29 march 2024 revised: 25 april 2024 accepted: 6 may 2024 published: 7 june 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: not applicable. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: both authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. both authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 42 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 43 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 45 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 46 5. conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................... 51 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 51 mailto:alabi0696@babcock.edu.ng mailto:akintoyer@babcock.edu.ng https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5706 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0379-3179 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4165-5612 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 41-52 42 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the importance of tax compliance by taxpayers with a view to achieving an improved and sustainable tax revenue cannot be overemphasized. in an attempt to empirically established the specific importance of the tax compliance by small and medium scale enterprises (smes) in nigeria, this study is expected to make contribution to the existing body of knowledge by focusing on cit, vat, and pit which represents areas which little studies have been conducted when discussing about finance act 2022 and tax compliance in nigeria as related to the smes. 1. introduction tax revenue has remained the most popular public stream of income, as almost all nations, if not all, execute this fiscal policy for one reason or the other. generally, tax revenue is used to sustain and meet the budget expenditures of a nation. it helps in poverty alleviation, social and capital infrastructural development and health and welfare improvement (tomy, 2021). in fact, the benefits of taxation are innumerable, if properly utilized. unfortunately, in nigeria, and in many developing nations as well, tax revenue is not derived as expected due to the unwillingness of taxpayers to render their tax liabilities. a major bulk of this non-compliance is derived from the informal sector, particularly the smes industry. taxpayers’ compliance, or rather, their non-compliance, has been a trending issue for government administrations in most developing nations, of which nigeria is not an exemption. taxpayers’ compliance refers to the level of willingness to which taxpayers abide by the constitutional regulations and reforms of tax provisions (sritharan, salawati, & cheuk, 2020). as alshrouf (2019) observed, a lot of smes (taxpayers) in developing nations are not compliant. generally, this non-compliance could be attributed to a lot of factors like low incentives to pay tax, low enforcement strategies by tax administrators, lack of understanding of tax regulations and reforms by taxpayers among so many other factors. the aim of any tax administration is to ensure improvement in tax compliance by eligible taxpayers (ibrahim & lawal, 2022). in nigeria, taxpayers’ compliance has not really been easy to achieve, due to the high rate of tax evasion and tax avoidance. nevertheless, in the context of this study, taxpayers’ compliance is being related to the understanding of the latest constitutional provision for tax laws, which is the finance act of 2022. the finance act of 2022 was passed into law during the administration of former president muhammad buhari (akan & azaka, 2023). its provisions influence personal income tax, company income tax, value added tax, capital gains tax among many others. in the opinion of agbetunde, akinrinola, and anyahara (2020) taxpayers’ compliance is sometimes low because there is no proper understanding of what the constitution says about tax. they further explained that this low understanding normally leads to incidence of double and multiple taxation. moreso, the tax administration in some developing economies like nigeria, is not fully stable, leading to a lot of compromise, miscommunication, and misinterpretation of what the constitution truly represents. thus, having a very clear understanding of what the constitution says is very imperative for taxpayers. the finance act of 2022 has some provisions for taxpayers, including smes, in relation to rendering tax liabilities. however, personal observations show that this matter has not been properly communicated to taxpayers. most smes operate their businesses without proper understanding of the regulations and reforms guiding their operations. it is against this background that this study wishes to investigate the impact of the finance act of 2022 on taxpayers’ compliance, in relation to the smes industry. particularly, the provision of the act and its relevance to company income tax, personal income tax and value added tax. 1.1. statement of the problem in most developing nations, taxation has been perceived as a burdensome task, and one which only favours the political elite in government and officials having top-notch positions. this gruesome mentality has been one of the driving factors behind low taxpayers’ compliance in developing economies, especially nigeria (ishak & ali, 2020). the average citizen can hardly recognize the importance of the tax revenue he/she pays to the government, especially those involved in small-scale businesses. in the informal sector, there is no incentive to pay tax, due to the incidence of double and multiple taxations to the tax authorities. at the end of the day, they do not receive any tangible benefit from the tax administration. taxpayers’ non-compliance among smes might also be attributed to the low manpower of tax authorities. the tax officials who are entrusted with tax administration are usually insufficient to cover wide geographical area (ayneshet, 2020). furthermore, lack of training, seminars, and workshops are part of the issues preventing a consistent tax-force to ensure compliance. when the government invests in the training and education of their staff, there will be improved knowledge, understanding and interpretation of the constitution. this would help them carry out proper awareness and sensitization to members of the public, especially smes owners concerning tax laws. in the opinion of abodher, ariffin, and saad (2020) smes are particularly non-compliant because they do not enjoy the benefits of paying tax. to ibrahim and lawal (2022) tax evasion is executed more by smes in the informal sector because the costs of tax compliance is more than the benefits of tax compliance. as rational entities wishing to make profit, tax evasion is more profitable for their businesses than tax compliance. thus, the penalty for evading tax needs to be well publicized, to discourage people from carrying it out. a proper understanding of what the constitution says regarding that might help them make the right decision. from the studies available to the researcher, taxpayers’ compliance has been investigated from different contexts, based on geographical location, proxies for tax compliance, methodology, data analysis, sector, and use of predictor variable. nevertheless, it was discovered that the investigation of taxpayers’ compliance using the finance act of 2022 as predictor variable was still nouvelle. the closest study reviewed by the researcher which bears relevance to the subject matter at hand was performed by akan and azaka (2023) because they examined the finance act of nigeria from 2019-2023; however, they did not streamline their research to smes, a feat this current study hopes to attain. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 41-52 43 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2. literature review 2.1 conceptual review 2.1.1 the finance act 2022 in nigeria, there have been different provisions and reforms which have been accepted in the constitution and implemented across the country. among the popular provisions which guide tax levies, tax liabilities, rendering of tax and the timeframe within which it should be paid is the finance act (emeka & emmanuel, 2023). the finance act has been in place for a very long time with the most recent one being the finance act of 2023 signed into law by the administration of president ahmed bola tinubu. nevertheless, this study would examine the finance act 2022. this is because the researcher thinks that the timeframe of the finance act 2023 might not have been fully implemented yet across the whole country at the time of writing. the finance act 2022 is a constitutional provision that provides among other things recent changes in tax deductions, exemptions as well as changes in tax rates (akan & azaka, 2023). in interpreting the finance act to taxpayers, it would be important for them to have a background knowledge on some basic information like the tax rates for individuals, enterprises, and firms, as well as the timeframe to file their tax returns with the appropriate tax authority. generally, tax acts might not be too clear, and could be very ambiguous, but constant training and teaching could go a long way in improving the knowledge of staff and taxpayers in relation to tax laws. numerous changes were noticed when the finance act 2022 was passed into law. among the changes include the chargeability of gains on digital assets at 10%, income gotten from gambling, gaming, betting and lottery businesses and capital losses on chargeable assets (udo & belo, 2023). the act also enlightened that firms which carry out commercial winning, production, capture, and usage of gas would be entitled to a single 50% investment tax credit on their qualifying expenditure. it was further explained that the conventional investment allowance of 10% related to the qualifying expenditure for plant and expenditure would be abolished, but this would only influence qualifying assets acquired after 31 december 2022. 2.1.2 company income tax (cit) cit denotes the tax liabilities which a firm ought to pay to the appropriate tax authority at the right time (kolawole & owolabi, 2021). the finance act 2022 did not make much change to the initial provisions guiding cit, other than increasing the tax rate for gas-flaring company from 30% to 50%. the major justification for this unique increment is not properly understood, but it might not be unrelated to the efforts by the government to discourage gas flaring. another change the finance act 2022 brought to cit is the removal of tax exemption from convertible currencies gotten from tourists (foreigners). 2.1.3 value added tax (vat) vat is generally recognized as a consumption tax whose ultimate burden is borne by the final consumer (ibrahim & lawal, 2022). for this type of tax, there is a certain rate attached to each level of production; from the manufacturing to the distribution among wholesalers and retailers, and finally to the end users of the goods/services. the finance act 2022 brought the change that vat would be charged on imported goods which are purchased online from foreign suppliers appointed by the federal inland revenue service (firs). it was also decided that the firs would impose vat on commerce which it deems to be artificial or fictitious in nature. 2.1.4 personal income tax (pit) pit is the tax liability of individuals, usually those ones who earn fixed salaries and wages. the tax rate on personal income follows a progressive pattern, where someone with more income pays more tax than a person with less income. the major addition of finance act 2022 to the existing provision for pit act is that any premium rendered to an insurance firm due to an agreement would be treated as an allowable deduction, subject to a minimum holding period of 5 years (akan & azaka, 2023). this provision would be applied to any portion of the deferred annuity withdrawn within the 5-year minimum holding period. 2.1.5 taxpayers’ compliance taxpayers’ compliance can be defined as the degree to which eligible taxpayers adhere to stipulated rules and regulations which guide tax payment within a jurisdiction (alshrouf, 2019). implicitly, tax compliance can be low, it can also be high. this could be why nguyen, pham, le, truong, and tran (2020) defined tax compliance as the response of the public towards the fiscal policies of the government within a stipulated time frame. the goal of any tax administration is to ensure that tax compliance is high. achieving this goal could prove difficult, especially where taxpayers are unwilling to adhere to the constitution. in the opinion of nurebo, tarakegn, and gutu (2021) taxpayers’ compliance can be defined as the extent to which tax rules and provisions can be obeyed by taxpayers without incentives and enforcement by tax authorities. to sritharan et al. (2020) taxpayers’ compliance can be referred to as the willingness to adhere to tax reforms by accurately stating income, declaring it on time, claim the necessary reliefs and allowances and rendering all tax liabilities in a timely manner. basically, it would be easier for tax revenue to increase when taxpayers have the willingness to pay their taxes. thus, there is a cost to taxpayers’ compliance, which is usually borne by the tax authorities whenever there is low level of tax compliance. 2.2 theoretical review 2.2.1 the slippery slope framework (ssf) it is widely accepted in literature that this theory was established by kirchler, hoelzl, and wahl (2008). basically, this theory examines the nature of tax compliance as a blend of economic and non-economic factors. that is, the attitude of taxpayers in adhering to laid down rules and regulations reflects psychological and economic factors. moreso, the influence of economic and non-economic factors on taxpayers’ compliance is controlled by the relationship between these taxpayers and the tax authorities. thus, when there is low acceptance of the tax rules and regulations, all other factors would likely follow this pattern, which would ultimately lead to low tax compliance. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 41-52 44 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group a clear insight into the perspectives of this theory would reveal that in antagonistic environments, taxpayers feel exploited and cheated; this motivates them to go against tax rules and regulations (mas’ud, manaf, & saad, 2015). on the other hand, tax authorities feel that the best way to keep taxpayers in check is with stiff penalties and punishments. in contrast, synergistic climates show understanding between taxpayers and tax authorities. the taxpayers respect the tax authority and understand that payment of tax is their civic responsibility which they are obligated to do, with a view to building and developing the economy. this theory is quite relevant to the subject matter at hand because it explains the relationship between smes taxpayers and tax authorities in nigeria. nevertheless, it has been criticized due to some limitations. firstly, the theory was not clear in describing what economic and non-economic factors might be in relation to taxpayers’ compliance (kogler, muehlbacher, & kirchler, 2013). this creates room for a lot of assumptions which could cause misunderstanding and misinterpretation. also, the theory has not really been tested empirically, which serves as another limitation of the theory. furthermore, the theory breaks down the determinants of tax compliance into two factors: trust and power. when tax authorities are trusted by taxpayers and vice versa, the compliance level would be high, causing a surge in the tax revenue. on the other hand, power comes into play when there is the absence of trust between taxpayers and tax authorities. in this scenario, tax authorities enforce tax compliance by applying stiff penalties and sanctions to defaulting taxpayers. thus, trust leads to voluntary tax compliance, while power leads to compulsory tax compliance. 2.2.2. ability to pay theory the ability to pay theory has been generally accepted to have stemmed from the works of smith (1776). the theory advocates that taxpayers should render tax liabilities to the government based on a calculable rate/basis which is deemed fair to the taxpayers. basically, it depicts a positive relationship between taxpayers’ compliance and taxpayers’ ability to pay. in the sense that if a taxpayers’ ability to pay is high, then their compliance level would also be high. in the other way, if a taxpayers’ ability to pay is low, then their compliance level would also be low. when considering why the current study focuses on smes, these viewpoints make more sense, because smes primarily wish to make profit; if they perceive that tax payment could cause loss, they might likely not comply. this theory motivates the concept of progressive taxation which is in line with the constitution of nigeria; that is, taxpayers are usually charged based on their income level. the personal income tax act of 2020 apportions a fixed chargeable rate to the income of taxpayers, which steadily increases as their income rises. this causes one of the great criticisms of the ability to pay tax theory; taxpayers might become demotivated to work hard, because their efforts would be going to the government in terms of increased tax liabilities (chauke, sebola, & mathebula, 2017). nevertheless, if the government can prove to taxpayers that their taxes are used to improve the economy, there could be more motivation to pay tax. the ability to pay theory is quite logical in its tenets, using the economic factor of income as a driver for its assertions. nevertheless, it has been criticized based on some limitations. one of them is the index of measurement of an eligible taxpayer’s ability. that is, there are different indexes which can be used to measure a taxpayer’s ability to pay, but there is none that seems more significant than the other (edson, 2016). income, expenditures, and fixed assets are the major measurement indexes, but there is no consensus concerning the one that should come first. another criticism of this theory is that applying this theory could reduce the incentive to work, since more of a person’s income would be given to the government. this theory is quite relevant to the subject matter at hand because it understands that taxpayers’ compliance is directly linked to their ability to pay tax. smes who can pay their tax liabilities would find it easier to comply with tax rules and reforms than smes who are unable. it would be imperative for tax authorities to properly examine smes’ tax ability before levying tax on them if they wish to improve taxpayers’ compliance. this theory shows the direct relationship between taxpayers’ compliance and taxpayers’ ability to pay. this relationship is very vital and should be recognized by all stakeholders. 2.3 empirical review this section would reveal previously examined studies by various scholars which bare some relevance to the subject matter at hand. basically, these available studies would bear relevance to the current study based on variables, geographical location, sector, and methodology among others. olaoye and ekundayo (2019) undertook a study which assessed the effect of tax audit on tax compliance in ekiti state, nigeria. through multinomial logistic regression analysis, they opined that tax audit significantly influenced tax compliance. the study further proved that tax law influenced tax compliance, they however concluded that tax procedure did not influence tax compliance. a study was conducted in indonesia by vierra gracia dharmawan (2019) which investigated the effect of tax audit quality on corporate taxpayer compliance. using descriptive statistics, it was unveiled that tax audit quality had a significant effect on corporate taxpayer’s compliance. there exists a similarity between the reviewed studies and this current study in terms of dependent variable, that is, taxpayers’ compliance. despite this, uniqueness lies in the current study’s use of smes as its sector-focus. also in vietnam, nguyen et al. (2020) examined the determinants of tax compliance among vietnamese firms. through structural equation model (sem), it was seen that audit probability, corporate reputation, and business ownership directly influenced voluntary tax compliance, while enforced tax compliance was directly influenced by audit probability, social norms, and sanction severity. blaufus, schöndube, and wielenberg (2020) through content analysis revealed that granting the tax auditor access to the internal statutory audit report increased firms’ tax compliance, raised tax revenues, and decreased tax audit frequency in germany. the reviewed studies did not streamline their sector to smes, a feat the current study hopes to attain. also study in malaysia by sritharan et al. (2020) revealed through pearson correlation and multiple regression analysis that changes in government policies and political affiliation determined individual taxpayers’ tax compliance behaviour. however, religiosity was not considered to be a factor capable of significantly influencing individual’s tax compliance behavior. abodher et al. (2020) discovered through structural equation modeling that islamic religious belief had a significant positive relationship with tax non-compliance among the self-employed libyans. however, the reviewed studies did not consider tax laws as a predictor of taxpayers’ compliance, a feat the current study hopes asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 41-52 45 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group to attain. samuel (2020) opined through descriptive statistics that tax audit had problems in the application of automation to its maximum capacities, incompetent auditors to tackle tax evasion and avoidance, weak taxpayers’ education program which cannot improve the compliance level of taxpayers in ethiopia. however in nigeria, dabor, kifordu, and abubakar (2021) in their study titled, “tax compliance behavior and religiosity: the role of morality”. the results of multiple regression techniques uncovered that there were no significant differences in the views of male and female respondents regarding the effect of religious belief on tax compliance. the reviewed studies did not streamline their research to smes, a feat the current study hopes to attain. ibrahim and lawal (2022) through simple percentages and ordinary least square (ols) regression techniques unveiled that taxpayers' complexity (tpc) negatively and significantly affected tax compliance behaviour of smes, while taxpayers' knowledge positively and significantly affected tax compliance behaviour of smes in gombe state, nigeria. similarly, akan and azaka (2023) examined taxpayers’ perception of the fairness of the finance act from 2019 to 2023 and their knowledge concerning the finance act. the sample covered kano, river, and lagos states in nigeria. through the structural equation model, it was discovered that taxpayers do not think that the finance act of 2019 to 2023 was fair or that it had enhanced their understanding of taxes. the latter reviewed study examined the finance act of 2022, a similarity shared with the current study. however, it did not conduct its research among smes, a feat the current study hopes to achieve. the reviewed studies available to the researcher show a wide gap when it comes to predicting taxpayers’ compliance with the finance act of 2022 in nigeria. from the examined studies, only that of akan and azaka (2023) bear great resemblance with the independent variable in the study, in that it investigated taxpayers’ perception of fairness through the finance act. regardless, the current study still holds some uniqueness over it because the subject matter would be investigated through company income tax, value added tax and personal income tax, a feat none of the accessible studies by the researcher achieved. in the same vein, only a few studies performed their research among smes, a major gap this current study hopes to address. hence, the following hypotheses are formulated: i. company income tax (cit) has no significant effect on tax compliance among smes in nigeria; ii. value added tax (vat) has no significant effect on tax compliance among smes in nigeria; iii. personal income tax (pit) has no significant effect on tax compliance among smes in nigeria. 3. methodology considering the comprehensive overview of finance act in 2022 and its impact on taxpayers’ compliance in nigeria, this study considered descriptive survey research design. correspondingly, a positivist, deductive and quantitative approaches are considered appropriate for this study as result of the layouts established for the study. the study covered all the registered smes in some selected states across the six geopolitical zones in nigeria. the leading four economically viable states in terms of highest gross domestic product (gdp) in each geographic zone, according to the national bureau of statistics report (2022) were chosen for the study's population. according to the latest survey report by msmes in 2021, there are 472,654 registered smes across the selected states in nigeria. using yamane (1967) a sample size of 400 smes was selected across the sampled states in nigeria using a multistage sampling method. firstly, a proportionate sampling method was adopted to ascertain the number of smes to be selected from selected states. secondly, smes in the state capital were used and this was achieved using a purposive sampling method. the yamane (1967) formula is given as: n = 𝑁 1+ 𝑁(𝑒)2 = 472,654 1+ 472,654(0.05)2 = 400 the summary of the procedure is presented table 1. table 1. population and sample size. s/n geopolitical zones selected states registered smes sampled smes 1 north-central niger 23197 n = 23197(400) 472,654 = 20 benue 14851 n = 14851(400) 472,654 = 13 kogi 12517 n = 12517(400) 472,654 = 11 nasarawa 10728 n = 10728(400) 472,654 = 9 2 north-east adamawa 15321 n = 15321(400) 472,654 = 14 bauchi 15319 n = 15319(400) 472,654 = 14 gombe 19454 n = 19454(400) 472,654 = 17 taraba 9606 n = 9606(400) 472,654 = 9 3 north-west kaduna 21615 n = 21615(400) 472,654 = 19 kano 42969 n = 42969(400) 472,654 = 37 katsina 21610 n = 21610(400) 472,654 = 19 sokoto 14114 n = 14114(400) 472,654 = 13 4 south-east imo 8348 n = 8348(400) 472,654 = 8 anambra 9230 n = 9230(400) 472,654 = 9 abia 14905 n = 14905(400) 472,654 = 14 ebonyi 13949 n = 13949(400) 472,654 = 13 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 41-52 46 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group s/n geopolitical zones selected states registered smes sampled smes 5 south-south rivers 42306 n = 42306(400) 472,654 = 16 akwa ibom 17263 n = 17263(400) 472,654 = 16 delta 26651 n = 26651(400) 472,654 = 24 bayelsa 5863 n = 5863(400) 472,654 = 6 6 south-west lagos 42067 n = 42067(400) 472,654 = 37 ondo 7899 n = 7899(400) 472,654 = 8 ogun 31133 n = 31133(400) 472,654 = 27 oyo 31739 n = 31739(400) 472,654 = 27 total 472,654 400 in this study, a well-structured close ended questionnaire was adopted and administered to the sampled smes. thereafter, the collected data were subjected to further analysis using descriptive, factor analysis, pearson correlation and multiple regression analysis. to validate the presence of assumptions of linear regression in the formulated regression models, the study conducted some post estimation tests such as normality, linearity, and heteroscedasticity test. the functional and linear representations of these models are as follows: functional: 𝑉𝐿𝐶 = 𝑓(𝐹𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇, 𝐹𝐴𝑉𝐴𝑇, 𝐹𝐴𝑃𝐼𝑇) (3.1) 𝑁𝑉𝐶 = 𝑓(𝐹𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇, 𝐹𝐴𝑉𝐴𝑇, 𝐹𝐴𝑃𝐼𝑇) (3.2) linear: 𝑉𝐿𝐶 = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1𝐹𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇 + 𝛼2𝐹𝐴𝑉𝐴𝑇 + 𝛼3𝐹𝐴𝑃𝐼𝑇 + 𝑈𝑡 (3.3) 𝑁𝑉𝐶 = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1𝐹𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇 + 𝛼2𝐹𝐴𝑉𝐴𝑇 + 𝛼3𝐹𝐴𝑃𝐼𝑇 + 𝑈𝑡 (3.4) where: vlc is voluntary taxpayers’ compliance, nvc is non-voluntary taxpayers’ compliance, facit is finance act 2022 for company income tax favat is finance act 2022 for value added tax, fapit is finance act 2022 for personal income tax. 4. results and discussion the study administered 400 questionnaires across the selected states in nigeria, out of which 362 questionnaires were retrieved and completely filled. on this basis, data collected from the 362 respondents were subjected for data analysis. the analysis results are as follows: 4.1. analysis of the characteristics of the selected smes table 2 presented the features of the smes selected across the six geopolitical zones in nigeria. the characteristics includes the nature of the businesses, number of employees, legal status of the business, capital base employed and year of business existence. starting with the nature of the business, the analysis result indicated that majority of the businesses, 181(50%) are trading and commerce, 51(14.1%) are manufacturing firms, 106(29.3%) are accommodation and food services firms while the remaining 24(6.6%) are agricultural businesses. this implies that most of the businesses under consideration are grouped as trading and commerce that is, buying and selling of goods and services either locally or internationally. also, it was disclosed in the table that 94(26%) of the smes under consideration had a number of employees less than 5, 111(30.7%) had a number of employees ranging from 6-10, 96(26.5%) had a number of employees ranging from 11-15 while the remaining 61(16.9%) of the smes had a number of employees ranging from 16 and above. by implication, most of the smes under consideration has a number of employees ranging from 6-10. this shows that most of these businesses had financial capacity to keep more than 5 employees in their businesses as they significantly contribute to the smooth running of the businesses. also, 60(16.6%) of the smes under consideration are sole proprietorship entities, 27(7.5%) practice partnership form of business, 33(9.1%) are joint ventures, 66(18.2%) are cooperatives while 176(48.6%) are private limited liability companies. this indicated that most of the businesses under consideration across the geopolitical zones in nigeria are private limited liability companies which aim to abide with the established law on taxation for their sustainability in their respective industries. in addition, most of the smes under consideration are established on a capital base ranging from 6-10 million naira, 46(12.7%) are established on a capital base ranging below 1 million, 102(28.2%) are established on a capital base ranging from 1-5 million while 81(22.4%) are established on a capital base ranging above 10 million. this shows that most of the smes across the geopolitical zones in nigeria have the financial capability to comply with the tax regulations and rates. finally, most of the smes 166(45.9%) had a year of existence ranging from 11-15 years, 107(29.6%) had a year of existence ranging from 6-10 years, 54(14.9%) had a year of existence ranging from 1-5 years while 35(9.7%) had a year of existence ranging from 16-20 years. table 2. descriptive analysis of the characteristics of the selected smes. characteristics frequency (n) percentage (%) nature of business manufacturing 51 trading and commerce 181 accommodation and food services 106 agriculture 24 number of employees less than 5 94 6-10 111 11-15 96 16 and above 61 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 41-52 47 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group characteristics frequency (n) percentage (%) legitimate status sole proprietorship 60 partnership 27 joint venture 33 cooperative 66 private limited liability company 176 capital base below 1 million 46 1-5 million 102 6-10 million 133 above 10 million 81 age of the business 1-5 years 54 6-10 years 107 11-15 years 166 16-20 years 35 4.2. analysis of the items on the questionnaire to examine the responses of the respondents as regards the items on the questionnaire, mean and standard deviation were used. the benchmark on each item raised under each variable is 2.5 as the questionnaire adopted 5likert scale scoring system. thus, mean value above 2.5 indicated that most of the respondents agreed while mean value less than 2.5 implies that, the respondents disagreed. these items were grouped based on the variables under consideration. as presented in table 3 most of the respondents agreed that they voluntarily pay their taxes regularly. this might be attributed to the fact that they benefit from the taxes paid to the government as claimed. though, they claimed not to disclose their actual returns to the government since they are not satisfied with the government’s performance. this indicated that most of the smes owners across the geopolitical zones in nigeria voluntary comply with tax regulation though not at a transparent level. this is because, most of the smes owners do not disclose their actual financial capacity to the government in other to reduce their tax dues. also, for items on non-voluntary compliance construct, the respondents agreed that they pay their tax dues often due to the fear of legal actions by the government. also, they claimed that they lack trust in government’s use of public funds as many of the state government lacks adequate evidence for proper management of public funds. thus, they became unsatisfied with the transparency of the tax system practiced at the state level. finally, they agreed that the complexity of tax regulations discourages them from paying taxes as and when due. this indicated that most of the smes owners lack motivation to voluntarily comply with tax regulations. this might be as a result of the government’s lack of evidence for proper management of fund generated through taxation. table 3. descriptive analysis of items raised on tax compliance among smes in nigeria. proxies items mean standard deviation decision voluntary compliance i voluntarily pay my taxes regularly 2.92 0.843 agreed i benefit from the taxes paid to the government 3.70 1.330 agreed i disclose my actual returns to the government 2.01 1.222 disagreed i am satisfied with the government's performance 2.09 0.905 disagreed non-voluntary compliance the fear of legal action made me pay my tax dues often 3.87 1.122 agreed i have lack of trust in the government's use of public funds 2.52 0.763 agreed i'm not satisfied with the transparency of the tax system practiced in my state 2.86 0.726 agreed the complexity of tax regulations discourages me from paying tax as and when due. 2.77 0.652 agreed table 4 presented the items raised on the constructs of finance act 2022 in nigeria on different forms of taxes such as cit, vat, and pit. for the reforms on cit, respondents agreed that they are fully aware of the provision introduced in the finance act 2022 relating to cit and they have taken voluntary measures to comply with the changes made in cit regulation introduced in the reformed finance act 2022. this could be evidenced in the various action taken such as consultations with tax advisors on how to adhere to the changes. the respondents also agreed that the reforms of the finance act 2022 positively influence the financial status of their respective companies. this indicted that the reforms made on cit could stimulate a positive impact on the compliance of taxpayers among smes owners in nigeria. this might be attributed to the fact that these changes on the cit through the finance act 2022 stimulates sustainability of the business firms in their respective industry and they significantly contribute to the growth and development of nigeria economy. thus, these reforms are in favour of the various business firms. for reforms on vat, the respondents agreed that their respective companies are fully prepared to comply with the changes in vat regulations as introduced by the finance act 2022. also, the respondents are satisfied with the communication and guidance provided by relevant authorities as regards the changes in the vat. however, the respondents asserted that the changes in vat negatively contribute to their business operations. this might be attributed to the fact that at the long run, increase in the vat rate by 50% would result to decline in sales and profit trends. finally, the respondents failed to support the vat registration threshold for business as it would cause a great damage to business survival in the industry in the long run. this indicated that the reforms on vat in the finance act 2022 could stimulate a decrease in taxpayer’s compliance. this might be due to the fact that 50% increase in vat rate which in turn resulted to inflation stimulate a fall in profitability of various smes. thus, lacks financial capacity to pay their tax dues to the government. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 41-52 48 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group for the construct of reforms on pit, the respondents agreed that they are fully aware of the significant changes in the pit system. and these changes aim to stimulate a balance equitable taxation and economic growth. also, they agreed that the changes support proportionate tax rate system and finally these changes stand to promote governments’ commitment to equitable and fair tax policies. by implication, reforms on personal income tax have the capacity to stimulate a positive influence on taxpayers’ compliance among smes in nigeria. this might be attributed to the fact that these changes aim to promoting fairness in tax regulations and policies could justified economic growth through taxation in nigeria. table 4. descriptive analysis of items raised on finance act 2022 in nigeria. proxies items mean standard deviation decision reforms on company income tax (cit) i am aware of the provisions introduced in the finance act 2022 relating to cit 3.50 0.833 agreed i have taken voluntary measures to comply with the changes made in cit regulation introduced in the reformed finance act 2022 3.43 0.534 agreed i made consultations with tax advisors on how to adhere to the changes 3.53 0.511 agreed the reform of the finance act 2022 positively influence the financial status of my company 3.33 0.573 agreed reforms on value added tax (vat) my company is fully prepared to comply with the changes in vat regulations as introduced by the finance act 2022 3.44 0.603 agreed i am satisfied with the communication and guidance provided by relevant authorities as regards the changes in the vat 3.24 0.635 agreed the changes in vat regulations affect my business operations negatively 3.25 0.718 agreed i support the vat registration threshold for businesses 1.54 1.645 disagreed reforms on personal income tax (pit) i am aware of the significant changes in the personal income tax system 3.19 0.512 agreed these changes aim to stimulate a balance between equitable taxation and economic growth 3.36 0.717 agreed the changes support proportionate tax rate system 3.15 0.624 agreed these changes will promote governments’ commitment to equitable and fair tax policies. 3.34 0.660 agreed 4.3. factor analysis the kasiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) and bartlett’s test result presented in table 5 justifies the necessity for factors analysis as the reported kmo value stood at 0.565 indicating that the data is scalable as there is –value of barlett’s test result which stood at 0.000 indicated a cordial relationship between the items and the variance. for the extraction of relevant items, items with coefficient value greater than 0.5 are considered relevant and retain while items with less than 0.5 were not retained as they are considered irrelevant. table 5. factor analysis. kasiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy 0.565 bartlett’s test of sphericity approx. chi-square 92.821 df 10 sig. 0.000 4.4. pearson correlation and multicollinearity test the pearson correlation matrix presented in table 6 indicated that voluntary compliance maintained a positive relationship with non-voluntary compliance and finance act 2022 on cit while a contrary relationship exists between voluntary compliance, finance act 2022 on vat and pit. this indicated that voluntary compliance, nonvoluntary tax, and finance act 2022 on cit moved in similar direction across the sampled smes. however, nonvoluntary compliance, finance act 2022 on vat and pit moved in different directions across the smes under consideration. for the non-voluntary compliance, positive relations exist with all the three predictors. though, finance act 2022 on cit maintain a negative relationship with other predators. unlike finance act 2022 on cit, finance act 2022 on vat has a positive correlation with finance act 2022 on pit. finally, finance act 2022 on pit has a positive relationship with other variables. for multi-collinearity test, 0.146 stood as the highest coefficient value indicating the absence of multicollinearity. this is because their correlation coefficient is moderate and not too high as the thumb to ascertain the presence of multicollinearity is 0.6 coefficient value. table 6. pearson correlation matrix. variables voc nvc facit favat fapit vif vlc pearson correlation 1 sig. (2-tailed) nvc pearson correlation 0.012 1 sig. (2-tailed) 0.824 facit pearson correlation 0.092*** -0.106** 1 1.289 sig. (2-tailed) 0.080 0.043 favat pearson correlation -0.134** 0.057 -0.109** 1 1.393 sig. (2-tailed) 0.010 0.278 0.038 fapit pearson correlation -0.104** 0.067 -0.146** 0.418* 1 1.127 sig. (2-tailed) 0.049 0.206 0.005 0.000 note: (*, **, ***) connotes significance at 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 41-52 49 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.5. regression analysis to ascertain the impact of finance act of 2022 on tax compliance among smes in nigeria, a multiple regression analysis is conducted. this is in line with the formulated models as presented below: model 1: impact of finance act 2022 (cit, vat, pit) on tax compliance (voluntary) among smes in nigeria. 𝑉𝐿𝐶 = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1𝐹𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇 + 𝛼2𝐹𝐴𝑉𝐴𝑇 + 𝛼3𝐹𝐴𝑃𝐼𝑇 + 𝑈𝑡 the reported r value in table 7 indicated that a cordial relationship exists between finance act 2022 on cit, vat, pit, and voluntary tax compliances among smes in nigeria. the adjusted r-square value indicated that the changes in the finance act 2022 cit, vat and pit could stimulate 52% changes in voluntary tax compliance level among smes in nigeria. the remaining 48% could be attributed to other variables not included in this model. the reported f-stat and probability value of 3.190 and 0.024 indicated that the model is fit. the regression analysis result are as follows: i. finance act 2022 on company income tax has a positive significant effect on voluntary tax compliance in nigeria to the tune of 0.375(p=0.015<0.05). ii. finance act 2022 on value added tax has a negative insignificant effect on voluntary tax compliance in nigeria to the tune of -0.168(p=0.066>0.05). iii. finance act 2022 on personal income tax has a positive but insignificant effect on voluntary tax compliance in nigeria to the tune of 0.175(p=0.403>0.05). table 7. multiple regression of the impact of finance act of 2022 (cit, vat, pit) on tax compliance (voluntary) among smes in nigeria. independent variable unstandardized coefficient standardized coefficients t p-value b std. error beta (constant) 13.3 2.32 5.74 0.00 facit 0.38 0.12 0.27 3.39 0.02 favat -0.17 0.09 -0.11 -1.85 0.07 fapit 0.18 0.09 0.05 0.84 0.40 r = 0.76 r2 = 0.58 adj. r2 = 0.52 std err = 2.61 f = 3.19(0.02) dependent variable: voluntary compliance 4.5.1. post estimation result to ascertain the reliability of the findings made, there study conducted some post estimation result to ensure the model is in line with the assumptions of linear regression. as presented in table 8 there is no problem of heteroscedasticity in the error terms and the error term is normally distributed. table 8. post estimation test result. normality test breusch-pagan godfrey heteroscedasticity test shapiro-wilk stat probability f-statistics probability 0.294 0.07 0.38 0.19 in figure 1 the normality results indicated that a linear relationship exist between the variables under consideration in this model. figure 1. linear test result for model i. model ii: impact of finance act 2022 (cit, vat, pit) on tax compliance (non-voluntary) among smes in nigeria. 𝑁𝑉𝐶 = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1𝐹𝐴𝐶𝐼𝑇 + 𝛼2𝐹𝐴𝑉𝐴𝑇 + 𝛼3𝐹𝐴𝑃𝐼𝑇 + 𝑈𝑡 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 41-52 50 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the reported r value in table 9 indicated that a mutual correlation exists between finance act 2022 on cit, vat, pit and non-voluntary tax compliances among smes in nigeria. the adjusted r-square value indicated that variation in the finance act 2022 on cit, vat and pit could stimulate 62% changes in non-voluntary tax compliance level among smes in nigeria. the remaining 38% could be attributed to other variables not included in this model. the reported f-stat and probability value of 4.785 and 0.001 indicated that the model is fit. the regression analysis result are as follows: i. finance act 2022 on company income tax has a positive significant effect on non-voluntary tax compliance in nigeria to the tune of 0.497(p=0.037<0.05). ii. finance act 2022 on value added tax has a negative insignificant effect on non-voluntary tax compliance in nigeria to the tune of -0.140(p=0.606>0.05). iii. finance act 2022 on personal income tax has a positive but insignificant effect on non-voluntary tax compliance in nigeria to the tune of 0.153(p=0.493>0.05). table 9. multiple regression of the impact of finance act 2022 (cit, vat, pit) on tax compliance (non-voluntary) among smes in nigeria. independent variable unstandardized coefficient standardized coefficients t p-value b std. error beta (constant) 8.74 1.99 4.39 0.00 facit 0.49 0.11 0.39 2.83 0.04 favat -0.14 0.08 -0.03 -0.52 -0.61 fapit 0.15 0.09 0.04 0.69 0.49 r = 0.82 r2 = 0.67 adj. r2 = 0.62 std err = 2.24 f = 4.79(0.001) dependent variable: non-voluntary compliance 4.5.2. post estimation result as presented in table 10 there is no problem of heteroscedasticity in the error terms and the error term is normally distributed. table 10. post estimation test result. normality test breusch-pagan godfrey heteroscedasticity test shapiro-wilk stat probability f-statistics probability 0.429 0.124 0.836 0.065 in figure 2 the normality results indicated that a linear relationship exists between the variables under consideration in this model. figure 2. linear test result for model ii. 4.6. discussion of findings an attempt has been made to evaluate the impact of finance act 2022 on tax compliance among smes in nigeria adopting a primary research study. the study considered the finance act 2022 for cit, vat and pit as the predictors while tax compliance was captured with voluntary and non-voluntary compliance which serve as the basis of the two models established in this study. several statistical analyses were conducted, though the regression asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 41-52 51 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group estimate serves as the most appropriate analysis method to achieve the specific objective. on this basis, the regression estimation result serves as the basis of this discussion. the analysis results disclosed that finance act 2022 on cit has a positive significant effect on tax compliance in nigeria both voluntary and non-compliance to the tune of 0.375(p=0.015<0.05) and 0.497(p=0.037<0.05). the reported coefficient values indicated that with just a 1% change in the finance act of 2022 on cit would breed 38% and 50% increase in voluntary and non-voluntary tax compliance among smes in nigeria. this indicated that the finance act 2022 on cit has an independent capacity to stimulate a growth in tax compliance among smes in nigeria. this positive effect might be attributed to the fact that, the business sector significantly contributes to the survival of recessed economy such as nigeria. as a result, all tax regulations formulated for companies must have the capacity to promote their operations towards improving profitability and not mar their survival in the industry. also, the significant effect could be as a result of tax holidays given to companies which could stimulate high level of compliance with tax regulations. this corresponds with the discovery of akan and azaka (2023) that tax reforms on company income tax significantly influence tax compliance among business firms. also, it was revealed that finance act 2022 on vat has a negative insignificant effect on voluntary and nonvoluntary tax compliance in nigeria to the tune of -0.168(p=0.066>0.05) and -0.140(p=0.606>0.05) respectively. the corollary of this discovery is that the recent changes in the vat regulations lacks the capacity to cause a rise in tax compliance among smes in nigeria. the negative impact might be attributed to the fact that the recent 50% rise in the vat rate (that is, from 5% to 7.5%) resulted in a constant rise in the prices of commodities, which implies inflation. as a result, many of the smes lose their stable financial strength as they experience a fall in sales and profitability. then, there is no adequate fund to encourage tax compliance. this finding aligns with the discovery of ibrahim and lawal (2022) that increase in vat rate negatively affected tax compliance behaviour of smes. finally, it was disclosed that finance act 2022 on pit has a positive but insignificant effect on voluntary and non-voluntary tax compliance in nigeria to the tune of 0.175(p=0.403>0.05) and 0.153(p=0.493>0.05) respectively. by implication a 1% change in finance act 2022 on personal income tax would breed 18% and 15% increase in voluntary and non-voluntary tax compliance among smes in nigeria though at an insignificant level. the insignificant effect might be attributed to the fact that there is few evidence for proper management of the public fund collected through personal income tax over the years. this correspond with the conclusion of sakirin, darwanis, and abdullah (2021) that reforms on personal income tax insignificant influence tax compliance in indonesia. 5. conclusion and recommendations the relevance of tax revenue to the government performance in recessed economy cannot be underestimated. thus, tax regulations are required to be subjected to changes to stimulate its contribution to the betterment of livelihoods. this justified the need for finance act reform in 2022 on the various forms of taxes such as company inform tax, value added tax, personal income tax among others. from the studies available to the researcher, taxpayers’ compliance has been investigated from different contexts, based on geographical location, proxies for tax compliance, methodology, data analysis, sector, and use of predictor variable. nevertheless, it was discovered that the investigation of taxpayers’ compliance using the finance act 2022 as predictor variable was still nouvelle. this justifies the need for this study. thus, this study is established to examine the impact of finance act 2022 on tax compliance among smes in nigeria. from the analysis conducted, it was concluded that the finance act reform on various forms of taxes in 2022 stimulate a statistically positive impact on tax compliance among smes in nigeria. to ensure a significant impact of these reforms on tax compliance, the following recommendations are given: i. public revenue generated through company income tax should be adequate utilized towards stimulating the growth and development of the industrial sector in nigeria. this would stimulate a significant increase in tax compliance levels among firms. ii. the changes in the value added tax (vat) rate should be subject to review as it results to inflation in nigeria economy. the government could establish policies to ease the hardship of this effect on the operations and profitability of companies. iii. adequate evidence should be provided by the government to the taxpayers, this would justify adequate management of the public fund generated through personal income tax and other forms of taxes. also, the government should ensure transparency in its 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(1967). elementary sampling theory. in (pp. 405). englewood cliffs, new jersey: prentice-hall. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujaf.2020.080403 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2007.05.004 https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2294886 www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/ https://doi.org/10.13106/jafeb.2020.vol7.no2.65 https://doi.org/10.4236/ojacct.2019.81001 https://doi.org/10.24815/jaroe.v4i1.17073 https://doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00043218 https://doi.org/10.33736/ijbs.3363.2020 https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-368632/v1 62 © 2019 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 7, no. 1, 62-70, 2020 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.62.70 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the perceptions of senior management with regard to strategy implementation in the limpopo provincial department of south africa wiston mbhazima baloyi1 lourens johannes erasmus beyers2 ( corresponding author) 1mba candidate, turfloop graduate school of leadership, university of limpopo, south africa. 2senior lecturer, turfloop graduate school of leadership, university of limpopo, south africa. abstract strategy implementation has always been a challenge in government departments and this article argues that it should not be perceived as an obstacle, but as a vehicle for realising organisational goals. strategy implementation in the public sector has not been researched extensively, and organisational culture, organisational structure, resource allocation and the processes of linking strategy formulation with implementation all remain a key challenges. a strategy implementation process in the limpopo provincial department (lpd) was investigated. the purpose of the article was to examine the perceptions of senior managers with regard to strategy implementation in the lpd. a mixed-methods approach was used to collect data and the ibm spss statistics (version 24) were used to interpret and analyse the data that was collected. the findings revealed that incompetence, devoting less time to the core business, and continual engagement in politics by senior managers, often lead to ineffective strategy implementation. this article, therefore, recommends the appointment of competent senior managers who are capable of steering clear of party politics during working hours. this will improve strategy implementation processes in the public sector. keywords: strategy, strategy implementation, limpopo provincial department, organisational performance. citation | wiston mbhazima baloyi; lourens johannes erasmus beyers (2020). the perceptions of senior management with regard to strategy implementation in the limpopo provincial department of south africa. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 7(1): 62-70. history: received: 21 january 2020 revised: 28 february 2020 accepted: 2 april 2020 published: 20 april 2020 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 3.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group acknowledgement: both authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study follows all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction and background to the study ................................................................................................................................ 63 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 64 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 67 4. research findings and discussion ............................................................................................................................................... 67 5. conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................... 69 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 70 https://www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/ajssms/article/view/1524 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.20448/journal.500.2020.71.62.70&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9130-3450 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 62-70 63 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this article intended to probe the perceptions of senior management on strategy implementation in the limpopo provincial department (lpd). the findings revealed that incompetence, devoting less time to the core business, and continual engagement in politics by senior managers, often lead to ineffective strategy implementation. 1. introduction and background to the study this section focuses on the background and research gap, the statement of the problem, research questions and research objectives of the article. 1.1. background and research gap unsuccessful strategy implementation has always been a global challenge which proliferate to emerge in different organisations (burke, 2016); (olivier & schwella, 2018); (höglund, holmgren caicedo, mårtensson, & svärdsten, 2018); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018); (ridwan, 2019). the republic of south africa has adopted the national development plan 2030 strategic vision and trajectory to ensure enhanced service delivery and the achievement of its long-term objectives (zarenda, 2013). the success of this initiative depends on effective implementation of strategies and optimisation of performance, despite the influences arising from political, social and economic situations (burke, 2016). strategic management consists of three stages, namely, strategy formulation, implementation and control (olivier., 2015); (höglund et al., 2018); (ridwan, 2019). strategy implementation is the second stage of those strategy management processes, which play a pivotal role in the public sector. it refers to the process of executing the plans and policies of the organisation to attain long-term objectives (kordnaeij, 2016). strategy implementation in the public sector is a subject that has not been broadly covered in the literature (burke, 2016); (elbanna, andrews, & pollanen, 2016); (elbanna & fadol, 2016); (kihara, 2017); (andrews, beynon, & genc, 2017); (olivier & schwella, 2018); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018); (höglund et al., 2018); (ridwan, 2019); (cândido & santos, 2019). in addition, little research has been conducted into the link between senior management’s perceptions and strategy implementation in the public sector. therefore, this article intended to probe the perceptions of senior management on strategy implementation in the limpopo provincial department (lpd). furthermore, this article intended to fill research gap in strategy implementation. limited studies were conducted locally on strategy implementation in the public sector in the republic of south africa. for example, olivier and schwella (2018) examined closing the strategy execution gap in the public sector: a conceptual model. the findings revealed that the model intended to discover the nine vital strategic components. on the other hand, burke (2016) investigated strategy implementation insights from the competition commission of south africa. the study uncovered how the capabilities that are built up in the organisation’s priority positioning facilitate the detection of the opportunities with regard to strategy implementation. ngcobo and mdani (2015) probed the evaluation of strategic management in assisting south african municipalities to improve service delivery. the results shows that there are areas that require enhancement to strengthen positive audit outcomes. although the studies are not limited to those highlighted above, none of these studies have explored the perceptions of senior management towards strategy implementation in the public sector. research done by andrews et al. (2017) asserts that there are numerous theories of strategic management that have been positively applied in the public sector and these include amongst others, process theories, resource-based view theory, porter’s strategic positioning, and practice-based view theory. although some of these theories have been effectively implemented in the public sector, they have seldom been employed to respond to matters pertaining to strategy implementation. hence, strategy implementation attributes and apportionment of scarce resources remain a hurdle in the public sector (pablo, reay, dewald, & casebeer, 2007); (elbanna & fadol, 2016); (höglund et al., 2018); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018); (ridwan, 2019). for instance, franks (2014) argues that reward systems for compensating employees for exceptional performance have been obstructed by political interference in the public sector. therefore, the morale of employees’ decreases and their contributions towards effective strategy implementation become problematic. in the main, political interference plays an adverse role in the public sector at large (zarenda, 2013); (franks, 2014); (elbanna et al., 2016); (elbanna & fadol, 2016); (höglund et al., 2018); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018); (ridwan, 2019). it leads to reduced strategy implementation efforts and thus diminished organisational performance. despite the political environment and other external variables (such as economic, social, technological and ecological factors), public sector organisations should ensure that the needs of various stakeholders are contemplated (burke, 2016). however, it requires knowledgeable and dedicated senior managers who are able to apply their skills and expertise competently, regardless of their political status. to ensure that strategy implementation manifests in the public sector, senior managers should transfer their skills to employees by means of coaching and mentoring (njoroge, machuki, ongeti, & kinuu, 2015). this could lead to the successful implementation of strategies and enhancement of service delivery. vision and mission statements are the cornerstones for formulating and implementing strategies and these should be aligned with the strategies and long-term objectives of the organisation (zarenda, 2013); (olivier & schwella, 2018); (ridwan, 2019); (mukhamad, rahmat, semerdanta, & darmansyah, 2020). generally speaking, the primary objective of the public sector is to provide efficient and effective service delivery rather than making a profit (lemarleni, ochieng, gakobo, & mwaura, 2017). the limpopo provincial department (lpd) is one of the 13 government departments in the limpopo province of the republic of south africa. it operates within five districts, namely, mopani, vhembe, capricorn, waterberg and sekhukhune. the primary goal of the lpd is to provide free health care services to the citizens of limpopo province, as stipulated in section 27 of the constitution of the republic of south africa (1996); (limpopo department of health, 2014-19). 1.2. statement of the problem strategy implementation has been viewed as a fundamental challenge in both the public and private sectors and ineffective implementation has an adverse impact on performance (pablo et al., 2007); (burke, 2016); (andrews et asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 62-70 64 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group al., 2017); (olivier & schwella, 2018); (höglund et al., 2018). however, strategy implementation should not be perceived as an obstacle, but as the vehicle for realising long-term goals. this article deliberated about strategy implementation in the limpopo provincial department (lpd). it has been advocated that poor sustainability of strategies is due to inefficient senior management perceptions, poor adjustment to technological innovation and changes, and lack of proper expertise. these are all evident in both the public and private sectors (ogaja & kimiti, 2016). therefore, ineffective strategy implementation amongst others is attributed to managerial incompetence. in addition, inadequate leadership style, political engagement, inefficient planning and management as well as inadequate allocation and distribution of resources within the public sector have led to strategy implementation failure (njoroge et al., 2015); (elbanna & fadol, 2016); (elbanna et al., 2016); (höglund et al., 2018); (olivier & schwella, 2018); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018). the factors highlighted above can negatively affect strategy implementation and thus the overall performance of the lpd. strategy implementation has been viewed by many scholars as involving a difficult task (njoroge et al., 2015); (carlos & santos, 2015); (elbanna et al., 2016); (burke, 2016); (höglund et al., 2018); (olivier & schwella, 2018); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018); (momanyi, senaji, & were, 2018); (merkus, willems, & veenswijk, 2019); (ridwan, 2019); (cândido & santos, 2019). consequently, it has been reported by several studies (olivier., 2015); (carlos & santos, 2015); (kordnaeij, 2016); (olivier & schwella, 2018) that 90% of strategies in both the public and private sectors fail due to unsuccessful implementation processes. therefore, based on the predicaments identified from various reports and literature, this article sought to investigate senior management’s perceptions of how to enhance strategy implementation and identify various approaches that could be employed to improve the performance of the lpd. the research questions were pursued in order to explore the best strategies within the organisational context for improved managerial competence and hence the sustainability of strategy implementation in the lpd. however, the findings of this article cannot be generalised to the wider public service organisations, but could provide direction in the making of informed decisions as far as strategy implementation is concerned. 1.3. research questions  what are the factors that influence strategy implementation of the lpd?  what effect does strategy implementation have on the overall performance of the lpd?  what are the tools and techniques that can help senior management in ensuring successful strategy implementation in the lpd? 1.4. objectives of this article the objectives are:  to identify the factors influencing strategy implementation of the lpd.  to determine the effects of strategy implementation on the overall performance of the lpd.  to identify the tools and techniques that can assist senior management in ensuring effective strategy implementation in the lpd. 2. literature review 2.1. theoretical framework different theories were applied in directing this article. this article was guided by the practice-based view of strategy and the mckinsey 7-s framework. 2.1.1. practice-based view of strategy in essence, the practice-based view (pbv) was established as an alternative to the resource-based view and it “attempts to explain performance based on things that are imitable” (bromiley & rau, 2016). thus, by implication, the pbv becomes pertinent to the lpd as a non-profit making organisation and, as such, does not strive for competitive advantage. this implies that the resources can be employed to enhance service delivery to citizens. holohan and mcdonagh (2017) based their research on the development of practice-based mid-range theory in the public sector. the theory intended to expound the taxonomies embedded in daily practice with a view to comprehending what enables practitioners to fulfil strategic mandates. initially, pbv is typically associated with strategy-as-practice (that is praxis, practitioners and practices), and this has been extended to the public sector (olivier & schwella, 2018); (höglund et al., 2018); (merkus et al., 2019). the three are defined as follows. strategy praxis refers to the process of executing the strategy of the organisation. strategy practitioners are people who deal with the formulation and implementation of strategy. strategy practices are actions for accomplishing that strategy. by implication, senior management in the public sector has to integrate the three in order to fast-track the strategy implementation processes. 2.1.2. mckinsey 7-s framework the mckinsey 7-s framework was initiated by the consultants of mckinsey from new york (mukhamad et al., 2020). this framework has seven components which are categorised as either hard or soft (olivier & schwella, 2018); (ochiel, ombui, & omwenga, 2016). the hard components are simpler to distinguish and can therefore be influenced by managers. these include strategy, organisational structure and systems (ochiel et al., 2016). on the other hand, soft components are complex to expound and are persuaded by values, beliefs and norms embedded in organisational employees. these include staff, style, skills (expertise of employees) and shared values (olivier., 2015). the seven components play an integral role in strategy formulation and implementation in the public sector. in addition, the framework also involves a significant approach to evaluating and monitoring change management activities to ensure effective strategy implementation in the public sector. the mckinsey 7-s framework informs this research paper by giving direction to the exposition of the significant factors influencing strategy implementation in the lpd (mukhamad et al., 2020). this theory is linked asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 62-70 65 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group to the effect of senior management’s perceptions of the strategy implementation process. the mckinsey’s framework is a model that describes the difference between formulation and implementation of the strategies, while submitting that “implementation delegated to a subordinate status is the responsibility of middle management” (ochiel et al., 2016). strategy implementation demands a dynamic organisational hierarchy that is aligned with the long-term goals of the organisation. 2.1.3. conceptual framework this article has developed a particular conceptual framework that enables the researchers to portray graphically the important dimensions to be studied, such as the key factors or models (cooper, 2019). the framework provides senior management with an explicit direction with regard to the major constructs and variables that need to be emphasised during strategy implementation in the lpd. this framework is suitable for both public and private sectors. figure 1 below illustrate the conceptual framework developed in this paper: figure-1. the conceptual framework of strategy implementation. 2.2. factors influencing strategy implementation in the public sector various factors influence strategy implementation in the public sector. these include organisational structure, organisational culture, people, communication, control, time and resources (kihara, 2017); (olivier., 2015). these are discussed below. 2.2.1. organisational structure organisational structure is regarded as being one of the important internal strengths with regard to strategy implementation (elbanna & fadol, 2016); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018); (merkus et al., 2019); (cândido & santos, 2019); (mukhamad et al., 2020) and it assists in improving organisational performance in the public sector (olivier., 2015). therefore, for superior functionality, the organisation requires complete organisational structure and systems to enhance strategy implementation. the lpd has organisational structures that include administration, health professionals and emergency medical services. komingoi (2011) suggests that organisations in the public sector should match the organisational structure with the chosen strategy in order to attain superior performance and ensure the sustainability of strategy implementation. 2.2.2. organisational culture people have diverse beliefs, values, norms and standards which are deeply embedded in the organisation. organisational culture as a factor of strategy implementation in the public sector has a persuasive effect on organisational “processes, employees and performance” (alam & islam, 2017). the culture should be aligned with the strategies, vision and values of the organisation to enable proper implementation of strategies in the public sector (zarenda, 2013); (olivier., 2015); (elbanna & fadol, 2016); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018); (merkus et al., 2019); (cândido & santos, 2019); (mukhamad et al., 2020). lemarleni et al. (2017) argue that organisational culture has a considerable impact on strategy implementation in the public sector. therefore, senior management needs to enhance employee participation in policy decision-making and thus strategy implementation. 2.2.3. people human resources are essential capital that steers strategy implementation in the public and private sectors and hence ensure superior organisational performance (elbanna & fadol, 2016); (kihara, 2017); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018); (mukhamad et al., 2020). therefore, extensive training and the development strategy of employees has to be deliberately executed to support effective strategy implementation in the public sector (franks, 2014). the absence of employee involvement by senior management creates the gradualness of strategy implementation as employees may feel excluded (merkus et al., 2019); (cândido & santos, 2019). hence, teamwork has been perceived as being a main contributory factor in attaining strategy implementation and thus the strategic objectives of the organisation (olivier., 2015). this implies encouraging employees to support the strategy implementation as a project. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 62-70 66 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.2.4. communication communication plays a significant role in disseminating information and knowledge during the process of strategy implementation (elbanna & fadol, 2016); (lemarleni et al., 2017); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018); (merkus et al., 2019); (mukhamad et al., 2020). regular and continuous communication of the business prospects become significant. a lack of communication strategy can be thought of as being a possible reason for the obstruction of proper strategy implementation in the public sector (komingoi, 2011); (cândido & santos, 2019). consequently, appropriate communication channels and strategies should be in place. the lpd employs different virtual communication channels, including, amongst others, e-mails and whatsapp groups. 2.2.5. control the solid control of flow of information and other resources has been vital in the public sector environment (elbanna & fadol, 2016); (elbanna et al., 2016). leadership in the public sector should enforce control and should maintain the flexibility and capability of employees in strategy implementation (höglund et al., 2018); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018); (merkus et al., 2019); (ridwan, 2019). ngcobo and mdani (2015) suggest that a lack of ample control in public service has caused unauthorised, irregular, fruitless and wasteful expenditure to be incurred. this had an adverse effect on service delivery and the performance of institutions in the public sector environment. the control of scarce resources plays a material role in ensuring the effective implementation of strategies in the public sector environment (pablo et al., 2007); (cândido & santos, 2019). 2.2.6. time time is another factor that impedes effective policy and strategy implementation in the public sector, as senior managers “often spend their time garnering political favour and looking for their next position” (franks, 2014). time has been identified as scarce resource and it should be used fruitfully (olivier., 2015); (elbanna & fadol, 2016); (cândido & santos, 2019). the fulfilment of policy and strategy implementation depends heavily on time (elbanna et al., 2016); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018). at the same time, senior managers in the public sector should devote much time to implementing chosen strategies in order to ensure that there is focus on service delivery and improved performance (in this case the lpd). 2.2.7. resources resources, including human, financial and technological resources, are pivotal to strategy implementation (alam & islam, 2017). resources such as leadership’s expertise and sufficient time may be constantly essential during the implementation process of strategies (elbanna et al., 2016); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018); (mukhamad et al., 2020). organisations in the public sector encounter huge challenges in the process of strategy implementation, which involves the distribution of scarce resources and the motivation of employees and politics (elbanna & fadol, 2016); (alam & islam, 2017); (höglund et al., 2018); (ridwan, 2019); (mukhamad et al., 2020). in addition, ochiel et al. (2016) advocate that the performance of public sector organisations is obstructed by a shortage of resources. franks (2014) contends that senior management’s lack of appropriate expertise hampers the achievement of goals in the public service. 2.3. tools and techniques for successful strategy implementation in the public sector the tools and techniques for effective strategy implementation in the public sector include annual objectives, policies and functional strategies (komingoi, 2011). these are discussed below. 2.3.1. annual objectives annual objectives are elementary for strategy implementation in the public sector, as they represent the means of distributing resources to various directorates (komingoi, 2011); (elbanna & fadol, 2016); (höglund et al., 2018). they enable senior managers in the public sector to focus on set targets and measureable objectives. annual objectives are revealed in the strategic plan of the organisation and are coupled with the vision statement, mission statement and long-term objectives. the annual objectives of the lpd are pinpointed in its strategic plan and other strategic documents of the department. 2.3.2. policies policies are required to direct the organisational activities to accomplish its mandates that result from the short-term (höglund et al., 2018); (maotwanyane & pretorius, 2018). komingoi (2011) suggests that policies are there to “set boundaries, constraints and limits on the kind of administrative actions that can be taken to reward or sanction behaviour; they clarify what can and cannot be done in pursuit of the organisation’s objectives”. formal policies and procedures enable senior managers to make informed decisions in order to attain the strategic objectives of the organisation (kihara, 2017); (ridwan, 2019). the enhancement of strategy implementation in the public sector depends on introducing new systems that enforce proper policies and the execution of procedures (olivier., 2015); (elbanna & fadol, 2016). the lpd has policies and procedures that guide its daily activities. 2.3.3. functional strategies functional strategies are key to regular activities that take place in every functional area within the organisation (in this case the lpd) in order to implement chosen strategies successfully (komingoi, 2011). these include, amongst others, directorates such as financial management, human resources management, public relations, supply chain management and information communication and technology (ict) in the public sector. all of these directorates are crucial for strategy implementation in the public sector. the lpd includes functions such as finance, human resource management, healthcare services, ict, supply chain management, emergency medical services, and pharmacy services. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 62-70 67 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. methodology this paper adopted a mixed-methods approach using empirical research. the target population was 120 employees of the limpopo provincial department (lpd) comprising health professionals and middle managers. the target population was drawn from employees from the provincial head office, the mopani district office and mopani district hospitals. only assistant directors, deputy directors and directors were allowed to participate in the study. the sample size was 30 employees. a self-completion questionnaire was employed as a data collection technique. the self-completion questionnaires were administered by means of the drop and pick method. the preliminary questionnaires were pretested (piloted) amongst the three employees in one of the limpopo provincial department to ascertain their opinions concerning question clarity and simplicity of answering (ary, jacobs, irvine, & walker, 2018). data analysis and interpretation were conducted using ibm statistical packaging for the social sciences (spss) statistics (version 24). furthermore, descriptive and inferential statistics were utilised to interpret the collected data. cronbach’s alpha was used as a measure of internal consistency and the average interitem correlation. the one-way analysis of variance (anova) test was also employed to reveal the significance of the difference between the research variables. 4. research findings and discussion data interpreted and analysed was summed up in relation to the research objectives of this paper. graphs and tables were used to illustrate the findings explicitly. 4.1. response rate all 30 questionnaires were distributed amongst the respondents, appropriately completed and returned. this signifies the response rate of 100%. 4.2. demographics the personal information of respondents was required. this included respondents’ directorate, number of years in public service, gender, age, number of years in the department, marital status, position, salary level, employment status and qualifications obtained. the findings revealed that out of 30 respondents, 23 were male and the remaining seven were female. the findings showed that 46,7% of the respondents were aged between 36 and 45 years, forty percent of the respondents were between 46 and 55 years, while 6,7% of the respondents were between 56 and 65 and 6,6% of the respondents were between 26 and 35 years. the findings also indicated that 40% of the respondents possess 11 to 20 years’ experience in the public service; 30% of the respondents have 21 to 30 years of experience; 20% of the respondents have 0 to 10 years of experience and 10% of the respondents have 31 to 40 years of experience. furthermore, the findings showed that 36,7% of the respondents have 0 to 10 years in the limpopo provincial department (lpd), 43,3% of the respondents have 11 to 20 years in the lpd, 10% of the respondents have 21 to 30 years in the lpd and 10% of the respondents have 31 to 40 years in the lpd. the findings also showed that 60% of the respondents were assistant directors, 33,3% of respondents were deputy directors and 6,7% of the respondents were directors. the findings also indicated that 43,3% of the respondents were on salary level 9 to 10, 50% of the respondents were on salary level 11 to 12 and 6,7% of the respondents were on salary level 13 to 14. 4.3. factors influencing strategy implementation in the limpopo provincial department (lpd) the paper sought to probe the perceptions of senior management with regard to strategy implementation in the lpd. various factors influencing strategy implementation in the department were explored. figure 2 below presents the findings from the empirical findings. figure-2. factors influencing strategy implementation in the lpd. all the respondents (100%) agreed that strategy implementation is significant in the department. on the question of the current organisational culture, consisting of a diverse environment, 50% of the respondents agreed, 27% were unsure while 23% disagreed. a majority of respondents (53%) agreed that the department has adequate structure to ensure proper strategy implementation, while 3% were unsure and 43% disagreed. furthermore, a majority (60%) of the respondents agreed that regular meetings are held with regard to strategy implementation in asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 62-70 68 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the department, while 13% were unsure and 27% disagreed. on the other hand, 47% of the respondents agreed that leadership has sufficient time to drive policy and strategy implementation, 17% were unsure and 37% disagreed. on the question of leadership taking control over policy and strategy implementation, a majority (60%) of the respondents agreed, 10% were unsure and 30% disagreed. furthermore, on the question of whether teamwork is being encourage in the department, a majority (80%) of the respondents agreed, 10% were unsure and 10% disagreed. also, 93% of the respondents agreed that the department is responsible for all stakeholders (both internal and external), 3% were unsure and 3% disagreed. in addition, 50% of the respondents agreed that the department does provide quality services to its clients, 13% were unsure and 37% disagreed. in the last question of determining whether effective communication strategies exist within the department, a majority (70%) of the respondents agreed, 7% were unsure and 23% disagreed. 4.4. the effects of strategy implementation on the overall organisational performance this paper further investigated the effects of strategy implementation on the overall organisational performance. figure 3 below illustrates the results from empirical research. figure-3. the effects of strategy implementation on the overall organisational performance. on the first statement of strategy implementation being key to organisational performance, a majority (67%) of the respondents strongly agreed, 30% agreed and 3% disagreed. furthermore, 10% of the respondents strongly agreed that the department usually receives a clean audit as a part of reviewing performance, 17% agreed, 40% disagreed and 33% strongly disgreed. on the statement of a balanced scorecard tool being effectively used to measure performance, while 17% of the respondents strongly agreed, 47% agreed, 27% disagreed and 10% strongly disagreed. only 17% of the respondents agreed that all four perspectives (financial, customer, internal business process and learning and growth) are taken into account, a majority (43%) agreed and 40% disagreed. on the last statement of incentives being implemented to reward individual performance, 10% of the respondents strongly agreed, 57% agreed, 20% disagreed and 13% strongly disagreed. 4.5. the tools and techniques that can assist leadership in ensuring effective strategy implementation in the limpopo provincial department (lpd) this article further explored the tools and techniques that can assist leadership in ensuring effective strategy implementation in the lpd. figure 4 below depicts the findings from the empirical study: figure-4. the tools and techniques that can assist leadership in ensuring effective strategy implementation in the lpd. on the statement of whether policies are in place to guide strategy implementation in the department, 27% of the respondents strongly agreed, 63% agreed and 10% disagreed. furthermore, 23% of the respondents strongly agreed that policies and strategies are reviewed on an annual basis, 37% agreed, 37% disagreed and 3% strongly disagreed. on the statement of leadership playing a major role in the policy and strategy implementation process, 37% of the respondents strongly agreed. a majority (50%) of the respondents agreed, 10% disagreed and 3% strongly disagreed. in addition, 27% of the respondents strongly agreed that the annual objectives are clear and achievable, a majority (57%) agreed and 17% disagreed. finally, 40% of the respondents strongly agreed that clear targets are being set for the predetermined objectives while a majority of 53% agreed and 7% disagreed. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 62-70 69 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.6. descriptive statistical analysis descriptive statistics were used to explain the elements of a sample. furthermore, the mean, standard deviation, and minimum and maximum values for all scaled questions were also computed and used in the explanation of the findings. the item-level responses are summated to scale level and the summary of statistics and frequency distribution are supplied in table 1. table-1. summary of descriptive statistics of mean knowledge scores (n=30). element position n mean std. deviation std. error factors influencing strategy implementation in the provincial department assistant director 18 14.5 4.579 1.079 deputy director 10 16.5 5.359 1.695 director 2 22.5 2.121 1.5 total 30 15.7 5.066 0.925 tools and techniques that assist in ensuring successful strategy implementation in the provincial department assistant director 18 9.11 2.139 0.504 deputy director 10 9.2 2.616 0.827 director 2 13 1.414 1 total 30 9.4 2.415 0.441 the influence of strategy implementation on organisational performance in the provincial department assistant director 18 10.83 2.203 0.519 deputy director 10 11.3 2.791 0.883 director 2 14.5 0.707 0.5 total 30 11.23 2.473 0.452 4.7. reliability and validity the internal consistency of the knowledge scale was calculated using cronbach’s alpha and the average interitem correlation. cronbach’s alpha is used as a measure of the internal consistency of similar elements which make up a scale (bell, bryman, & harley, 2019); (cooper, 2019). these values are presented in table 2. table-2. internal consistency reliability values of scales. scale cronbach's alpha average inter-item correlation number of item factors influencing strategy implementation in the provincial department 0.847 0.384 9 the influence of strategy implementation on organisational performance in the provincial department 0.584 0.208 5 tools and techniques that assist in ensuring successful strategy implementation in the provincial department 0.724 0.365 5 overall 0.879 0.279 19 the values of cronbach’s alpha are acceptable for both scales if they are greater than the minimum acceptable value of 0.6 (babin & zikmund, 2015). however, the following scales can be interpreted:  for a coefficient between 0.7 and 0.8, reliability is considered good.  for a coefficient between 0.6 and 0.7, reliability is considered fair.  for a coefficient below 0.6, reliability is considered poor. therefore, the value of the average inter-item correlation is greater than the minimum acceptable value of 0.3 (babin & zikmund, 2015). the cronbach’s alpha of this study is 0.879 and the average inter-item correlation is 0.279, which is the acceptance value of cronbach’s alpha and average inter-item correlation. 5. conclusion and recommendations the success and survival of an organisation depends on the successful implementation of strategies. a remarkable and superior organisational performance goes hand in hand with effective strategy implementation. therefore, senior managers should strongly contemplate strategy implementation as it has a huge impact on the overall organisational performance. in addition, senior management of the limpopo provincial department (lpd) should fruitfully disburse the scarce resources in order to attain the strategic objectives of the organisation. furthermore, proper systems and processes should be in place in order to drive the strategy implementation in the department. this article further suggests that the senior managers should engage employees in the decisionmaking process in order to respond to the desires of various stakeholders. in addition, senior management should enforce policy and procedure implementation and ensure compliance with prescripts. policies and procedures need to be reviewed on an annual basis to realise the strategic objectives of the department. the strategies of the department should be directly linked with the vision statement, mission statement, organisational structure and organisational culture so as to benefit strategy implementation efforts. the article recommends that team-work needs to be in place to ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of implementation of strategies in the lpd and public sector in general. therefore, the tight engagement of team members is pivotal to accelerate the execution process. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2020, 7(1): 62-70 70 © 2020 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group it is further recommended that a competent senior management be appointed to ensure effective strategy implementation. regular communication is essential to steer the implementation processes. hence, effective communication channels and strategies should be in place to enable speedy policy and strategy execution. this article further recommends the appointment of a competent senior management who is capable of avoiding party politics during working hours and thereby improving strategy implementation processes in the public sector. furthermore, employees should be motivated by means of appropriate reward systems. this would involve the payment of incentives in the form of performance bonuses and recognition by means of non-financial rewards such as awards. future research should investigate the impact of reward systems on strategy implementation, and how the praxis, practices and processes (strategy-as-practice) emerge in the public sector. references alam, s., & islam, m. t. 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(2013). south africa’s national development plan and its implications for regional development. tralac working paper no. d13wp01/2013. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. 1 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 12, no. 1, 1-9, 2025 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6377 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group the conundrum lensing theories, models and drivers in deciphering petty delinquencies ashnita singh university of the south pacific, suva, fiji. email: ashnita_s@yahoo.com abstract the purpose of this review article is to explore the relationship between poverty, development, governance, and urban petty crimes. it offers an overview of crime, its typologies, theories, models and factors that constitute criminal behaviour in urban areas. the research methodology of this article is a comprehensive review of literature approach that examines global and regional crime discourses, with specific attention to fiji. this qualitative approach involves reviewing selected published literature to build a comprehensive understanding of how urban crime is shaped by socio-economic conditions and governance challenges. it examines various crime theories and models to assess how underdevelopment, resource deprivation, and weak governance contribute to the prevalence of crimes in urban environments. the findings as per the thematic insights of the reviews, reveal that urban crimes, particularly petty offenses, are deeply rooted in factors such as economic underdevelopment, resource scarcity and ineffective governance systems. the interplay of these factors creates a conducive environment for crime to thrive. the practical implications from the reviews suggest that addressing urban crime in pics as elsewhere requires a multifaceted approach towards the underlying causes in mitigating urban crime. by understanding the complex relationship between socio-economic factors and criminal behavior, effective crime prevention measures become central to urban populations in pics. keywords: crime, development, governance, inequality, poverty, urbanisation. citation | singh, a. (2025). the conundrum lensing theories, models and drivers in deciphering petty delinquencies. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 12(1), 1–9. 10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6377 history: received: 7 november 2024 revised: 16 january 2025 accepted: 27 january 2025 published: 10 february 2025 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the university of the south pacific, fiji has granted approval for this study on 1 october 2019 (ref. no. f4348-fbe17-71502-001). transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. contents 1. introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 2. models and theories of crime ......................................................................................................................................................... 3 3. crime in developing countries ........................................................................................................................................................ 5 4. petty crime factors ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6 5. conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 7 references ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6035-9213 mailto:ashnita_s@yahoo.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6377 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 1-9 2 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this article offers underexplored contributions by specifically focusing on the intersection of poverty, governance, and development within urban petty crimes, as a distinctive regional perspective of pacific island countries (pics). therefore, reviewing global disclosures with localised insights has the potential to further advance understanding of urban crime in pics. 1. introduction petty crimes brew in the shadow of urban inequalities with catalysing factors beyond resource deprivation, and challenges of law-and-order dynamics. urban crime is seemingly performing a global presence more than ever before. crime is a burning subject that has become more prevalent in recent decades (soh, 2012). while the concept of petty crime is not new, its backward linkages among numerous factors are pointedly related to urban poverty, development and governance issues. in that, the realm of urbanism and crime remain incomplete without adjoining the supreme role of the mentioned dynamics. urban crime is certainly included in the long list of emerging urban challenges marking a strong global presence. brennan-galvin (2002) and findlay (2005) point out that issues as with that of crime, are showing greater visibility in urban spaces today. crime incidences may be linked to the levels of development (arthur, 1991) given higher level of social disparity is a common thread between resource deprivation and crime (toh, 2015). findlay (2005) states that crimes advanced with surging urbanisation1 and urban poverty at the crux of it. in the same vein, the role of governance and levels of development implicating crime trends cannot be overextended. the impression of weak administration, corruption, underdevelopment and overall resourcelessness among others often creates a conducive climate for crimes to flourish. considering the aforementioned, this review article addresses these questions: what is the petty crime scenario in developing countries; how petty crime thrives on factors of poverty, development and governance; and what is the role of said factors in relation to the pacific and fiji? before divulging into the stated questions per se, let us first delve into the conception of defining urban crime and its typologies. 1.1. urban crime identifying and settling down to a working definition of crime is herculean task. as has been identified in literature, the definition of crime has many versions that differ across countries and regions. crime as an illegal act found in most criminal codes, has been a definitional grounding for long. most criminal codes generalised the definition, compelling criminologists, legal scholars and others (like researchers) to describe it from a simplified viewpoint (ibid.). zaidi (1999) describes crime as a rupture of a lawful proscription, an act that is punishable by law or a social harm that is forbidden by decree. from tenibiaje (2010) perspective, crime can be described as deviant behaviour that violates the set norms and patterns of society. by and large, if the behaviour oversteps cultural, social, political, psychological or economic wellbeing, it can be classified as crime (ibid.). petty crime2 alternatively, is an “offence for which the probable punishment is no greater than six months in jail (that maybe) accompanied with a fine” (warner, 2004). crime as a fracture of a legal prohibition is well demarcated into legalistic, individualistic and social typologies (clinard, quinney, & wildeman, 2015; warner, 2004). the following is a brief coverage on crime typologies. 1.2. typology of crime criminologists have worked on creating specific identification, classification and description of crime types and criminal behaviour upon the realisation that crime initially referred to a variety of behaviours (clinard et al., 2015). the absence of an appropriate typological framework was blocking the way in acquiring common consensus on varied delinquent behaviours. brennan (1987) says, ‘different purposes require different methods’. as such, criminologists worked out ways to slot crimes into different typologies (clinard et al., 2015). various scholars and crime institutions recognised this lack of distinctiveness, which gave rise to common groupings under the legalistic, individualistic and social crime typologies (ibid.). a subdivision within crime typologies are its categorisations, the basis on which the typologies are meant to function. most categorisations provide a typology for lawbreakers based on illegal behaviour and certain attitudes they exercise (gibbons, 1992). according to usman, yakubu, and bello (2012) four widely accepted crime typologies include: crimes against person; crimes against property; crimes against lawful authority and crimes against local act. another aspect of typologies is the crime dimensions. some key crime dimensions are the “legal part of the offence, criminal career of offender, group support of criminal behaviour, correspondence of the criminal, legitimate behaviour, societal reaction and legal processing” (clinard et al., 2015). notwithstanding, crime typologies have been much challenged. gibbons (1992) fundamental typological contribution had been criticised for its vague and overlapping definitions. wrong (1992) critiques that crimes included under gibbons (1992) offence patterns ‘are unclear and meaningless’. therefore, coming up with crime typologies (its categories and dimensions) is one thing, and agreeing with a single typological framework, is another complex scenario. table 1 exhibits the various categorisations of criminal behaviour. clinard et al. (2015) group them under eight categories that include; violent personal criminal behaviour, occasional property criminal behaviour, public order criminal behaviour, conventional criminal behaviour, occupational criminal behaviour, corporate criminal behaviour, organised criminal behaviour and professional criminal behaviour. the typologies that follow act as a focal point in understanding criminal behaviour. 1 the ‘proportion of a country that is urban’ (unicef (united nations international children's emergency fund), 2012). 2 warner (2004) groups misdemeanors into maximum penalties of six months to below thirty days in jail against infractions; the noncriminal offences for which the maximum penalty is jail time of five days or less. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 1-9 3 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 1. typologies of criminal behaviour. type of criminal behaviour description violent personal criminal behaviour they are often people who commit an offence under certain circumstances and do not have a previous criminal record. such offenders are not reliant on any group, although their behaviour may emerge out of cultural or subcultural conditioning. occasional property criminal behaviour such offenders often do not associate themselves as criminals upon which the justification of their criminal act lies. they largely observe the overall objectives of society, general response is not severe in these cases and leniency in lawful dealings is common. public order criminal behaviour includes offences such as prostitution, homosexuality, drug use, drunkenness and so on. such offences may not have a direct victim but are against social conduct. only a small percentage of such offences result in arrests. most of these offences operate routinely and perhaps in some cases discreetly. conventional criminal behaviour crimes such as larceny, burglary, robbery and others can be grouped here. offenders engage in such acts from an early stage of their lives and can operate with gangs. chances of sequencing and detention are common. reintegration programmes are not effective, as they do not cater for social conditions that give birth to such acts. occupational criminal behaviour these offenders are accounted for when occupational activities or business activities become the means to violate the law. most such cases are tolerable while legal penalties are not too harsh (severity of offence matters). involvement of high profile or influential individuals is likely. corporate criminal behaviour restrictions and checks on trade, false marketing, exploitation of trademarks, insider trading, production of risky foods and drugs, dangerous working environment and environmental pollution are some examples. such laws promote socially conscious entrepreneurial transactions and protect consumers and workers. legal actions are sanctioned as corporate crimes continue to grow. organised criminal behaviour such lawbreakers pursue crime as a living and can be isolated from the communities and larger society. these offenders can have association with members of the society and chosen residential areas. professional criminal behaviour private property defence laws are used in cases of pickpocketing, forgery, counterfeiting and so on. such offenders pursue crime as a livelihood, associate with their gangs and have high rank in their “world.” professional offenders require a high degree of skill and offences can go undetected because of low discernibility. source: clinard et al. (2015). having briefly discoursed typologies, next is a short review on selected theories and models of crime. 2. models and theories of crime 2.1. theories various theories and models have been developed around crime as a phenomenon. the rational choice theory for example, explains criminal behaviour based on judgments and choices of an offender (cornish & clarke, 1987). the “rational choice” as the term suggests, assumes that criminals pursue to advantage themselves through their decisions, choices, abilities and information access (ibid.). offenders carry out their cost-benefit analysis such as the type and amount of benefit, supposed risk, expertise needed and so forth. they term this cost-benefit probe as “choicestructuring properties”. johnson, guerette, and bowers (2014) under crime displacement theory, express that crime “displacement” is determined by the devotion of an offender, the degree of determination in identifying and abusing a substitute crime and the degree to which delinquents are aware of other prospective circumstances. according to bennett and wright (1984) study on crime displacement, the findings revealed that less than half of the study samples opted for an alternative crime (no displacement) upon failing at the initial crime attempt. the duo therefore proposed that displacement also relied on criminal opportunity structure, behaviours and patterns which, nonetheless, is circumstantial. the chicago school’s human ecological standpoint explains crime through rates of population growth in cities and its consequential implications (abrahamson, 2018). stark (1987) however, argues that chicago school’s understanding of crime underpinned by city density, poverty, transient population among other factors, is just one way of looking at the issue of crime tendencies. another criticism of this approach is that despite urban ecology (area of one’s residency), most people do not transform into criminals within urban ecological parameters (ibid.). stark (1987) and gove (1985) add to the debate by arguing that many aspects influence criminal behaviour which are not rooted in ecology just as living in a slum is not a necessary condition for deviant behaviour, given all squatter residents do not choose crime as an outlet. critics like stark (1987) urge human ecological theory to shift attention from the environmental influence to crime and deviance occurrences from broader lenses. however, the urban scaling theory does solidify urban population and its crime relationship (chang, choi, lee, & jin, 2018). everyday routine activities such as going to work or shopping in urban set-ups increases a person’s probability of victimisation, especially for targets lacking guardianship3 (boivin, 2018; corcoran et al., 2020). studies carried out in usa on nearly 250 cities and over 100,000 inhabitants confirm a superlinear relation between crime count and population size, and that an increase in urban population by 100 per cent, increases crime incidence by 120 per cent (chang et al., 2018). large population in most respects, may offer more candidates for victimisation. boivin (2018) notes that huge populace whether suburban, visiting or a combination, create room for more offences. in opposing urban scaling theory, leon (2019) says that larger population is lesser-expected crime targets as increased number of individuals provide increased supervision, rather reducing chances of victimisation (ibid.). the social disorganisation theory bases its assumptions on hostile social and physical environments towards a life of crime (breetzke, 2010). studies carried out in tshwane city (south africa) found correlations between crime 3 refers to persons capable of defending an attractive target from crime victimisation for instance, security guards and objects that aid as deterrents such as video surveillance, locked doors and security systems (corcoran, scheitle, & hudnall, 2020). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 1-9 4 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group and social disorganisation (ibid.). le (2002) believes that distinct acculturation factors and the marginalised environmental ethos need consideration apart from culture. similar results were identified in le (2002) study in vietnam as it explained crime beyond ethnic identity and culture (ibid.). yet, breetzke (2010) opposes these findings by labelling it to be relevant for now only. as widely agreed in scholarly work, research information is time and nature specific, therefore, the findings may be deemed valid for a certain timeline. as stated by clinard et al. (2015) ‘all phenomena are unique in time and space’. other crime approaches include the disarmament, demolition and reintegration (ddr) that was used in nepal to better comprehend urban criminality (rozema, 2008). upreti, sagar, sharma, nath, and ghimire (2010) on the contrary, critiqued that ddr failed to modernise the security sector, which the authors admit got amended by the time its successor, the security sector restructuring (ssr) approach emerged in the face of law-and-order concerns. fading of traditional, close-knit collective lifestyle fast-tracked poverty and increased criminalistic tendencies. arthur (1991) outlines, modernisation approach grounds itself on the rise of industrial evolution at the hands of agrarian livelihoods. a compromised subsistence lifestyle and birthing of a currency led modern society created the notion of ‘haves and haves not’ (ibid.). to test modernisation theory, international criminal police organisation (interpol)4 used crime data from eleven countries in africa and found that emergence of industrial development did lead to a surge in criminal activities (ibid.). otwin and arthur (1995) however, disagree with such findings and strongly question the experimental, methodological and conceptual take on modernisation, underdevelopment and routine activities and its correlation between developing and developed countries. they add that a lot more needs to be unravelled before arriving at any such conclusion. rogers (1989) focuses on the colonialism hypothesis to provide counter arguments. unlike other schools of thought that blame poverty and crime to be products of post-colonialism, the author opines against this generalisation. as outlined, the said hypothesis fails to explain rising urban crimes in united states, canada, south america, indonesia and thailand given none of these countries were ever colonised (ibid.). holding similar grounds, lange, mahoney, and vom hau (2006) suggest that the ‘poorest pre-colonial regions emerged wealthiest in the postcolonial era’ in justifying that poverty and resulting crime, cannot be blamed on the colonialism factor alone. brantingham and brantingham (1991) and cornish and clarke (2014) shed light on the crime pattern theory whereby criminal’s awareness level combined with certain forces determine their choices and “patterns”. according to studies carried out, certain vectors define crime types and crime flow patterns (blumstein, 2002). using the nonparametric variation approach, football matches were studied as a possible crime surging factor (kurland, johnson, & tilley, 2014). the study established that hourly dispersal of crimes increased in hours before and during football matches post delinquents’ awareness of match timing (and duration). prior knowledge of busy game watchers reinforced lawbreakers’ crime choices and set patterns (ibid.). however, such findings are challenged given the lack of research on similar topics (football matches as a crime factor), making it a subject of further research. it this implies that no matter how urban crime is viewed, it remains a deep-seated issue making it very challenging to understand using selected theoretical lenses, given socio-economic and political realities of economies differ by and large. crime theories while useful, cannot be used as broad generalisations for all contexts and settings. 2.2. models copious crime models are often developed with the hope of understanding and compressing crimes. burke et al. (2019) pick on packer’s crime control model (ccm) and the due process model (dpm) in stating that it regulates crime, adjusts policies, tightens criminal justice structure, increases police power and covers topics like crime sentencing practices. this model pushes for instant punishment compared to time consuming trial systems (ibid.). conversely, the effectiveness of this model has been much questioned. while this model necessitates justice system to see legal and individual rights at the same wavelength, burke et al. (2019) argue that striking the right balance between the two would be harder on ground realities. meanwhile, blumstein (2002) suggests that the justice system interactive model (jussim) handles the criminal justice system in stages consisting of preparatory crime, arrest and release. it focuses on resources such as police, prosecutors, judges, prison cells, unit costs and suggests careful resource application (ibid.). yet, in line with many others, this model is deemed to have certain flaws. a common drawback that soon surfaced was its downstream flow without adequate involvement of stakeholders (ibid.). studies aiming to understand causes of one race or group of prisoners superseding others are several. several findings on this subject have appeared in many significant reports. heinz (2020) suggests that a prisoner’s race as a crime factor is a complicated game. citing examples of hispanics5, the author says that black and white inmates are counted as non-hispanics in some reports and at a combined level in others, which make race-based crime data questionable. on a different note, the becker model suggests that opportunity cost of time directly affects criminal propensities (glaeser, 1999). the model suggests that an upsurge in criminality occurs only when the opportunity cost of time drops (ibid.). drawing on a national longitudinal survey, glaeser (1999) mentions that measures of opportunity cost of time had the potential to predict crime. drawing onto the ehrlich model in connecting crimes to perceived benefits while linking with empirical studies, soares (2003) suggests that cross-regional differences in crime rates were largely due to income level or some measure of poverty. that said, the ehrlich model, among other things, had been criticised for its inadequate attention to crime from a developmental perspective (ibid.). therefore, various models and theories while vital, have been much questioned on its notions and relevance given crime is a broad subject to decipher. the next part begins with coverage of crime and its trends through the lens of developing countries and pics. this is followed by a brief discussion on three foregoing crime factors. 4 an information clearinghouse, manned by criminal-intelligence professionals who monitor international criminals (leon, 2019). interpol does not have within its power to meddle with outside intervention or activities. it does not have enough answerability for its actions and usually goes unchallenged in many of its operations (ibid.). 5 out of the many definitions, generally, it refers to people from spanish-speaking countries in latin america (excluding brazil) while latinos are people from latin america regardless of language (lopez, krogstad, & passel, 2019). https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/08/27/434584260/hispanic-or-latino-a-guide-for-the-u-s-presidential-campaign asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 1-9 5 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. crime in developing countries an increasing body of literature supports the view that developing nations stand out in crime and poverty statistics and narratives. as per elis and liu (2018) study, out of the eight developing countries that were selected for crime evaluation, madagascar stood out with staggering figures of nearly 79 out of 100 on crime levels, tanzania at about 63, whereas nigeria and malaysia each with nearly 65 on levels of crime. table 2 shows the levels and types of crime in selected developing countries that have scored between high and moderate (exception of handful of categories rated low) on crime levels. the crime ratings are indicators of higher social disparity and weaker law enforcement that many developing countries have in common. table 2. level of crime in selected developing countries. country crime type of crime level score* worries home broken and things stolen worries being mugged or robbed worries car stolen problem property crimes such as vandalism and theft problem violent crimes such as assault and armed robbery madagascar high 78.57 high moderate moderate high high nigeria high 65.15 moderate high moderate high high malaysia high 64.73 high high high high high tanzania high 62.50 high high moderate high moderate pakistan moderate 52.20 moderate moderate moderate moderate moderate thailand moderate 49.95 moderate moderate moderate moderate moderate india moderate 46.22 moderate moderate low moderate low nepal low 33.00 moderate low low moderate low source: adapted from elis and liu (2018). *value varies between 0 to 100. also, distinct victimisation surveys conducted in many developing countries acknowledge urban growth and its poverty association (findlay, 2005). prevalent cases include that of latin america and the caribbean which bergman and whitehead (2009) highlight, are the regions with an enormous crime wave. 3.1. petty crimes in pics the pacific is clearly not immuned to the shenanigan of urban lawbreaking. from 2000 to 2005, the island country of kiribati witnessed major population gains in north tarawa and kiritimati island posing urban setbacks of overcrowding, pollution, joblessness, rising urban crimes and the like (lea & jones, 2007). in federated states of micronesia (fsm), urban growth decelerated (jones, 2012) and according to fsm’s 2000 census, cases like thefts, vandalisms and alcohol infused disorderly behaviours became rife (noble, pereira, & saune, 2011). port moresby holds only six per cent of papua new guinea’s (png) population, but caters for 30 per cent of all crimes, and many of its peri-urban areas6 have witnessed mugging at bus stops and public venues (jones, 2012; noble et al., 2011). studies between 2004 and 2007 revealed that about one quarter of the survey participants in png had been part of burglaries and more than 60 per cent as victims of household crimes (noble et al., 2011). in marshall islands, a 71 per cent increase in the number of incidences against young people had been reported from 2009 to 2010 (connell & lea, 2002; noble et al., 2011). considering honiara (solomon islands), police records and studies indicate similar findings which are not limited to the incidences of assault and property damage (noble et al., 2011). in 2009, apia (samoa) witnessed 13 and 11 per cent increase in burglary and theft respectively, and between 2006 to 2010, several crimes transpired out of breach of trust, theft, forgery, false pretence and falsifying accounts, while in nuku’alofa (tonga), police and other reports highlight offences of larceny, forgery, trespassing, shop and house break-ins including spiking armed robberies (ibid.). as per us department of state travel advisory (2019) crime and safety report, common cases of property crimes are rife in fiji (us department of state travel advisory, 2019). the breaking of security features is common, and criminals can operate largely on ad hoc basis. various petty offences in the country are of concern (government of fiji, 2016, 2019). the fijian government has been facing repercussions of rising crimes principally in urban centres (phillips & meg, 2016). rapid urbanisation in suva has resulted in several concerns without dismissing the fact that a fifth (for year and time in question) of greater suva urban area (gsua)7 residents live in poverty, improper services and squatters (phillips & meg, 2016). supporting evidence from fbos (fiji bureau of statistics) (2018) confirms fiji’s urban population to have surged from around 37 per cent to nearly 56 per cent between 1976 and 2017, and that most crimes occur in fiji’s crowded towns and cities (us department of state travel advisory, 2019). predictably, with rising population at hand, it becomes increasingly challenging to provide all facilities to all people and to control crime. countries with reliable resources may manage rising population and crimes concurrently but for others, it creates an unmanageable negative environment (elis & liu, 2018). fiji like elsewhere, faces it share of resource implications in the face of crime. as emphasized by mccusker (2006) and phillips and meg (2016) law enforcement capacity and regulatory elements are a work in progress. the combination of urbanisation, poverty, inequality, squatter settlements, unemployment and others is at the heart of fiji’s law and order outbreak (phillips & meg, 2016; reddy, naidu, & mohanty, 2003). property crimes are common in fiji while pickpocketing and other petty offences occur during the day and at night (us department of state travel advisory, 2019). crime networks may target areas of least resistance, and a weak crime response capacity may imply, an easy space for crimes to survive in developing economies (adinkrah, 1995; mccusker, 2006). the general observation is that as fiji 6 ‘an area between consolidated urban and rural regions’ (unicef (united nations international children's emergency fund), 2012). 7 comprises the capital city of fiji, suva city, and three municipal towns namely lami, nasinu and nausori town (un-habitat (united nations human settlements programme), 2012). the urban area covers 4000 hectares, forming part of the larger suva-nausori corridor and is the economic centre generating roughly 30 per cent of the national gross domestic product. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 1-9 6 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group progresses and becomes prosperous, the volume of crime and crime tendencies may advance, putting immense pressure on fiji police force (fpf) (government of fiji, 2013, 2016, 2019). 4. petty crime factors 4.1. poverty the underprivileged are propelled towards crime simply because there is a serious lack of needs and a dire wish for wants. petty crimes become a common way of obtaining economic profit when mainstream avenues fail to function in favour of the deprived masses. there is little doubt that factors of global poverty and inequality are more visible in the present century. urban petty crimes are fast locating solace around poverty ridden metropolises, family breakdowns, societal disturbances, increasing divide between advantaged and underprivileged classes, unemployment, poor education, health services, inadequate infrastructure among others. an important feature in any city is the quality of life, and everyone wants a piece of this ‘urban pie’, be it by legitimate means or otherwise. however, zaidi (1999) mentions that not all poor people engage in law-breaking and on similar lines, a study by unhabitat (united nations human settlements programme) (2007) identified crime levels to be drastically low in selected poverty-stricken areas. despite related surveys proving the same, stark (1987) takes a divergent stand in arguing that class matters, given that serious offences are excessively committed by the underclass. a 2007 survey on poverty and extreme deprivation, ranked nigeria as a red zone for the entire continent (adebayo, 2013). the urban centres of india and pakistan for instance, are juggling with social disorganisation, rising crimes, security concerns, cost of living amidst poverty (hanzala & iqbal, 2010; wadhwa & dutt, 2012). likewise, latin america is termed the most “unequal region” in the world, while delinquencies in caribbean countries and vietnam are sprouting due to factors of inequality, poverty, joblessness and rural-urban drift (ayres, 1998; berkman, 2007; le, 2002). jones (2012) claims that urban population is susceptible to poverty in pics, wherein, vanuatu and solomon islands showing its prevalence. undp (united nations development programme) (2014) highlights that the severity of poverty was around 6 per cent in tonga and tuvalu, and nearly 3 per cent in vanuatu (at the time of author’s writing). various scholarships point towards pacific’s unemployment dilemmas as a driving factor for urban poverty. between 2012 to 2015, the unemployment rate (adult) was between 33, 38 and 11 per cent in kiribati, marshall islands and fsm correspondingly (clarke & azzopardi, 2019). kiribati and marshall islands denote higher unemployment rates, making the scenario more vulnerable to crime (ibid.). jones (2012) states that urban crime in png is a survival mechanism. most pacific island countries and territories have urban populations below the basic needs poverty line (bnpl) with vulnerabilities beyond criminal activities, governance, security, safety and social inequality (connell & lea, 2002; jones, 2012). in fiji’s context, as per reddy et al. (2003) and mohanty (2006) study, close to 73 per cent (at the time of authors’ writing) of individuals moved from rural to urban fiji (mohanty, 2006; reddy et al., 2003). supporting evidence shows that fiji’s urban population surged from around 37 per cent to nearly 56 per cent between 1976 and 2017 with a fifth of greater suva urban area (gsua)8 (for years authors’ mention), residents living in poverty, improper services and various other disparities (phillips & meg, 2016). according to narsey (2011) the incidence of urban poverty declined in fiji from 28 per cent in 2002-2003 to 18 per cent in 2008-2009, while corresponding rural poverty increased from 40 to 43 per cent (note relevance of percentages for the year’s mentioned). however, many authors maintain that between 25 to 33 per cent of fijians were estimated to be living in poverty, and some 54,000 people (note relevance of figures for authors’ time of writing) were identified as suffering from food poverty owing to unemployment, inequality, land dispossession, existing policies amid other factors (bryant-tokalau, 2012; chattier, 2016; lal, 2002; mohanty, 2006). 4.2. development crime’s link to development is not only deep sinking, its equally complicated. level of development in a country is often associated with episodes of lawbreaking. development often puts only a handful on the highest pedestal of economic success, while a majority get pushed out of the league. as cutout as it can be, “the most important exclusion, however, was and continues to be what development was supposed to be about: people” (escobar, 1995). by pushing away the developmental ‘ladder’ (wade, 2018) urban inequalities became more damaging. lack of “pro-poor” development policies, generate urban challenges. it is urban deficiencies like these that are central to the so-called ‘wealth re-distribution’ agendas through unlawful means (brennan-galvin, 2002; muggah, 2012; smith, 2019). chances are that urban inequalities will remain a long howl unless global economies aim for well spread-out developmental strategies. in that, development in pics while not limited to, calls for liberalising international trade, investment regimes, privatisation of state-owned enterprises, favourable investment conditions and reduction in commodity prices (duncan & nakagawa, 2006). pics development constraints may spring out of its natural barriers, size, remoteness and governing policies. chand (2001) talks about economies of scale in nauru and how it endures lack of fundamental services such as education and health. png’s coarse landscape, distributed islands, multilingualism and other factors pose many setbacks for growth. this includes meeting trade costs to markets in the americas and europe (ibid.). pics also endure weak ecological immune system paired with challenges around its natural resources (ibid.). fiji as a middle-income country, faces issues of racial tension and political divide which takes the developmental game to the next level. it is for this reason that lal (2002) stated that if fiji were to evade concerns of poverty and inequality, it would need to ration state services on a nondiscriminatory basis to all ethnic communities. duncan and nakagawa (2006) back fiji’s development on institutional empowerment and free trade policies, while prasad (2003) roots in into addressing fiji’s institutional problems (for example property rights). nevertheless, undp (united nations development programme) (2019) outlines that fiji’s human development index (hdi) has come a long way. as per table 3, fiji’s human development index (hdi) value has increased from 0.640 in 1990 to 0.724 in 8 comprises the capital city of fiji, suva city, and three municipal towns namely lami, nasinu and nausori town (un-habitat (united nations human settlements programme), 2012). the urban area covers 4000 hectares, forming part of the larger suva-nausori corridor and is the economic centre generating roughly 30 per cent of the national gross domestic product (ibid.). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 1-9 7 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2018, placing the country in the “high human development”, with expectancy at birth increasing from 65 years in 1990 to 67 years in 2018, and expected years of schooling increasing from 12 in 1990 to 14 in 2018 (note relevance of figures to years’ mentioned). table 3. trends in selected development indicators in fiji, 1990-2018. year life expectancy at birth (year) expected years of schooling (year) gni9 per capita (2011 ppp$) hdi value 1990 65.4 12.1 5,683 0.640 1995 65.2 12.8 6,162 0.666 2000 65.7 13.2 6,807 0.675 2005 66.3 14.1 7,536 0.687 2010 66.7 14.6 7,125 0.694 2015 67.1 14.5 8,391 0.718 2016 67.2 14.4 8,588 0.718 2017 67.3 14.4 8,799 0.721 2018 67.3 14.4 9,110 0.724 source: undp (united nations development programme) (2019). 4.3. governance besides popular descriptions, governance systems may be put against two guiding principles: state and people. not many will defy that failing states pose a herculean challenge. poor governance has a key role in and against misdemeanors, especially when such bodies fail in rudimentary roles and functions. this in fact, concretises that weak governance may generate social inequalities. studies in africa reveal that urban crimes rose due to poor governance systems, limited infrastructure, services and poor policing (owusu, 2016). while countries with robust governance manage urban population and crimes at some level, for others, the situation gets very tough. in ascertaining this, boggs (1965) and elis and liu (2018) reiterate that speedy development places, increase burden on authorities in meeting public safety demands. without contest, robust city surveillance and management dynamics can make an ocean of difference in the lives of disadvantaged urban inhabitants. sadly, numerous city governments may endure ill-equipped administrative systems providing scarce answerability or accountability (devas, 2014). when robust governance tanks in any nation state or region, it has the potential to postpone development by leaps and bound. studies reveal that contained by urbanisation and economic growth, urban crime rose due to poor governance systems, limited infrastructure and services, including weak policing (elis & liu, 2018; owusu, 2016; un-habitat (united nations human settlements programme), 2007). a surge in urban crimes in pics, simply tells a story about existing areas of opportunity. cain (2001) says some social and economic structures in the south pacific are at the helm of crimes. governing authorities struggle to provide active controls on crime and threats to public order in parts of the pacific (ranmuthugala, 2001). while the government of fiji (2016) acknowledges issues of deviance, phillips and meg (2016) mention that the fijian government fronts repercussions of crimes, principally in urban centres. baba, nabobo-baba, and field (2005) state, lawbreakers quickly thrived in the shadow of political instability in fiji where petty crimes aggravated with wilting of law and order (especially in urban areas). as emphasized by mccusker (2006) and phillips and meg (2016) law enforcement capacity and regulatory elements such as effective governance are of huge concern. in fiji as with most developing economies, economic and social developmental factors are critical issues central to crime tendencies. 5. conclusion crime refers to behaviours that violate set standards and norms. various crime theories, models and drivers have emerged to comprehend criminal behaviours and tendencies. the very desire of a metropolitan future has pushed many to the other side of law in the lead up to the demands of urban survival. as much as decisive authorities and agencies are fundamental in absorbing crime, various economies continue to be tormented with issues of crime and its implications. the conception of urban crime, amid its vast definitions and typologies, is an attempt to understand this dynamic urban issue. the interplay of urban poverty, development and governance as critical crime factors, seem to be at the heart of law-and-order outbreaks. like many developing economies, pics witness crime and its consequences against the backdrop of resource deprivation. the general observation is that crime as an urban dilemma, is a subject that will continue to pose various implications. in containing some magnitude of urban discrepancies and petty crimes, policy undercurrents in conjunction with international and national dialogues are vital. it would not be easy, but developmental and other vulnerabilities are areas of concern in the realm of urban crime, where amid other necessities, the hero ingredient is inclusiveness of underserved communities. references abrahamson, m. 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(1999). urban safety and crime prevention. urban management programme, regional office for asia and the pacific. ca: idrc ottawa. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388908422114 https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x08004392 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2002.12.001 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.04.193 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1987.tb00824.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1987.tb00824.x https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.16.451 https://doi.org/10.1355/9789814380041-008 https://www.unicef.org/ https://www.osac.gov/content/report/2088aa17-24c5-44bb-ad00-15f4aec283a2 https://doi.org/10.1111/dech.12381 https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ny.gdp.pcap.cd https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01125052 39 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 12, no. 1, 39-50, 2025 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6808 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group confucian ethical leadership, social-environmental csr, and innovation in china: transforming virtues into strategic value chengde zheng1 siyu zheng2 yuanwei wang3 ( corresponding author) 1,3business school, nanjing university, china. 2faculty of business and economics, monash university, australia. email: cdzheng@nju.edu.cn email: szhe0047@student.monash.edu email: 191098236@smail.nju.edu.cn abstract this study examines how confucian ethical leadership—grounded in the virtues of ren (benevolence), yi (righteousness), and he (harmony)—shapes corporate innovation in china, with social-environmental corporate social responsibility (csr) as a strategic mediator. data were collected from 151 case samples of confucian-oriented firms in china using a case survey method, and hierarchical regression analysis was employed for hypothesis testing. confucian ethical leadership directly enhance corporate innovation and social-environmental csr, while socialenvironmental csr partially mediates the ethics-innovation relationship. the results highlight the dual role of confucian ethics in driving both social-environmental csr and innovation, demonstrating social-environmental csr as a relational infrastructure for translating ethical governance into innovation outcomes. this research highlights the practical benefits of integrating confucian ethics into corporate management for chinese business leaders. by fostering harmonious stakeholder relationships and prioritizing social-environmental csr, leaders can enhance corporate innovation and secure a competitive edge in today’s dynamic global markets. the companies and educational institutions should incorporate confucian ethics into executive training curricula to cultivate future leaders. keywords: confucian ethical leadership, confucian ethics, corporate innovation, corporate social responsibility (csr), social-environmental csr, case survey. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 40 3. related concepts ............................................................................................................................................................................. 41 4. research hypotheses....................................................................................................................................................................... 42 5. research design ............................................................................................................................................................................... 43 6. data analysis and hypothesis testing........................................................................................................................................ 44 7. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 46 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 48 appendix ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 50 citation | zheng, c. ., zheng, s. ., & wang, y. . (2025). confucian ethical leadership, social-environmental csr, and innovation in china: transforming virtues into strategic value. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 12(1), 39-50. 10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6808 history: received: 3 april 2025 revised: 10 may 2025 accepted: 6 june 2025 published: 20 june 2025 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this research is supported by “national natural science foundation of china” (grant numbers 71472086). institutional review board statement: not applicable transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. acknowledgement: we sincerely thank dr. hailian zhong for his suggestions on this article. mailto:cdzheng@nju.edu.cn mailto:szhe0047@student.monash.edu mailto:191098236@smail.nju.edu.cn https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6808 https://orcid.org/0009-0005-3152-301x https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5009-3654 https://orcid.org/0009-0000-3083-0185 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 39-50 40 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper demonstrates that confucian ethical leadership significantly enhances corporate innovation, with social-environmental csr partially mediating this relationship. the findings provide novel insights into the multifaceted effects of confucian ethics on innovation while broadening the ethical leadership literature by identifying culture-specific pathways that drive innovative outcomes. 1. introduction innovation-driven development stands as a national core strategy in china, serving both as the critical pathway for transitioning from "made in china" to "created in china" and as the fundamental engine for advancing high-quality economic growth (hu, zhang, & zhu, 2024). amid intensifying global competition and the accelerated erosion of china’s demographic dividend, domestic firms are compelled to reinvent their global competitiveness through innovation (xu & zhan, 2023). leadership scholars highlight that entrepreneurs’ ethical leadership styles significantly shape corporate innovation capabilities (hui, anh thi lan, & phong ba, 2020) offering a novel lens to address the prevailing "innovation fatigue" dilemma. confucian ethics—a value system deeply rooted in eastern civilization—constructs a unique tripartite ethical framework centered on ren (benevolence), yi (righteousness), and he (harmony) (wang, li, & sun, 2018). this tradition emphasizing self-cultivation to become a junzi (noble person) and altruistic symbiosis to foster collective harmony (vane-ing, tse alan, & powpaka, 2020). evolving into a distinct form of confucian ethical leadership within organizational contexts (alzola, hennig, & romar, 2020; tan, 2024) it has shaped modern management practices. however, while there is extensive discussion on the impact of confucianism on individual creativity or regional innovation climates (hofstede & bond, 1988; hubner et al., 2022; kuang, luo, & xu, 2023; wang, bi, & qi, 2024) the mechanism through which confucian ethics are internalized via leadership styles to catalyze organizational innovation remains underexplored. advances in business ethics and strategic management resolve this impasse. confucian ethics, anchored in virtues like ren and yi, compel leaders to prioritize social-environmental corporate social responsibility (csr) as a moral imperative (li, wang, & kashyap, 2019; wang et al., 2018). such csr practices—embodying confucian ideals of reciprocity and stewardship—are not merely ethical but strategically potent. they foster stakeholder trust, enhance resource efficiency, and unlock market differentiation (bahta, jiang, islam, & ashfaq, 2021; porter & kramer, 2006) positioning csr as a mediator between confucian ethics and innovation. yet, existing studies overlook this mechanism, focusing on cultural proximity or familial harmony while neglecting how leaders operationalize virtues into strategic action. this empirical study aims to addresses two pivotal questions: (1) does confucian ethical leadership— leaders’ active embodiment of confucian ethics virtues in strategic decisions—drive corporate innovation and socialenvironmental csr? (2) does social-environmental csr mediate the relationship between confucian ethics and innovation outcomes? to address the research questions, this paper employed a case survey method (jager, newig, challies, kochskämper, & henrik von, 2022; larsson, 1993) analyzing data from 151 confucian firms in china. this approach triangulates qualitative case narratives with quantitative coding to capture how leaders translate virtues into practices. by reframing confucian ethics as a dynamic leadership paradigm, this study bridges eastern traditions with western innovation theory. it not only deepens our understanding of the relationship between confucianism and innovation but also provides a culturally grounded roadmap for sustainable growth in china’s transitional economy—where balancing ethical heritage with competitive modernity remains a defining challenge. 2. literature review confucian ethics, a philosophical system deeply embedded in east asian social and organizational practices, represents a virtue ethics system that guides personal development and interpersonal relationships (hofstede & bond, 1988). its core virtues—ren, yi, and he—form the foundation of ethical conduct (wang et al., 2018). ren fosters compassion and empathy, yi advocates justice and equitable interest-balancing beyond profit-seeking, and he serves as the ultimate goal of achieving harmony within society, nature, and human relationships (ip, 2009; woods & lamond, 2011; yu, chen, & gao, 2020). confucian ethics emphasizes self-cultivation to embody ren and yi, guiding leaders to balance interests without harming others while promoting societal well-being through benevolence and duty (hackett & wang, 2012; ip, 2009). these principles collectively aim to achieve he (wang & juslin, 2009). china’s rapid economic ascension has reignited global interest in confucian ethics (alzola et al., 2020; tan, 2024). while innovation remains central to sustaining economic growth (chen, lin, tsao, & jin, 2022) the role of confucianism in shaping innovation outcomes has sparked scholarly debate. prior studies bifurcate confucianism into two incomplete paradigms: as individual traits affecting creativity and risk aversion or as a cultural tradition influencing regional innovation climates. these lenses generate paradoxical conclusions—confucianism is both condemned as a constraint on creativity through hierarchical rigidity (hofstede & bond, 1988; hubner et al., 2022) and praised as a catalyst for incremental innovation via historical reflection (niu, 2012; rudowicz, 2006). empirical work amplifies this tension: yan, xu, and lai (2021) associate strong confucian culture with higher r&d investment, while feng, jin, and johansson (2021) find confucian temple proximity stifles innovation. these contradictions stem from a critical oversight: treating confucianism as a static cultural variable or individual disposition, neglecting its embodiment in leadership practices and strategic decision-making. this separation of ethical norms from business practices limits our understanding of how confucian values influence innovation processes through organizational routines, leadership styles, and mechanisms such as stakeholder alignment. given that individual creativity thrives on autonomy while firm-level innovation requires collaboration (wolniak, 2022) confucianism’s organizational impact cannot be fully understood through individual or cultural analyses alone. ethical leadership, defined in western contexts as "the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through communication, reinforcement, and decision-making" (brown, trevino, & harrison, 2005) provides a useful asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 39-50 41 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group framework. rooted in aristotelian and kantian virtues, western ethical leadership emphasizes two dimensions: moral person (a leader's demonstration of ethical behavior) and moral manager (proactive efforts to hold followers accountable for ethical conduct). research shows that ethical leadership positively influences corporate innovation by promoting knowledge sharing, fostering innovative climates, and enhancing psychological capital (özsungur, 2019; shafique, bashir, & masood nawaz, 2020; zeger van der & demircioglu, 2020). however, the meanings, criteria, and goals of virtues in confucianism and western ethics are fundamentally distinct (alzola et al., 2020). for instance, confucian virtues aim for harmony in interpersonal relationships, whereas aristotelian virtues seek justice and can accommodate social conflict (koehn, 2020). this divergence shapes the decision-making behavior of confucian ethical leaders, who prioritize societal harmony by actively engaging in csr (wang & juslin, 2009) a focus rarely addressed in western ethical leadership research. consequently, confucian ethical leadership may adopt distinct approaches to fostering corporate innovation compared to its western counterparts. despite these insights, existing research on confucian leadership primarily focuses on dependent variables such as corporate culture, employee behavior, successor selection, corporate governance, and overall performance (chen, xiao, & zhao, 2021; lam & goo, 2015; yuan, chia, & gosling, 2023). there is a notable paucity of empirical investigations exploring its influence on corporate innovation. tian, rohlfer, wu, and yan (2022) explicitly call for research to disentangle confucian business ethics’ effects on innovation, arguing that such work could advance indigenous chinese management theory and inform global debates on culturally rooted business ethics. given that much of the existing leadership research in china borrows directly from western ethical leadership frameworks, yuan et al. (2023) argue that it is crucial for chinese scholars to develop and articulate a theory of ethical leadership that is both rooted in their cultural context and extends beyond western paradigms, particularly as china emerges as a major global player. 3. related concepts 3.1. confucian ethical leadership when applied to corporate management, confucian ethics guide leaders in aligning personal behavior and decision-making with confucian virtues. in terms of personal conduct, these leaders act as moral persons striving to cultivate themselves into morally upright and capable individuals (junzi) (tan, 2024). viewing the company as a "nursery" for moral development (koehn, 2020) they also act as moral managers to enhance subordinates' ethical standards through personal example and education (wah, 2010). in managerial decision-making, confucian entrepreneurs promote self-cultivation at the organizational level, aiming to transform the company into a “superior enterprise” (wang & juslin, 2009). for instance, they focus on training employees to boost research and development capabilities. moreover, adhering to the principle of ren and yi, they consider stakeholder interests in management decisions, such as supporting local education and community development (zhao & roper, 2011) and adopting green technologies to minimize environmental impact (yu et al., 2020). these efforts aim to build harmonious relationships between the company and stakeholders. drawing on research in ethical decision-making (treviño, 1986) this paper introduces the concept of the "moral decisionmaker" to encapsulating this role, and define it as a leader’s actions to integrate confucian principles into managerial decision-making, aiming to build successful and ethical organizations. therefore, confucian ethical leadership, which encompasses three dimensions—moral person, moral manager, and moral decision-maker—can be defined as a leadership style where leaders, guided by confucian virtues, elevate their moral standards and promote organizational ethics through self-cultivation, serve as ethical exemplars and educators, and harmonize stakeholder interests via loving others, ultimately achieving organizational and societal sustainability. unlike western ethical leadership, confucian ethical leadership exhibits three culturally rooted orientations in decision making. first, the harmony orientation focuses on cultivating trust-based networks with both internal and external stakeholders, promoting collaboration and minimizing conflicts (chu & moore, 2020); second, the collectivism orientation regards the company as an integral part of larger collectives, emphasizing responsibility for employee welfare and contributions to society and the environment (jin, cheng, cary, & huang, 2020). finally, the long-term orientation aligns strategies with intergenerational equity and ecological balance (li, wang, & kashyap, 2017). these management practices resonate with humanistic management principles, which emphasize the holistic development of individuals and organizations within an ethical and harmonious framework (chou & cheng, 2020; melé, 2016). 3.2. corporate innovation innovation is a multifaceted concept that can be understood as both a process and an outcome (birkinshaw, hamel, & mol, 2008; crossan & apaydin, 2010). the process aspect focuses on the 'how'—the mechanisms and strategies used to foster innovation within an organization. the outcome aspect addresses the 'what'—the tangible results and impacts of these efforts, such as new products, services, or processes. this dual perspective underscores that the innovation process lays the groundwork for achieving transformative outcomes. this study specifically examines corporate innovation, which pertains to firm-level innovation activities aimed at fostering creativity and implementing novel solutions to address market needs, improve efficiency, or solve organizational challenges (he, peng, & zhong, 2023). corporate innovation spans multiple dimensions, including product, process, administrative, and marketing innovations (aksoy, 2017; wendra, sule, joeliaty, & azis, 2019). it can be described as the production or adoption, assimilation, and exploitation of value-added novelties in economic and social spheres. this includes the renewal and enlargement of products, services, and markets; the development of new methods of production; and the establishment of new management systems. 3.3. social-environmental csr corporate social responsibility (csr) is grounded in the belief that companies should balance economic goals with their broader impact on society and the environment (marrewijk, 2003). low and ang (2012) define csr as actions taken by organizations to fulfill their economic, legal, moral, and philanthropic responsibilities towards asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 39-50 42 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group stakeholders. when integrated into business practices, csr can drive financial success, competitive advantages, and long-term sustainability (porter & kramer, 2006; zhu, sun, & leung, 2014). according to stakeholder theory, csr can be divided into four key aspects: responsibilities for employees, customers, society, and the environment (dzage, hussain, dapaah, & mustapha, 2024; farooq, farooq, & jasimuddin, 2014). each aspect represents a specific set of activities and initiatives aimed at addressing the corresponding stakeholder group. among these dimensions, social-environmental csr practices most clearly demonstrate a company's commitment to social responsibility and the efforts it makes, as they often require greater cost investments (xia, li, wei, & gao, 2023). social csr, aiming to contribute positively to the broader society, involves initiatives such as supporting local education through partnerships with schools, addressing social issues through charitable programs, and promoting local employment opportunities to uplift the community activities (li et al., 2019). environmental csr activities, focusing on minimizing the ecological impact of business operations, concerns implementing waste reduction and recycling programs, actively participating in environmental protection initiatives, and adhering to environmental management standards such as iso 14001 (vilanova, lozano, & arenas, 2009; xia et al., 2023). 4. research hypotheses 4.1. confucian ethical leadership and corporate innovation the self-cultivation emphasized by confucian ethical leadership encourages organizational members for lifelong learning to refine their competencies and character (wah, 2010; woods & lamond, 2011). the commitment to lifelong learning fosters the generation and accumulation of internal knowledge within the organization. additionally, confucian ethical leadership prioritizes building harmonious relationships with stakeholders, creating a robust and extensive stakeholder network. this network provides access to external knowledge about technology, markets, and competitors, complementing and expanding the firm’s knowledge base (bahta et al., 2021; luo & du, 2015). furthermore, the familial harmony within confucian organizations promotes knowledge sharing (kuang et al., 2023) enhancing the firm’s ability to absorb and disseminate internal and external knowledge (hui et al., 2020; liao, fei, & chen, 2007; tian et al., 2022). according to the knowledge-based view, the integration, fusion, and absorption of external and internal knowledge that boost both individual and collective creativity (de sousa, pellissier, & monteiro, 2012; shafique et al., 2020), drive the creation of new ideas and solution (eslami & lakemond, 2016; hui et al., 2020; sinshaw, atul, & manjit, 2021) significantly enhancing the firm’s innovation capabilities and performance, including product, service, marketing, and management innovation (chang, baibjulie, & lia, 2015; liao et al., 2007; sinshaw et al., 2021). the internal familial harmony cultivated by confucian ethical leadership helps employees accumulate personal resources, boosting psychological safety and innovation self-efficacy, thereby promoting innovative behavior (wang et al., 2024). externally, harmonious relationships with stakeholders strengthen collaboration with customers, suppliers, and others, encouraging their active participation in r&d processes, such as providing new technologies, materials, product improvement suggestions, and participating in product trials (fu, luan, wu, zhu, & pang, 2021). studies confirm that stakeholder involvement in r&d, including employees, customers, and suppliers, enhances innovation performance by accelerating and improving development cycles (li, xu, wu, hong, & skare, 2023; li, lee, li, & liu, 2010; ryzhkova, 2015; zhou, wang, & zhao, 2020). the long-term orientation of confucian ethical leadership ensures the stability and sustainability of organizational learning and stakeholder relationships, enabling continuous internal knowledge generation, external knowledge acquisition, and stakeholder collaboration. this sustains the firm’s innovation capacity over time. fang, cai, and xu (2024) confirm that firms with stronger long-term orientation exhibit greater innovation capabilities, even under performance pressures. therefore, confucian ethical leadership—through its emphasis on lifelong learning, harmonious relationships, and long-term orientation—enhances corporate innovation by facilitating knowledge integration, the development of individual and collective creativity, and stakeholder collaboration. therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: h1: confucian ethical leadership positively influences corporate innovation. 4.2. confucian ethical leadership and social-environmental csr the harmonious orientation of confucian ethical leadership encourages companies to implement socialenvironmental csr to strengthen the coexistence with communities and natural environments (wang & juslin, 2009). confucian leaders utilize social csr to address societal issues such as education and public health, aiming to fortify social cohesion and communal prosperity (low & ang, 2012). to promote harmony between the enterprise and its natural surroundings, confucian firms invest in environmental csr initiatives like adopting environmentally friendly technologies to reduce emissions and pollution (li et al., 2019). under a collective orientation, confucian ethical leadership views the company as an integral part of society and the environment. leaders consider common social welfare and adopt social-environmental csr actions, such as participating in poverty alleviation efforts to contribute to societal progress (huang, li, xia, & li, 2024) and embracing renewable energy to conserve natural resources (wang & juslin, 2009). the long-term orientation of confucian ethical leadership drives companies to implement social-environmental csr activities for sustainable and enduring growth. confucian leaders prioritize social-environmental impacts, investing in csr projects that may not offer immediate financial returns but benefit societal development, such as environmental protection and educational support (yu et al., 2020). thus, we propose the following hypothesis: h2: confucian ethical leadership exerts a positive effect on social-environmental csr. 4.3. mediating role of social-environmental csr confucian ethical leadership promotes corporate innovation by fostering harmonious stakeholder relationships, facilitating knowledge integration and collaboration both within and outside the organization. central to this process is the establishment of trust-based collaborations, which confucian leaders achieve by prioritizing societal and ecological welfare through social-environmental csr initiatives. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 39-50 43 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group social csr, which involves activities like community development and public health initiatives, can build a positive corporate image (farooq et al., 2014). environmental csr, encompassing practices such as sustainable sourcing and green technique adoption, enhances a company's reputation as an eco-friendly organization (zhu et al., 2014). these actions foster employee pride and satisfaction, contributing to a workplace where employees feel their efforts are meaningful, leading to heightened motivation and involvement (zhou et al., 2020). moreover, social csr addresses societal issues and provides community benefits, building relational capital with governments, ngos, and local communities. this facilitates partnerships, such as participation in large-scale government projects and securing policy support and funding from ngos (xia et al., 2023). environmental csr initiatives, like green supply chains or circular production, enhance consumer trust and loyalty among environmentally conscious customers and strengthen cooperation with suppliers who share green values, encouraging their active participation in the company’s csr projects (liu, wang, chen, yang, & zhang, 2025). by integrating social-environmental csr, confucian ethical leaders establish trust and collaborative networks with stakeholders, both internal and external. these relationships facilitate knowledge sharing and co-creation, driving product and service innovation (zhou et al., 2020). therefore, social-environmental csr plays a critical mediating role between confucian ethical leadership and corporate innovation, transforming ethical governance into actionable innovation pathways. then, the hypothesis is articulated as follows: h3: social-environmental csr mediates the relationship between confucian ethical leadership and corporate innovation. 5. research design 5.1. method this study employed the case survey method to test the hypothesis. the case survey is a quantitative research technique that aggregates pertinent case studies into sufficiently large datasets for statistical analysis of patterns across various studies (larsson, 1993). this method is widely utilized in analyzing organizational behaviors because it leverages the richness of case materials, offering the generalizability benefits of cross-sectional analysis (jager et al., 2022). it addresses the challenge of extrapolating from a single case study while simultaneously providing a more detailed examination of intricate organizational phenomena than questionnaire-based surveys (yin & heald, 1975). this approach is particularly apt when there is a diverse collection of case studies related to the research subject, especially concerning complex processes such as strategic and macro-level organizational processes (larsson, 1993). given the specificity and sensitivity surrounding topics like business leaders' values and corporate ethics, the case survey was deemed more appropriate than a questionnaire. questionnaires often yield low response rates for complex or sensitive inquiries and can be influenced by post-hoc rationalization biases (larsson & finkelstein, 1999). conducting a case survey involves four fundamental steps (jager et al., 2022): (1) identifying and selecting case studies relevant to the research question at hand, (2) developing a coding scheme to systematically convert qualitative case descriptions into quantitative variables, (3) engaging multiple raters to code the cases and ensuring interrater reliability, and (4) executing statistical analyses on the coded data. 5.2. sample the sample firms were selected from the bo’ao list of confucian leaders, a prestigious index established in 2017 by the china confucius foundation in collaboration with academic institutions. this list benchmarks ethical leadership in business through a rigorous evaluation system based on six core confucian virtues: de (moral integrity), yi, xin, zhi, ren, and yong (courage). these virtues are operationalized through 32 measurable indicators, such as employee welfare policies, environmental compliance records, and stakeholder engagement initiatives. the validation process included delphi surveys with 108 scholars in confucian philosophy and business ethics, focus group discussions with 1,200 entrepreneurs across china, and pilot testing on 50 firms to refine metric weights. as of 2022, the finalized list includes 630 leaders, predominantly from private enterprises (82%, including companies like huawei, lenovo, and alibaba) and the remainder from state-owned enterprises (18%, such as sinopec and china mobile). to ensure representativeness, stratified random sampling was employed: the sampling frame consisted of all 630 listed firms, categorized into strata based on firm size (smes vs. large corporations), industry (manufacturing vs. services), and ownership type (private vs. state-owned). this resulted in a final sample of 163 firms (26% of the population), proportionally distributed across these strata. to enhance data robustness, a six-month triangulation process (january-june 2022) was conducted to gather multi-source evidence for each case. data sources included internal documents (annual csr reports, innovation strategy white papers), external validations (third-party esg ratings, news archives from people’s daily and caixin global), and scholarly analyses (peer-reviewed case studies indexed in cnki and web of science). twelve firms were excluded due to insufficient verifiable data, resulting in a finalized dataset of 151 firms. this meticulous curation ensured alignment with larsson (1993) case study validity criteria, balancing depth (rich contextual narratives) and breadth (cross-industry generalizability). 5.3. data collection central to the case survey method is a coding scheme that guides researchers on transforming qualitative data into quantifiable variables pertinent to their research questions. a 7-point likert scale offers more response options, yet fewer distinctions can compromise respondent reliability and necessitate additional labor. conversely, a 3-point scale falls short in providing sufficient information. the 5-point scale, though manageable, introduces ambiguity when respondents opt for the neutral choice. in line with zott and amit (2007) case survey examining market strategies and business models, this study employs a 4-point scale for all variables (see appendix 1), aiming to balance information richness with coding accuracy. data collection spanned thirteen months. three mba students, blind to the study's hypotheses, served as raters. prior to coding, they underwent training to ensure a uniform understanding of the coding scheme, achieved by jointly coding two cases. subsequently, each rater independently coded the remainder of the cases, convening every ten cases to compare results. discrepancies were discussed until consensus was reached through dialogue. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 39-50 44 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group such procedures, encompassing pre-coding training and post-coding deliberations, mitigate biases from raters' personal traits and experiences, ensuring robust data quality (jager et al., 2022). 5.4. variable measurement the measurement of confucian ethical leadership involves evaluating two requirements that confucian leader sets for the company. this study employed a total of 7 items, with three items targeted the self-cultivation dimension, and the other four focused on the "respecting nature and loving people" dimension. these items were synthesized from similar scales found in three key sources: xu (2011) development of the chinese academic leadership scale based on junzi (noblemen) characteristics and behaviors, yang (2019) measurement of chinese values, and low and ang (2012) definition of confucian leaderships. for assessing social-environmental csr practices, we utilized a 5-item scale adapted from liu, kong, and li (2015). here, two items specifically evaluated social csr, and the other three examined environmental csr. as corporate innovation is multifaceted, involving various dimensions and stages, different researchers have adopted diverse foci. some emphasize innovation input, utilizing metrics like r&d expenditure. others concentrate on output, using indicators such as patent grants and applications to gauge corporate innovation performance. however, single measures of either input or output fail to fully encapsulate the multi-dimensional nature of corporate innovation. following wu and hsieh (2015) recommendation for a process-based evaluation method provides, in this study, a more accurate measure of actual innovation capabilities. this approach is pertinent given the complex case scenarios, the predominance of small and medium enterprises (smes) among the businesses studied, and the likelihood that their innovation capabilities are better reflected through their innovation processes and potential rather than mere outputs. accordingly, this study introduces a 10-item scale for corporate innovation, integrating insights from foundational works: chen, lin, and chang (2009) 5-item construct encompassing product, process, and overall organizational innovation; liao et al. (2007) triadic view of innovation capabilities; and aksoy (2017) additions for product and marketing innovation. the resulting scale offers a comprehensive assessment of corporate innovation across product, process, organizational, and marketing dimensions. appendix provides the measurement items for confucian ethical leadership, social-environmental csr, and corporate innovation. this research involves variables at the organizational level. to account for factors that might influence results, control variables—including company age, background, size, operational model, listing status, and hightech status—were coded according to the scheme outlined in table 1. table 1. coding scheme of control variables. control variables coding scheme company age (k1) founded in 2020 years company background (k2) local area (mainland china) : 1 overseas (including china, hong kong, macao and taiwan) : 2 company size (k3) number of people <100 or turnover <10 million: 1 100< people <500 or 10 million < turnover < 100 million: 2 number of employees >500 or turnover > 100 million: 3 company operation mode (k4) offline operation: 1 online business: 2 mixed operation: 3 listing status (k5) unlisted: 0 listed: 1. high-tech status (k6) common enterprise: 0 high-tech enterprises: 1 6. data analysis and hypothesis testing 6.1. descriptive statistics of sample firms this study uses spss 26.0 to conduct data analysis. tables 2 and 3 provide distribution and descriptive statistics of the 151 case firms by firm age, background, size, operation model, listing status, and nature. the average firm age is 19.00 years, and the standard deviation is 13.80; the standard deviation of the operation model is 1.0. according to the statistical results, there is a large difference between minimum and maximum values of the variables for the cases. the sample firms are collected from relatively broad and highly competitive markets, and can well represent the markets in general (zott & amit, 2008). table 2. distribution of sample firms. variables statistical content number of samples proportion (%) age 2 6 4 4 7 4.6 5 4 2.6 6 4 2.6 7 4 2.6 8 4 2.6 9 5 3.3 10 4 2.6 11 6 4 12 7 4.6 13 3 2 14 2 1.3 15 4 2.6 16 8 5.3 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 39-50 45 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 17 11 7.3 18 7 4.6 19 6 4 20 3 2 21 3 2 22 7 4.6 23 6 4 24 6 4 25 5 3.3 26 5 3.3 27 3 2 28 1 0.7 29 1 0.7 30 4 2.6 32 2 1.3 33 1 0.7 35 2 1.3 36 2 1.3 39 1 0.7 45 1 0.7 48 1 0.7 57 1 0.7 60 1 0.7 69 1 0.7 81 1 0.7 98 1 0.7 background local area (mainland china) : 1 138 91.4 overseas (including hong kong, macao and taiwan) : 2 13 8.6 size number of people <100 or turnover <10 million: 1 54 35.8 100< people <500 or 10 million < turnover < 100 million: 2 28 18.5 number of employees >500 or turnover > 100 million: 3 69 45.7 operation mode offline operation: 1 72 47.7 online business: 2 0 0 mixed operation: 3 79 52.3 listing status unlisted: 0 100 66.2 listed: 1. 51 33.8 high-tech status common enterprise: 0 98 64.9 high-tech enterprises: 1 53 35.1 table 3. descriptive statistics of sample firms. variables sample size min. max. average sd age 151 2 98 19.00 13.80 background 151 1 2 1.09 0.28 size 151 1 3 2.10 0.90 operation model 151 1 3 2.05 1.00 listing status 151 0 1 0.34 0.47 high-tech status 151 0 1 0.35 0.48 6.2. scale reliability and validity reliability is a measure of the consistency and reliability of the results obtained by an instrument. in this study, we used cronbach's alpha coefficient to assess the internal consistency of the variables in the scale. the overall cronbach's alpha value for all items was 0.824, which is considered very good. the cronbach's alpha values for confucian ethical leadership, social-environmental csr, and corporate innovation were 0.797, 0.834, and 0.749, respectively. these values satisfy nunnally and bernstein (1994) guidelines, which suggest a benchmark of 0.700 for internal consistency. validity refers to the accuracy with which an instrument measures what it intends to measure. to test the construct validity of the scale, we conducted exploratory factor analysis (efa) after conducting bartlett's test of sphericity and kmo test to ensure that the data are suitable for factor analysis. the chi-square value of bartlett's test of sphericity was 1307.67 (with a degree of freedom of 120), indicating a significant difference between the measured values and the desired values. the kmo value was 0.821, which is greater than the threshold of 0.600, suggesting that factor analysis can be performed. after performing efa on the 22 items, we extracted three factors using varimax rotation. the factor matrix after rotation is shown in table 4, with factor loadings displayed in the table. the total amount of variation explained by the three factors is 67.233%, and each item has a high loading (greater than 0.600) in the relevant factor. this indicates that the items have been parceled satisfactorily according to byrne (2010) criterion value of 0.500. the variance inflation factors (vif) for confucian ethical leadership (an independent variable) and socialenvironmental csr (a mediating variable) were 2.250 and 2.636, respectively, both of which are much smaller than the critical threshold of 10. these vif values indicate that there is no multicollinearity issue with these variables. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 39-50 46 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group in summary, our measurements demonstrate adequate reliability and validity, as they meet the established criteria for internal consistency and construct validity. table 4. factor matrix after rotation. construct measurement item component 1 2 3 confucian ethical leadership (cel) cel1 0.699 cel2 0.783 cel3 0.769 cel4 0.785 cel5 0.732 cel6 0.686 cel7 0.715 social-environmental csr(s&e) s&e 1 0.652 s&e2 0.867 s&e 3 0.84 s&e 4 0.652 s&e 5 0.691 corporate innovation (ci) ci1 0.628 ci2 0.716 ci3 0.697 ci4 0.683 ci5 0.903 ci6 0.857 ci7 0.927 ci8 0.784 ci9 0.622 ci10 0.806 6.3. hypothesis testing this study employed the hierarchical regression method proposed by baron and kenny (1986) to test each research hypothesis, with the results presented in table 5. model 1 serves as the control model, elucidating the impact of all control variables on corporate innovation. model 2, the main effect test model, reveals that confucian ethical leadership significantly and positively influences corporate innovation (β = 0.588, p < 0.001), supporting h1. model 3 demonstrates that confucian ethical leadership significantly and positively affects socialenvironmental csr (β = 0.552, p < 0.001), suggesting that firms with robust confucian ethical leadership are more inclined to emphasize and effectively implement social-environmental csr, confirming h2. in accordance with baron and kenny (1986) criteria for mediating effect tests, when h1 and h2 are supported, and the influence of confucian ethical leadership on corporate innovation remains significant (β = 0.429, p < 0.05) in model 4, it can be concluded that social-environmental csr partially mediates the relationship between confucian ethical leadership and corporate innovation. hence, h3 is accepted. table 5. hypothesis testing results. variables model1 model2 model3 model4 ci ci s&e ci k1 -0.001 0.001 0.003 0.000 k2 0.313 0.190 0.081 0.166 k3 0.105 0.059 0.108** 0.028 k4 0.139** 0.069 0.015 0.065 k5 0.332** 0.166 0.231** 0.100 k6 0.201* 0.166* 0.024 0.159* cel 0.588*** 0.552*** 0.429* s&e 0.288** r square 0.368 0.471 0.621 0.493 adjusted r square 0.342 0.445 0.602 0.465 f 13.977*** 27.936*** 33.435*** 6.165** note: n = 151; cel stands for confucian ethical leadership, s&e social and environmental csr, and ci corporate innovation; k1 refers to the company age, k2 the company background, k3 the company size, k4 the operation model, k5 the listing status, and k6 the company nature. *** indicates a p-value less than 0.001 (two-tailed test); ** indicates a p-value less than 0.01 (two-tailed test); * indicates a p-value less than 0.05 (two-tailed test). 7. discussion the empirical findings reveal that confucian ethical leadership significantly enhances both corporate innovation and social & environmental csr, with csr partially mediating the relationship between leadership and innovation. these results offer several critical insights into the interplay between confucian ethics, csr, and innovation. first, when business leaders internalize confucian ethics as corporate operating principles, they foster an environment conducive to collective innovation. unlike individual creativity, corporate innovation relies heavily on stakeholder collaboration (wolniak, 2022). confucian ethics, with its emphasis on harmony, enables firms to navigate complex management and technological challenges by building trust and cooperation across organizational boundaries (torild alise, 2015). this provides a novel explanation for the surge in innovation among chinese firms in recent years, as confucian principles align organizational goals with stakeholder interests, driving superior innovation performance. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 39-50 47 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group second, leaders guided by confucian ethics are intrinsically motivated to institutionalize social-environmental csr due to their commitment to collectivist welfare, intergenerational equity, and stakeholder symbiosis. this dual focus on ethical practices and sustainable innovation highlights confucian ethics’ unique ability to balance profit motives with societal and environmental well-being. given the alignment of innovation and csr with the sdgs (leena, kra, ganesh, bhat, & satya, 2024) confucian ethics emerge as a powerful driver of corporate engagement in global sustainability agendas. third, this study uncovers the pivotal role of socialenvironmental csr as a mediator between confucian ethical leadership and corporate innovation. specific csr activities—such as community development programs and green supply chains—build harmonious stakeholder relationships, which translate into tangible innovation outcomes. by elucidating this mechanism, the study demonstrates how confucian ethics promote innovation through csr, reinforcing commitments to long-term sustainability and social responsibility. this not only advances organizational success but also generates broader societal benefits. 7.1. theoretical contributions this study makes several significant theoretical contributions to the literature on ethical leadership, innovation, and confucian business ethics. first, this study offers a fresh perspective on the relationship between confucian ethics and innovation. traditionally, western scholars have argued that confucian ethics hinder individual creativity and innovation due to their emphasis on harmony and a reluctance to challenge authority (e.g., hofstede & bond, 1988; hubner et al., 2022; ng, 2001). however, our findings reveal a counterintuitive insight: leaders who embrace confucian ethics can serve as catalysts for corporate innovation. this suggests that confucian ethics’ impact on innovation is multi-faceted rather than unilaterally constraining, with its influence operating at both individual and organizational levels. by highlighting the positive role of confucian ethics in fostering collective innovation, this study enriches the understanding of the confucian ethics-innovation nexus and opens new avenues for exploring this complex relationship. second, this study reveals that ethical leadership influences innovation through cultural-contingent mechanisms. within the confucian paradigm, ethical leadership enhances corporate innovation by promoting social & environmental csr activities. this contrasts with western-centric research that often associates ethical leadership with innovation via factors such as psychological empowerment or an innovative climate (e.g., elenkov & manev, 2005; sinshaw et al., 2021). by framing csr as a strategic corporate initiative (bernal-conesa, nieves nieto, & briones-penalver, 2017) we illustrate how confucian ethical leadership serves as a strategic catalyst for innovation, distinct from western frameworks that emphasize individual psychological factors. this insight underscores the importance of context-specific approaches in understanding ethical leadership’s impact on business operations, offering a foundation for cross-cultural comparisons. furthermore, this study contributes to the advancement of confucian ethical leadership theory. integrating confucian virtues with brown et al. (2005) ethical leadership framework, this study establishes a conceptual model of confucian ethical leadership that emphasizes its unique structure and characteristics. unlike western ethical leadership, which focuses primarily on leaders as moral persons (role models) and moral managers (enforcers of ethical behavior), confucian ethical leadership introduces a third dimension: moral decision-makers. these leaders ensure corporate actions align with ethical principles, balancing profit motives with societal and environmental welfare. this tripartite framework—moral person, moral manager, and moral decision-maker—highlights the comprehensive nature of confucian ethical leadership and provides a robust foundation for future research on its applications in corporate management. 7.2. managerial implications this research highlights the practical benefits of integrating confucian ethics into corporate management for chinese business leaders. by fostering harmonious stakeholder relationships and prioritizing social & environmental csr, leaders can enhance corporate innovation and secure a competitive edge in today’s dynamic global markets. this is particularly critical as china navigates challenges like a declining demographic dividend and increasing international competition. embracing confucian principles can help firms address complex challenges while maintaining ethical integrity. the educational institutions should incorporate confucian ethics into executive training curricula to cultivate future leaders. key initiatives include developing courses on confucian virtues and their application in modern business, as well as encouraging case studies and practical exercises that demonstrate how confucian ethics drive innovation and sustainability. such training ensures that future leaders are equipped to build ethical, innovative, and sustainable organizations, aligning corporate practices with national and global sustainability goals. 7.3. limitations and further research directions first, this study examines the overall impact of confucian ethics on corporate innovation but does not differentiate between specific innovation types. future research should investigate how confucian ethics influence product, marketing, process, management, or business model innovations. additionally, while confucian societies excel at incremental innovation by adapting western technologies (gardner, 1989) their hierarchical structures may hinder radical breakthroughs (ho, xie, peng, & cheng, 2013; root, 2023). future studies could explore how confucian virtues balance these dynamics. second, while this study identifies social & environmental csr as a partial mediator, other pathways may also link confucian ethical leadership to innovation. future research could explore these alternative pathways to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of how confucian ethical leadership influences corporate innovation. for instance, investigating whether confucian leaders prioritize long-term r&d investment over short-term gains. finally, the case survey method, while valuable for synthesizing qualitative insights, has limitations such as subjectivity in data interpretation and case selection bias. additionally, all cases in this study are from china. future research could include firms from other confucian societies (e.g., japan, south korea) to enhance asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 39-50 48 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group generalizability, and compare confucian ethics with other cultural frameworks (e.g., ubuntu in africa, dharma in india) to identify universal and context-specific mechanisms. references aksoy, h. 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(2008). the fit between product market strategy and business model: implications for firm performance. strategic management journal, 29(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.642 appendix appendix 1. scale items. items scale confucian ethical leadership (cel) strongly disagree disagree agree strongly agree the leader believes that business operations should comply with social norms. the leader proactively seeks new knowledge relevant to business operation. the leader emphasizes honesty and integrity in business dealings. the leader believes in mutual benefit and win-win scenarios in business dealings. the leader upholds collectivism over individualism. the leader views the company as an extended family. the leader advocates for harmonious relations with stakeholders to foster prosperity. social environmental csr (s&e) the company develops and implements higher industry standards the company actively advocates energy conservation and emission reduction the company can properly handle all kinds of waste and dangerous goods produced in production the company set up its own public welfare fund to provide practical support for social welfare activities for a long time the company's investment in local culture, education and sports is higher than that of other companies in the same industry corporate innovation (ci) the company often develops new products a large part of the company's profits come from new products the company improves product quality by acquiring new equipment or technology the company is able to develop more efficient manufacturing processes or operational processes the company will change the role of different branches in different departments according to management needs the company will use new management methods to accomplish certain tasks the company is able to establish new relationships with customers, suppliers, other enterprises, and external agencies the company can flexibly change product design and packaging design according to customer needs the company often changes the distribution channels for their products the company often change their pricing schemes in order to capture the market asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-05026-5 https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8500.12423 https://doi.org/10.1108/imds-09-2019-0493 https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.642 53 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 3, 53-58, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5713 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group teaching note—teaching and learning during the covid-19 lockdown at the university of windsor: faculty, graduate teaching assistant and student experience musa, mohamad1 lwin, kristen2 sellan, rebecca3 1department of social work, cape breton university, sydney, nova scotia, canada. email: mohamad_musa@cbu.ca 2school of social work, university of windsor, windsor, ontario, canada. email: kristen.lwin@uwindsor.ca 3school of social work graduate, university of windsor, windsor, ontario, canada. email: sellanr@uwindsor.ca ( corresponding author) abstract in response to the global upheaval caused by the covid-19 pandemic, educational institutions, including the university of windsor, transitioned swiftly to virtual learning, necessitating innovative approaches to ensure academic progress amidst the cancellation of in-person classes and exams. this transition was particularly significant for the university of windsor, situated in southwestern ontario, where the pandemic's impact was felt deeply, with implications for both the university community and the broader region. despite initial challenges, the subsequent summer semester saw smoother operations, attributed to collective learning experiences among faculty, graduate assistants, and students, particularly in the school of social work. this paper examines the delivery of a master of social work course, challenges in human behavior, during the pandemic, showcasing the use of virtual platforms and innovative assessment strategies. insights from faculty, graduate assistants, and students reveal varying experiences and challenges, highlighting the importance of proactive communication, support mechanisms, and student-led initiatives in enhancing the online teaching and learning experience. as the educational landscape continues to evolve amidst uncertainty, these findings offer valuable recommendations for preparing educators, fostering instructor-student communication, and empowering students as active participants in their educational journey, ultimately shaping the future of online social work education and beyond. this study underscores the resilience and adaptability of educational institutions in navigating unprecedented challenges, while also recognizing the ongoing need for collaboration and innovation in shaping the future of higher education in a rapidly changing world. keywords: graduate programs, group work, online learning, online teaching, pandemic, social work, virtual learning. citation | mohamad, m., kristen, l., & rebecca, s. (2024). teaching note—teaching and learning during the covid-19 lockdown at the university of windsor: faculty, graduate teaching assistant and student experience. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(3), 53–58. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5713 history: received: 18 march 2024 revised: 29 april 2024 accepted: 16 may 2024 published: 10 june 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this research is supported by start-up research grant, cape breton university, canada. institutional review board statement: not applicable. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 54 2. online teaching and learning experience during the covid-19 pandemic ................................................................... 54 3. recommendations ............................................................................................................................................................................ 56 4. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 57 mailto:mohamad_musa@cbu.ca mailto:kristen.lwin@uwindsor.ca mailto:sellanr@uwindsor.ca https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5713 https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4370-0223 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4644-0629 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 53-58 54 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study presents a unique perspective on transitioning a master of social work course, challenges in human behavior, to online learning during the covid-19 pandemic. what sets it apart is the comprehensive exploration of faculty, graduate assistant, and student experiences, offering nuanced recommendations for enhancing online social work education. 1. introduction in light of the global upheaval caused by the covid-19 pandemic, educational institutions worldwide underwent a seismic shift from traditional face-to-face lectures to the realm of virtual learning, harnessing the full spectrum of contemporary technological tools (daniel, 2020; mirick, 2020). the university of windsor, in particular, faced a distinctive challenge during this period. as the pandemic reached north america in march 2020, the university found itself amidst preparations for final examinations. responding swiftly, the university of windsor transitioned to an essential service mode, necessitating the cancellation of all in-person classes, labs, and final exams. faculties and instructors were tasked with the formidable challenge of identifying alternative assessment methods to ensure the seamless conclusion of the semester without compromising students' academic progress for the year. nestled in southwestern ontario, windsor boasts a population exceeding 217,188 people (statistics canada, 2019). the university of windsor, a home to over 16,321 undergraduate and graduate students (university of windsor, 2019) is further distinguished by the school of social work situated in downtown windsor, offering comprehensive undergraduate (bachelor) and graduate (master and ph.d.) programs in social work. against the backdrop of the covid-19 pandemic, the windsor-essex community health unit recorded 2071 confirmed cases of the novel coronavirus, with 69 fatalities and 1332 recoveries between march 20, 2020, and july 23, 2020. despite the somewhat tumultuous conclusion of the winter semester, the subsequent summer semester at the university of windsor unfolded with greater ease. this positive shift was attributed to the collective learning curve experienced by faculty, graduate assistants, and students across the university, with a notable impact on the school of social work. this paper delves into the nuances of delivering a master of social work course, challenges in human behavior, over six weeks during the pandemic. the course intricately explores how biological, psychological, and social theoretical perspectives shed light on the etiology, occurrence, and response to common life challenges. employing virtual platforms such as zoom, blackboard, and email communication, the course convened weekly for six sessions. the structure comprised two learning modules per meeting—a synchronous (live) learning module followed by an asynchronous (recorded) learning module, neatly separated by an hour-long lunch break. the assessment strategy encompassed weekly group and forum discussions, individual written critical reflections, and mid-term and final written assignments. 1.1. covid-19 the prelude to the covid-19 saga unfolded in december 2019 with a cluster of acute respiratory illnesses in wuhan, hubei province. this marked the onset of the novel coronavirus (covid-19), rapidly spreading throughout china (wang et al., 2020; zheng, ma, zhang, & xie, 2020). march 11, 2020, witnessed the world health organization (who) declaring covid-19 a pandemic, responding to the intensification of prevention and control measures (world health organization, 2020; zheng et al., 2020). while the virus's origin remains under scrutiny, current evidence points to human transmission through the illicit trade of wild animals in wuhan's huanan seafood wholesale market, china (chen et al., 2020). covid-19 exhibits a predilection for impacting older males with preexisting health conditions and weakened immune systems, leading to severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ards), acute respiratory failure, and complications akin to other respiratory infections like severe acute respiratory syndrome (sars) and the middle east respiratory syndrome (mers) (chen et al., 2020; huang et al., 2020; yin & wunderink, 2018). despite this, a majority of patients manifest mild symptoms, ensuring a positive prognosis and recovery (chen et al., 2020). 2. online teaching and learning experience during the covid-19 pandemic 2.1. faculty experience over the past nine months, as a new faculty member, i had begun to get an understanding of the inner workings of the university and faculty of social work – and then the pandemic happened. when we learned about the pandemic, i felt like i was in a good position to address the changing needs of the students, research, and my role, as i am not new to social work. i have been working in the field for more than 20 years, including practice, research, evaluation, and administration. all of these roles have provided me with the experience to think critically about the need to adjust my spring 2020 master of social work (msw) course to online learning during a pandemic. what made this change slightly more daunting was that this would be students’ introduction to a master of social work program, the very first course of their graduate education. my teaching philosophy includes a focus on promoting critical thinking, engagement, motivation, and self-efficacy – whether that translates to online learning, or works well in the classroom, remained to be seen. to be synchronous or asynchronous – that was the question. learning that we would be teaching fully online resulted in several debates. the university of windsor quickly moved to support mode and made several online education training sessions available to faculty. i felt very lucky to have so many resources, including learning center faculty experienced in online delivery, available at a moment’s notice. at this point, the university did not implement a strict direction about how to administer or structure our online course, which i appreciated. while the direction was loose, the different perceptions of what would work best led to different course structures during the semester. there was, however, a concern among faculty that these differences would lead to student confusion and complaints. since being at the university of windsor, i have met some of the most amazing students. some of these students have stories of pain and struggle living from hand to mouth, substance use, mental well-being, and the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 53-58 55 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group overdose deaths of friends and family. windsor is not a city full of financial resources, but it is a city full of amazing people. caring for children, working multiple jobs, and caring for parents were likely situations for many students. considering the context that may be impacting students during the pandemic, i decided to structure the course equally between synchronous and asynchronous learning. teaching live from home brought with it a set of unexpected events – deliveries during class, the blender, losing internet while teaching, and a loud cat. i initially attempted to remind students of our faculty and their journey into graduate studies with a virtual background of the campus, but that led to its own set of technology problems. i attempted to be patient with audio and video “differences”; students have differences in whether they like to keep their video on or off, and i was lax in suggesting students keep their video on. i was motivated by the reminder that my financial stability, a safe home, and family support were more than what many students may have been experiencing at the university of windsor. prior to my course, while attending the week-long online learning training, we were told to be explicit, give instructions, give instructions in another way, and give some more instructions. so, whether it was about an assignment or a weekly exercise, i thought that i provided detailed information. however, after the final assignments, i realized that there was a lot of confusion. during class, email, and office hours, i felt like i was answering the same questions about assignment instructions. but, after reading the final two assignments, i realized that attention was waning. while the majority of students completed the assignments correctly, there were some who clearly were not paying attention in class or to the assignment description, rubric, or blackboard announcement clarifying instructions. indeed, this has happened occasionally when i have taught an in-person class, but nowhere to this extent. because no one chose this situation and it was difficult to decipher whether my instructions were unclear, i gave a lot of leeway in marks. one of the most unnerving situations i experienced with teaching online during a pandemic is that i had no idea what was happening with the students. i would usually be able to assess before, during, and after class how students were doing and whether they were absorbing the material and building their critical thinking skills or just how they were doing in general. but i found it very difficult to understand what was happening while we were all online. many students started out using their video, but over time began to turn it off. those who did keep their video on began to look tired, while trying to maintain their focus, and i became worried about “online overload”. it was as if i could see the motivation and energy seeping from the course and wondered whether it was me, the course, the summer, the pandemic, or all of the above. even though there were some difficulties along the way, i saw some amazing growth. i was amazed at the weekly individual exercises after each asynchronous module. the attention to knowledge and critical thinking in students’ responses far exceeded my expectations. the graduate assistant provided a significant level of support – as it felt like we were constantly marking for seven weeks straight. i could not have done it myself and having a skilled assessor and knowledgeable colleague was a significant support during the course. some students were apprehensive about the online platform but spoke up with questions and comments after a few classes. i also witnessed knowledge and critical thinking evolution through class and individual discussions and assignments. overall, i have learned a great deal during this unprecedented situation and will bring this new knowledge forward in the goal of promoting education and critical thinking, no matter the context and platform. 2.2. graduate teaching assistant experience as a graduate teaching assistant (gta), and a doctoral student perspective, the switch to online learning has been smooth in the short run, yet tiring over time. although my duties as a gta did not significantly change from graduate assistantships i held in the past, i did not receive formal training on performing gta duties utilizing online platforms. this was a challenge as expectations remained the same for myself and colleagues who are assisting different professors throughout the school of social work. that said, having preparation meetings with dr. lwin before and throughout the course helped me connect the dots and equipped me with the necessary tools to ease the transition from the traditional in-person methods to the modern and seamless online approaches to learning and teaching. while i enjoy assisting professors delivering lectures throughout the semester, i was hesitant at the beginning of this semester to deliver any lectures. my reasoning behind this hesitation is that i have a brief experience when it comes to not only online teaching but also teaching in general. since i am only at the beginning of my teaching career, i was worried that the knowledge i am sharing might not resonate well with students. however, that was not the case. the course’s encouraged me to step out of my comfort zone and assist her in lecturing classes as this is an area where even experienced professors are now forced to learn about and utilize as the future of in-person lectures remains unclear, at least for the upcoming semester. that said, i decided to deliver two synchronous (live) lectures utilizing online platforms tools such as zoom and blackboard. surprisingly, this experience changed my view of online teaching, and my hesitation became a source of motivation as i enjoyed this unique opportunity and received substantial positive feedback from dr. lwin and students in the course as well. online learning did not only affect me as a gta in this course but also in my primary role as a third-year doctoral student at the school of social work. as a result of the pandemic, in-person meetings with my dissertation supervisor, research commitments, and student-led publications initiatives had to be terminated and instead were held virtually. this was a challenge as i found virtual activities such as brainstorming, planning, and debating were not as natural as our pre-pandemic in-person meetings. i found the now-absent ability to physically transport from one classroom, office, and building to another as a socially soothing opportunity that gave me a break from the recently dismissed gathering while preparing me for my next commitment. however, being forced to cope with personal inconveniences in online learning was both meaningful and rewarding by the end of the semester as the university extended its essential service mode to the fall 2020 semester, meaning that i will now be better equipped and experienced for my next graduate assistantship along with the next chapter of my doctoral studies when utilizing online methods in both teaching and learning. while my overall experience when looking at online learning and teaching was positive, i worry about isolation fatigue and if it has any effects on my doctoral studies journey and future opportunities such as graduate asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 53-58 56 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group assistantships, teaching, and research commitments as i am witnessing a pattern of exhaustion and impatience amongst my doctoral studies colleagues. 2.3. student engagement and experience as a graduate social work student, i had just returned from living in england for the past two years and was adjusting to being home in windsor as the pandemic started to take place across canada. being out of school for three years, i was already anxious to become a graduate student, and when i found out classes were moved to an online format, my anxiety increased. i had never taken an online class before and now i had not only one course but two courses to navigate through at the beginning of my graduate studies. not only was i adjusting to being back in school but now i was juggling a new job working midnight shifts in a women’s emergency shelter. i was dealing with many new changes, including last-minute changes with my msw program. the semester was supposed to spread out throughout the summer but was shortened to six weeks, which made me ineligible for provincial financial assistance. as a result, i faced a financial hardship that forced me to navigate last-minute arrangements to pay my tuition only two days before the deadline. this was a tight and stressful situation, which caused me to work more hours than i anticipated and therefore took time away from my schooling. the week before classes began, i was unsure what was going on. i was constantly checking and rereading my emails; exploring blackboard learn; and looking on the uwindsor site to see if i had missed any important information about my class. i knew classes were held on zoom, but i did not receive my link to the class until the day before, which increased my stress level. i felt overwhelmed by the number of emails and changes made to the course prior to the start. then when classes first began, i did not have a physical space to attend lectures or complete assignments. i had family members working from home due to the pandemic, and i felt that my bedroom was the only space that would work. i found myself attending lectures and completing assignments on my bed, which was distracting and disorganized. when possible, i would move to the kitchen table, but i would often be distracted or interrupted. further, i had difficulties with my schedule and struggled to have a healthy balance, which is possibly related to the many changes and adjustments that took place in a short period of time. between attending lectures, completing assignments and readings, and work commitments, i often found myself staying awake for over 24 hours at times. i found it also difficult to schedule online meetings with my professors and their graduate assistants as their office hours conflicted with my work schedule. normally, when classes were held in-person, i would approach my professors after lectures or during breaks. however, having online lectures forced me to often utilize email communication if i was unable to attend online office hours. that said, my professors were accommodating, helpful, and patient as they offered to set up numerous zoom meetings out of their scheduled hours. on a personal level, i did not have much time for my friends or family, which sometimes made me feel isolated. this was further exacerbated by the lack of face-to-face interactions with my peers. as a returning graduate student, i did not know most of the students in my current cohort, making it more difficult to form relationships through online learning. upon reflection, i realized how much i had relied on my peers previously when completing my bachelor of social work and how much they contributed to my overall well-being and success. i found that as the course went on, i felt much more comfortable with my peers and found it easier to lean on them for support, but this did take more time to develop. although moving to online learning was an adjustment and stressful at times, there were some benefits for me, including being able to sleep-in and being able to attend class in my pajamas. i found my experiences with my professors and graduate assistants were positive, as they provided support, understanding, and attempted to make this transition easier for students. i found that they were honest about their experiences when it came to online teaching and learning in a way that normalized and validated how i was feeling. having an asynchronous portion of the class allowed me to catch up on readings and lectures on my own time and shortened the lecture, which made it easier to focus on content. lastly, i found the group discussion less stressful because each student was assigned randomly to breakout rooms on zoom. this gave me the opportunity to meet, work, and have discussions with different students, instead of working with the same people. the most beneficial aspect of online learning was my growth as a student. learning online forced me to be more responsible and manage my time more effectively. previously, i procrastinated often and found myself doing my assignments last minute; however, this was not an option for my online class, as the courses were so short. online learning unlocked unknown potential and motivation that i was not sure i had, which makes me feel more confident moving into next semester as courses are set to resume online. 3. recommendations as we distill the multifaceted experiences encapsulated in our exploration of teaching and learning during a pandemic, a compendium of nuanced recommendations unfolds. our collective insights coalesce into a tripartite framework, delineated across three pivotal spheres: online training, instructor-student communication and support, and students-led learning initiatives. in this expansive vision, we envisage a transformative trajectory for online social work education that not only mitigates challenges but propels the paradigm into a realm of enriched pedagogical possibilities. 3.1. preparation and training for online courses a call for the recalibration of how we prepare educators, assistants, and students for the intricacies of online social work education. critics, substantiated by our experiences (báez, marquart, chung, ryan, & garay, 2019; crisp, 2018) highlight concerns about the effectiveness of this pedagogical shift. thus, the authors advocate for a comprehensive overhaul of training paradigms. beyond instructors, this seismic shift demands that graduate assistants and students be active participants in tailored online orientations. holistic preparation, rather than a unidirectional focus, will lay the groundwork for an elevated and equitable online learning experience. a corollary to this paradigm shift is the imperative to master the tools that define the online educational landscape. from zoom to blackboard, a nuanced understanding of these platforms becomes as crucial as textbook asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 53-58 57 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group knowledge. in this vein, an expansive training curriculum should be crafted, covering not just the basics but delving into the pedagogical possibilities and potential pitfalls of each tool. this mastery is not just for instructors' benefit but serves as a catalyst for an immersive, engaging, and effective learning environment, enhancing the educational journey for all involved. 3.2. instructor-student communication and support the veneer of easy access to technology belies the labyrinthine complexities of transitioning from in-person to online learning (ali, 2020; rapanta, botturi, goodyear, guàrdia, & koole, 2020). central to this paradigm is the need for robust instructor-student communication and support mechanisms. the authors draw on their experiences, highlighting a persistent dearth in this critical sphere throughout their semester. to address this lacuna, a proactive approach is advocated. the dissemination of detailed announcements preceding each weekly class is posited as a foundational strategy. this pre-emptive communication not only forewarns students but serves as a compass, guiding them through the intricacies of the virtual learning landscape. in the vast expanse of virtual education, the authors underscore the value of post-class engagement. a comprehensive summary note, disseminated after each class, emerges as a lifeline for those who, for various reasons, couldn't attend the live session. this post-class anchor serves as more than just a recap; it becomes a repository of missed opportunities, ensuring that every student, irrespective of their virtual presence, can glean the essence of the class. it's not just about compensating for absenteeism; it's about fostering inclusivity in the digital realm. 3.3. students’ led learning initiatives in the mosaic of online learning, the authors posit a transformative role for students as active co-creators of their educational journey. limited research on social work education in the online domain (littlefield, 2019; mirick, 2020) underscores the need for a paradigm shift. building on the global potential of online teaching and learning to democratize knowledge (brouns et al., 2017) the authors champion a reimagining of the student's role. a departure from the passive recipient, students should emerge as active contributors to the pedagogical narrative. acknowledging the diverse needs arising from varying educational levels, courses of study, and program progression points, the authors envision a bespoke approach to online education. students, often beset with anxiety and heightened stress levels during the pandemic, should be accorded not just a voice but a pivotal role in shaping their educational trajectory. the recommendation transcends the traditional feedback model; it's about integrating students into the planning fabric, where their interests and needs become guiding principles in course development. the pandemic accentuated the fragility of the educational ecosystem. in this crucible, the authors advocate for a seismic shift towards more student-centric learning initiatives. this goes beyond ad-hoc measures; it's about institutionalizing a space where students actively participate in planning their courses. the benefits are manifold – from heightened satisfaction to a sense of ownership over one's education. this recommendation isn't just a course correction; it's a manifesto for the democratization of the educational experience. in essence, these recommendations are not just prescriptive measures; they represent a manifesto for the evolution of online social work education. it's a call to arms for educators, students, and administrators alike to transcend the challenges and seize the unprecedented opportunities that this transformative pedagogical landscape affords. 4. conclusion in conclusion, this teaching note underscores the diverse spectrum of experiences encountered by instructors, graduate assistants, and students during the unique academic challenges posed by the shift to online teaching. as illuminated through this exploration, the foray into virtual education brought forth numerous advantages, albeit not without its share of obstacles. the complexities of this semester, as documented in this paper, shed light on the multifaceted nature of adapting to online modalities. the advantages of online teaching and learning became evident, marked by increased flexibility and accessibility. however, the journey was not without its share of difficulties, with challenges arising in the form of technological hiccups, asynchronous communication, and the need for adaptability in the face of unforeseen disruptions. the individualized nature of online education underscored the imperative for all parties involved— faculty, graduate assistants, and students—to step out of their comfort zones and embrace novel approaches to teaching, lecture delivery, assessment, and consultation. this transformative period necessitated a re-evaluation of conventional teaching methods and a willingness to explore innovative avenues for academic engagement. it prompted educators to reassess their pedagogical approaches and encouraged students to adapt to new learning modalities. the online environment not only demanded a reconfiguration of teaching techniques but also highlighted the importance of fostering a sense of community and support in a virtual space. looking forward, uncertainty shrouds the future of in-person classes, making it crucial for educational institutions to remain agile and responsive to evolving circumstances. the one-year master of social work program, emblematic of this adaptability, faces the prospect of producing graduates with an unexpectedly virtual academic experience. the upcoming semester's continuation in the online realm, coupled with the growing trend of agencies considering online placements for the winter term, further underscores the transformative impact of the ongoing paradigm shift in education. as stakeholders navigate these uncharted waters, the 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(2020). covid-19 and the cardiovascular system. nature reviews cardiology, 17(5), 259-260. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41569-020-0360-5 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-52925-6_16 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30211-7 https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2018.1444157 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-020-09464-3 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198043 https://doi.org/10.1080/08841233.2019.1663080 https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2019.1656582 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?lang=e&geo1=cmaca&code1=559&geo2=pr&code2=35&data=count&searchtext=windsor&searchtype=begins&searchpr=01&b1=all&tabid=1 https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?lang=e&geo1=cmaca&code1=559&geo2=pr&code2=35&data=count&searchtext=windsor&searchtype=begins&searchpr=01&b1=all&tabid=1 https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?lang=e&geo1=cmaca&code1=559&geo2=pr&code2=35&data=count&searchtext=windsor&searchtype=begins&searchpr=01&b1=all&tabid=1 https://www.uwindsor.ca/45/fast-facts https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.1585 https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/events-as-they-happen https://doi.org/10.1111/resp.13196 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41569-020-0360-5 1 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 1, 1-7, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i1.5262 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group stigma towards people with mental illness and community mental health ideology among university students: a comparative study mehwish ashfaq1 summaiyyah nasir2 aisha noorullah3 bushra rashid4 meha irfan5 ( corresponding author) 1institute of professional psychology bahria university, karachi campus, krachi, pakistan. 1email: mehwishashfaq13@gmail.com 2,5independent scholar (graduated from institute of professional psychology bahria university, karachi campus), karachi, pakistan. 2email: summaiyyah96@hotmail.com 5email: mehairfan70@gmail.com 3department of psychiatry, aga khan university, karachi, pakistan. 3email: aisha.noorullah@aku.edu 4university of karachi, pakistan. 4email: bushra.sabtain9@gmail.com abstract the study examines the difference between the stigma among psychology and non-psychology students towards people with mental illness and to find out their ideology towards community mental health services. a cross-sectional study was conducted among university students. all together (n= 300) participants were recruited through the quota convenient sampling. cami (community attitude towards the mentally ill) scale was used in this research, assess four types of attitudes towards mental illness (i.e., authoritarianism, benevolence, social restrictiveness, and community mental health ideology). the findings of this study show a significant difference between the attitudes of psychology and non-psychology students. both the subscales, authoritarianism and social restrictiveness conclude that non-psychology students showed more authoritative and restrictive behavior towards mentally ill people and are less oriented towards community mental health ideology as compared to psychology students. however, psychology students showed less benevolence as compared to non-psychology students towards mentally ill people. additional findings indicated that the level of authoritarianism, social restrictiveness, and benevolence is high among males as compared to females. the study highlights the need for society to develop a plan and action to change stigma attached to mental illness at both institutional and community levels. keywords: attitude, mental health ideology, mental illness, stigma, social restrictiveness. citation | ashfaq, m., nasir, s., noorullah, a., rashid, b., & irfan, m. (2023). stigma towards people with mental illness and community mental health ideology among university students: a comparative study. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(1), 1–7. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i1.5262 history: received: 12 october 2023 revised: 27 november 2023 accepted: 8 december 2023 published: 22 november 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the institute of professional psychology bahria university, karachi campus, pakistan has granted approval for this study on 11 september 2019. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is honest, t ru th fu l, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been om it ted , and that any differences from the study as planned have been clari fied . this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: conceptualized and designed the study, c ollec ted, and analyzed the data, and drafted the initial manuscript, m.a.; contributed to data collection, analysis, and critically revised the manuscript, s.n. and a .n.; provided input on the study design, data interpretation, and critically reviewed the manuscript, b.r.; contributed to the literature review and manuscript editing, m.i. all authors have read and agreed to the p ublished version of the manuscript. mailto:mehwishashfaq13@gmail.com mailto:summaiyyah96@hotmail.com mailto:mehairfan70@gmail.com mailto:aisha.noorullah@aku.edu mailto:bushra.sabtain9@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i1.5262 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7832-9381 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5755-7609 https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4230-1534 https://orcid.org/0009-0003-5770-0542 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(1): 1-7 2 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contents 1. introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 2. methodology .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 3. results................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3 4. discussion ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6 5. conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7 contribution of this paper to the literature despite efforts to raise awareness, attitudes toward mental health persist. the study suggests the core issue is societal acknowledgment of the stigma. this prompts reflection on the ongoing challenge of fostering acceptance, emphasizing the need for continued efforts to integrate individuals with mental health issues into our communities. 1. introduction in 2017, an estimated 970 million people suffered from mental illness or substance use disorders (dattani, rodés-guirao, ritchie, & roser, 2018). this equates to approximately 1 in 7 people worldwide, constituting an overall estimate of 15% (dattani et al., 2018). despite this pervasive prevalence, a substantial body of research consistently reveals that only a minority of individuals with mental illness receive treatment, resulting in a significant treatment gap on a global scale (kohn, saxena, levav, & saraceno, 2004). despite the substantial impact of mental illnesses on the years lived with disability (ylds), nearly 90% of the people who need help won’t get it (alonso et al., 2007; demyttenaere et al., 2004; sartorius, 2002). according to the world health organization (who), adequate treatments are available for mental illnesses, but almost one-third of affected individuals seek help from mental health professionals; the remaining hide their psychological issues due to stigma and discrimination (who, 2001). people with mental illneses are one of the most stigmatized populations. the concept of stigma is not novel and has persisted in the literature for centuries. goffman was the first person who through his research took the medical profession's attention to its significance.he defined stigma as arising from an identity conflict. goffman also saw stigma as a process through which other people’s reaction spoils the identity of an individual, stigmatized people don’t have full social acceptance from the society, and they keep on striving to adjust their social identities (goffman, 1963). similarly, stigmatization is often a consequence of labelling, when a person is being labelled, he incorporates that label into his self-concept and develops stigma (bernburg, 2009). those who stigmatize people with mental illness are afraid that patients will act aggressively or violently while interaction and may manifest unpredictable behavior resulting in harmful consequences (barry, mcginty, vernick, & webster, 2013). a cross-sectional study conducted in a center in southwest ethiopia revealed a greater prevalence of stigma among rural residents towards individuals with mental illness (girma et al., 2013). similarly, a study conducted in india found that university students exhibit a negative attitude towards peop le with mental illness, going to the extent of endorsing the idea that women have a right to divorce their husbands if he gets hospitalized due to a severe mental illness (mahto et al., 2016). both researchers concluded that there exists a negative attitude towards people with mental illness, evident not only in the general population but also among students. a multitude of factors exist that shape the society reactions to people with mental illness, insights are provided by the framework integrating normative influences on stigma-finis (pescosolido, martin, lang, & olafsdottir, 2008) it clearly integrates a complex web of reasons shaping stigma at micro, meso and macro level such as media, social context of individual and disease characteristics itself. the root of the term "ideology" dates back to the eighteenth century where it was referred to represent political beliefs. in the modern era, its usage has gone beyond this and does not only have negative interpretations. community mental health ideology supports the idea of community-oriented care for people with mental illness who can live freely outside a hospital (taylor & dear, 1981). inclusion or acceptance in a personal context can be defined as accepting the individual with mental illness as a family member, as a neighbor, a friend, approaching them to be a part of your community or a group. researches show that the individual with mental health problems can be best treated when the families, close friends all are part of the treatment team, similarly, the cases in which individuals have severe mental illnesses, the involvement of families in their treatment reduces the rate of relaps e and it also greatly assists recovery. this idea has progressed and implemented substantially in developed countries but is a nascent area of investigation in lowand middle-income countries like pakistan. the implementation of the advanced model of de-centralization and de-institutionalization has shifted mental health services from mental asylums where patients were isolated and detached from the society to teaching hospitals with an intention to facilitate the sufferers (afridi, 2008). this is growing further with an aim to integrate the treatment of mentally ill people in the community. around 50 million people in pakistan are suffering from mental illnesses, affecting approximately 15 to 35 million adults, which makes up around 10 to 15 percent of the total population (dawn, 2016). for a population of 180 million, in pakistan, there are only 5 government-run psychiatric hospitals and less than 300 qualified psychiatrists (arifeen, 2017). although the last few decades have witnessed rapid and substantial improvement in mental health services in pakistan, the circumstances have further gross areas of improvement. every cohort of society has its unique way of perceiving people with mental illness, particularly young adult’s student’s acumen is critical in reduction of stigma and implementation of community mental health ideology. students belonging to various academic disciplines can play a paramount role in the prevention and treatment of mental illnesses as well as for their rehabilitation in the community by showing a positive attitude towards them and subsequently reducing the risk of relapse. students are among the best cohort to be investigated for stigma and community mental health ideology as this is the best era of one’s life when they are at the peak of exploring and developing their attitudes plus, they are getting prepared to be launched in professional life to provide their invaluable humanistic services related to their specific professional domains. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(1): 1-7 3 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group stigma and discrimination have devastating effects on the lives of people with severe mental illness (corrigan, morris, michaels, & rafacz, 2012). due to the stigmatization, people with mental illness do not seek help at an early stage which worsens the prognosis of illness and has massive impact on their functioning (henderson, evanslacko, & thornicroft, 2013). an immense need exists to work on reducing the stigmatization of mental illness. as psychiatric facilities move toward a community mental health orientation, it appears cardinal to understand and measure this new nascent ideological perspective in local context (baker & schulberg, 1967). it is imperative to create an acceptance of mentally ill people in the society. to be precise the renewed focus on stigma research facilitates exploration of community mental health ideology. this study holds an ambitious agenda aiming to uncover the student’s [psychology versus non-psychology] attitude towards people with mental illness and their acceptance in the community. to the best of my knowledge, there is a dearth of research in this important area of mental health in pakistan. student’s attitude is not as extensively researched as a general public attitude towards people with mental illness. this will ultimately help people with mental illness to be recognized as an integral component of community without any embarrassment. 1.1. research objectives 1. to determine the difference between the attitude of psychology and non-psychology students towards people with mental illness. 2. to compare the acceptance of community mental health services among psychology and non-psychology students. 2. methodology a cross-sectional study was conducted among university students in karachi during september to december 2019. all together (n= 300) participants were recruited through the quota convenient sampling. both male and female candidates aged between 18 to 28 years, enrolled in the undergraduate bs (bachelor of science in psychology) and the non-psychology program [business, engineering, media studies, humanities, computer sciences and earth and environmental science], 3 rd semester onwards at bahria university karachi campus were eligible for the study. however, those who denied consent to do so, finds english not as their comfortable medium, current and past diagnoses of psychiatric disorders were excluded. in this study, the cami (community attitude towards the mentally ill) scale is used (taylor & dear, 1981). this scale consists of 40 statements about mental illness and people with mental health conditions. participants responded using a likert scale. the scale has four parts, each with 10 statements. half of these statements are positive, and the other half are negative. reverse scoring is done for negative items, and the cumulative score is determined for each sub-scale. each part of the scale measures different things. ‘authoritarianism’ looks at an oppressive attitude towards people with mental conditions. ‘benevolence’ checks for sympathetic attitudes. ‘social restrictiveness’ measures if people think those with mental illness are a threat to society. ‘community mental health ideology’ looks at the idea of taking care of people with mental illness in the community. the term "mentally ill" in this research refers to people needing treatment for mental disorders but who can live independently outside a hospital. permission to use the cami scale was freely granted on the website to be utilized for research purposes. other than the above-mentioned validated tool, basic demographic information about the participants was also collected. approval was obtained from the departmental ethical review committee (erc). research follows principles like getting permission from participants, keeping their information private, and making sure they join the study willingly. for the current study, the collected data were imported and analysed through statistical techniques using spss (version 22). after computing the scores on the scale, reliability was checked. inferential and descriptive statistics of the data were evaluated, as well as other tests used for analysis, including correlation, t-test analysis, and analysis of variance (anova). 3. results for the computation of the results, a series of statistical analysis was conducted using the statistical package for social sciences (spss 22). descriptive and inferential statistics were used. table 1. frequency and percentage of demographic variables. variable f (%) m (sd) n 300 300 age 1.10(0.305) 18-23 269(89.7) 24-28 31 (10.3) gender 1.71(0.45) male 86 (28.7) female 214 (71.3) program enrolled 1.50(0.50) psychology 150 (50) non-psychology 150 (50) socioeconomic status 3.36(0.63) lower class 3 (1.0) lower middle class 8 (2.7) middle class 174 (58.0) upper middle class 107 (35.7) upper class 8 (2.7) marital status 1.06(0.43) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(1): 1-7 4 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group variable f (%) m (sd) single (never married) 291(97) married 5(1.7) separated 3(1.0) widower 1(.3) semester of study 3.84(1.69) 3 36(12.0) 4 34(11.3) 5 65(21.7) 6 46(15.3) 7 44(14.7) 8 75(25.0) occupation 1.88(0.32) employed 35(11.7) unemployed 265(88.3) family type 1.45(0.43) nuclear 214(71.3) joint 71(23.7) extended 3(1.0) living with friends 3(1.0) alone 6(2.0) others 2(.7) ethnicity 3.45(2.64) urdu speaking 128(42.7) bengali 6(2.0) pathan 25(8.3) sindhi 38(12.7) memon 19(6.3) punjabi 66(22.0) hazaraywaai 2(.7) tarheily 1(.3) kashmiri 5(1.7) gujrati 5(1.7) arain 1(.3) hindko 1(.3) siraiki 3(1.0) religion 1.01(0.99) islam 297(99.0) hinduism 3(1.0) current diagnosis of psychiatric disorder 2.00 (0.00) yes 0 no 300(100) past diagnosis of psychiatric disorder 2.00 (0.00) yes 0 no 300(100) family history of psychiatric disorder 1.94(0.22) yes 16(5.3) no 284(94.7) 3.1. demographic information of sample table 1 depicts the main demographic variables of the present study. it shows the distribution of the demographic variables into subcategories based on demographic information of the participants of the study (n=300). table 2. descriptive analysis included mean, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis, and ranges of the study variables. variables items m sd sk k ranges α actual potential cami 300 122.63 9.94 0.859 2.003 95-160 40-200 0.547 a 300 32.22 3.95 -0.066 0.269 18-43 10-50 b 300 29.76 3.31 0.512 1.123 21-43 10-50 sr 300 28.67 3.63 0.327 1.173 18-42 10-50 cmhi 300 31.87 4.30 0.293 1.590 20-44 10-50 note: m= mean, sd= standard deviation, sk= skewness, k= kurtosis, cami= community attitude towards mental illness, a=authoritarianism, b=benevolence, sc=social restrictiveness, cmhi=community mental health ideology, α = cronb ac h alpha. table 2 represents mean, standard deviation, skewness value, kurtosis value, actual, potential ranges, and cronbach alpha. the value of skewness and kurtosis shows that the data is normally distributed. the cronbach alpha of this scale is .547 which shows that this scale has moderate reliability. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(1): 1-7 5 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 3. mean, standard deviation and t-value for the variables of community attitude towards mental illness between psychology and non-psychology. variables program enrolled n m sd t p 95%cl ll ul community attitudes toward mental illness psychology 150 119.96 8.05 -4.820 0.000 118.66 121.26 non-psychology 150 125.30 10.91 123.54 127.06 authoritarianism psychology 150 31.44 3.91 -3.467 0.001 30.81 32.07 non-psychology 150 33.00 3.84 32.37 33.62 benevolence psychology 150 28.93 2.65 -4.496 0.000 28.50 29.36 non-psychology 150 30.60 3.68 30.00 31.19 social restrictiveness psychology 150 28.06 3.02 -2.194 0.004 27.57 28.55 non-psychology 150 29.27 4.06 28.61 29.92 community mental health ideology psychology 150 31.52 2.78 -1.844 0.085 31.06 31.97 non-psychology 150 32.20 3.99 31.56 32.85 note: mental illness between psychology and non-psychology. table 3 exhibits that non-psychology students exhibit more authoritative and restrictive behaviour towards mentally ill individuals, while psychology students show more benevolence and are more oriented towards mental health facilities. table 4. community attitudes toward mental illness among psychology and nonpsychology students. population cami ranges f % psychology high 1 0.7 average 149 99.3 low 0 0 non-psychology high 7 4.7 average 143 95.3 low 0 0 note: cami=community attitudes toward mental illness. table 4 presents non-psychology students who showed a higher level of stigma as per subscales of cami as compared to psychology students. 3.2. descriptive analysis non-psychology students showed a higher level of stigma as per subscales of cami as compared to psychology students. table 5. the t-test between male and female for the variables of community attitudes toward mental illness. variables gender n m sd t df p cami male 86 126.13 11.29 3.961 298 0.000 female 214 121.22 8.99 a male 86 33.30 4.14 3.039 298 0.003 female 214 31.78 3.79 b male 86 31.04 3.62 4.370 298 0.000 female 214 29.25 3.03 sr male 86 29.81 4.09 3.525 298 0.000 female 214 28.21 3.32 cmhi male 86 31.97 4.08 0.360 298 0.719 female 214 31.81 3.17 note: n= number of participants, m= mean, sd= standard deviation, t= t-test value, df= degree of freedom, p= significance, cami=community attitudes toward mental illness, a=authoritarianism, b=benevolence, sc=social restrictiveness, cmhi=community mental health ideology. 3.3. additional analysis according to the results in table 6, the variable of the study community attitudes toward mental illness and its subdomain including authoritarianism, benevolence, social restrictiveness, are statistically significant on the variable of gender (sig: cami=0.000, a=0.003, b=0.000, sr=0.000, cmhi=0.719). only the subdomain community mental health ideology is not statistically significant on the variable of gender. table 6. the t-test between male and female for the variables of community attitudes toward mental illness subscale gender n m sd t df p cami male 86 126.13 11.29 3.961 298 0.000 female 214 121.22 8.99 a male 86 33.30 4.14 3.039 298 0.003 female 214 31.78 3.79 b male 86 31.04 3.62 4.370 298 0.000 female 214 29.25 3.03 sr male 86 29.81 4.09 3.525 298 0.000 female 214 28.21 3.32 cmhi male 86 31.97 4.08 .360 298 0.719 female 214 31.81 3.17 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(1): 1-7 6 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 1. bar graph representing gender difference among the variables of cami. figure 1 illustrates that the level of authoritarianism, social restrictiveness, and benevolence is high among males as compared to females. however, both males and females are almost equally oriented towards community mental health ideology. 4. discussion this study has investigated stigma among university students pertinent to the mentally ill and the mental illness together with their beliefs regarding the psychiatric patient re-orientation in the community. the stigma impacts grossly on persons with mental illness, contributes to be a barrier in their rehabilitation, that’s why worthy of investigation along with the nascent emerging area of community contact with the mentally ill and mental health facilities in residential neighborhoods. overall, in this study, the attitudes and beliefs grossly differ between psychology and non-psychology students as per subscales of cami, favorable opinions are expressed by the psychology professionals. the stereotypy among non-psychology specialties regarding the mentally ill to be kept behind the locked doors, out casted from the society, be treated as a child is widely supported by other studies and consistent with our findings (crisp, gelder, rix, meltzer, & rowlands, 2000). as non-psychology cohort has a stigmatizing authoritative view about mentally ill and the mental illness, so it is understandable to be more socially restricted towards them. this finding is partially supported by another survey conducted among mental health professional’s vs the public in which professionals have restrictive view less than the general public but still that persists (nordt, rössler, & lauber, 2006). the desire for social distancing also reported by another survey was stemming from perceived dangerousness (link, phelan, bresnahan, stueve, & pescosolido, 1999). another survey conducted in nigeria among university teaching hospital also supports both negative conceptions of authoritarianism and social restrictiveness (ukpong & abasiubong, 2010). the existence of both stereotypies, authoritarianism and social restrictiveness may emerge in part from a lack of knowledge about mental illness which leads to less acceptance of the mentally ill and mental health facilities. one of the predominant components of authoritative view is a lack of will power among mentally ill. this belief gradually unfolds the expectation to improve their psychological affliction through their own efforts rather than any external help offered to them (weiner, perry, & magnusson, 1988). rejection in the form of social restriction from mentally ill transpired from attribution of accountability of their own illness as well as perception of uncertainty and aggression (angermeyer & dietrich, 2006). while this seems to paint a fairly grim picture among non-psychology cohort, psychology students have less authoritative and socially restrictive view which is immensely painted by the data that being familiar with mental illness reduces the discriminatory response (corrigan et al., 2012). psychology is among one of the helping professions for mental wellbeing so the difference in the level of stigma among different specialties is legitimate. psychology students showed less benevolence as compared to non-psychology which may be attributable to the fact that psychology trainees are mentored to be more empathetic towards these individuals as empathy facilitate s the deeper understanding of patient’s problems. the high benevolence is also supported by the research which interestingly also reveals that being benevolent does not guarantee the acceptance of these individuals in community facilities or treating them as normal individuals are treated (song, chang, shih, lin, & yang, 2005). community mental health ideology is highly supported by the psychology students which is consistent with the available literature that professionals who work closely with mentally ill patients or have more awareness about them have more encouraging and supportive attitude towards them (vibha, saddichha, & kumar, 2008). another study conducted in china indicates that mental health professionals were more supportive of community-based treatment and biopsychosocial causation then the general public contributed by their training and experience (sun et al., 2014). additional findings shed light on the differences in the gender community attitude towards the mentally ill which indicated that the level of authoritarianism, social restrictiveness, and benevolence is high among males as compared to females. however, both males and females are almost equally oriented towards community mental health ideology. in the light of the study findings, we recommend regular asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(1): 1-7 7 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group conduction of cmes [continuing medical education] activities including seminars, lectures, workshops regarding the psychoeducation about mental illness [true nature of the disorder and low frequency of dangerous behavior], correcting the myths and introducing facts in the light of recent evidence-based research among young adults. more studies involving a larger sample size should be conducted across diverse academic domains in various universities of the country to assess stigma and then subsequently measures to reduce it. at an individual level challenging our own prejudices, avoid stigmatizing language and be advocates for change-improving the autonomy of patients, their involvement in society may be helpful. at a community level enhancing contact of people with mental illness with the general public. this study also has some limitations few academic domains are included for comparison with psychology students. the expressed attitudes of students belonging to different academic courses in the study may not translate into any behavioral change [it’s a simple cross-sectional survey, not an interventional study]. 5. conclusion stigma and discrimination 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(2001). mental disorders affect one in four people. geneva: nmh communications. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.106.022004 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00699.x https://www.pakistangulfeconomist.com/2017/01/23/mental-health-problems-pakistan-overlooked/ https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmp1300512 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0245-0_10 https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201100529 https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.177.1.4 https://ourworldindata.org/mental-health https://www.dawn.com/news/1288880/50m-pakistanis-suffering-from-mental-disorders https://www.dawn.com/news/1288880/50m-pakistanis-suffering-from-mental-disorders https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.291.21.2581 https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2012.301056 https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.89.9.1328 https://doi.org/10.18535/jmscr/v4i12.117 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.018 https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764005056765 https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-8-26 https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/7.2.225 https://doi.org/10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v16i2.238 https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764008092190 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.738 121 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 4, 121-131, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i4.5076 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group faculty members’ perceptions about the effectiveness of the procedures for applying the appraisal of academic staff at sultan qaboos university shubair abdullah1 abdelrahman el-haj2 sameh said ismail3 hussain alkharusi4 wajeha el-aani5 amal al-badi6 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3,4,5college of education, sultan qaboos university, muscat, sultanate of oman. 3faculty of graduate studies for education, cairo university, egypt. 1email: shubair@squ.edu.om 2email: abdoelhaj@squ.edu.om 3email: samehsaid@squ.edu.om 4email: hussein5@squ.edu.om 5email: wajeha@squ.edu.om 6military technological college, muscat, sultanate of oman. 6email: amal11bh@gmail.com abstract the appraisal of academic staff at sultan qaboos university (squ) has been in place for many years as a quality assurance measure. its primary objective is to enhance staff performance by identifying commendable areas and those requiring improvement in daily activities. over the years, this appraisal has contributed in faculty development and quality assurance as well as in the continuous improvement. this study explores the perceptions of faculty members at the college of education concerning the procedures for applying the academic appraisal form at squ. utilizing a mixedmethod approach (quantitative and qualitative), including questionnaire and semi-structured interview, the research examines the faculty members' views on the effectiveness of the appraisal procedures. the sample participating in this study was 54 faculty members. out of the 54 participants, 48 completed the questionnaire, while 6 were chosen for in-depth semi-structured interviews. the sample included a wide range of participants to reflect the diversity within the academic staff. the findings may offer valuable insights into the current status of these perceptions and potentially assist policy makers at squ in enhancing the existing procedures and system for applying the academic appraisal. furthermore, the results may lead to a set of recommendations and directions for future research, helping to improve the robustness and applicability of the appraisal system within the university context. keywords: academic accreditation, academic appraisal, assessment, faculty perceptions, quality assurance, sultan qaboos university. citation | abdullah, s., el-haj, a., ismail, s. s., alkharusi, h., elaani, w., & al-badi, a. (2023). faculty members’ perceptions about the effectiveness of the procedures for applying the appraisal of academic staff at sultan qaboos university. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(4), 121–131. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i4.5076 history: received: 17 august 2023 revised: 28 september 2023 accepted: 12 october 2023 published: 20 october 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this research is supported by sultan qaboos university, sultanate of oman (grant number: ig/edu/tech/22/01). institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the sultan qaboos university, sultanate of oman has granted approval for this study on 19 january 2022 (ref. no. ig/edu/tech/22/01). transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: the design and implementation of the research, s.a., a.e.h. and s.s.i.; analysis of the results, h.e.k. and w.e.a.; writing of the manuscript, a.a.b. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................................122 2. literature ......................................................................................................................................................................................................122 3. method...........................................................................................................................................................................................................124 4. results and discussion .............................................................................................................................................................................126 5. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................................130 references .........................................................................................................................................................................................................130 mailto:shubair@squ.edu.om mailto:abdoelhaj@squ.edu.om mailto:samehsaid@squ.edu.om mailto:hussein5@squ.edu.om mailto:wajeha@squ.edu.om mailto:amal11bh@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i4.5076 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1133-5979 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6576-9791 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2718-5159 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5822-9188 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6354-4214 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4422-9857 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 121-131 122 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper addresses the faculty perceptions of appraisal procedures at sultan qaboos university. using a mixed-method approach, it addresses a gap in oman's higher education research. the findings guide policy makers towards system refinement and provide insights for global institutions seeking to enhance their faculty evaluation processes. 1. introduction higher education institutions (heis) have been independent organizations supported by the notion that encourages academic staff to anticipate and enjoy high degrees of autonomy and independence (egginton, 2010). according to dasanayaka, abeykoon, ranaweera, and koswatte (2021) universities undertake a significant responsibility to convey knowledge to society for economic growth through high-quality research and the production of skilled graduates. also, students are primarily concerned with the reputation and quality of the university, regardless of its location, world ranking, facilities available, and world-class recognition. dasanayaka et al. (2021) believe that competing for any financial allocations are typically made depending on the performance of these universities. universities worldwide use staff appraisal as a management technique to aid employees' professional growth. however, it is still controversial whether staff appraisal improves an institution's human resource management procedures in terms of soft measures such as work satisfaction (sułkowski, przytuła, borg, & kulikowski, 2020). also, despite the importance of the staff appraisal process in the heis for increasing job satisfaction and productivity of their faculty members, only a limited number of studies works related to this scope has been reported so far for both developed and developing countries (dasanayaka et al., 2021). furthermore, most of the currently available appraisal measures at universities primarily focus on the research performance of their academic staff, with no or little emphasis paid to measure teaching performance (lohman, 2021). locally, the education sector in oman has been under more scrutiny and control forced by oman vision 2040’s strategic direction of inclusive education, lifelong learning, and scientific research that led to a knowledge society and competitive national talents. this strategic direction aimed at creating a high-quality educational system and it entails changes in human resource policy, which is echoed in the appraisal of the academic staff in heis. the purp ose of appraisal is to offer a chance to explore how staff may improve their job tasks and remove any barriers to growth. appraisal is designed to be a helpful and creative reflection of personal progress. appraisal of academic staff has been in existence since the inception of the squ in 1986. its primary goal is to define the duties and responsibilities of the academic staff, identifying their strengths and weaknesses, receive feedback from staff, provide them with performance feedback, and enhance communication. therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate faculty members' perceptions of the processes for using the academic appraisal system at sultan qaboos university (squ). the research questions of this study are as follows: 1. what are faculty members’ perceptions about the system of academic staff appraisal at the college of education in squ? 2. are there statistically significant differences or variations in faculty members’ perceptions about the system of the appraisal of academic staff at the college of education in squ due to gender and department? 2. literature 2.1. performance appraisal with the rapid expansion and growth of heis nowadays it is very essential for these institutions to assess the performance of their staff. the procedure of appraisal of academic staff is generally known in the literature as performance appraisal process. according to fashoto, amaonwu, and afolorunsho (2018) performance appraisal is defined as “a systematic method used in identifying and determining employee’s performance within a given organization”. it involves all the staff in the institution and it is often used to determine professional growth and based on it both promotions and payment increases are determined (dangol, 2021). if a faculty member receives higher evaluations, it shows that the staff is performing well, and that the institution is growing. if a staff has lower ratings, the institution can provide them additional training to increase their skills and expertise (lohman, 2021) which in turn improve their performance and assures the quality of the hei. it is conducted on a timely basis in order to analyze staffs' growth and success in their work and job tasks (dangol, 2021). 2.2. the performance appraisal process performance appraisal system is “a formal interaction that exists between an employee and the supervisor or management conducted periodically to identify the areas of strength and weakness of the said employee” (fashoto et al., 2018). research classified performance appraisal process into four steps. performance appraisal systems include performance criteria that have been defined, a mechanism for evaluating staff performance, a comparison to the standards, and an evaluation of performance based on the comparison (dangol, 2021; dasanayaka et al., 2021; dewi, astawa, ernawati, & suarta, 2019; lohman, 2021; sułkowski et al., 2020). the first stage in setting performance criteria is to identify the duties of the staff. faculty member’s performance is used to determine work criteria. fashoto et al. (2018), for instance, stated that the management in kampala international university (kiu) makes use of five factors as the major criteria for evaluating an employee performance such as personal skills, initiatives, teaching quality, method of teaching and research. however, according to alkubaisi, aziz, george, and al-tarawneh (2019), four factors may be identified as potential discriminators in staff appraisal: employment history to assess experience; job testing to evaluate knowledge; a personality measure to judge friendliness; and lastly college gpa to evaluate success at college. the second phase is to measure staffs’ performance by using certain techniques. universities use different methods for evaluating faculty members such as the traits approach, behavioral approach, ranking methods, alternation ranking, and outcomes methods, productivity metrics, 360-degree assessment, and management by objectives (mbo) (dangol, 2021). a study conducted by lohman (2021) considered students’ experience as a major criteria in evaluating faculty and he proposed for faculty cohorts so that educators may learn from one another in the field and receive feedback from peers. third, there is the comparison against criteria. the individual work record is compared to the job criteria. fourth, a performance appraisal is produced based on the comparison. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 121-131 123 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the accuracy with which that judgment is applied determines the integrity of appraisal systems. problems in judgment are always inevitable, and the literature on performance appraisal process has long identified a number of basic problems in judgment that may impact negatively on the appraisal process. lin and kellough (2019) identified five problems in performance appraisal process as following: 1. the “halo effect”: it means a supervisor observes a subordinate doing one task well and rates that person high on all tasks (the opposite is possible). 2. the “first impression error”: it reflects that the rating is determined by the initial impression the supervisor forms of the employee. 3. the “similar-to-me effect”: it occurs when supervisors rate employees higher when those employees exhibit behaviors similar to the supervisor’s own actions. 4. employee “comparison or contrast effects”: it means that employees are rated relative to each other rather than relative to specific criteria and standards. 5. the “central tendency error”: it occurs when employees are rated at the mid-point of rating scales used. 2.3. perceptions of faculty on the performance appraisal process although some have resisted performance appraisal process and argued it is untrustworthy due to human influence, lack of understanding it and feeling unthreatened by it dauda (2018), it is argued that staff responses to performance appraisals are critical to appraisal success and effectiveness because they are linked to subsequent job attitudes, motivation, and performance (pichler, 2019). therefore, it is wise to explore the faculty members’ perceptions on the performance appraisal. phan, jones, person, and sparks (2021) investigated faculty perceptions of the appraisal process and its overall influence on their teaching performance. the qualitative case study aimed to explore full-time faculty members' perceptions of the present performance appraisal procedure at a local institution (i.e., private university in ho chi minh city, vietnam). data from individual, semi-structured interviews with 12 full-time faculty members were evaluated. following data analysis, key conclusions addressing the improvement of teaching quality were revealed. second, significant factors influencing faculty favorable opinions of the pa process and teaching approaches were identified. following on from this, the researchers identified important criteria that teachers feel are essential in an effective performance review process. furthermore, the leadership tools needed to make the whole process successful. also, lin and kellough (2019) investigated supervisors' perceptions of individual employee performance appraisal in the federal government of the united states in an attempt to uncover structural and operational issues with that system as seen by those responsible for making it operate. data are obtained from a merit systems protection board (mspb) merit principles survey, which included a part asking supervisors to identify nine possible performance appraisal difficulties. a total of 36,926 public employees from 59 federal agencies filled the survey. according to the responses, the most problematic components of the appraisal process were inflated ratings, incorrect criteria, and a lack of assistance. the utilization of performance-based rewards by an agency, a supervisor's opinion that his or her own performance is objectively evaluated, and supervisor age are all consistent predictors of supervisors' perceptions. similarly, roine (2018) explored some academics' perceptions on performance appraisal at a finnish university. a qualitative case study used theme interviews to investigate employee perceptions of performance appraisals throughout the spring and summer of 2017. the interview data was then evaluated by comparing it to bowen and ostroff theory. according to the findings of this study, the perceptions of the case faculty members are fairly similar. when the performance appraisal process is studied from a content standpoint, the organizational climate may be viewed as extremely robust. this conclusion is based on the fact that the target faculty members placed a high priority on collegial engagement. when performance appraisal is considered from a process standpoint, however, the outcome is exactly the reverse. a formal procedure was not viewed to play a vital role, but rather as bureaucratic and something to "get over and done with." the findings of this study suggest that, in order to raise the relevance of the process, performance appraisal should be freed of any formality. different disciplines have also looked at the perceptions of employees on the performance appraisal process. worku (2019); for example, collected data from 198 transnet engineering employees as part of the company's attempt to describe and quantify transnet engineering employees' perceptions of the degree to which the company's performance appraisal system was suitable enough for its intended purpose. employee perception was tested using a predefined benchmark. according to the survey, around 63 % were satisfied with the company's performance appraisal system, while around % had a negative perception. the findings indicated that employees' perceptions of the performance appraisal method employed at transnet engineering were influenced by their perceptions of fairness and the assessment of employees' performance based on key performance indicators. also, petasis, christodoulou, and louca (2020) studied how employees at the cyprus electricity authority perceive performance appraisal. data were obtained from 161 organization employees using an online semi-structured questionnaire and processed using spss; qualitative data were manually analyzed. the study's findings focused on respondents' perceptions of the organization's performance management procedures, which have generated a culture of mistrust toward the performance management system in use. the organization's current performance appraisal system appears to have more flaws than positives, and it does not appear to be integrated or linked with the authority's organizational goals and missions. 2.4. summary the expansion of the educational system at all levels, as well as the enhancement of its outputs, has become essential for the development of omani heis. performance appraisal process is one of the methods that heis implement to grantee the quality of the educational system. the reviewed literature showed scholars investigated different areas of performance appraisal process and that heis varied in their implementation of performance appraisal. the previous studies investigated performance appraisal either following quantitative approach (lin & kellough, 2019) or qualitative approach (dauda, 2018). this study aimed to investigate the perceptions of faculty members in college of education at squ on the performance appraisal system using a mixed method approach with a questionnaire and interview. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 121-131 124 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. method the success of an educational institution is inherently tied to the efficacy and quality of its faculty members. to understand and improve upon this vital component, an accurate and insightful assessment of academic staff is crucial. this study specifically focuses on exploring the faculty members’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the appraisal procedures at college of education in squ. 3.1. research design the research design followed in this paper is mixed-mode design. the methodology implemented in this study was chosen to provide a view of the current appraisal procedures and to offer an in-depth understanding of the faculty members' experiences and opinions. a questionnaire was designed to collect quantitative data on college of education faculty members' perceptions of the appraisal process. closed-ended questions were used to collect data that is easily quantifiable and to provide a clear snapshot of the prevailing opinions on the effectiveness of the current procedures. in addition to the questionnaire, semi-structured interviews were conducted with selected faculty members i.e. heads of departments at the college of education. these interviews provided qualitative insights, allowing the researchers to acquire a clear snapshot of the intricate feelings, experiences, and suggestions of the faculty members. 3.2. population and sample the focus of this research was the academic staff at college of education in squ, which served as the population for the study. the total population consisted of 114 faculty members. the sample participating in this study was 54 faculty members. out of the 54 participants, 48 completed the questionnaire, while 6 were chosen for in-depth semistructured interviews. the sample included a wide range of participants to reflect the diversity within the academic staff. participants varied in: • gender: both male and female faculty members were included to ensure gender diversity. • qualification: participants ranged from those with master's degrees to doctoral qualifications, representing a variety of educational backgrounds. • teaching experience: faculty members with diverse teaching experiences were included. • department and specialization: the sample encompassed faculty members from various departments and specializations, reflecting the multidisciplinary nature of the university. table 1 shows detailed categorization of the sample. 3.3. instruments to gain a comprehensive understanding of faculty members' perceptions about the effectiveness of the procedures for applying the appraisal of academic staff at college of education in squ, two instruments were used: a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. 3.3.1. questionnaire the questionnaire was designed to collect quantitative data and was divided into three main parts: 1. demographic part: this part gathered information about the participants' gender, qualification, teaching experience, department, and specialization. 2. academic appraisal form (13 questions): this part focused on the faculty members' perceptions and experiences with the academic appraisal form itself, probing aspects such as clarity, relevance, and comprehensiveness. 3. academic appraisal procedure (12 questions): this part delved into the procedures followed in the academic appraisal process, including aspects like fairness, transparency, and efficiency. the questionnaire consisted of a total of 25 questions and was administered using google forms. a link to the google form was sent via email to the population, allowing for convenient access and completion. 3.3.2. semi-structured interviews the semi-structured interviews were conducted with heads of departments and were designed to provide qualitative insights. the interviews were divided into four main parts in addition to the demographic part: 1. validity part (3 questions): the questions aimed to understand the perceived validity of the appraisal process and form. 2. understandability (3 questions): this part probed how easily faculty members could comprehend the appraisal form and process. 3. consensus (2 questions): this part examined the extent of agreement among faculty members regarding the appraisal form and procedures. 4. future (3 questions): this part sought to explore thoughts and suggestions about future improvements to the appraisal process. the semi-structured interviews consisted of a total of 11 open-ended questions, allowing the interviewees to express their detailed opinions and insights. 3.3.3. validity and reliability in order to ensure the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, the instrument was reviewed by two experts within the college of education. after, sending their notes and suggestions within, several modifications were made, including grammar corrections, rephrasing, and adding/removing items. the reliability of the questionnaire was further confirmed by calculating cronbach's alpha. the calculated value, 0.82, indicated strong internal consistency. similarly, the interview guide was reviewed by different two experts, and necessary modifications were made based on their feedback. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 121-131 125 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 1. research sample categorization (n = 54). category number rate gender male 40 74% female 14 26% qualification master degree 4 7% assistant professor 20 37% associate professor 16 30% professor 14 26% teaching experience 1-5 years 2 4% 6-10 years 6 11% 11-15 years 2 4% 16-20 years 4 7% above 20 years 38 70% department department of art education 5 9% instructional and learning technologies department 10 19% department of curriculum and instruction 13 24% educational foundation and administration department 8 15% psychology department 6 11% early childhood education department 2 4% physical education & sport sciences department 5 9% islamic education department 5 9% 3.4. data collection procedures the data collection for this study was conducted through a carefully planned and systematic approach. the procedures for both the questionnaire and the semi-structured interviews are outlined the subsequent sections. 3.4.1. questionnaire administration the google forms were used to facilitate a smooth and efficient process for collecting and organizing the quantitative data. after a google form for the questionnaire, the link was shared via email to the targeted population of 114 faculty members at the college of education in squ. out of the entire population, 48 faculty members completed the questionnaire. the online format allowed for convenient and confidential participation. the responses were collected electronically and were subsequently analyzed using statistical methods. 3.4.2. semi-structured interview process six heads of departments at the college of education were selected for in-depth semi-structured interviews. the selection was purposeful and to target position holders with insightful perspectives on the appraisal process. the interviews were scheduled at convenient times for the interviewees, and were divided into four main parts along with a demographic part. they were conducted using open-ended questions, allowing for an exploration of the participants' thoughts and experiences. in consideration of ethical principles, the privacy of the participants was maintained throughout the study, with no personal or identifiable information disclosed in the research findings. 3.5. data analysis methods data analysis in this study was conducted through a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods to ensure a comprehensive interpretation of the findings. the questionnaire responses were processed and analyzed using the python programming language. for the analysis of the semi-structured interview data, we employed a thematic analysis approach, utilizing atlas.ti software to facilitate the process. peel (2020) six-stage thematic analysis was followed. figure 1 shows the stages followed. figure 1. six-stage thematic analysis was followed in this study. note: peel (2020). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 121-131 126 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4. results and discussion the primary aim of this study was to explore and understand the faculty members' perceptions of the appraisal procedures at the college of education in squ. specifically, the research sought to address the following questions: 1. what are faculty members’ perceptions about the system of academic staff appraisal at the college of education in squ? 2. are there statistically significant differences or variations in faculty members’ perceptions about the system of the appraisal of academic staff at the college of education in squ due to gender and department? in the subsequent sections, the findings related to these questions will be presented and analyzed. 4.1. faculty members’ perceptions about the system of academic staff appraisal 4.1.1. quantitative analysis table 2 summarizes the responses to the questions related to the appraisal procedure, including the means, medians, and modes of responses. with regards to the appraisal form part, the faculty members generally seem to find the appraisal form well-defined, clear, and easy to understand, as reflected in the higher mean values for these items. the organization of the appraisal form (timeline/areas of evaluation/feedback) and its relevance to job tasks is rated moderately positively. however, some aspects of the appraisal form appear to need improvement, such as the perception that the form is not easy to complete, requires time to fill in, and is a lengthy paper-based process. these areas have means closer to the mid-point of the scale. the item regarding the appraisal form being eco-friendly received a lower mean score of 2.67, possibly indicating concerns about environmental impact. as for the appraisal procedure, some figures refracted positive opinions. for example, the clarity and specificity of the appraisal procedure are viewed positively, as indicated by mean scores above 3.5. one more example is the aspects related to self reflection, feedback, and instructional improvement are also seen favorably, suggesting that respondents see value in the appraisal process for personal and professional growth. beside these positive opinion indications, some items related to the appraisal procedure have meant close to the mid-point, such as the frequency of conducting the appraisal, the link to promotion and rewards, and flexibility in generating reports. these might reflect a lack of strong consensus among respondents. some dissatisfaction or room for improvement in the areas of engagement, motivation, and ongoing performance as their results show slightly lower mean scores. figure 2 shows bar chart for the mean scores for 13 items related to the appraisal form. it shows varying levels of agreement. the highest mean score appears to be for the statement that the "appraisal form's purpose is welldefined," while the lowest score is observed for the statement that the "appraisal form is eco-friendly." overall, most items related to the clarity and relevance of the appraisal form have received mean scores above 3, suggesting a generally positive perception among faculty members. figure 2. the mean scores for the appraisal form items in the questionnaire. table 2. descriptive analysis. part item mean median mode st. dev. min. max. a p p ra is al f o rm the appraisal form’s purpose is well-defined. 3.67 4 4 1.03 1 5 the appraisal form has clear guidelines. 3.56 4 4 0.74 2 5 the appraisal form is easy to understand. 3.74 4 4 0.71 2 5 the appraisal form’s criteria reflect real performance. 2.96 3 4 1.21 1 5 the appraisal form criteria are satisfactory. 3.41 4 4 0.88 1 5 the appraisal form is well organized (timeline/areas of evaluation/ feedback or discussion) 3.26 4 4 1.12 1 5 the appraisal form is helpful and relevant to job tasks 3.41 4 4 0.84 2 5 the appraisal form is not easy to complete, and the process of filling in the form needs to be more simplified 3.30 3 2 1.25 2 5 the appraisal form requires time to fill in the evaluation details. 3.37 4 2 1.26 2 5 the appraisal form is a lengthy paper-based process 3.26 4 4 1.39 1 5 the appraisal form is very costly (printing, distributing, scanning, rekeying, filing & archiving) 2.96 3 3 1.30 1 5 the appraisal form is eco-friendly 2.67 3 2 1.17 1 5 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 121-131 127 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group part item mean median mode st. dev. min. max. the appraisal form allows for effective capture and storage of feedback 3.00 3 3 0.99 1 5 a p p ra is al p ro ce d u re there is a clear timeline for the evaluation. 3.67 4 4 0.91 2 5 the appraisal procedure is clear and specific 3.56 4 4 0.74 2 5 the frequency of conducting the appraisal is appropriate. 3.22 4 4 1.14 1 5 the appraisal helps faculties to indicate their strengths and weaknesses in teaching 3.63 4 4 0.92 1 5 the appraisal is linked to my promotion and rewards 3.22 3 3 1.11 1 5 there is beneficial feedback in the performance appraisal 3.63 4 4 0.96 1 5 the appraisal procedure leads to self-reflection. 3.74 4 4 0.85 2 5 the appraisal procedure leads to instructional improvement. 3.44 3 3 1.00 1 5 the appraisal form is a meaningful active ongoing evaluation. 3.56 4 4 0.92 2 5 the appraisal procedure allows for more frequent communication and assessment. 3.22 3 4 1.00 1 5 the appraisal procedure increases engagement, motivation and ongoing performance. 3.15 3 4 0.94 1 5 the appraisal procedure is flexible in terms of generating reports. 3.26 3 3 0.97 1 5 figure 3 focuses on the remaining items that concern the procedure of the appraisal system. it reveals that respondents generally agree that aspects such as "self-reflection," "clear timeline for the evaluation," and "meaningful active ongoing evaluation" are present in the system. however, there are also concerns, such as the flexibility of the appraisal form in generating reports, reflected in lower mean scores. figure 3. the mean scores for the appraisal procedure items in the questionnaire. figure 4 represents the distribution of the most frequent responses (modes) across all items. it provides a highlevel view of the dominant opinions shared by the respondents. for example, the highest percentage (68.0%) associated with a response of 4 indicates that a majority of the items were rated with this value by the respondents, reflecting a general agreement or satisfaction with the aspects evaluated. figure 4. the distribution of the most frequent responses (#2, #3, and #4) across all items. 4.1.2. qualitative analysis the qualitative analysis aimed at providing more insights about the reasons for the faculty members’ opinions, especially in areas where there is more variation or where the mean scores are closer to the mid -point of the scale such as such as the frequency of conducting the appraisal, the link to promotion and rewards, and flexibility in asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 121-131 128 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group generating reports. we interviewed six academic staff with various qualifications, teaching experience, and areas of specialization. all respondents have a phd in education and specialized in different majors in college of education at squ. they have 17 to 30 years of teaching experience and have been in the current position between 3 -5 years. the analysis of the results highlighted four major themes related to the validity of the academic staff appraisal form, its clarity and understandability, academic staff’s consensus of the appraisal form and some suggestions for the future. in the following sections, the respondents are identified as respondent 1, respondent 2, etc. 4.1.3. validity the validity of the academic staff appraisal form was explored through interviews, revealing diverse sub-themes: • achievements and accomplishments: respondents 3 and 6 highlighted that the appraisal process helps gather accomplishments, giving a record of milestones. • understanding of job performance: respondents 3 and 6 expressed that the appraisal contributes to understanding job performance, while respondent 3 also pointed out the lack of a students' survey as a limitation. • identifying priority areas and setting objectives: respondent 6 positively regarded these aspects, emphasizing how the process assists in focusing on improvement areas and developing future goals. • electronic support: respondent 5 appreciated the electronic appraisal system for allowing easy access to past evaluations. some divergence was noted in how the appraisal influences performance and skills development. while respondent 1 felt it didn't contribute, respondents 2 and 4 saw some assistance in their performance development, and respondent 5 emphasized self-responsibility over the appraisal process. the respondents' assessments further covered: • defining expectations: respondent 1 believed that defining expectations assists in achieving desired results. • academic freedom and flexibility: respondent 4 stressed not limiting academic freedom, while respondent 6 noted the importance of a clear plan for teaching skills. • progress assessment and goal setting: respondent 5 spoke about analyzing success and setting new milestones. overall, the individual responses indicate that the academic staff appraisal process's validity is multifaceted, with different respondents emphasizing different aspects, both positive and negative, of the procedures at the college of education in squ. 4.1.4. understandability interview responses revealed sub-themes related to the understandability and clarity of academic staff assessment. these sub-themes encompass achievement, self-assessment and personal growth, suitability assessment, documentation of achievements, and the improvement of weaknesses and development of strengths. respondent 1 found the purpose of the evaluation process unclear, viewing it primarily as a means to consolidate achievements into a single document. respondent 2, however, saw it as a tool for self-appraisal and personal growth. respondent 5 linked the process to aligning individual aims with college objectives, emphasizing the documentation of accomplishments. respondent 3 perceived the evaluation as assessing suitability for roles, while respondent 6 believed it helped in identifying and improving weaknesses and enhancing strengths. some interviewees expressed concerns about how the assessment process addressed behaviors and attitudes. while respondent 1 felt it lacked specificity, respondent 2 found it informative about strengths and areas for growth. respondent 3 noted the provision of feedback to aid in behavior modification, but respondent 4 emphasized the focus on outcomes rather than professional conduct. results also illuminated issues with the appraisal form's instructions and guidelines, including a lack of clarity (respondent 1), length and redundancy (respondent 4), and a preference for an electronic system (respondent 3). these observations suggest variations in the user-friendliness of the form, with some finding it overwhelming and others seeing it as clear and straightforward. 4.1.5. consensus the respondents expressed diverse opinions on the fairness and accuracy of the academic staff appraisal process. in terms of fairness, varied clarifications were evident. respondent 1 doubted the process could provide a fair idea about the instructor, while respondent 2 found the outcomes fair. respondent 3 had reservations due to the absence of a student survey, and respondent 4 deemed it outright unfair. respondent 5 questioned what "fair" meant in the context, noting the absence of incentives or consequences, while respondent 6 highlighted the lack of both quantitative and qualitative evaluation methods. these varying viewpoints accentuate the need to address issues to enhance the appraisal process's fairness. as for accuracy, opinions ranged from optimism to uncertainty. respondent 1 expressed a lack of faith in the process, questioning the reliability of the information used. respondent 2 had some trust in the procedure but saw room for improvement. respondent 3 displayed a balanced view, acknowledging potential benefits despite possible inaccuracies. respondent 4 voiced strong doubts, attributing them to biases and subjectivity. respondent 5 commended the process for providing accurate data, while respondent 6 held a moderate belief in its correctness, acknowledging both potential accuracy and error. 4.1.6. future the interviews provided insights on potential improvements for the procedure of appraising faculty members in the future: • simplification and electronic handling: respondent 1 suggested that the process be simplified and managed electronically to reduce complexity and facilitate effective data retrieval. • focus on actual performance: respondent 2 emphasized aligning the appraisal process closely with academic staff performance, concentrating on essential performance indicators and relevant topics. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 121-131 129 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group • quality over quantity: respondent 4 urged a shift from quantity-based evaluation to an assessment of the impact, effectiveness, and overall quality of the work. • clear evaluation and data retrieval system: respondent 6 called for clear evaluation methods and a solid framework for an objective review process, backed by an effective data retrieval system for easy access to essential information. collectively, these insights suggest a need for a more streamlined and user-friendly experience, with a focus on quality and clear, accurate evaluation. the goal is to create a meaningful and fair process that promotes the growth of academic staff and aligns their performance with organizational objectives. additional recommendations include eliminating unnecessary components, giving equal credit to various types of publications, and streamlining the structure of the assessment form. there is also a call for more accurate key performance indicators to enhance the evaluation's objectivity. in summary, the future development of the evaluation process should concentrate on streamlining, focusing on crucial features, and enhancing objectivity. 4.2. differences or variations in perceptions the second research question is investigating whether there are statistically significant differences in faculty members' perceptions of the appraisal procedure at the college of education in squ. these perceptions are being examined based on several variables including gender, specialization, qualification, and academic degree. the subsequent sections present the statistical tests were performed to answer this research question. 4.2.1. normality check before investigating the statistical significance of differences in faculty members' perceptions of the appraisal procedure at the college of education in squ, a normality check was performed. the shapiro-wilk test, a widelyused method for testing the normality of a distribution, was applied to the perceptions measured by the questionnaire. the results of the shapiro-wilk test indicated that none of the tested questionnaire items followed a normal distribution, as all p-values were found to be less than the chosen significance level (alpha) of 0.05. the p values ranged from 0.0000000142369 0.000305991125. this finding has implications for the selection of subsequent statistical tests, as it recommends the use of non-parametric methods. these results guided the next steps in the analysis, leading to the selection of appropriate non-parametric tests to further investigate the faculty members' perceptions of the appraisal procedure. table 3 summarizes the results of the non-parametric tests performed in this research. 4.2.2. mann-whitney u test based on the research question and the number of groups (2 groups) for the gender variable, the mann-whitney u test was selected as non-parametric test. the mann-whitney u test allows for the comparison of two different independent groups i.e. gender. table 3. results of the non-parametric tests. variable: gender department test conducted: mann-whitney u kruskal-wallis p values: − min: 0.0032 − max: 0.973 − min: 0.0013 − max: 0.9046 statistically significant differences item: − # of items: 6 − % of items: 24% − # of items: 5 − % of items: 20% no statistically significant differences items: − # of items: 19 − % of items: 76% − # of items: 20 − % of items: 80% results: the gender variable has no impact on faculty members’ perceptions of the appraisal system the department variable has no impact on faculty members’ perceptions of the appraisal system the results of the mann-whitney u test on the gender variable indicate that, for the majority of the items (19 out of 25), there is no statistically significant difference between the two gender groups in their perceptions of the appraisal procedure at the college of education in squ. this suggests that gender does not have a strong or consistent impact on perceptions of the appraisal system. however, for 6 specific items, there were statistically significant differences. these particular aspects may warrant further investigation to understand why gender might influence perceptions in these areas. it's possible that these differences are due to other underlying factors or specific characteristics of the appraisal process related to those items. for example, the item of “the appraisal form requires time to fill in the evaluation details” and the item of “the appraisal form is a lengthy paper-based process”. 4.2.3. kruskal-wallis test although the college of education consists of 8 departments, faculty members from only 5 departments participated in the study. therefore, department variable consists of 5 different groups. as the responses to the appraisal-related items are non-normally distributed and there 5 groups, the kruskal-walli’s test was selected to analyze the differences between the departments. the kruskal-walli’s test is a non-parametric statistical test that is used to compare the medians of two or more independent groups. it is often used to determine if there are statistically significant differences between the medians of the groups being compared. in our study, the kruskal-walli’s test was applied to the department variable to compare the perceptions across the five departments concerning 25 different items related to the appraisal process. the results indicate that there are no statistically significant differences between the departments for the majority of the items (20 out of 25). this suggests a general consensus on those aspects of the appraisal process. therefore, further pairwise comparisons were not conducted. as for the 5 items, the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 121-131 130 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group test revealed significant differences (p < 0.05), indicating that opinions varied significantly across departments on those specific aspects of the appraisal process. these items may need further investigation to understand the underlying differences. 5. conclusion this study set out to explore the perceptions of faculty members at the college of education about the procedures for applying the academic appraisal form at squ. through a mixed-methods approach using both questionnaire and semi-structured interview techniques, and engaging with 48 participants in the questionnaire and 6 interviewees, several key findings were revealed. with regard to the results of quantitative analysis, the faculty members generally perceived the appraisal form as well-defined, clear, and easy to understand. however, areas such as ease of completion, time required, and the lengthy paper-based process suggest a need for improvement (aggarwal & thakur, 2013). while the clarity and specificity of the appraisal procedure were positively viewed, areas like frequency of conducting the appraisal, link to promotion and rewards, and flexibility in generating reports reflected a lack of strong consensus or some dissatisfaction. this study found no statistically significant differences in faculty members’ perceptions of the appraisal system based on gender or department. this aligns with or contrasts with kim and holzer (2016) other studies in the field. as for the qualitative analysis, the results showed that the multifaceted nature of the academic staff appraisal process's validity, as seen in this study, resonates with broader discussions in the literature (steers & lee, 2017). the varying opinions on the user-friendliness of the form mirror similar findings in previous research (aggarwal & thakur, 2013). the diverse views on fairness and accuracy may reflect the broader debate in the field about these issues (iqbal, akbar, & budhwar, 2015). 5.1. findings the study's findings indicate that while there are positive aspects of the current appraisal system, there are clear areas for improvement. the insights gathered from this study can inform future refinements of the academic appraisal form and procedure at squ. moreover, the lack of significant differences in perceptions based on gender and department may reflect consensus among the faculty members. the findings may suggest also future development to focus on simplification, electronic handling, and enhancing objectivity echoes calls in the existing literature for more streamlined and transparent evaluation processes. 5.2. limitations the current study acknowledges certain limitations that may have influenced the findings. firstly, the small sample size may limit the generalizability of the results to the broader population of faculty members. secondly, the interview process did not include key decision-makers within the college, such as the dean and dean's assistants, which might have provided a more comprehensive understanding of the appraisal system from different perspectives. 5.3. recommendations based on the study insights, there is a clear recommendation for the development of a comprehensive web-based platform for faculty appraisal. such a system would potentially facilitate the process, increase its validity, and increase the acceptance among faculty members. emphasizing user-friendliness, transparency, and alignment with the real needs of the academic staff, a web-based platform could significantly enhance the existing appraisal practices and contribute to more meaningful evaluations. references aggarwal, a., & thakur, g. s. m. 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(2019). a study of employee perceptions about performance appraisal at transnet engineering, south africa. journal of applied business research, 35(5), 145-156. https://doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v35i5.10307 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/250151953.pdf https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315211947-5 https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10070174 https://doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v35i5.10307 43 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 1, 43-51, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4466 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group factors affecting the behavioral intention to park legally among urban malaysian in kuala lumpur, malaysia ng yew loong1 azahari jamaludin2 raemah abdullah hashim3 ( corresponding author) 1open university malaysia, kuala lumpur, malaysia. email: ng.richarderoy@gmail.com 2faculty of business, accountancy and social sciences, universiti poly-tech malaysia, kuala lumpur, malaysia. email: azahari@kuptm.edu.my 3putra business school, universiti putra malaysia, selangor, malaysia. email: raemahabdullah@gmail.com abstract one of the main issues that created traffic congestion is the illegal parking activities leading to traffic violation and dissatisfaction on how local authorities are managing the on-street parking in kuala lumpur. current study focused on the relationship between motorist behaviour, safety and security, parking place and facilities, parking fee and intention to park legally. this study also examines the effect of enforcement factors being the mediator for motorist behaviour, safety and security and the intention to park legally. the results of the study were derived from 419 licensed motorists through convenience sampling and the response was analysed using the statistical package for social sciences (spss) and the smart partial least square software. this study found that there is a significant relationship between motorist behaviour and intention to park legally. in addition, enforcement factors that mediated between motorist behaviour, safety and security and the intention to park legally were also found to be significant. however, other predictors such as safety and security, parking place and parking fee had shown that there is no direct relationship with the intention to park legally. future study should consider conducting the study on a larger scale at national level. keywords: enforcement factors, intention to park legally, motorist behaviour, parking fee, parking place and facilities, safety and security. citation | loong, n. y., jamaludin, a., & hashim, r. a. (2023). factors affecting the behavioral intention to park legally among urban malaysian in kuala lumpur, malaysia. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(1), 43–51. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4466 history: received: 9 november 2022 revised: 16 january 2023 accepted: 27 january 2023 published: 10 february 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this research is supported by universiti poly-tech malaysia (grant number: kuptm.dvcri.rmc.15.ms (19)). authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 44 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 45 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 47 4. findings ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 48 5. discussion and conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................. 49 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 50 mailto:ng.richarderoy@gmail.com mailto:azahari@kuptm.edu.my mailto:raemahabdullah@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4466 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6798-6893 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7190-9826 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7611-2776 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1) 43-51 44 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study could provide valuable information pertaining to the relationship of various factors contributing to the intention to park legally. the findings can prove to be useful for relevant authorities (policy makers) who could use the information to address those parking issues and to determine the future parking needs. 1. introduction with a huge population of 8.420 million recorded in the kuala lumpur in 2022 (dept of statistic malaysia, 2020) it has shown that families in the kuala lumpur are having cars in excess of its members, leading to inefficiency in road transportation services, troubling issues of parking violation and contributing to the existing traffic congestion (gautam, 2019). in litman (2016) paradigm shift in parking planning, it was concluded that apart from the illegal parking, there can be many type of parking issues that include insufficient or over supply of parking bays, parking rates are either too low or too high, insufficient of user friendly information such as signboards and poor management of services by the managers. chin et al. (2018) revealed that in the future the peak traffic congestion caused by parking violation and traffic volume could be worse in the kuala lumpur with an expectation of 4.5 times more in 2022. zanjani (2016) also concurred that there was little and limited research focusing on legal parking related issues, and the causes and complications arising from illegal parking were not being looked into in detail in previous associated studies. furthermore, on-street parking problems are more serious in developing countries and there has been limited research conducted in that context (biswas, chandra, & ghosh, 2017). previous studies conducted on parking issues were mostly concentrated on the cruising time for parking (farzam, 2017) parking pricing (klotz, 2019) enforcement (nourinejad, 2017) parking competition (arnott, 2006) and parking for commercial vehicles (amer & chow, 2017). hassan (2016) reveals that motorists’ behaviour to initiate parking legally can be determined based on individual wishes and needs, enforcement activities, emotions, influences of groups with similar character, peer pressure or the establishment of habits. nonetheless, since there were little effort in demonstrating of a relationship pertaining to motorists attitude and behaviour in parking legally which will benefit the on-street parking environment in term of economic development and quality of life (redman, friman, gärling, & hartig, 2013) therefore, it is a worthy effort to carry out a study on relationship on motorists behavioural intention, awareness of the law, the concern of safety and security, parking places and violation, unpaid parking fees and the effectiveness of the enforcement effort in this long outstanding on-street parking issues that enable stakeholders to understand and address it effectively. according to shetty, d’mello, purushothama, rent, and monisha (2017) more than 67 percent respondents in their research had low awareness about road traffic rules while more than 86 percent of the respondents were not obeying the traffic rules and this has contributed significantly by the ignorance, attitude and behaviourism of motorists. sani, tabibi, fadardi, and stavrinos (2017) highlighted that motorist with emotional dysregulation was significantly related to driving violations whereas difficulty in regulating emotions was related to driving errors. furthermore, trógolo, melchior, and medrano (2014) revealed that there is no study which is systematically and comprehensively explored the relationship between emotion dysregulation and style in driving or performing a violation act. apart from that, liu and wang (2020) argued that even though effective factors are related with an array of driving behaviour, however, the mechanism on emotion affecting driving behaviour has not been proven. as such, the behavioural aspect of motorists' intention to park legally needs to be further evaluated. on matters related to safety and security aspects which are of great concern globally and since safety and security form as a basic need for individuals (maslow, 1987) hence, such expectation must be met before someone’s potential can be maximized (bridgman, cummings, & ballard, 2019). empirical studies have found that the distribution of crime activities were related to the design of street network (davies & johnson, 2015) while kim and kim (2017) revealed in his findings that other characteristics such as type of businesses, number of workers, ownership status and years of business operation will also contribute to the accident and crime pattern of a particular area. according to musu-gillette, zhang, wang, zhang, and oudekerk (2017) a safe and secured street environment does matter and will influence motorist parking intention and selection of parking areas. while safety and security has been explored in many studies as a safety element and for motorists precautionary measure, however, there seemed to be limitation in examining the relationship of safety and security with behavioural intention to park legally as spiliopoulou and antoniou (2012) found that one of motorists’ behaviour is the habit of parking as close as possible to their destination regardless of the environment. therefore, the study of safety behaviour provides a basis for generating predictions regarding the levels at which relationships between safe and secured environment and behavioural intention may be observed. the evolution of town planning, of which parking place and facilities planning becomes an important component and if it is not addressed with careful planning, it will have a negative impact on urban sprawl (kimmerle, 2020). the urban parking planning component requires greater attention by the authority on the long term implication and to make available sufficient parking places and with efficient control and management of it will be most practical and ideal. in study by ibrahim, nazrul, borhan, rahmat, and atiq (2020) he added that every lawful parking type has three key parts which is quantity, quality and management and subhadip, chandra, and ghosh (2017) further concurred that one of the main criteria for motorists in choosing their destination is the general attractiveness and the convenience of on-street parking and facilities. apart from this, the minimal cost of parking, widespread social pressure to buy and drive cars, poor quality of the bus system, limited coverage of the mass rail system and high costs of using it, and the relatively low costs of purchasing and driving a car are the causes in providing and ensuring sufficient parking places (mark, 2020). however, even though there was a study by chin et al. (2018) on the need of reasonable time and effort and potentially able to find available parking bay within a certain area, on the contrary, there were other studies that reported a negative correlation between parking places and other factors. mckenzie (2019) revealed that motorists generally perceived that there are not enough parking bays when they could not find it right in front of their destination while there are motorists who chose not to walk beyond 200 meters distance (baker & wood, 2010) leading them to park illegally. the habitual behaviour is an implication of the relationship between parking places asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1) 43-51 45 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group and facilities and the intention to park legally and these needs to be further evaluated in order to determine the correlation (gardner & rebar, 2019). according to eggleston (2015) that charging the correct fee is paramount while a wrong pricing does harm, leading motorists searching for a vacant bay, congesting traffic flow, wastage of fuel, and continue to pollute the air (shoup, 2014). this is evident that the on-street parking fees charged by the local authority are reasonable and acceptable which is consistent with the authority’s objective that low fees facilities were made in order not to burden the poor and the needy (antonio, jos, & alexandros, 2019). however, on the contrary, even though the parking fee is considered reasonable, thanh and friedrich (2016) revealed that there was 71 percent respondents who does not pay for on-street parking in the city of hanoi and at the same time in the kuala lumpur according to chkl, 30 percent of the summons issued are related to unpaid parking fee and both statistics were significant on top of losses in authorities revenue from numerous illegal parking situation and faulty parking facilities. since there was limited literature on in-depth study on the negative correlation, the exploration of the relationship between parking fee and the intention to park legally in this study will enhance the authority's prospect of management and improved revenue from public services. meanwhile, with numerous on-street parking related issues, the authorities role in tackling matters pertaining to motorists behaviour, rampant illegal parking situation, insufficient parking bays and unpaid parking fees (litman, 2016) requires appropriate enforcement which is the key for the effectiveness of on-street parking regulation and parking fee management (antonio et al., 2019). the enforcement of traffic law will help to achieve higher possible levels of compliance to law and regulation (alsaad, 2021) and can lead to positive outcomes such as improved traffic flow and revenue, resulting in a more healthy society. likewise, as in some studies, implementation of effective enforcement has helped in increasing driver compliance (alsaad, 2021) found that law enforcement does mediate the association between e-government and corruption. however, with the alarming high percentage of respondents with low awareness and disobeying the law (shetty et al., 2017) and the lack of past studies to investigate these complex issues warrants the need to explore the possibility of how enforcement can be applied to reduce bad motorist behaviour and increase the level of compliance among motorist. hence, the current study attempted to fill the gaps by examining the role of enforcement as a mediator in the relationship between motorist behaviour and the intention to park legally and between safety and security and the intention to park legally among motorists in the kuala lumpur. in conclusion, the problem statement of present study is surrounded by issues related to the intention to park legally at on-street parking facilities. based on the current situation, there seems to be inefficiency on the authority’s part and the policy maker’s role in implementing and ensuring that the on-street parking facilities are efficient and properly managed to encourage parking legally among motorists in the kuala lumpur. however, there is no straightforward research setting for this study. the challenges encountered in present study is lack of comprehensive study to support and explain the complexity of the relationships between motorist behaviour, safety and security, parking place and facilities, parking fee and the enforcement factors as mediating variables to the intention to park legally. 2. literature review for this study, nondirectional hypotheses were developed to suggest a relationship or differences as follows. 2.1. motorist behaviour and the intention to park legally as revealed by subhadip et al. (2017) motorists’ preference for on-street parking at times were the motivation in making the trip to the location and in a survey conducted, the “ease to park” is a significant feature contributing to the intention to the destination (mccarthy, 1980). baker and wood (2010) reveals that at an average, people are reluctant to walk beyond 200 m radius from their parking bay, thus this is contributing to the behaviour of the motorists. peprah, oduro, and ocloo (2014) put it that the population’s culture and behaviour is significant in the increase in violation and accidents such as parking at the wrong side of the road. ponnambalam (2018) found that the changes in driving behaviour are also related to the workload of the motorist when searching for a suitable parking place. in general, this significantly adds stress onto the motorist while looking out for a parking place and it will trigger changes in driving behaviour and driver’s composition (ponnambalam, 2018). rayan (2019) mentioned that there are three (3) factors that influence an individual attitude which are views, perceptions, and behaviours and it is likely that the drivers’ views about safe driving impact their overall driving behaviour. however, motorist behaviour as one construct in relation to parking legally is still ambiguous and has not been clearly explored by past studies (ponnambalam, 2018). there is a gap that needs to be investigated in present study. therefore, the first hypothesis for present study is proposed below as: h1: there is a positive relationship between motorist behaviour and the intention to park legally among motorists. 2.2. safety and security and the intention to park legally an investigation on motorists’ behaviour found that motorists have a habit to park as close as possible to the destination (spiliopoulou & antoniou, 2012). in addition, the pedestrian safety feature encompass the parking environment as national safety council (2020) mentioned that the ability of motorist in selecting the right parking place such as picking spots that are well-lit and close to the destination can go a long way toward deterring theft and crime, thus overcomes the safety and security concern. subhadip et al. (2017) in their study reckoned that despite a number of studies has reported that on-street parking does trigger accident and have safety concern, there were researchers (peprah et al., 2014) would believe that on-street parking has the capability to provide a safe and secured parking environment. peprah et al. (2014) concurred that a number of studies has proven that on-street parking was an effective tool that could ensure safety through lowering down vehicle speed. as in subhadip et al. (2017) findings, it was revealed that on-street parking incorporated with some other traffic calming measures had successfully lowered down 40 percent of untoward accidents. ishak (2016) concurred that the malaysian public perception of safety, security and the enforcement efficiency is critical and it is necessary to overcome. in addition, ibrahim et al. (2020) has revealed a key fact that the trust predictor has an indirect significant positive relationship on users’ intention to use park-n-ride parking facilities where the service provider was not able to instill trust in asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1) 43-51 46 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the motorists. while all things considered, trust in the enforcement and the safety and security of parking and street environment is vital and trust positively influence the behaviour (ibrahim & hossam, 2017) nonetheless, motorist will continue pursuing looking out for a safe parking place before considering progressing to higher-level of needs (musu-gillette et al., 2017). therefore, recent studies fail to address issues and the influence of a safe and secured environment on the intention to park legally and since there is a gap to be investigated in this study, thus, the hypothesis can be proposed as follows: h2: there is a positive relationship between safety and security and the intention to park legally among motorists. 2.3. parking places and facilities and the intention to park legally parking places and facilities are an important part of transportation planning because a typical vehicle spends 95 percent of its lifetime sitting in a parking place (charles, 2019). ibrahim and hossam (2017) added that every lawful parking type has three key parts which is quantity, quality and management. subhadip et al. (2017) concurred that one of the main criteria for motorists in choosing their destination is the general attractiveness and the easily available on-street parking and facilities. however, there are researchers who hold different ideas on onstreet parking places. adding on, mckenzie (2019) revealed that the general perception of motorists is that there are not enough parking bays when they could not find it right in front of their destination and they may keep circulating and searching for a parking bay for minutes. in contrast and in reality, there are available parking bays, although a person may have to walk a few blocks away from the destination (mckenzie, 2019). according to parmar, das, and dave (2020) a strategically developed and organised system with established parking policies will bring enhancement to individual driving experiences. in summary, no clear relationship being revealed in regards to parking places and facilities with the intention to park legally, thus it remains a gap and the hypothesis developed is as follows: h3: there is a positive relationship between parking places and facilities and the intention to park legally among motorists. 2.4. parking fee and the intention to park legally litman (2020) discussed on obstacles in parking pricing is whenever there are no charges applied for on-street parking, motorists may park freely and illegally or cause traffic congestion or public nuisance. studies have found that parking without charges can increase the single-driver rate for commute trips by as much as 50 percent (willson & shoup, 1990). litman (2020) emphasized that the implementation of the correct parking fee policy is important for on-street parking places since it is the most visible and convenient for motorists provided it is reasonable and affordable by lower income groups of motorists. christiansen, engebretsen, fearnley, and usterud hanssen (2017) supported that parking fee helps secure efficient allocation of limited parking places. christiansen et al. (2017) also proved that usage of cars for work purposes is lowered when employees are required to pay a daily fixed parking fee whenever they drive to work. in reference to the findings, views and opinion of literatures in regards to on-street parking fees, previous studies were more focus on availability (chin et al., 2018), affordability (mei, feng, kong, zhang, & chen, 2020), elasticity and the management part of it (nourinejad, 2017) and the impact when it is non-chargeable (litman, 2020). however, there is limited study on the actual relationship between parking fee and the intention to park legally that shows that the rate of on-street parking fee does give a significant impact on motorist intention, and to address the gap, the hypothesis developed is as follows: h4: there is a positive relationship between parking fee and the intention to park legally among motorists. 2.5. relationship between the combined predictors and the intention to park legally in a nutshell, actions, cognitions and emotions do not run independently of each other. their proper interaction enables a motorist to perceive the environment around them, listen to their inner wishes and respond appropriately to people in their surroundings (farnsworth, 2019). the relationship between the four variables namely motorists behaviour, safety and security, parking place and facilities and parking fee has found to be interconnected as in reference to previous study undertaken on travel demand management measures by public and their effectiveness in changing travel behaviour. these factors mainly include intentions and behaviours of the individuals (muhammad, 2017). however, lee et al. (2014) mentioned that the elements had direct and indirect effects and could be different due to culture, geographical location and what outcome variable to be investigated. the changed in motorist attitude leading to a changed in travel behaviour is associated with the safety and security situation of parking places as highlighted by cao, yang, and zuo (2016) in relation to, when motorists turns to pedestrians upon parking, safety and security for on-street parking become a significant traffic issue especially when it is opined as unconducive parking place or the available parking bay is far away from the destination (national safety council, 2020). thus, elements of safety and security and appropriate parking place facilities will affect a positive motorist experience (ahmad, 2016) in which motorists’ low confidence level of safety and security and the unattractiveness of the available parking places and facilities does convey a strong message to the motorists in their choice of selection and the impact to their behavioural intention. honenacker (2019) highlighted that when motorists is experiencing emotional challenges that relates to the three mentioned variables, their changed behavioural intention may choose to park illegally without making parking fee payment. in summary, there is a relationship between the four predictors and the ability to establish this construct will enable the present study to investigate the relationship of combined variables and the intention to park legally. therefore, the following hypothesis will run a test to analyse the combination of all predictors with the predicted variable. h5: there is a positive relationship between motorist behaviour, safety and security, parking place and facilities and parking fee and the intention to park legally among motorists. 2.6. enforcement factors and the intention to park legally authorities implementing street patrolling has been the essential part of law enforcement (heley, 2018). appropriate enforcement is key for the effectiveness of on-street parking regulation and pricing (antonio et al., 2019). illegally parked vehicles leads to unfavourable society impact such as reduced traffic speed and loss of revenue (nourinejad, 2017). if parking demand rises without relevant improvements in enforcement, on-street asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1) 43-51 47 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group parking problems can become extreme too (barter, 2016). heley (2018) supported that having sufficient enforcement officers on the ground, it is possible for them to carry out their duties effectively. heley (2018) added based on his study, the findings revealed that enforcement officers’ performance in law enforcement agencies will improve when they have the ability to increase the discretion of the law while goddard (2020) reaffirmed that people will benefit from the enforcement of laws since it helps to prevent criminals from taking advantage of others. the need for a safe and secured street environment does matter since it does influence motorists who will continue to look out for a safe parking place before considering progressing to higher-level needs (musu-gillette et al., 2017). in view of various research findings that has very much focussed on establishing an understanding of the role played by enforcement on top of efforts taken by respective authorities to improve enforcement personnel communication, morale and performances and the improved effectiveness of the enforcement unit, however, more studies are needed to develop a better understanding of the enforcement mediating relationship associated with motorists behaviour, safety and security and their intention to park legally. the mediating function of the enforcement can be a potential mechanism that would cause mediation in the independent variable and the dependent variable which the independent variable can produce changes on a dependent variable, establishing a new relationship. therefore, with the enforcement factors functioning as a mediator in this study on factors related to motorists and safety and security, thus, the hypothesis can be proposed as follows: h6: there is a mediating effect of enforcement in between motorist behaviour and the intention to park legally among motorists. h7: there is a mediating effect of enforcement in between safety and security and the intention to park legally among motorists. 2.7. research framework the theoretical framework is the foundation on which the entire empirical research is based. it is a logically formed, defined and explained network of associations among the variables deemed relevant to the problem situation and identified through such processes as interviews, observations and literature review (sekaran & bougie, 2014). based on the issues identified, the following theoretical framework figure 1 meant for this study was made up of independent variables, mediating variable and dependent variable and the dependent variable refers to the primary interest of this study was on “factors affecting the behavioral intention to park legally among urban malaysian in kuala lumpur, malaysia”. figure 1. research framework. source: nguyen et al. (2018); ahmad (2016) and reilly (2019). 3. methodology for this study, the targeted populations were the individuals who were qualified and were issued with a valid competent driving license by road transport department (rtd) malaysia and they were referred to as motorists that drove regularly within the kuala lumpur. the scope of present study was limited to kuala lumpur metropolis because of the attentiveness of commercial activities, which resulted in the presence of 662 commercial buildings with a total built-up of close to 14 million square meters (national property information center, 2021). in addition, with the homogeneity of motorists and car park users in our society, the generalization of population can be measured via this sampling to represent the population of interest (tabachnick & fidell, 2013). in order to capture the correct respondents, the researcher has sought and had been granted permission to access monthly season pass customers of two (2) established medium size car park operators in the kuala lumpur. they were park access sdn. bhd and topcode marketing sdn bhd. in combined total, both the company managed an average of 5,000 parkers daily and mostly consisted of monthly season pass customers and a small portion of casual parkers. the main criterion for qualified respondents is that they must be holders of a competent driver license. generally, a holder of a competent driver license has attained the age of 18 year old and could be a non-malaysian too (road asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1) 43-51 48 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group transport department, 2019). for this study, the non-probability technique was applied and the selection of respondents was based on convenience sampling at the pre-identified branches that belong to the mentioned car park operators. in the convenience sampling, information or data for the research were gathered from members of the population conveniently accessible to the researcher (sekaran & bougie, 2014). however, sekaran and bougie (2014) cautioned that convenience sampling is the least reliable of all sampling designs in terms of generalizability. since there was not much knowledge or information available on the topic under investigation as highlighted in chapter 2, with this exploratory phase of study where quick and timely information is needed, convenience sampling was a viable alternative (sekaran & bougie, 2014). on the sample size for this study, krejcie and morgan (1970) had developed a table that provides a good sample representation of a given population (sekaran & bougie, 2014). based on the table, and with the population (n) centred at 5000, for statistical evaluation, it required a sample size (s) of 357 responses. according to sekaran and bougie (2014) a 30 percent of response rate was acceptable, thus there were 1,200 questionnaires disseminated to the targeted respondents and was distributed proportionately based on the parking capacity of each branch. the study design was a descriptive research using the quantitative method and the total useable data for the analysis was 420 samplings. in view that this was a quantitative study, a prepared survey questionnaire was selected as the study instrument. respondents were asked to indicate their responses on a 5-point likert scale. the demographic of the respondents were also captured in the same questionnaire. before the questionnaire was disseminated to the targeted respondents conveniently, it has gone through face validity where three (3) professors from public and private universities and one (1) industry player were consulted before a pilot test with 50 respondents was initiated electronically. throughout the study, ethics was observed where permission was asked, confidentiality was protected and the study process was carried out in good faith. finally, with the obtained questionnaire screened and data cleaned, it was analysed using spss software for descriptive analysis and the smartpls software program for measurement model analysis before presenting it as the study outcome. 4. findings 4.1. respondents’ profile from the questionnaire collected, the overall response show that 2.1 percent of respondents were aged between 18 – 20; 12.1 percent aged between 21 – 25; 10 percent aged between 26 – 30; 10.2 percent aged between 31 – 35; 8.3 percent aged between 46 – 40; 14.5 percent aged between 41 – 45; 12.9 percent aged between 46 – 50; 12.1 percent aged between 51 – 55; and 17.6 percent were above 56 years old. other than those aged between 18 – 20, the other respondents’ age group were considered well balanced for analytical purposes. in terms of gender, female respondents were slightly lower than male and out of the total 420 respondents, 208 were female while there were 212 samples collected from male respondents and the collected data indicates a well-balanced response from respective gender for this study. on the percentage for female and male representation, it was recorded that there were 49.5 percent and 50.5 percent for female and male respondents respectively. questions related to years of driving experiences were posed to gauge respondent’s view on the items asked which could lead to significant differences when a test is initiated. from the data, the result of those who have less than 1 year of driving experience was at 3.3 percent while those with 1 – 5 years of experience were at 11.7 percent. those armed with 6 – 10 years of experience were at 13.3 percent while 9.8 percent were for those having 11 – 15 years of driving experience while more than 20 years of driving experiences constituted 50.5 percent of the respondents. majority of the respondents were also car owners themselves with 91.4 percent out of 420 respondents and it was not surprising since car ownership was not difficult in the malaysian context. respondents who do not own a car comprised of 8.6 percent, equivalent to 36 respondents. this could be contributed to the fact that since the survey was carried out in a workplace environment, some respondents could be using vehicle provided by their employer or an individual who drives a family owned vehicle especially those who were categorised as 18 – 20 year old who may not have a financial means to own a car or respondents who are students as revealed in the next descriptive statistics. the majorities of the respondents were employees in the private sector and contributed 51.4 percent to the survey representing 216 respondents. those who worked in the government sector contributed 6.4 percent with 27 respondents while the student population consisted of 9.5 percent (n=40), business owners consisted of 15.2 percent (n=64) and 17.4 percent made up of others and equivalent to 73 respondents. the categories of respondents were considered as a balance mixed for this study. the final part of the demographic questionnaire was focused on the understanding of the length or duration spent daily on driving by respondents and it was established that out of the total data collected, 214 respondents formed the majority that drove less than two (2) hours daily which comprised of 51 percent of total respondents. respondents who drove between 2 – 4 hours daily were the second largest group with 39.8 percent and comprised of 167 respondents. meanwhile only a small percentage of respondents that were driving between 4 – 6 hours daily (7.4 percent, n=31) while respondents spent time driving more than 6 hours daily were the lowest and only consist of 1.9 percent (n=8) of the total respondents. the results indicated that the majority of the respondents drove between less than 2 hours to 4 hours daily. the response was considered a good indicator which shows that short drive time leads to motorists searching for parking place whenever they need to stop. table 1. descriptive statistics for study variables. variables code n min. max. mean std. deviation intention to park legally int 419 1.50 5.00 4.073 0.608 motorist behaviour mof 419 1.00 4.40 2.184 0.703 safety and security ssf 419 1.60 5.00 4.042 0.708 parking place and facilities pff 419 1.00 5.00 2.617 0.793 parking fee fee 419 2.00 5.00 3.920 0.629 enforcement factors eff 419 1.20 5.00 3.327 0.640 note: int: intention to park legally; mof: motorist behaviour; ssf: safety and security; pff: parking place and facilities; fee: parking fee; eff: enforcement factors. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1) 43-51 49 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the descriptive analysis has calculated and established the statistical values such as means, standard deviation (sd), minimum (min) and maximum (max) for all the constructs, namely the dependent, independent and the mediating constructs. the details in table 1 were extracted from spss showing the results of the statistical values. as for illustration on table 1 the overall mean on variables were ranging between 2.184 and 4.073 with sd of between 0.608 and 0.793. the construct that had the highest mean score was the intention to park legally at 4.073 while the lowest mean score pointed to motorist behaviour at 2.184. the second and third highest mean score of 4.042 and 3.920 were scored by safety and security and parking fee respectively. in addition, the fourth and fifth highest among the 6 constructs were the enforcement factors and parking place, both having the mean score of 3.327 and 2.617 respectively. table 2. internal consistency smart pls output. variables cronbach's alpha rho_a composite reliability average variance extracted (ave) intention to park legally 0.706 0.721 0.836 0.631 motorist behaviour 0.698 0.724 0.810 0.520 safety and security 0.765 0.775 0.833 0.525 parking places and facilities 0.853 0.856 0.874 0.542 parking fee 0.702 0.766 0.815 0.529 enforcement factors 0.683 0.699 0.808 0.515 for the initial step on the assessment of internal consistency reliability, the purpose is to establish the estimation of the intercorrelation of the observed items in each construct. according to hair jr, sarstedt, hopkins, and kuppelwieser (2014) reliability is resulting from the capability of items that generate reliable output while churchill jr (1979) refers to it as the capability to test or investigate, or any assessment procedure that generates similar output on repeated measures. in this study, the assessment of reliability is established by using the composite reliability measure calculated using smartpls. the smartpls output as shown above in table 2 includes scoring or rating for cronbach’s alpha, djikstra-henseler’s rho, composite reliability and average variance extracted (ave). the composite reliability scoring is between 0.808 to 0.874 and the ave scoring were above 0.5, thus in general, with cronbach’s alpha of close to 0.7 or higher, composite reliability estimates meeting its minimum threshold and with good ave rating, the output suggested that it has the internal consistency reliability. the discriminant validity is established when the square root of the ave exceeds the correlations between the measure and all other measures and based on the results generated from smartpls, the square root of ave has exceeded the off-diagonal elements in their respective columns and rows. as in table 3 and as shown, the bold and highlighted data represent the square roots of the ave while the non-bolded data represent the intercorrelation value between constructs. therefore, the result indicated that the fornell and larker’s criterion was established. table 3. fornell-larcker discriminant validity. variables enforcement factors intention to park legally motorist behaviour parking fee parking places and facilities safety and security enforcement factors 0.717 intention to park legally 0.233 0.794 motorist behaviour -0.167 -0.421 0.721 parking fee 0.443 0.206 -0.168 0.727 parking places and facilities 0.200 0.077 0.120 0.199 0.736 safety and security 0.415 0.187 -0.150 0.307 0.031 0.725 from the statistical test initiated on the seven (7) hypothesis using the various techniques in smartpls, and as shown in table 4, three (3) hypotheses were supported while four (4) hypotheses were not supported in this study. table 4. summary of hypothesis testing. hypothesis hypothesis statement findings h1 there is a positive relationship between motorist behaviour and the intention to park legally among motorists. supported h2 there is a positive relationship between safety and security and the intention to park legally among motorists. not supported h3 there is a positive relationship between parking place and facilities and the intention to park legally among motorists. not supported h4 there is a positive relationship between parking fee and the intention to park legally among motorists. not supported h5 there is a positive relationship between motorist behaviour, safety and security, parking place and facilities and parking fee and the intention to park legally. not supported h6 there is a mediating effect of enforcement in between motorist behaviour and the intention to park legally among motorists. supported h7 there is a mediating effect of enforcement in between safety and security and the intention to park legally among motorists. supported 5. discussion and conclusion as the conclusion to the purpose of this study in investigating factors affecting the behavioural intention to park legally among urban malaysian in the kuala lumpur, mediated by enforcement, the demographic variables indicates that gender and daily hours of driving on the road does not carry any significant on the intention to park legally while differences in age and years of driving experiences has a significant difference on motorist behaviour, parking places and facilities, parking fees and enforcement factors except on safety and security. the structural assessment for the research framework indicates that the model has adequate prediction relevance for the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1) 43-51 50 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group constructs through blindfolding procedure using smartpls software. to put it briefly, this study’s results revealed that the impact of intention to park legally was different. on the direct effect, the relationships between motorist behaviour and intention to park legally was found significant with reasonable statistical results and this shows that motorist behaviour related to attitude and subjective norm is an effective factors for intention to park legally while the other direct effect relationship between predictors and the outcome were found to be insignificant. in subsequent analysis, enforcement factors had demonstrated the mediation effects on motorist behaviour and safety and security with the intention to park legally. in summary, with seven hypotheses formulated from the research framework, three (3) were found supported. the findings of the study were discussed and suggested that managers incorporate workable plans and strategies in implementing on-street parking services by the authorities. the ability to recognise motorists behaviour and expectation and to provide quality service with added value is key to improvement. recognising the essential role of the enforcement unit and incorporating a more efficient and effective patrolling will instill greater sensitivity towards the law and confidence on safety and security. the ability to collect motorists feedback periodically through survey and the ability to trace changes from the input on motorists’ behaviour and expectation will improve the on-street parking services and situation. other than managerial implication, other points were raised on theoretical implication, social contribution, policy implication and methodological contribution. while there were also 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(2016). an empirical investigation of factors affecting parking violation frequencies of commercial vehicles : a case study in new york city publication no: 10163860. master’s thesis, university at buffalo proquest dissertations and thesis global. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.17265/2328-7144/2016.05.005 https://doi.org/10.3141/2660-03 https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2014.04.025 http://www.vtpi.org/park_man.pdf http://www.vtpi.org/parkpricing.pdf https://doi.org/10.1109/taffc.2020.3027720 https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/2039775/drive-less-to-helpsolve-bangkoks-air-pollution https://doi.org/10.1068/a121269 https://www.parking-mobility.org/wpcontent/uploads/i-fed-the-meter.pdf https://www.parking-mobility.org/wpcontent/uploads/i-fed-the-meter.pdf https://doi.org/10.3390/su12052056 https://nces.ed.gov/ http://napic.jpph.gov.my/portal/web https://www.nsc.org/road-safety/safety-topics/distracted-driving/parking-lot-safety https://www.nsc.org/road-safety/safety-topics/distracted-driving/parking-lot-safety https://doi.org/10.3390/su10062019 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtte.2019.09.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2012.11.005 http://www.rtd.my/age_eligibility_driving_test.htm https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2017.10.006 https://doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20174253 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.1137 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40890-017-0040-2 https://doi.org/10.5460/jbhsi.v6.1.47607 https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02125333 28 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 12, no. 1, 28-38, 2025 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6807 © 2025 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group times higher education’s administrative influence on tertiary education in thailand: a comparative content analytical study chimankpa mbadike innocent shinawatra university, thailand. email: shobisi@yahoo.com abstract this study comparatively investigates the impact of times higher education (the) rankings on tertiary education administration in thailand, with a specific focus on the strategic management of higher education institutions. the research aims to understand the's ranking criteria and their influence on administrative decisions, as well as the implications for university governance and leadership. ten thai universities were carefully selected and evaluated based on the's world university ranking and impact ranking criteria, which assess institutions' performance across teaching, research, industry collaboration, international outlook, and their contributions to the 17 un sustainable development goals (sdgs). data was collected from the's official website. the findings of this research suggest that: universities that prioritize research quality and international outlook tend to perform better in the's world university ranking; institutions that focus on sdg-related research and outreach are more likely to excel in the's impact ranking; thai universities that adopt best practices in educational administration, such as strategic planning and resource allocation, are more likely to improve their the rankings. by identifying effective administrative strategies, this research can inform policy decisions and support universities in achieving their goals, ultimately contributing to the development of a more competitive and sustainable higher education system in thailand. keywords: administrative influence, impact ranking, the, times higher education, un sdg, world university ranking. citation | innocent, c. m. . (2025). times higher education’s administrative influence on tertiary education in thailand: a comparative content analytical study. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 12(1), 28-38. 10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6807 history: received: 24 february 2025 revised: 24 march 2025 accepted: 3 june 2025 published: 20 june 2025 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: not applicable. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 29 2. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 32 3. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 37 4. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 38 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 38 mailto:shobisi@yahoo.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v12i1.6807 https://orcid.org/0009-0006-2389-5128 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 28-38 29 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature: this study's originality lies in its comparative content analysis of the world university ranking and impact ranking, focusing on thai universities. the research provides a nuanced understanding of the administrative influence of the rankings on tertiary education in thailand, offering practical recommendations. 1. introduction this research explores the considerable factors used to assess and thereafter rank world universities on a global scale by times higher education (2024). world universities are given due recognition by the on five standard criteria with distinct indicators and weight, thus, teaching (the learning environment); research environment (volume, income and reputation); research quality (the outputs of research); industry (knowledge transfer) and international outlook (staff, students and research). these criteria are weighted as 29.5%, 29.0%, 30.0%, 4.0% and 7.5% respectively. this is relevant and contemporary considering a global clamor for best educational practices. moving further, times higher education has yet another category of ranking, best known as the impact ranking which is a veritable tool for assessing and recognizing world universities that are committed to pushing forward the frontiers and advancing the course of the united nations sustainable development goals. times higher education (the), formerly the times higher education supplement, is a british magazine specializing in higher education news and issues. in 2009, the partnered with thomson reuters, a leading research-data specialist, to provide data for its annual world university rankings. thomson reuters brought its expertise in bibliometric analysis to the partnership. the published its first world university rankings by subject area in 2010, and has continued to release rankings annually. according to mroz (2009) the's rankings have become highly influential, and the organization has committed to producing rigorous and transparent rankings, facilitated by its partnership with thomson reuters. thailand has over 170 universities and other higher education institutions, both public and private, that offer a diverse range of courses across various disciplines such as science, business, engineering, law, and the arts. however, this study is limited within a scope of top ten (10) universities in thailand as acknowledged and published at times higher education (the) world university rankings 2024. the universities emphasized here are in this particular order from first to tenth, 1. chulalongkorn university. 2. mahidol university. 3. chiang mai university. 4. king mongkut’s university of technology thonburi. 5. mae fah luang university. 6. khon kaen university. 7. king mongkut's university of technology north bangkok. 8. prince of songkla university. 9. suranaree university of technology. 10. thammasat university. however, the impact rankings 2024 published also names of thailand universities that made it to the impact rankings 2024. for the purpose of this study’s objective, the list is as usual limited to the top ten (10) thailand universities in this category. such is listed in this particular order of first to tenth as given by the impact ranking 2024. 1. mahidol university. 2. chulalongkorn university. 3. chiang mai university. 4. thammasat university. 5. asian institute of technology. 6. kasetsart university. 7. khon kaen university. 8. king mongkut’s university of technology thonburi. 9. walailak university. 10. prince of songkla university. 1.1. indicators and weight in the times higher education world university ranking as implied at the introduction, times higher education has maintained a commendable height of accuracy as a global performance table assessing research-intensive universities around the world. the assessment metrics cut across the’s core operational values, thus, teaching (the learning environment); research environment (volume, income and reputation); research quality (the outputs of research); industry (knowledge transfer) and international outlook (staff, students and research). each of the performance indicators identified above are scored 29.5%, 29.0%, 30.0%, 4.0%, and 7.5% respectively. however, each indicator is further distributed for precision’s sake. hence, teaching is sub-weighted as. • teaching reputation: 15%. • staff-to-student ratio: 4.5%. • doctorate-to-bachelor’s ratio: 2%. • doctorates-awarded-to-academic-staff ratio: 5.5%. • institutional income: 2.5%. furthermore, research environment with 29.0% as one of the ranking criteria has itself sub-weighted as. • research reputation: 18%. • research income: 5.5%. • research productivity: 5.5%. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 28-38 30 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group research quality with 30.0%, making the most of the ranking criteria is sub-weighted as. • citation impact: 15%. • research strength: 5%. • research excellence: 5%. • research influence: 5%. the least ranking criteria is industry with 4.0%, and sub-weighed thus. • industry income: 2%. • patents: 2%. lastly is the international outlook indicator with 7.5%, and sub-weighed as. • proportion of international students: 2.5%. • proportion of international staff: 2.5%. • international collaboration: 2.5%. figure 1. world university rankings 2024: methodology. source: https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/world-university-rankings-2024methodology. figure 1 illustrates a global performance table assessing research-intensive universities around the world, according to times higher education. that represents the’s metrics for assessing the progress of the concerned universities. recall that the times higher education (the) world university rankings use a set of performance metrics to assess research-intensive universities worldwide. the's methodology evaluates universities based on 13 performance indicators grouped into five pillars. the times higher education world university rankings 2023 evaluates universities based on 18 performance indicators across five areas, including teaching, research environment, research quality, international outlook, and industry. the indicators assess various aspects, such as teaching reputation, research income, citation impact, international collaboration, and industry income. each area has a specific weightage, with teaching accounting for 29.5%, research environment for 29%, research quality for 30%, international outlook for 7.5%, and industry for 4%. 1.2. times higher education impact rankings this is another category of the rankings which is contemporary and committed to expanding a horizon, i.e., global expectation of education as a system. education is a macrocosm which is never to be left out of any ‘messianic’ equation looked up to as effective tool or solution to world’s contemporary problem. education is the most important tool to reshape worldviews and values and has enormous potential to address the sustainability challenges facing humanity (vasiliki & nikolaos, 2019). furthermore, the sustainable development goals (sdgs) agenda of the united nations adopted by world leaders in 2015 acknowledges quality education (sdg 4) as a means for achieving the remaining sdgs, with sustainability as a goal for education in target 4.7 (steffen, 2015). based on the foregoing, the university, otherwise classified under tertiary education has become a veritable platform for harnessing the potential strengths in the education system and achieving united nation’s sustainable development goals. times higher education's impact ranking assesses universities' contributions to society through four key areas: research, stewardship, outreach, and teaching. research is a critical component, as it enables universities to promote sdg-themed research among scholars and staff. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/world-university-rankings-2024-methodology https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/world-university-rankings-2024-methodology asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 28-38 31 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group the research excellence framework (ref) (2014) defines "impact" as an effect or benefit to the economy, society, culture, or environment, beyond academia. impact is evaluated alongside research outputs and environment to assess the value of research within an institution. research outputs, such as knowledge generated and publications, can be translated into outcomes, like new products and services, and impacts or added value. as mathematician and philosopher whitehead (1929) emphasized, universities should preserve the connection between knowledge and the zest of life. they should impart information imaginatively, uniting the young and old in the consideration of learning. research has a profound impact on society, and its socioeconomic values cannot be overstated. donovan (2011) noted that impact is a powerful tool for making evidence-based cases for research support. penfield, baker, scoble, and wykes (2014) added that evaluating research's contribution to society and the economy can inform future funding decisions. by recognizing the significance of research, universities can prioritize initiatives that drive positive change and maximize their impact on the world. furthermore, for effective stewardship, universities are assessed based on their ability to effectively manage the resources at their disposal, such resources include physical objects, students, employees, and faculty. effective management of available resources in the university environment is key, as we are faced with threats of extinction, dilapidation, destruction, and loss of certain resources of nature. stewardship in relation to nature in the university environment is of high importance and connects strongly to the stewardship of students and employees in the environment, i.e., humannature relationship. according to krasny and delia (2015) here's a rewritten version of the text in 400 words: a study on a university student organization highlights the benefits of nature-based stewardship, including enhanced students' sense of place and improved mental well-being. this underscores the significance of stewardship in achieving sustainability. research emphasizes the importance of time spent in nature for human development and environmental awareness (louv, 2006; nisbet, zelenski, & murphy, 2009; wells & lekies, 2006). student participation in stewardship initiatives provides opportunities for integrating sustainability into educational activities (müller, lude, & hancock, 2020; togo & lotz-sisitka, 2009). universities can impact sustainability through their interactions with local, regional, national, and international communities, which is reflected in the impact ranking's outreach area. higher education institutions are shifting towards systemic change by adopting transand interdisciplinary learning approaches, social learning, and community outreach (peters & wals, 2013; wals, 2014). sustainable campus landscapes also contribute to learning, mental and physical health, and foster outdoor leisure activities (walton & sweeney, 2013). outdoor sustainability initiatives, such as bioswales and tree plantings, serve as a catalyst for larger sustainability endeavors. as denison university's sustainability coordinator notes, these initiatives allow the campus community to experience sustainability firsthand (walton & sweeney, 2013). teaching is a vital aspect of the impact ranking, as it enables students to learn about sustainability. universities must ensure that they have skilled practitioners to deliver on the sdgs. the four areas of focus for the impact rankings – research, stewardship, outreach, and teaching – are expected to reflect a reasonable weight of the 17 sdgs. by assessing universities' performance in these areas, the impact rankings provide a comprehensive evaluation of their contributions to sustainability. sdg 1 – no poverty. sdg 2 – zero hunger. sdg 3 – good health and well-being. sdg 4 – quality education. sdg 5 – gender equality. sdg 6 – clean water and sanitation. sdg 7 – affordable and clean energy. sdg 8 – decent work and economic growth. sdg 9 – industry, innovation and infrastructure. sdg 10 – reduced inequalities. sdg 11 – sustainable cities and communities. sdg 12 – responsible consumption and production. sdg 13 – climate action. sdg 14 – life below water. sdg 15 – life on land. sdg 16 – peace, justice and strong institutions. sdg 17 – partnerships for the goals. meanwhile, according to times higher education (2024) any university that provides data on sdg 17 and at least three other sdgs is included in the overall ranking. a university’s total score in a given year is calculated by combining its score in sdg 17 with its best three results on the remaining 16 sdgs. sdg 17 accounts for 22 per cent of the total score, while the other sdgs each carry a weighting of 26 per cent. 1.3. administrative influence of the ranking indicators on the universities from the outset, a lot has been emphasized via education for sustainability, reflecting its contemporariness in shaping today and the future through sustainable measures. every of world inhabitants and all other spheres of human endeavour has placed considerable hope and expectations on education as one escape route out of the global natural and socioeconomic crisis facing it. "education is the key to unlocking the potential of individuals, communities, and societies. it is a fundamental human right and a crucial driver of sustainable development." (unesco, 2014). recent moves have been undertaken by concerned international bodies to harness the potentials and resources available within the education sector, as veritable tools for global rescue. "education is a vital investment for individuals, societies, and economies. it helps to develop the skills, knowledge, and competencies needed to thrive in an increasingly complex and interconnected world." (oecd, 2020). every level of academic distinction is included in this approach, from the foundation (cradle) to the zenith (higher education). however, the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 28-38 32 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group higher education has recently being receiving the most emphasis being the transitional phase into the wider pragmatic society. whatever that could not be achieved at the foundation needs be achieved at the peak, with no reserved apology. hence, this achievement cannot suffice without the administrative level of the higher education. this is because the administrative level of each school is the most central part of the institution, as sacrosanct as it is, decisions are taken, made, approved and disapproved there. the success or downfall of any tertiary institution is often attributed to the administrative sector of the institution. even though, decisions taken to accelerate growth of the university and place it on the limelight of glory and prominence are often achieved through effective collaboration among relevant stakeholders within the school environment, i.e., the staff, students, immediate community, etc., such cannot suffice in achieving the most of its global expectation. this therefore is the place of the impact ranking in helping the university leadership make better informed decisions that can accelerate it, pronounce it and make it profound indeed, a sustainable achievement university. apart from elevating the glory of the university, it deliberately improves the students, staff, faculty, and the environment associated to it. is this not a considerable part of world’s expectations of the education sector? it is also part of the core missions, visions and goals of an educational institution. yes, by considering, comparing and deliberately studying the achievements of the universities featured on the impact ranking, the administration of other universities yet to make it to the the ranking is able to improve by learning, unlearning and relearning. a collective effort like this will not only save the world from its present crisis, but will create a sustainability for future generation. specifically, time higher education ranking indicators will bring about better educational leadership/administration, better education for students, improved work environment for staff, fostering academic research, integrate sustainable development goals in teaching and learning, promote inclusivity and yield better informed decisions on human-nature relationship awareness, etc. based on the foregoing, the administrative implications of the times higher education world university rankings 2023 methodology are significant, in that concerned universities must collect and manage large amounts of data across various indicators, requiring substantial administrative resources. they must also develop strategic plans to improve their performance, allocate resources effectively, and establish systems to monitor and evaluate performance. additionally, universities must comply with reporting requirements, benchmark their performance, engage with stakeholders, ensure quality assurance and accreditation, manage international partnerships, and maintain their reputation. by understanding these administrative implications, universities can better navigate the rankings methodology and improve their overall performance. part of the influence on the university administration is such that promotes collaboration, by ensuring the school leader/administrator organizes a participative process of school development, emphasize sustainability and esd in the daily life of the school, support teaching staff in the application of esd, and offer students opportunities to launch their own initiatives (müller et al., 2020). this whole course similarly yields better school leadership, hence, “transforming learning and training environments concerns not only managing physical facilities but also changing the ethos and governance structure of the whole institution” (unesco, 2014). as such there is a guarantee of school finance management, material cycles and resource management, structural design, and equipment as part of improved school administrative roles. it further breeds a transformational leader which according to fuhrung (2006) give expression to their values and visions. they try to introduce differentiated values into the leadership process and always reflect on their visions and develop them further in the face of changing environmental conditions. they recognize the motives and needs of their employees and try to influence them by transforming existing motives in order to achieve new goals with other motivations. they try to increase the attractiveness of goals and tasks. they promote the identification of employees with their social system and the tasks to be addressed. they inspire employees to take up new challenges. they are interested as far as possible in the individual needs and expectations of their employees as individuals. 2. methodology due to the nature of this research and need to ensure accuracy, documentary analysis and compared review were used as methods and data were analysed using content analysis. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 28-38 33 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 28-38 34 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 28-38 35 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 2. comparative analysis of the ranking among the top ten (10) thailand universities based on world university rankings. source: https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2024/worldranking#!/length/25/locations/tha/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/scores figure 2 illustrates the ranking among the top ten (10) thailand universities based on world university rankings 2024. based on the chart, these are the top 10 universities in thailand, according to the times higher education world university rankings 2024, hence, the top universities in thailand, according to the times higher education world university rankings 2024, include chulalongkorn university, ranked #1 in thailand and #69 in asia, known for its academic excellence and research opportunities. mahidol university is ranked #2 in thailand and #995 globally, with a strong focus on research and internationalization. chiang mai university ranks #3 in thailand and #136 in asia, recognized for its research output and international collaborations. kasetsart university holds the #4 spot in thailand and #194 in asia, with a strong emphasis on agriculture, science, and technology. khon kaen university is ranked #5 in thailand and #223 in asia, known for its research excellence and international partnerships. prince of songkla university ranks #6 in thailand and #224 in asia, recognized for its academic programs and research opportunities. king mongkut's university of technology thonburi is ranked #8 in thailand, with a strong focus on science, technology, and innovation. chulabhorn royal academy ranks #10 in thailand, while thammasat university and asian institute of technology hold the #11 and #22 spots, respectively. however, another methodology employed in this comparative study is the times higher education impact ranking. according to bornmann (2013) societal impact of research refers to the benefits of research on society beyond academia, encompassing social benefits, economic benefits, cultural benefits, and environmental benefits. bornmann's definition highlights that societal impact goes beyond academic outcomes, encompassing the broader positive effects of research on society. based on the foregoing, the attributes and acknowledges the place of un sdgs as part of the criteria to assessing the universities, hence, their impact rankings. see the table below in table 1. table 1. illustrates the rankings of the top 10 thai universities based on times higher education impact ranking (2024). rank university name overall score sdg best score 1 mahidol university 94.5 sdg 3 (94.9) 2 chulalongkorn university 92.6 sdg 3 (99.5) 3 chiang mai university 90.5 sdg 9 (90.7) 4 thammasat university 90.3 sdg 3 (86.3) 5 asian institute of technology 84.0-89.1 sdg 2 (86.1) 6 kasetsart university 84.0-89.1 sdg 2 (82.4) 7 khon kaen university 84.0-89.1 sdg 14 (92.7) 8 king mongkut's university of technology thonburi 84.0-89.1 sdg 2 (90.3) 9 walailak university 84.0-89.1 sdg 17 (90.9) 10 burapha university 79.3-83.9 sdg 8 (77.0-90.2) source: https://www.timeshighereducation.com/hub/p/chula-ranks-no-1-thailand-3rd-consecutive-year-and-top-16-worldhighest-impact-society https://stang.sc.mahidol.ac.th/research/ranking_the.php https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2024/world-ranking#!/length/25/locations/tha/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/scores https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2024/world-ranking#!/length/25/locations/tha/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/scores https://www.timeshighereducation.com/hub/p/chula-ranks-no-1-thailand-3rd-consecutive-year-and-top-16-world-highest-impact-society https://www.timeshighereducation.com/hub/p/chula-ranks-no-1-thailand-3rd-consecutive-year-and-top-16-world-highest-impact-society https://stang.sc.mahidol.ac.th/research/ranking_the.php asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 28-38 36 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 1 illustrates the top 10 thailand universities according to times higher education impact ranking, different from indicators and weight in the times higher education world university ranking. note that overall score on the table indicates the university's overall impact score, which is a measure of their performance across the united nations' sustainable development goals (sdgs). meanwhile, sdg best score in the table indicates the university's best score in a specific sdg category, i.e., the area where the university has performed exceptionally well. here, emphasis is on the universities’ contribution to un sdg, beyond the academia. for a better understanding, each hexagon above has its colour represented by the chart below showing the related sdg area covered. therefore, the impact ranking provided by times higher education evaluates universities based on their contributions to the united nations' sustainable development goals (sdgs). the ranking assesses universities' impact across multiple sdgs, recognizing institutions that excel in addressing global challenges such as environmental sustainability, social inclusion, economic growth, and partnerships. the methodology used to calculate the impact ranking involves integrating scores across multiple sdgs, with sdg 17 (partnerships for the goals) carrying a weight of 22%. the top three scores from other sdgs are also considered, each carrying a weight of 26%. this approach highlights universities' specialized strengths while rewarding well-rounded contributions to the global sdg agenda. in this context which focuses on universities in thailand, the impact ranking can be interpreted as a measure of these institutions' commitment to addressing global challenges and promoting sustainable development. the ranking provides insights into the impact of thai universities on society, beyond their academic performance. some key aspects to consider when interpreting the impact ranking include: sdg performance: universities' scores across multiple sdgs, reflecting their strengths and weaknesses in addressing different global challenges. partnerships and collaborations: the extent to which universities foster robust international partnerships and cooperation to achieve the sdgs. societal impact: the broader benefits of universities' research and activities on society, including economic, social, and environmental impacts. by considering these aspects, the impact ranking provides a comprehensive understanding of universities' contributions to sustainable development and their commitment to addressing global challenges. therefore, here are the rankings of the first 10 thai universities according to the impact ranking: mahidol university is ranked 1st in thailand with an overall score of 94.5. its best sdg score is in sdg 3, with a score of 94.9. chulalongkorn university is ranked 2nd in thailand with an overall score of 92.6. its best sdg score is in sdg 3, with a score of 99.5. chiang mai university is ranked 3rd in thailand with an overall score of 90.5. its best sdg score is in sdg 9, with a score of 90.7. thammasat university is ranked 4th in thailand with an overall score of 90.3. its best sdg score is in sdg 3, with a score of 86.3. asian institute of technology is ranked 5th in thailand with an overall score of 84.0-89.1. its best sdg score is in sdg 2, with a score of 86.1. kasetsart university is ranked 6th in thailand with an overall score of 84.0-89.1. its best sdg score is in sdg 2, with a score of 82.4. khon kaen university is ranked 7th in thailand with an overall score of 84.0-89.1. its best sdg score is in sdg 14, with a score of 92.7. king mongkut's university of technology thonburi is ranked 8th in thailand with an overall score of 84.0-89.1. its best sdg score is in sdg 2, with a score of 90.3. walailak university is ranked 9th in thailand with an overall score of 84.0-89.1. its best sdg score is in sdg 17, with a score of 90.9. burapha university is ranked 10th in thailand with an overall score of 79.3-83.9. its best sdg score is in sdg 8, with a score of 77.090.2. figure 3 illustrates the specific un sdgs by which the universities under discussion were assessed based on the impact ranking. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 28-38 37 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 3. the specific un sdgs by which the universities under discussion were assessed based on the impact ranking. the 17 sustainable development goals (sdgs) serve as a framework for evaluating universities' contributions to sustainable development and social responsibility. sdg 1, no poverty, involves reducing economic inequalities, promoting entrepreneurship, and providing financial aid to disadvantaged students. universities can contribute to this goal by implementing these strategies. sdg 2, zero hunger, involves conducting research on sustainable agriculture, reducing food waste, and promoting food security initiatives. universities can make an impact by conducting research and promoting sustainability. sdg 3, good health and well-being, involves conducting medical research, providing healthcare services, and promoting healthy lifestyles among students and staff. universities can contribute by providing these services and promoting well-being. sdg 4, quality education, involves providing access to quality education, promoting lifelong learning, and reducing educational inequalities. universities can make a significant impact by providing quality education and promoting learning. sdg 5, gender equality, involves promoting gender equality, providing opportunities for women in stem fields, and addressing gender-based violence. universities can contribute by promoting equality and addressing violence. sdg 6, clean water and sanitation, involves conducting research on water conservation, reducing water waste, and promoting sustainable sanitation practices. universities can make an impact by conducting research and promoting sustainability. sdg 7, affordable and clean energy, involves conducting research on renewable energy, reducing energy consumption, and promoting sustainable energy practices. universities can contribute by conducting research and promoting sustainability. sdg 8, decent work and economic growth, involves providing job opportunities, promoting entrepreneurship, and supporting local economic development. universities can make an impact by providing job opportunities and promoting entrepreneurship. sdg 9, industry, innovation, and infrastructure, involves conducting research and development, promoting innovation, and supporting infrastructure development. universities can contribute by conducting research and promoting innovation. sdg 10, reduced inequalities, involves reducing economic and social inequalities, promoting diversity and inclusion, and addressing discrimination. universities can contribute by reducing inequalities and promoting inclusion. sdg 11, sustainable cities and communities, involves promoting sustainable urban planning, reducing waste and pollution, and supporting community development. universities can make an impact by promoting sustainability and supporting communities. sdg 12, responsible consumption and production, involves promoting sustainable consumption and production practices, reducing waste and pollution, and supporting sustainable supply chains. universities can contribute by promoting sustainability and reducing waste. sdg 13, climate action, involves conducting research on climate change, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and promoting sustainable climate practices. universities can make an impact by conducting research and promoting sustainability. sdg 14, life below water, involves conducting research on marine conservation, reducing plastic waste, and promoting sustainable fishing practices. universities can contribute by conducting research and promoting sustainability. sdg 15, life on land, involves conducting research on biodiversity conservation, reducing deforestation, and promoting sustainable land use practices. universities can make an impact by conducting research and promoting sustainability. sdg 16, peace, justice, and strong institutions, involves promoting peace and justice, supporting human rights, and strengthening institutions. universities can contribute by promoting peace and justice. sdg 17, partnerships for the goals, involves partnering with governments, businesses, and civil society to achieve the sdgs, sharing knowledge and expertise, and mobilizing resources. universities can contribute by partnering with other organizations and sharing resources. 3. discussion on account of the world university ranking among the top ten (10) selected thailand universities, it was ranked in this particular order from first to tenth, chulalongkorn university, mahidol university, chiang mai university, king mongkut’s university of technology thonburi, mae fah luang university, khon kaen university, king mongkut's university of technology north bangkok, prince of songkla university, suranaree university of technology, thammasat university. on the other hand, considering the impact ranking among the top ten (10) selected thailand universities, it was ranked in this particular order from first to tenth, mahidol university, chulalongkorn university, chiang mai university, thammasat university, asian institute of technology, kasetsart university, khon kaen university, king mongkut's university of technology thonburi, walailak university, burapha university. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 28-38 38 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group from the analysis, these universities have achieved high scores in sdgs 3 (good health and well-being), 4 (quality education), and 9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure). however, there are areas where these universities need to improve, such as sdgs 11 (sustainable cities and communities), 12 (responsible consumption and production), and 16 (peace, justice, and strong institutions). the results of this study have several implications for university administrators, policymakers, and stakeholders. firstly, the top 10 thai universities need to prioritize sdgs that are not yet achieved, such as sdgs 11, 12, and 16. this requires a strategic approach to research, teaching, and community engagement. secondly, universities need to strengthen their partnerships with industry, government, and civil society to achieve the sdgs. finally, policymakers need to provide adequate funding and support for universities to achieve the sdgs. 4. conclusion at the, universities are assessed at the global stage, making it possible for scholars and target audience to understand the idea behind a ‘successful’ higher education. as pointed above in this study, there are various stages and categories of success factors attributed to higher education, especially as it relates to times higher education ranking. meanwhile, this study was limited within the scope of the world university ranking 2024 and the impact ranking 2024. while we studied the top ten ranking thailand universities, this article also presupposed that while there were other universities in thailand that made it to the world university ranking 2024 and the impact ranking 2024, some other thailand universities did not make it to either of the list. based on the foregoing, this study becomes relevant as to help universities in such category prepare for subsequent the rankings. this can boost the university’s public image. meanwhile, students, staff and faculty of concerned universities will be privileged to enjoy a more friendly learning and work environment by reason of the university’s administration engaging in a conscious effort to adopt the practices obtainable in the universities acknowledged on the ranking list. references bornmann, l. 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(2020). leading schools towards sustainability. fields of action and management strategies for principals. sustainability, 12(7), 3031. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12073031 nisbet, e. k., zelenski, j. m., & murphy, s. a. (2009). the nature of everyday life: implications for human well-being and environmental advocacy. environmental behavior, 41(5), 571-599. oecd. (2020). the future of education and skills: education 2030. paris: oecd publishing. penfield, t., baker, m. j., scoble, r., & wykes, m. c. (2014). assessment, evaluations, and definitions of research impact: a review. research evaluation, 23(1), 21-32. https://doi.org/10.1093/reseval/rvt021 peters, m., & wals, a. e. j. (2013). education for sustainable development: a framework for policy development and action. journal of education for sustainable development, 7(1), 67-80. research excellence framework (ref). (2014). assessment framework and guidance on submissions. bristol, uk: higher education funding council for england (hefce). steffen, w. (2015). the role of education in achieving the sustainable development goals. paris: united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization (unesco). times higher education. (2024). the wur 2024 final rankings. london: times higher education. togo, m., & lotz-sisitka, h. (2009). education for sustainable development in africa: a review of practices and outcomes. journal of education for sustainable development, 3(2), 179-191. unesco. (2014). roadmap for implementing the global action programme on education for sustainable development. paris: unesco. vasiliki, s., & nikolaos, p. (2019). education as a tool for addressing global sustainability challenges. journal of global education and sustainability, 15(2), 112-124. wals, a. e. j. 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(1929). the aims of education and other essays. new york: macmillan. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.019 https://doi.org/10.3390/su12073031 https://doi.org/10.1093/reseval/rvt021 58 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 2, 58-64, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i2.4704 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group sovereign wealth fund on sustainable economic growth in nigeria inim, victor edet1 udoh, francis sylvanus2 lungu, tumba denis3 ( corresponding author) 1,3department of accounting, nile university of nigeria, abuja, nigeria. 1email: victor.inim@nileuniversity.edu.ng 3email: denistlungu@gmail.com 2department of business administration, nile university of nigeria, abuja, nigeria. 2email: slyosly79@gmail.com abstract the sovereign wealth fund (swf) nations understood that having enough money in easily accessible foreign accounts would be beneficial to the government in times of fiscal crisis, currency devaluation, natural economic calamity, and even political upheaval to help cushion sustainable economic growth. between q1 2005 and q4 2020, the study looked at the impact of nigeria's sovereign wealth fund on the country's ability to sustain economic development. in order to conduct the empirical analysis, the study used the ardl technique of analysis. in order to prevent erroneous regression results, unit root tests were performed on each of the variables. the co-integration test revealed that there is a long-term (or equilibrium) relationship between nigeria's sovereign wealth fund and the sustainability of its economic growth. it was revealed that nigeria's gross domestic product was significantly impacted by the nigerian infrastructural fund. last but not least, it was revealed that the stability fund has a considerable impact on gdp in nigeria. future generation fund was also found to have a big impact. on the whole, swf impact significantly on sustainable economic growth in nigeria. if government wishes to maintain economic growth and improve the lives of nigerians, it should demand and pursue effective control and monitoring of the infrastructure, future and stabilization funds. keywords: economic growth, future generation fund, gross domestic product and nigeria, nigeria infrastructure fund, stabilization fund. citation | edet, i. v., sylvanus, u. f., & denis, l. t. (2023). sovereign wealth fund on sustainable economic growth in nigeria. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(2), 58–64. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i2.4704 history: received: 29 august 2022 revised: 10 february 2023 accepted: 13 april 2023 published: 30 may 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 59 2. theoretical framework .................................................................................................................................................................. 60 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 60 4. results and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 61 5. discussion of findings .................................................................................................................................................................... 64 6. conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................... 64 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 64 mailto:victor.inim@nileuniversity.edu.ng mailto:denistlungu@gmail.com mailto:slyosly79@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i2.4704 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7895-2114 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2141-8751 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 58-64 59 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study concentrated on the overall impact of the infrastructure fund, future generation fund, and stabilization fund as a substitute for swfs. also, none used a combination of the methodology/statistical analysis employed in this study. therefore, the evaluation of swfs' impact on nigeria's sustainable economic growth thus contribute to literature. 1. introduction with the founding of the kuwait investment authority in 1953 to invest the nation's excess oil income, the idea of a sovereign wealth fund (swf) first emerged. swf has been there for a while, but it has mostly escaped public awareness and policy notice. this associated insignificance abruptly changed in 2006 with the dispute over the attempt to acquire the port management operations at six significant u.s. seaport terminals from dubai ports world. this proposed acquisition sparked u.s. national security concerns, which appropriately sparked a larger discussion about the roles, obligations, and duties of sovereign investors (organization for economic co-operation development, 2016). overall, several sovereigns had started to accumulate budgetary and foreign currency surpluses and actively invest them in global financial assets. as a result, sovereigns had solidified their position as important global institutional investors. significant interest in both policy and business was generated by these developments. furthermore, it sparked divisive discussions that were so pervasive and politically urgent that in october 2007, the international community requested the international monetary fund (imf) and other international organizations to conduct an analysis of the key problems affecting swfs and to open a dialogue with the swfs and economies receiving swf investments. the most important result of this work was the development of the generally accepted principles and practices (santiago principles) by the swfs with assistance from the imf. so, the santiago principles' strategy was meant to lay forth a code of conduct that would support swf actions and promote more operational simplicity. these steps were acknowledged as helping to create a more stable environment for global capital flows and fending off protectionist sentiments against swfs (organization for economic co-operation development, 2016). around 45 swf exist globally, and they are all tasked with managing and growing national money through investments. the majority of swf's funding comes from revenue from non-oil and oil and gas commodities. the management of the nigerian sovereign wealth fund is under the control of the nigeria sovereign investment authority. worldwide, there are five different categories of swf: stabilization funds, development funds, pension reserve funds, and reserve investment funds. however, nigeria has adopted three swfs: the stabilization fund, the future generation fund, and the infrastructure fund. these three will be used to carry out the mission. according to ujah (2013) an swf is financed by central bank reserves that build up as a result of trade and budget surpluses, as well as by income from the export of natural resources. gbogbo (2013) said that in addition to these, the earnings from privatizations, fiscal surpluses, official currency operations, and receipts from commodity exports are all used in equal measure to build swfs or from the central bank's foreign exchange reserves. as part of its oversight of a country's financial system, a central bank may hold some sovereign wealth funds, which are typically of significant economic and fiscal value. other swfs merely invest state savings for an anticipated return, which may not play a big part in fiscal management. however, each swf's allowed investment categories vary by country; those with low liquidity profiles restrict investments to a small number of liquid public debt instruments, while those with high liquidity profiles spread widely (ujah, 2013). political and economic pressures that may lead to excessive resource consumption in the present or overinvestments in infrastructure and diversification projects that may only have marginally beneficial social effects on her population present a significant challenge for the sovereign wealth fund on the sustainability of economic growth in nigeria. additionally, even after more than six decades of relying on oil revenues, nigeria has not been able to account for the trillions of dollars made from oil sales and exports through investments, industrialization, infrastructure development, general socioeconomic growth, diversifications, and savings. examining how nigeria's sovereign wealth fund affects long-term economic growth was the main goal of this study. other connected goals include figuring out the impact of the nigerian infrastructure fund on the country's gdp, examining the impact of the future generation fund on the gdp, and assessing the impact of the stabilization fund on the gdp. the hypotheses of the study are stated in null forms and tested from the objectives of the study: ho1: nigerian infrastructural fund has no significant effect on gross domestic products in nigeria. ho1: future generation fund has no significant effect on gross domestic products in nigeria. ho3: stabilization fund has no significant effect on gross domestic products in nigeria. oleka, ugwuanyi, and ewah (2014) evaluated the relationship between nigeria's sovereign wealth fund and economic growth using both primary and secondary data with 40 employees of the nigerian sovereign investment authority (nsia) as the population. the establishment's 30 employees were chosen for the study using a purposive sampling technique, and the results showed no significant difference between the two factors. additionally, knill, lee, and mauck (2012) examined the performance of the target firms over a 5-year period to examine the impact of swf investment and the return on risk performance of the target firms and discovered a decline in swf on firm performance. none of these studies, however, concentrated on the overall impact of the infrastructure fund, future generation fund, and stabilization fund as a substitute for swfs. the evaluation of swfs' impact on nigeria's sustainable economic growth thus fills a research vacuum. 1.1. concept of sovereign wealth fund sovereign wealth funds (swfs), in hassan (2009) are government investment entities financed by foreign currency assets that are managed independently of official reserves. compared to traditional reserves, they may invest in a larger variety of asset types and seek better rates of return. according to anderson (2010) the main drivers behind the creation of swfs include central banks' earlier realizations that it is preferable to hold a sizeable sum of money in foreign exchange accounts. they understood that having enough money in easily accessible asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 58-64 60 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group foreign accounts would be beneficial to the government in times of fiscal crisis, currency devaluation, natural economic calamity, and even political upheaval. based on the countries' sources of foreign exchange assets, swfs are typically divided into two categories: commodity funds and non-commodity funds (barney, 2001). the nigeria investment authority act (niaa), which established the swf and was passed into law in march 2011, became effective in october 2011. the money saved from the discrepancy between budgeted and actual market oil prices would be invested to produce returns that will benefit nigerians in the future (gbogbo, 2013). a $1 billion usd first founding investment was made in the fund. according to ujah (2013), the federal, state, and local governments in nigeria, as well as the municipal council should all contribute to the initial fund that the nigerian sovereign investment authority will manage, which is the equivalent of $11 billion usd. the act further stipulates that any additional money must be generated from leftover monies in the federation account, provided that the financing does not contain the derivation component of the revenue allocation formula. the three separate funds, referred to as windows, that make up nigeria's sovereign wealth fund each have distinct investing and development goals. the three windows would each receive 85% of the money, leaving 15% of the $150 million initially unallocated to be divided among the three funds as needed in the future. the money would be invested in a variety of cross-border securities. the stabilization fund received an initial allocation of 20%, while the future generation and the nigeria infrastructure funds each received 40%. 1.2. concept of economic growth economic growth is the process of escalating but not necessarily linearly growing the size of macroeconomic and national economic indicators, particularly the gdp per capita, with a beneficial impact on the socioeconomic sector. increasing a country's production capacity and making the best use of its resources are the two main ways to achieve economic growth (wolla, 2013). additionally, it makes economic redistribution between the populace and society easier. gross domestic product growth entails an expansion in the nation's wealth, which includes the production capacity stated in terms of both absolute and relative size per capita. economic growth is the expansion of a country's ability to generate goods and services over time. it is an essential component for every economy's pursuit of sustainable development. through the provision of better infrastructure, health, housing, and education services as well as an increase in agricultural output and food security, economic expansion raises people's standards of life (wolla, 2013). 1.3. empirical review in their study, oleka et al. (2014) examined nigeria's sovereign wealth fund and economic expansion. in this study, both primary and secondary data were utilised. five research objectives served as the study's direction. the target demographic was made up of all 40 employees of the nigerian sovereign investment authority (nsia) in the state. using a purposive sampling technique, 30 establishment employees were chosen for the study. the research topics were addressed using mean scores and standard deviation. the hypothesis was examined using parametric statistics, namely analysis of variance (anova), coefficient of correlation, and simple linear regression. using the gross domestic product as a key economic performance measure, we assessed the impact of swf on economic growth. the analysis discovered a statistically significant, though unfavorable, relationship between swf and economic growth in nigeria. knill et al. (2012) investigated how investments made by sovereign wealth funds affected the performance of the target companies' return on risk. the performance of the target companies over the five years following the acquisition was examined while taking the level of risk into consideration. the results of their investigation showed that, following investments made by sovereign wealth funds, the target firm's actual returns decreased as the risk increased. this is consistent with the law of financial arson, which holds that the expected return is inversely proportional to the level of risk. however, their findings indicated that investments made by swfs are linked to a decrease in risk compensation over the five years after the acquisition. 2. theoretical framework 2.1. stewardship theory the stewardship theory put out by davis (1997) is the theoretical framework most appropriate for this investigation. it states that managers will act responsibly as though they are the guardians or custodians of the assets under their stewardship when given the freedom to act independently and without direction or oversight. according to barney and hesterly (2009) this idea serves as the fundamental tenet of hedge fund operations, in which investors place complete trust in the management of their assets. citizens in the country of the swfs initially look to the government to manage their national wealth; after that, senior management, the central bank, or ministries rely on hired external wealth managers, investment banks, or both, as their trusted guardians of sovereign wealth. this is comparable to a president who is required to lead or direct the national government within the bounds of the constitution established by the nation's legal system. in most nations with successful swf administration, the central bank and elected officials are in charge of managing sovereign wealth. this is widely regarded as the most effective method for managing swfs in the literature and in international practices (bernstein, 2009). the stewardship hypothesis makes the assumption that the principle would be pleased with the agents' individual achievement or that the agents' collective success would reflect in the overall success of the company (davis, 1997). therefore, according to the stewardship hypothesis, managers are presumed to be selfmotivated and devoid of vested self-interests like bribery, corruption, and self-enrichment, making them resultoriented. this indicates that the objectives of principals and agents are closely related to one another. 3. methodology ex-post facto design was chosen as the research method for this study. ex-post facto research design, according to kerlinger and howard (2013) is the statistical correlation between dependent and independent variables with the goal of establishing a causal relationship between them. the important goal of this study is to evaluate cause-and-effect linkages, hence the data are time series obtained from the 2015–2021 annual reports and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 58-64 61 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group audited financial statements posted on the websites of nsia and national bureau of statistics. the autoregressive distributed lag (ardl), error correction mechanism (ecm), and the co-integration approach were used to analyze the annualized secondary data and evaluate for the long-run effect between the series. the fundamental supposition, in other words, is that all variables are integrated of order 1 or i. (1). 3.1. model specification in this study, the impact of sovereign wealth fund operations on economic growth is compared to those of the nigeria infrastructure fund, future generation fund, and stabilization fund. below are the details for the unit root test, descriptive statistics test, and ardl-ecm utilizing the mathematical specification of the implicit model that represents the connection between sovereign wealth funds and sustainable economic growth: 𝐺𝐷𝑃𝑡 = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1𝑁𝐼𝐹𝑡 + 𝛼2𝐹𝐺𝐹𝑡 + 𝛼3𝑆𝐹𝑡 + 𝜈𝑡 (1) where: gdp = gross domestic product. nif = nigerian infrastructural fund. fgf = future generation fund. sf = stabilization fund. t = error term. 1 3 − = the parameter coefficients. equation 1 above presents the dependent variable gdp as a function of the specific objectives of the independent variable, given as nigerian infrastructural fund, future generation fund and stabilization fund. the error correction model (ecm), of equation 1 which captures the speed of adjustment from the short-run disequilibrium towards the long-run equilibrium is specified as follows: 𝛥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐺 𝐷𝑃𝑡 = 𝛼0 + ∑ 𝛼1 𝑖 𝑚 𝑖=1 𝛥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐺 𝐷𝑃𝑡−𝑖 + ∑ 𝛼2 𝑖 𝑛 𝑗=0 𝛥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁 𝐼𝐹𝑡−𝑖 + ∑ 𝛼3 𝑖 𝑜 𝑘=0 𝛥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐹 𝐷𝐹𝑡−𝑖 + ∑ 𝛼4 𝑖 𝑝 𝑙=0 𝛥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑆 𝐹𝑡−𝑖 + 𝛿𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑡−1 + 휀𝑡 − −(2) equation 2 depicts or expresses the logging of 1 so as to have a robust result and also test for long-run relationship. 4. results and discussion 4.1. descriptive statistics results results from the descriptive statistics are captured in table 1. table 1. descriptive statistics of the variables. log (gdp) log (nif) log (fgf) log (sf) mean 17.0282 19.14273 18.94638 18.32741 std. dev. 0.176652 0.564147 0.415708 0.510826 skewness -0.82366 -0.51796 -0.86108 -0.45125 kurtosis 3.106681 2.277545 2.411746 2.082176 jarque-bera 2.725046 1.59506 3.311908 1.656898 probability 0.256014 0.45044 0.19091 0.436726 observations 24 24 24 24 note: future generation fund, nigeria infrastructure fund, stabilization fund and gross domestic product. according to the results of the descriptive statistics, between 2005 and 2020, sf averaged 18.32%, fdf averaged 18.94, and gdp averaged 17.02%, nif averaged 19.14%, according to table 1. all the variables are negatively skewed and have values smaller than zero, which shows that the distribution tails to the left of the mean, according to skewness, a measure of the shape of the distribution. nif, fgf, and sf are examples of platykurtic (fat or short-tailed) variables. conversely, leptokurtic (slim or long-tailed) variables are those with kurtosis values greater than three, and gdp was shown to be leptokurtic. a statistical test called the jarque-bera statistic was used to determine whether the series were normally distributed or not. it was discovered that the variables were all regularly distributed. the assumption behind this is that all probability values were discovered to be higher than 0.05. 4.2. unit root test result the unit root test was used to determine the stationary status of the variables using the augmented dickey fuller (adf) technique. this was done to make sure that the data for the variables used in the model do not vary excessively and prevent erroneous regression findings. results from estimating regression using non-stationary data series can sometimes be erroneous and unreliable. as a result, table 2 shows the outcomes of the unit root tests: table 2. summary of unit root test results of 1st and 0 order test result of the variables. variable pp test statistics critical values order of integration gdp -4.155252 -3.5620012** i (0) nif -3.142250 -3.557543** i (1) fgf -3.966352 -3.557759** i (1) sf -4.369988 -4.222571* i (0) note: the tests include intercept and trend; * significant at 1%; ** significant at 5%. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 58-64 62 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group unit root test was carried out using phillips perron (pp) technique to determine the stationary state of the variables in order to make sure that the data for the variables utilized in the model do not fluctuate unnecessarily. table 1 lists the outcomes of the unit root testing. two of the variables (gdp and sf), according to the pp test, were discovered to be stationary at levels and at 5% and 1% level of significance, respectively. as a result, levels for the two relevant variables were rejected by the unit roots pp test. nif and fgf, however, were discovered to be stationary at the first difference at the 5% level of significance. the variables pass the requirement for employing the limits approach to the co-integration test because they were all discovered to be stationary at various orders. 4.3. bounds cointegration test the statistical inference that there is a long-term relationship between economic variables is called cointegration. thus, using the bound test technique to co-integration, the paper investigates the linear combination of the non-stationary variables discovered in the unit-root test. the outcome is shown in table 3. table 3. co-integration result showing the bound test. f-bounds test null hypothesis: no levels relationship test statistic value signif. i (0) i (1) f-statistic 5.055705 10% 2.37 3.2 k 3 5% 2.79 3.67 2.5% 3.15 4.08 1% 3.65 4.66 the outcome showed that there is co-integration between the variables. at the 5% level of significance, the fstatistics value of 5.055705 is bigger than the lower and upper bound values. the presence of a long-run equilibrium link between the sovereign wealth fund and economic development in nigeria between 2015 and 2020 is therefore sufficiently demonstrated. the outcome consequently demonstrates that the sovereign wealth fund has a long-term impact on economic growth in nigeria during the study period. table 4. auto-regressive distributive lag-error correction regression result. ardl error correction regression dependent variable: dlog(gdp) selected model: ardl (3, 3, 3, 3) case 2: restricted constant and no trend date: 08/12/22 time: 15:38 sample: 2015q1 2020q4 included observations: 21 ecm regression case 2: restricted constant and no trend variable coefficient std. error t-statistic prob. dlog(gdp(-1)) 0.007137 0.094780 0.075305 0.9429 dlog(gdp(-2)) -0.279421 0.107479 -2.599776 0.0483 dlog(nif) 0.034460 0.133945 0.257269 0.8072 dlog(nif(-1)) -0.302357 0.142037 -2.128728 0.0865 dlog(nif(-2)) -0.242821 0.138900 -1.748173 0.1409 dlog(fgf) -0.489069 0.169259 -2.889468 0.0342 dlog(fgf(-1)) 1.046799 0.193517 5.409331 0.0029 dlog(fgf(-2)) 1.355017 0.203853 6.647027 0.0012 dlog(sf) 0.341420 0.143640 2.376917 0.0634 dlog(sf(-1)) -0.814711 0.167271 -4.870614 0.0046 dlog(sf(-2)) -0.932262 0.158643 -5.876480 0.0020 cointeq(-1)* -0.411354 0.060982 -6.745469 0.0011 r-squared 0.934801 mean dependent var 0.020079 adjusted r-squared 0.855112 s.d. dependent var 0.135373 s.e. of regression 0.051529 akaike info criterion -2.797802 sum squared resid 0.023897 schwarz criterion -2.200932 log likelihood 41.37693 hannan-quinn criter. -2.668266 durbin-watson stat 1.688068 note: * p-value incompatible with t-bounds distribution. future generation fund, nigeria infrastructure fund, stabilization fund, economic growth, gross domestic product -0.411354. table 4 presents, which according to expectation in the result, the error correction term (ect) parameter is negative, smaller than unity, and significant at the 5% level. if there is any disequilibrium in the system, the ect value of 0.411354 indicates that it takes an average speed of 41.13 percent to return to the long-run. the coefficient of determination (r-square) was utilized to demonstrate the model's capacity for explanation and the accuracy of the estimates. it shows how the model has a good match for prediction. it revealed that nif, fgf, and nif were each responsible for 93.48 percent of changes in economic growth, with the error term accounting for the remaining 6.52 percent of unaccounted variations. the durbin watson (dw) statistic of 1.688 provided by the model also suggested that the variables do not autocorrelate (which fell within the acceptable range of 1.5 and 2.4). this demonstrated that the estimations were objective and trustworthy for making policy choices. 4.4. statistical test of hypotheses the three hypotheses proposed in this study were examined using the wald f-statistic test and its related pvalues because the level of significance for the study was 5% (for the two-tailed test) (probability value). the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 58-64 63 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group variable in question is indicated to be statistically significant at the 5% level if the pv is less than 5% or 0.05 (i.e., pv 0.05); otherwise, it is not significant at that level. hypothesis one: h01: nigerian infrastructural fund has no significant effect on gross domestic products in nigeria. table 5. results of wald test on nigerian infrastructural fund and gdp. test statistic f-value df probability f-statistic 4.52211 (3, 2) 0.00152 chi-square 21.98571 3 0.00000 the computed f-value for the nigerian infrastructural fund was 4.52211, and its probability value was 0.00152, according to the wald-test in table 5. the initial null hypothesis (h01) was rejected since the probability value is less than 0.05 at the 5% level of significance, which places it in the rejection region. the outcome consequently demonstrates that nigeria's gross domestic product is significantly impacted by the nigerian infrastructural fund. hypothesis two: h02: future generation fund has no significant effect on gross domestic products in nigeria. table 6. results of wald test on future generation fund and gdp. test statistic f-value df probability f-statistic 4.669633 (3, 3) 0.00169 chi-square 24.11477 3 0.00014 table 6's wald-test results showed that future generation fund's computed f-value was 4.669633 and its probability value was 0.00169. the analysis rejects the second null hypothesis (h02) and comes to the conclusion that the future generation fund significantly affects gross domestic products in nigeria since the probability value is also less than 0.05 or the five percent level of significance and fell in the rejection zone. hypothesis three: h03: stabilization fund has no significant effect on gross domestic products in nigeria. table 7. results of wald test on stabilization fund and gdp. test statistic f-value df probability f-statistic 5.225221 (3, 4) 0.0011 chi-square 68.02593 3 0.0000 the wald-test in table 7, indicated that the f-value for the relationship between stabilization fund and gdp was found to be 5.225221 and its probability value is 0.0011. since the probability value is less than 0.05 or 5percent level of significance, and fell in the rejection region, we reject the third null hypothesis (h03). the study concludes that stabilization fund has a significant and positive effect on gross domestic products in nigeria. 4.5. robustness test results to determine the reliability of the findings, the article ran a number of post-estimation diagnostic tests. we performed tests for heteroscedasticity, normality, and the serial correlation lagragian multiplier test (for higher order autocorrelation). any one of these diagnostic tests must have a probability-value (p-value) greater than 0.05, or 5% threshold of significance, in order for the null hypothesis to be accepted. the residual test results are therefore presented in table 5: table 8. robustness (test) results. tests outcomes coefficient probability breusch-godfrey-serial-correlation test f-stat. 1.885522 0.1985 heteroscedasticity-arch test f-stat. 1.369990 0.2577 normality test jarque-bera 0.566987 0.1258 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 iv i ii iii iv 2019 2020 cusum 5% significance figure 1. cusum stability. the results of the ardl model, which are shown in table 8, showed that there were no indications of serial correlation or heteroskedasticity in the estimated ardl model, as both of their p-values (0.1985 and 0.2577) were determined to be higher than 0.05 or 5%. according to the jarque-bera test for normal distribution, the outcome asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 58-64 64 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group also attained a normal distribution with a bell-shaped symmetrical distribution at the 5% significance level. this was represented by the jarque-bera probability value of 0.1258, which was discovered to be greater than 0.05. the regression equation is correctly defined and the model is stable, according to the cumulative sum (cusum) stability test in figure 1, because the plots of the charts are within the critical bounds at the 5% level of significance. 5. discussion of findings according to study results, nigeria's gross domestic product is significantly impacted by the nigerian infrastructural fund. it was inferred that carefully thought out domestic investment may support economic expansion and diversification away from risky reliance on a single, dominant resource. the results of this analysis contradict those of oleka et al. (2014) who found a statistically significant but negative relationship between swf and economic growth in nigeria. additionally, the analysis demonstrated that nigeria's gross domestic product is significantly impacted by the future generation fund. the implication of this finding is that keeping a sovereign wealth fund could help the nation dramatically lessen the culture of careless spending associated with boom-era incomes. this is consistent with the adage that "saving for a rainy day" has been used for ages. above all, the study discovered that nigeria's gross domestic product is significantly impacted by the stability fund. the findings have important implications for the nigerian economy, which still depends on a single source of income and is susceptible to declines in resource revenue. the stability fund's presence acts as a safety net against ensuing revenue shortfalls. 6. conclusion and recommendations this analysis showed how the gdp of nigeria increased from q1 2015 to q4 2020 as a result of the nigerian sovereign wealth fund. the research's theoretical and empirical underpinnings were examined in this publication. the sovereign wealth fund has gained widespread recognition in the contemporary global economy, particularly in developed economies, and is now seen as a legitimate path to economic growth, according to the empirical study. this is consistent with research findings that indicated the nigerian economy was positively and significantly impacted by the infrastructure fund, future generation fund, and stabilization fund. the analysis comes to the conclusion that nigeria's sovereign wealth fund has a major impact on the country's ability to sustain economic growth. because of this, it is crucial that all levels of nigerian government ensure that the investment is not mismanaged. only by demanding transparency and responsibility in the management of the fund can this be possible. the following suggestions are made in light of the empirical findings: i. if the government wishes to continue the expansion of the economy and the improvement of nigerians, adequate oversight and monitoring of the infrastructure fund should be required and pursued. this can be accomplished by making sure that its business is managed transparently, exactly like in the world's wealthy nations, and without getting bogged down in politics. ii. the public, investors, and nigerian governments at all levels should support and expedite efforts to catch up with the worldwide movement focused toward realizing the relevance of the future generation fund in order to reclaim the lost ground. this will contribute to greater social, economic, and human development as well as increased economic revenue creation. iii. to achieve stable and slow economic progress, nigeria should observe how stabilization funds are managed in wealthy nations. state and local governments should be permitted to establish and manage their own swfs independently for sustainable economic growth rather than the federal government making it a national concern. references anderson, e. c. (2010). take the money and run. westport: prater security international. barney, j. b., & hesterly, w. s. (2009). strategy management and competitive advantage. new york: reason prentice hall. barney, j. (2001). firm resources and sustainable competitive advantage. journal of management, 5(1), 17. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639101700108 bernstein, s. (2009). the investment strategies of sovereign wealth funds. retrieved from working paper 14.861, national bureau of economics research, ambridge. davis, f. s. (1997). toward a stewardship theory of management. academy of management review, 22(1), 22-47. gbogbo, b. e. (2013). nigerian sovereign wealth funds to start investing in march bloomberg, com. retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-12-20/ hassan, t. s. (2009). sovereign wealth funds. their investment strategies and performance paper. retrieved from http://ssrn.com/abetrad=1262383 kerlinger, f. n., & howard, b. l. (2013). foundations of behavioural research. in (4th ed., vol. 890, pp. 77-89). belmont, ca: wadsworth. knill, a. m., lee, b. s., & mauck, n. (2012). sovereign wealth fund investment and the return-to-risk performance of target firms. journal of financial intermediation, 21(2), 315-340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfi.2011.10.001 oleka, d. c., ugwuanyi, b. u., & ewah, e. b. (2014). sovereign wealth fund and economic growth in nigeria: an empirical analysis. iosr journal of economics and finance, 4(5), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.9790/5933-0450320 organization for economic co-operation development. (2016). (oecd). guidlines on corporate governance of state-owned enterprises, 68(1), 2-41 ujah, e. (2013). sovereign wealth funds take off with 1billion dollar grant, vanguards. retrieved from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/12/ wolla, s. a. (2013). what are the ingredients for economic growth? page one economics: economic research, federal reserve bank of st. louis. retrieved from https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/page1-econ/2013/09/01/what-are-the-ingredients-for-economicgrowth/ asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639101700108 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-12-20/ http://ssrn.com/abetrad=1262383 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfi.2011.10.001 https://doi.org/10.9790/5933-0450320 https://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/12/ https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/page1-econ/2013/09/01/what-are-the-ingredients-for-economic-growth/ https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/page1-econ/2013/09/01/what-are-the-ingredients-for-economic-growth/ 88 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 3, 88-95, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i4.6005 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group israeli druze women in politics in the 21st century supporting versus inhibiting factors fathi shamma1 eman safadi2 amir knifes3 ( corresponding author) 1,2,3the academic arab college for education, israel. 1email: fathi.shamma@arabcol.ac.il 2email: eman111@inter.net.il 3email: amirkhnifess@arabcol.ac.il abstract the study aimed to examine the attitudes of the druze community regarding the integration of druze women in local and national politics. the sample contained 600 participants, aged 25-65, of whom 333 were males (55.5%) and 267 females (44.5%), were randomly sampled from all residents of the druze villages in the galilee and carmel regions of israel. the quantitative questionnaire contained 11 items, and a qualitative questionnaire containing two open-ended questions, in addition, the study used a short socio-demographic questionnaire ( age, gender, and education).the study found that there are those who encourage and promote the candidacy of druze women for leading positions in politics, while others prefer to hinder the progress of druze women, we concluded that there has been an increase in the level of awareness among members of the druze community regarding the integration of women in local and national politics most of the factors cited stem from the cultural-religious contexts and stereotypical perceptions that women do not have leadership skills. from the findings it can be concluded that there is an increase in awareness among members of the druze community regarding the rising status of women in general, and particularly their integration into social and political life. keywords: druze community, inhibiting factors, politics, supporting factors. citation | shamma, f., safadi, e., & knifes, a. (2024). israeli druze women in politics in the 21st century supporting versus inhibiting factors. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(4), 88–95. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i4.6005 history: received: 13 march 2024 revised: 10 september 2024 accepted: 28 september 2024 published: 8 october 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this research is supported by the center for applicable druze studies. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the academic arab college for education, israel has granted approval for this study (ref. no. 2245). transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 89 2. theoretical background ................................................................................................................................................................. 89 3. research method and procedure .................................................................................................................................................. 91 4. findings ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 91 5. discussion and conclusions ........................................................................................................................................................... 93 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 95 mailto:fathi.shamma@arabcol.ac.il mailto:eman111@inter.net.il mailto:amirkhnifess@arabcol.ac.il https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i4.6005 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 88-95 89 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the study adds unique knowledge to the literature as it is the first to be carried out among the druze community in israel and sheds light on the development of the status of women in druze society as well as the change in the attitudes of men, especially the religious among them, towards the integration of druze women in politics, as well as encouraging women more and more to take part in public action in general and local and national politics in particular. 1. introduction in recent decades, there have been major changes in the status of women in the entire democratic world, including in israel, thanks to two main parameters: the entry of many women into the wage labor market and an impressive increase in their level of education. throughout the democratic world, as the professional literature points out, these changes have led to an increase in the political activity of women, as well as in their achievements in the political field (reynolds, 1999; shapira, king, friedberg, & itzkovich, 2013). in israel too, the involvement of women in political activity has increased. more and more women are presenting their candidacies for the knesset and local authority elections with each election cycle, and women's organizations have encouraged and promoted this trend (akirav & ben-horin naot, 2015). however, their success in election cycles has not increased, women are still not properly represented in the centers of power and influence, and their numbers in politics have not increased significantly. this situation places the representation of women in the knesset of israel at a low level compared to that of legislatures in other countries (nagged, 2013). changes in the local political landscape are indeed taking place, but they are probably insufficient, as the results of the local elections show (nagged, 2013). previous to the last election, only 12% of those elected to municipal authorities in israel were women; of 3,250 elected officials in the local councils only 376 were female; only 5 women out of 255 served as head of a municipal authority, and in the elections only three women were elected to head a local authority (akirav & ben-horin naot, 2015; central bureau of statistics, 2013). in israeli society, a number of factors come together to cause the exclusion of women from politics: the reluctance of women in a very family-oriented society to engage in politics for fear that it would come at the expense of responsibility for the household and the upbringing of children, the centrality of the security issue overpowering issues of inequality, as well as the cultural norms that define the public space and especially the political one as an arena intended for men, where the figure of the successful woman seems to be contrary to the female stereotype (akirav & ben-horin naot, 2015). another variable that makes it difficult for women in israeli society to serve in israel’s houses of representatives, is political culture, as reflected in society's conservatism and openness towards the inclusion of women in positions of influence (similar to conservative catholic countries such as ireland and italy). the society’s conservatism may also explain the under-representation of women in israel’s knesset, at least with regard to two social groups, arabs and ultra-orthodox, who together make up more than a quarter of the population. the political parties representing the majority of those citizens belonging to these population groups do not tend to place women on the lists of their candidates. thus, throughout the years of israel as a state, we find a very limited number of women in the knesset (reynolds, 1999; shapira et al., 2013). ensuring the representation of women is a temporary mechanism, the purpose of which is to help overcome ritual, convention and norms, as well as gender perceptions that create actual discrimination. it is a temporary mechanism designed to correct past distortions, and to create an egalitarian political culture. the paper aiming to state the supporting versus inhibiting factors that affect druze women integrating in political life. 2. theoretical background 2.1. the druze in israel the druze community in israel is that country’s smallest minority group. at the end of 2019, the druze population in israel numbered about 147,000 (temporary figure), which is about 1.6% of the total population of the state of israel (central bureau of statistics, 2022). in 1957 the israeli government recognized the druze community as separate and independent, and in 1962 the government approved druze religious courts. this recognition paved the way for the separation of the community from the other minorities in the country, while emphasizing its uniqueness (dana, 1998). the druze are the least educated ethnic group in israel, and there are only a few druze economic entrepreneurs (ben-dor, 1995). most druze live in 22 villages in the north of the country: in the carmel, galilee and golan heights regions. most of their villages are homogeneous, inhabited only by druze, but some are incorporated with additional minorities (falah, 2005) and the druze lead independent and separate lives from the general israeli system (winryb, 1997). druze society in israel is a conservative one where the way of life is based on religion. the social structure of druze society is no different from that of arab society. at the center of druze society is the family both nuclear and extended (the "clan") and the community, with the druze perceiving themselves as part of the collective. although these feelings contribute to the individual and strengthen him, they also force him to submit to his commitment to family, to various family pressures, to over-involvement of his family in his actions and decisions, and to the demanding for conformity even in cases contrary to his personal aspirations (barakat, 1993; shamma & katz, 2018). in recent years, druze society has changed as a result of the close ties of community members, especially men, with members of jewish-israeli society. as a result of these changes, druze society is now defined as being in transition to modernity. characterized on the one hand by life in small villages, a strong religious belief and a strong influence of religious tradition and family and community authority on the life of the individual, on the other hand, the druze live in modern houses, are exposed to the modern jewish way of life, and many are interested in higher education and professional careers (abu az-al-din, 1984; seginer & halabi-kheir, 1998; seginer, shoyer, hossessi, & tannous, 2007). as a result, the self-perception of most druze combines two key elements: 1) the understanding that they are an independent, autonomous entity and one that deserves personal rights; and 2) collective selfasian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 88-95 90 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group perception manifested in feelings of belonging, strong commitment to family and community, and working to achieve family goals (shamma & katz, 2018; winryb, 1997). 2.2. the development of the status of the druze woman the druze religion gave a woman many rights; women in druze culture have enjoyed a very high spiritual status, the druze believe that women are the center of human and world society. the traditional role of women was to take care of the household and the family but their exposure to higher education and the development of science and technology have brought about significant changes in the last decade in defining the role of women in druze society (abbas, 2010). the rise in level of education, standard of living, and the sector’s consciousness and recognition by others have erased the isolationism that druze society has practiced until now, and has also left its mark on the status of druze woman (dana, 1998). the society finds itself dealing with two different trends, which to some extent contradict each other, the trend of preserving tradition, and the openness to the modern world (abbas, 2010). it should be emphasized and said that according to religious values the druze woman has great importance in her home and a respectable status in both her immediate family and in the extended society. the druze woman cannot be considered ‘oppressed’ as perhaps she can in other middle eastern arab societies. the religious code places the status of women as equal to that of men, the druze religion forbids polygamy, and it is the only monotheistic religion that allows a woman to be a spiritual leader and to fulfill all religious roles (abbas, 2010). in the last two decades the departure of druze women for higher education and work outside the village is a trend that has gained ground, and even been encouraged. at the same time, these trends are accompanied by concerns, doubts and the payment of a heavy religious price – a boycott that prevents the woman from being admitted to the religious camp. every female who breaks the social circle by pursuing higher education, working outside the village and driving a private car, is aware of the fact that she will have to overcome obstacles and social and religious barriers, and perhaps pay a heavy price for these luxuries for the remainder of her life (falah, 2005). 2.3. the breakthrough of druze women in the last two decades the portal carmel portal (2015) publishes accurate, substantiated data regarding the druze community in israel (not including the druze villages in the politically-contested golan heights) on all levels. the data are exclusive to the carmel portal and were collected from all relevant sources in israel. according to the materials in the portal, until 1994 the druze woman was a person for whom others decided what to do, what to study and where to be. in most cases, weddings were also the result of matchmaking efforts within the family. in early 1996, the status of women began to strengthen in druze rural society, especially in the carmel villages. this was the beginning of the reform in the status of the druze woman. the process began in the academic institutions, and was expressed quietly, in the change in the rustic-traditional attire. slowly more women began to study in higher education, develop financial careers, and shape their independent personas. there is no doubt that the local authorities elected from 1989 onwards had a key role in empowering women, allowing women to take part in aspects of the local election campaign. they shaped and contributed to changing the way druze women perceived themselves as well as how the rest of the population perceived them (dana, 1998; falah, 2005). in recent years, most druze women contribute to the family income by working outside the home, over 70% of young druze women hold an academic degree, with the majority engaged in the teaching profession (central bureau of statistics, 2022). the years 2008 to 2014 represented a period when druze women overcame many obstacles standing in their way and expanded into different professions. since then, the druze woman has integrated into every position in hospitals, factories, the legal system and even government directorates. they serve in the ministry of finance and represent israel in the foreign ministry’s political missions. they are successful in their work and are proud of their origins (central bureau of statistics, 2022; halabi, 2009). statistics have also shown that druze women from the villages in the north (galilee and golan regions) are more successful academically and economically than those who come from the druze villages in carmel, both in terms of their numbers and in terms of the key positions they occupy (central bureau of statistics, 2022). today's druze woman understands that self-development is her right. the next goal for druze women is to occupy key positions in local politics, in the supreme religious council and in the druze religious court. young druze women today no longer wait for approval and permission from males; rather, they open the doors for themselves. today the family, and especially the mothers of young girls, encourage their daughters to advance, learn and build a career for themselves, rather than spend their life in the confines of their husband’s home (abbas, 2010; halabi, 2009). a study comparing jewish and druze adolescents’ degree of autonomy, parental involvement, and peer involvement in their decision-making (shamma & katz, 2018) found that: 1) in both sectors, no differences were found between boys and girls in the degree of autonomy and involvement of peers. this finding probably stems from the exposure to general israeli society and the gradual transformation of druze society into a more modern and individualistic one. 2) no differences were found between jews and druze in the degree of overall autonomy in decision-making and in the degree of overall involvement of their parents and friends in this process. the conclusions that emerged from these findings were that druze society is becoming more similar to modern israeli jewish society in terms of autonomy and in terms of parental involvement in the decision-making process of adolescents, (shamma & asaqli, 2020; shamma & katz, 2018). the current situation in druze society indicates that this sector is beginning to break free of the shackles of male domination. a greater number of women seek higher education and integrate into the labor force. these developments are reflected in several trends in druze society, the most prominent of which is the decline in the birth rate among druze women. 2.4. participation and representation of druze women in political life in recent decades there has been an increase in the participation of women in political life, and yet the number of women taking active part in politics has remained considerably lower compared to men and in relation to their number in the population (shapira et al., 2013). sometimes even a small number of women can raise gender issues asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 88-95 91 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group for discussion, in societies where more women are elected to public positions, there is a tendency towards gender equality women in politics tend to promote gender issues related to motherhood, equality in the workplace, etc. (norris, 2004; wängnerud & sundell, 2012). in a survey conducted by the portal carmel portal (2015) druze women were asked their opinion regarding the involvement of druze women in politics. the women admitted they did not dare to engage in politics because they lived in a male-dominated society that did not tolerate prominence in females. in the women’s view, the woman must build herself and her independence; she is the complementary half in society and deserves at least 50% percent in the decision-making. indeed, the druze woman is a very dynamic figure when it comes to conducting home and social life, but as for involvement in politics her voice is hardly heard. this is obviously the reason that no druze woman can be found running for election as mayor knesset membership; internal restraints preclude women from raising this issue even in their minds. undoubtedly it is difficult to change the druze tradition and values where men control the society politically. that said, there are a few women who have managed to freely express their political views and find support. in the last local elections (2018), two women were elected as local council members: one is noha jabar from kfar maghar, who was elected head of the communist-leaning hadash candidate list in that town, and the other is samira azzam from the druze city of isfiya, representing a new, independent party named ‘new isfiya, whose entire candidate list is composed of women. a positive trend can be seen compared to previous periods when there was no female representation in the druze communities. in addition, in the last election, a young druze woman named jadir marich joined hosen l’yisrael a socially-liberal, politically center party, and was placed in the 25th slot of the final candidate list when the party eventually united with the blue & white party for the 21st knesset elections. the list received 35 seats in the election (of a total 120 seats in the knesset) and marich was seated in the 21st knesset as the first druze woman to serve as a knesset member (koenig & shapira, 2018). 3. research method and procedure 3.1. participants the current study involved 200 participants aged 25-65, of whom 111 were males (55.5%) and 89 females (44.5%). participants were randomly sampled from all residents of the druze villages in the galilee and carmel. 3.2. research tool for the purpose of measuring the variables in the present study, two questionnaires were compiled since the study utilized the mixed-method research, combining the two approaches: qualitative and quantitative. 1. a quantitative questionnaire containing 11 items. the items are measured on a 5-point likert scale, with the participant being asked to rate their degree of agreement with each statement from 1 (do not agree at all) to 5 (strongly agree). did you build the questionnaire or take it from previous studies? this must be noted and the process of writing the items emphasized. 2. a qualitative questionnaire containing two open-ended questions. 3. in addition, the study used a short socio-demographic questionnaire, which addressed the independent variables in the study. participants were asked to indicate their age, gender, and education table 1. 4. for uniformity in the directionality of the scale for certain items, a reversal of scales was performed. among the scale items we found cronbach's alpha reliability adequate (0.62-0.98), while cronbach's alpha reliability of the instrument was .944. table 1. study participants demographics (gender, education level, age). variable category number percentage gender male 333 55.5% female 267 44.5% education academic 336 56.0% non-academic 264 44.0% age 25-40 309 51.3% 41+ 291 48.7% table 1 presents the participants demographic distribution, gender male 55.5% female 44.5%, education level 56%are academic and 45% are non, and the age 51.3% (25-40) , 48.7% (41+). 3.3. research process the questionnaires were distributed to participants in the druze villages in the galilee and carmel regions. participants were randomly selected with the intent of including all levels of education, age and gender. 4. findings means and standard deviations related to the evaluation of the sample were calculated for all areas of research, for the purpose of examining the degree of potential integration of druze woman in politics. high scores resulted for statements such as: ‘the family is a significant supportive factor in the woman’s life’, ‘there is belief in the ability of women to make decisions’, there is belief in the ability of women to lead politically and socially’, and ‘there is a belief in women and their right to apply for senior positions, especially in the political sphere’. people also reported a willingness to support a woman's candidacy to lead politically. on the other hand, there are statements that received a low rating as being a hindrance for women immersing themselves in the political arena: education and raising children, gender-based discrimination, lack of belief in a woman's power to strive for a political career, and the difficulties that women will encounter in the political sphere. also, the mean results of certain items showed a medium level, such as item1 (the family has an influence on a woman's decision to run as a candidate in most cases.) with a mean of (4.23),we can attribute that to the close asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 88-95 92 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group relationship within the druze family and the respect between the singles, item 11 (the difficulties that women face in getting involved in politics are more than that faced by men) with a mean of (1.79), here we can say that women a carrying-up duties more complicated than men and they are multi-tasking. table 2. means & standard deviation. no. item mean s.d. level 1 the family has an influence on a woman's decision to run as a candidate in most cases. 4.23 1.033 high 2 women have the ability to make decisions in difficult situations. 4.16 1.044 high 3 women are capable of political and social leadership 4.12 1.028 high 4 the right to elect or to be elected is granted to all citizens, regardless of gender 4.11 1.215 high 5 women have proven their worth in many areas such as politics 4.00 1.096 high 6 i have no objection to support women in the elections as a candidate for membership or the presidency of the local authority 3.88 1.294 high 7 i support druze women competing for political and leadership positions 3.77 1.382 high 8 raising children is an obstacle to women’s participation in local elections 2.42 2.42 moderate 9 the policy of marginalization in the political representation of women in general and for druze women in particular is maqsood 2.30 2.30 low 10 women who run for elections face negative discrimination by society in many areas of power 2.09 2.09 low 11 the difficulties that women face in getting involved in politics are more than that faced by men 1.79 1.79 low total 3.39 3.35 moderate table 3. means, standard deviation, t-test regarding to gender. item gender n mean s.d. t sig. women are capable of political and social leadership m 111 3.96 1.087 1.98 0.020 f 89 4.30 0.922 i have no objection to support women in the elections as a candidate for membership or the presidency of the local authority m 111 3.74 1.305 1.98 0.085 f 89 4.06 1.265 women have proven their worth in many areas such as politics m 111 3.79 1.199 1.98 0.003 f 89 4.25 0.895 the right to elect or to be elected is granted to all citizens, regardless of gender m 111 4.08 1.200 1.98 0.708 f 89 4.15 1.239 the difficulties that women face in getting involved in politics are more than that faced by men m 111 1.66 0.879 1.98 0.042 f 89 1.94 1.101 raising children is an obstacle to women’s participation in local elections m 111 2.17 1.119 1.98 0.001 f 89 2.73 1.223 women who run for elections face negative discrimination by society in many areas of power m 111 1.85 0.844 1.98 0.000 f 89 2.38 1.061 the family has an influence on a woman's decision to run as a candidate in most cases m 111 4.18 0.886 1.98 0.355 f 89 4.29 0.801 the policy of marginalization in the political representation of women in general and for druze women in particular is maqsood m 111 2.15 1.080 1.98 0.039 f 89 2.47 1.078 women have the ability to make decisions in difficult situations m 111 3.93 1.118 1.98 0.000 f 89 4.45 0.866 i support druze women competing for political and leadership positions m 111 3.69 1.438 1.98 0.416 f 89 3.85 1.310 total m 111 3.20 0.526 1.98 0.000 f 89 3.53 0.554 tables 2 & 3 present another question that emerged from the findings is whether there are statistically significant differences concerning the integration of druze women in politics according to the replies of women vs men, according to respondents’ level of education and according to their age. thus, the averages and standard deviations were calculated alongside the t test for the responses, according to the male/female gender of the study participants. throughout almost all the statements, save for a number of items indicated by an asterisk (*) in the table women expressed more faith than did men in the druze female’s ability to integrate into politics. the difference in means, however, was not significant, so that no significant differences were found that could be attributed to gender. it seems that there is agreement between both sexes that women have the right to run in elections and to be involved in political life, both at the national level and at the local/community level. table 4. means, standard deviation, t-test regarding to academic non-academic. item n mean s.d. t sig. women are capable of political and social leadership a 112 4.21 0.924 1.546 0.124 n 88 3.99 1.140 i have no objection to support women in the elections as a candidate for membership or the presidency of the local authority a 112 3.98 1.259 1.261 0.209 n 88 3.75 1.333 women have proven their worth in many areas such as politics a 112 4.06 1.042 0.983 0.327 n 88 3.91 1.161 the right to elect or to be elected is granted to all citizens, regardless of gender a 112 4.27 1.115 2.091 0.038 n 88 3.91 1.310 a 112 1.79 0.934 0.011 0.991 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 88-95 93 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group item n mean s.d. t sig. the difficulties that women face in getting involved in politics are more than that faced by men n 88 1.78 1.066 raising children is an obstacle to women’s participation in local elections a 112 2.44 1.137 0.233 0.816 n 88 2.40 1.273 women who run for elections face negative discrimination by society in many areas of power a 112 2.22 0.908 2.271 0.024 n 88 1.91 1.046 the family has an influence on a woman's decision to run as a candidate in most cases a 112 4.29 0.788 1.047 0.296 n 88 4.16 0.921 the policy of marginalization in the political representation of women in general and for druze women in particular is maqsood a 112 2.53 1.057 3.493 0.001 n 88 2.00 1.061 women have the ability to make decisions in difficult situations a 112 4.21 0.960 0.692 0.490 n 88 4.10 1.145 i support druze women competing for political and leadership positions a 112 3.95 1.251 2.113 0.036 n 88 3.53 1.508 total a 112 3.45 0.521 2.881 0.004 n 88 3.22 0.590 table 4 presents: another background variable examined was the academic/non-academic education of the study participants. no significant differences were found that can be attributed to education, save for the items indicated with an asterisk (*). these can be attributed to the responses of academics whose increase in awareness of the importance of women vying for political positions stems from themselves having exited the village and ‘rubbed shoulders’ with other societies, especially the modern israeli jewish society. table 5. means, standard deviation, t-test regarding to age. item age n mean s.d. t sig. women are capable of political and social leadership 25-40 102 4.16 1.041 0.509 0.611 +41 97 4.08 1.017 i have no objection to support women in the elections as a candidate for membership or the presidency of the local authority 25-40 102 3.96 1.258 0.852 0.395 +41 97 3.80 1.336 women have proven their worth in many areas such as politics 25-40 102 4.08 1.059 1.035 0.302 +41 97 3.92 1.133 the right to elect or to be elected is granted to all citizens, regardless of gender 25-40 102 4.16 1.167 0.549 0.583 +41 97 4.06 1.273 the difficulties that women face in getting involved in politics are more than that faced by men 25-40 102 1.84 1.060 0.861 0.390 +41 97 1.72 0.921 raising children is an obstacle to women’s participation in local elections 25-40 102 2.40 1.229 0.243 0.809 +41 97 2.44 1.172 women who run for elections face negative discrimination by society in many areas of power 25-40 102 2.05 1.066 0 .534 0.594 +41 97 2.12 0.893 the family has an influence on a woman's decision to run as a candidate in most cases 25-40 102 4.23 0.911 -0.096 0.924 +41 97 4.24 0.788 the policy of marginalization in the political representation of women in general and for druze women in particular is maqsood 25-40 102 2.23 1.052 0.941 0.348 +41 97 2.37 1.130 women have the ability to make decisions in difficult situations 25-40 102 4.21 0.988 0.622 0.535 +41 97 4.11 1.108 i support druze women competing for political and leadership positions 25-40 102 3.93 1.359 1.707 0.089 +41 97 3.60 1.397 total 25-40 102 3.39 0.539 0.866 0.388 +41 97 3.32 0.588 table 5 presents the variable age of 25-40 vs 40 and above, was also a parameter we examined. as can be seen from no significant differences were found that can be attributed to the age variable, the authors attribute that to the high awareness of the druze society in all the ages. 5. discussion and conclusions the present study examined the attitudes of the druze community towards the druze woman's potential entry and integration into politics. for this purpose, two questionnaires were compiled, one quantitative with 11 items, and the other qualitative with two open-ended questions. most of the research focused on examining the factors that promote and hinder the integration of druze women in both local and national politics. similar studies have been done in different societies both in israel and in other countries, though this is the first to focus on druze society. the current study involved 200 participants aged 25-65, of whom 111 were male (55.5%) and 89 female (44.5%). participants were randomly sampled from all druze villages in the galilee and carmel. the discussion section will present the findings of the current study. for each finding, its suitability for the findings of previous studies detailed in the introduction will be examined, and possible explanations will be offered for these findings, which do not correspond to the findings of the literature. finally, the conclusions of the current study, its implications at the theoretical and applied level, the limitations of the research and suggestions for further research will be presented. 1. promoting factors: the respondents indicated nine components that help and contribute to the advancement of a woman's candidacy for both local and national political positions. a) the woman's personality and skills, her ability to lead: about 35% of the respondents stated that the woman's personality, skills and ability to lead enable her to integrate into political life. women's leadership style can explain their involvement in social arenas as a springboard to political arenas (padró i miquel & snyder, 2004; saalfeld, 1997). also, personal aspiration has an important role in the field of political leadership; this can be attributed to the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 88-95 94 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group process of modernization openness that druze society is undergoing. the social and economic expression of this process can be seen in the proportion of women entering the labor market and integrating into institutions of higher learning. over 60% of all druze students in academia are female, who as a result of exposure and involvement with the other social sectors, import new ideas and initiatives into druze society, which until recently was considered traditional and closed. one of the study participants wrote that "a woman's stubbornness to promote and break through society's boundaries, brings her to successes and even upgrades her both socially and economically, and for that she deserves support and reinforcement." b) family support: about 30% of all respondents indicated that family support is important for advancing the status of women and their integration into politics. previous studies have found that participation in the local political arena is possible for women who have family support, who work full-time without family commitments and who have adult children and work full-time or do not work at all (akirav & ben-horin naot, 2015; barron, crawley, & wood, 1991; randall, 1987). there is a gap in the perception of this issue between religious and non-religious people. the former expressed opposition to the woman's integration into politics and stated that they were not willing to support a woman who is politically active. within this category, too, there was a difference between women and men, with some religious women expressing support for a woman's political candidacy, perceiving them as a force that defends women’s interests and status within society. support for women in politics can mean the equal distribution of household and family tasks between women and men. cultural changes have led many men to increase their partnership in household tasks, including child care, thus giving women time and space for political activity (akirav & ben-horin naot, 2015). some of our respondents commented that "it is not a shame to be a partner in the home in everything that happens. it is good for a woman who goes out to work to help with the household economy, and it is a personal example for children to see a partnership between the two parents." c) social status and family affiliation: about 50% of respondents commented in the open-ended questions, that social status and family affiliation have a major impact on a woman’s ability to run for political office. a larger and more established family increases her likelihood for success, but there are some exceptional cases of women from non-wealthy families who have managed to succeed in politics such as noha jabar from kfar maghar. d) increased awareness of the importance of women's status: this factor was particularly prominent among women and young respondents who emphasized the importance of women's integration into social life, including politics. the role of the woman does not begin and end in the household and the small family circle, but rather she has the ability and right to go beyond these circles and express her abilities and skills to lead and to make cultural changes. the deepening of the partnership between the man and woman at home prepares the ground for the woman to exercise her right to integrate into political life and strengthen her status, even at the expense of the opposite gender, who was not late in giving her demands a place and legitimacy. e. the woman as promoter of the status of women: this factor stood out among most women who viewed the entry of women into politics as contributing to and advancing the status of women both within druze society and in israeli society in general. 2. inhibiting factors: the concept that mmulticulturalism is undesirable and does not promote women. as with any dilemma between preserving tradition and promoting women's rights, in patriarchal societies there is a sort of built-in discrimination against women, where the preservation of morality hinders their advancement (okin, 1999). the process of weakening women means that they are poorer in resources economically, politically and culturally. this situation makes it difficult for them to gain power, establish leadership and create a gender agenda; it affects their ability to mobilize female and feminist leadership. even if one continues to fight for institutional resources and their place in the institutional and hierarchical structure, it is mandatory to find other sources of power. the main source of empowerment for women is where they are "naturally". there are many factors that hinder the integration of women in the political sphere, and this is true in particular for druze women. these factors set up barriers that are the direct reason for women's weak participation in national or local politics. a) society and even the woman herself perceive her as a second-class citizen, including in her rights. this situation is the result of a male-dominated society which controls the worldview over family and society. a man has the right to make decisions, take control of the woman and suppress her desires, even restrict the woman’s activities. thus, society educates generations to view the female as weak and unable to deal with difficult issues, such as politics. b) culture and society have determined that a woman's workplace is inside the home, and that she is expected to take responsibility and perform the tasks assigned to her in the most complete way. hence, a woman's entry into politics will make it difficult for her to perform the same tasks, and will even be a source of unnecessary trouble and rivalry for her and her family. c) there is little awareness and belief about the importance of women being in senior positions in politics and in positions of decision making. political parties do not tend to offer women senior positions. this factor was conspicuous in the responses of non-academic study participants who seem to devalue women's abilities and skills, and for whom the stereotypical thinking that the woman is weak and unable to lead, is perpetuated. d) economic issues limit a woman's entry into the political sphere, as a political campaign typically demands financial resources. a similar situation exists in the entry of women into the business world. e) the education process given to every female by her family from childhood is that her role is to eventually marry, have children and work in the household. she is told throughout childhood that a woman should be dependent on a man, and that her existence depends solely on the support of the male head of her household. she is, traditionally, not given the space that allows her to develop and highlight her abilities and skills. f) the media plays a significant part in suppressing women's joining politics, as the media has a crucial role in introducing new politicians to the public. men's success stories in politics are presented to the public through the media, and this exposure ramps up support for them. reading of a woman's success story in the media is rare. it is important to note that this is due to the paucity of opportunities women have to be exposed to areas like politics and other social life. g ( religion: quite a few respondents noted that a woman is sacred and should not come into contact with men who are not close relatives. also, she is strictly forbidden to be outside the house for full days and nights. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 88-95 95 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group in summary, there has been an increase in the level of awareness among members of the druze community regarding the integration of women in both local and national politics, although there are still opponents especially in the older population of our survey (age 45-61), who emphasize the role of women beginning and ending with concern for the family. we found a chain of factors that promote and others that inhibit, but certainly the percentage of supporters of female integration was greater and the trend will probably only increase over time. the challenge facing the family in general, and particularly the woman is a unique one that requires time and the reorganization of the entire family. the woman's entry into the labor market has transformed the family as there are now two breadwinners per family and quality of life has risen. it is important to encourage the woman's meeting other challenges including politics. this system of change not only applies to israeli jewish culture or western culture but also permeates to arab and druze culture. the question now after the transition to post-modernization is how will life be conducted within the druze family and how will the women’s involvement in politics impact druze society? what are the other areas that the druze woman aspires to enter? these are open-ended questions that future studies will answer. references abbas, r. (2010). the status of women in druze society between tradition and progress. ramat hasharon: the heritage center, the intelligence. abu az-al-din, n. (1984). the druze in history. beirut: el -shouf exihbition. akirav, a., & ben-horin naot, y. (2015). did you hear my voice? from civil participation to political participation of women in local politics in: a. barry, and a. razin (editors). local democracy in israel: decentralization, locality, participation and local politics. in (pp. 1155). jerusalem: florsheimer research at the hebrew university. barakat, h. (1993). the arab world: society, culture and state. berkely, ca: university of california press. barron, j., crawley, g., & wood, t. (1991). councilors in crisis: the public and private worlds of local councilors. basingstoke: macmillan. ben-dor, j. (1995). the druze in israel. jerusalem: ministry of defense. central bureau of statistics. (2013). central bureau of statistics. jerusalem: central bureau of statistics. central bureau of statistics. (2022). the statistical yearbook for israel no. 122. jerusalem: central bureau of statistics. dana, n. (1998). the druze. ramat gan: bar-ilan university press. falah, f. j. (2005). the druze woman, rishon litzion. retrieved from https://www.nli.org.il/he/books/nnl_aleph990032516690205171/nli halabi, r. (2009). economic leadership and entrepreneurship in the druze community in israel. dalyet el carmel, israel: asia publisher. koenig, e., & shapira, a. (2018). representation of women in local authorities. jerusalem: israeli kenesst press. nagged, m. (2013). women and local politics the disillusionment after the elections? parliament, 77, 1-6. norris, p. (2004). electoral engineering. cambridge: cambridge university press. okin, s. (1999). is multculturalism bad for women. ontario, canada: princton university press. padró i miquel, g., & snyder, j. m. (2004). legislative effectiveness and legislative life. james m., legislative effectiveness and legislative life (july 2004). http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.576406 portal carmel portal. (2015). website. retrieved from http://www.karmel.co.il/ randall, d. m. (1987). commitment and the organization: the organization man revisited. the academy of management review, 12(3), 460–471. https://doi.org/10.2307/258513 reynolds, a. (1999). women in the legislatures and executives of the world: knocking at the highest glass ceiling. world politics, 51(4), 547572. saalfeld, t. (1997). professionalisation of parliamentary roles in germany: an aggregate‐level analysis, 1949–94. the journal of legislative studies, 3(1), 32-54. seginer, r., & halabi-kheir, h. (1998). adolescent passage to adulthood: future orientation in the context of culture, age, and gender. international journal of intercultural relations, 22(3), 309-328. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0147-1767(98)00010-8 seginer, r., shoyer, s., hossessi, r., & tannous, h. (2007). adolescent family and peer relationships: does culture matter? new directions for child and adolescent development, 2007(116), 83-99. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.190 shamma, f., & asaqli, e. (2020). gender differences in decisionmaking during adolescence: a comparison of jewish and druze societies. journal of educational and developmental psychology, 10(1), 60-70. https://doi.org/10.5539/jedp.v10n1p60 shamma, f., & katz, m. (2018). decision making during adolescence: a comparison of jewish druze societies. international journal of psychology studies, 10(4), 65-78. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v10n4p65 shapira, a., king, e., friedberg, h., & itzkovich, m. (2013). representation of women in politics: israel in a comparative view the israel institute for democracy. retrieved from https://www.idi.org.il/media/3317/99.pdf wängnerud, l., & sundell, a. (2012). do politics matter? women in swedish local elected assemblies 1970–2010 and gender equality in outcomes. european political science review, 4(1), 97-120. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1755773911000087 winryb, c. (1997). the mismeasure of diversity: reflections on the study of cross‐cultural differences. new directions for child and adolescent development, 76, 51-65. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.23219977606 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://www.nli.org.il/he/books/nnl_aleph990032516690205171/nli http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.576406 http://www.karmel.co.il/ https://doi.org/10.2307/258513 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0147-1767(98)00010-8 https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.190 https://doi.org/10.5539/jedp.v10n1p60 https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v10n4p65 https://www.idi.org.il/media/3317/99.pdf https://doi.org/10.1017/s1755773911000087 https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.23219977606 19 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 1, 19-28, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4445 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group importance of participatory narrative inquiry in sensitive research ludovick jacob myumbo department of sociology, st. augustine university of tanzania, tanzania. email: ludovick.myumbo@saut.ac.tz abstract this paper engages and persuades social researchers to use participatory narrative inquiry (pni) in their sensitive social research. pni is a pertinent approach which situates effective communication at the heart of social inquiry – it includes a form of personal interaction based on language, thought, and action which produced an appropriate climate that allows people to clarify their situation and generate personal solutions. yet, pni is rarely used in sensitive research. this study provides a window into its use in sensitive research from a perspective of a social researcher who has used it in exploring lived experience of young rural women who sell sex for livelihood in the suburbs of mwanza town, in tanzania. pni afforded a space for a group of six young rural women who are in sex industry to tell stories so as to make sense of their complex situations and redefine themselves. pni significantly helped the participants to speak about things that they would never have had a chance to speak about, reflect upon issues that would belong to the realm of taboo, and talk about subjects that they would not have been willing or able to speak about directly without the process of narrative inquiry. keywords: effective communication, participatory narrative inquiry, sensitive research, sex work, young rural women. citation | myumbo, l. j. (2023). importance of participatory narrative inquiry in sensitive research. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(1), 19–28. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4445 history: received: 4 november 2022 revised: 6 january 2023 accepted: 18 january 2023 published: 1 february 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 20 2. problem .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 20 3. participatory narrative inquiry .................................................................................................................................................... 21 4. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 25 5. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 26 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 26 mailto:ludovick.myumbo@saut.ac.tz https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i1.4445 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1420-2845 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 19-28 20 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature there is a lack of qualitative research in tanzania which allows young women who sell sex to speak about themselves and their lived experiences, from their own voice and perspectives. this shortcoming leads to stereotypes, skewed perceptions, and connotations. the study allows the voices of sex workers to be heard. 1. introduction a research is considered sensitive if it requires a disclosure of behaviours and/or attitudes which would normally be kept private and personal, or if it tackles issues which might result in discomfort and/or offence for people who are involved in the research process (dickson-swift, james, kippen, & liamputtong, 2006). yet social researchers are urged to explore a wide range of sensitive topics so as to enhance their understanding of issues that affect people’s lives (green, gregory, & mason, 2006). to successfully carry out a sensitive research, social researchers are counselled to use narrative approach which situates effective communication at the heart of social inquiry (altpeter, schopler, galinsky, & pennell, 1999). effective communication includes a form of personal interaction based on language, thought, and action which produces an appropriate climate that allows people to clarify their situations and generate personal solutions (clandinin & connelly, 2000). this relates well to a social-critical paradigm which combines reflection and practice to free a person at the same time as it transforms the situation (freire, 1970; habermas, 1984; rogers, 1980). when effective communication takes centre stage in sensitive research, ideas such reflexivity, critical thinking, conscientization, and emancipatory learning become relevant (foley, 1999). reflexivity, in the above perspective, builds confidence in individuals so that they are in a better position to understand issues that affect their lives and to learn to choose so as to build a future (beck, 1992). in this vein, the role of researcher is to present both the opportunities for emancipation and the dangers of oppression (ferguson, 2004) thereby allowing participants to make coherent choices for transformation (sewpaul, ntini, mkhize, & zandamela, 2015). transformation happens when participants begin to speak and become privileged sources of information (freire, 1970; habermas, 1984; rogers, 1980). 2. problem in tanzania, young rural men and women who relocate to urban centres in research for a better life but often end up living in suburbs and poor neighbourhoods where rents are low (bryceson, 2006). in these neighbourhoods they also encounter a wide range of problems, maybe more so than anybody else. the concrete problems include a lack of availability of basic services such as water, food, and health services (lawi, 2013). as a result, there is sometimes stiff and intense competition with the host communities for resources and services, leading to exclusion and segregation of the new incomers (msigwa & mbongo, 2013). because of the above situations, young rural-urban migrants find themselves in difficult positions and end up becoming socially immobile and inflexible (msigwa & mbongo, 2013). the situation is even worse for young rural women migrants: finding formal work, for example, can be particularly difficult for them, as there are few jobs, and they especially lack the qualifications that are needed for employment in the formal sector (sommers, 2010). due to this precarious situation, many of them position themselves and make a livelihood by depending on ‘small-small’ money, or perhaps by bartering items (stark, 2016; wamoyi, fenwick, urassa, zaba, & stones, 2011) as also reported in south africa (leclerc-madlala, 2003). when other options fail, bar attendant and/or sex work become the most immediate means of survival for many of them1 (stark, 2013, 2016). in my working with communities in the suburbs of mwanza town, as part of the outreach programme of st. augustine university of tanzania (saut), i met a young rural woman who had been lured into sex work. i was reduced to tears when i heard her many stories of exploitation, oppression, and abuse from men. i passionately wanted to do something about this state of affairs. as a person who had been socialized into patriarchy, i felt that i bore more responsibility for disrupting gender oppression of women which is perpetuated through male privilege, male role, and masculinity (hearn, ratele, & shefer, 2015). thereafter i sought to purposefully provide a platform where young rural women who sell in the suburbs of mwanza town would share stories of their experiences so as to offer me better prospects of understanding their situations and possibly be able to disrupt men’s oppression of women. this was important given that there is a general lack of qualitative research in tanzania which allows women, particularly sex workers, to recount their situations from their own voices and perspectives (unicef, 2006). a shortcoming which leads to connotation, skewed perceptions, stereotypes, and categorization of sex workers as deviant and vicious (matthews, 2008; quinn & rosenthal, 2012). apart from creating a platform for sharing stories, i also envisaged that a new set of social and cognitive processes would unfold that would be cathartic to young women who were surviving in and negotiating a complex body-related industry. this was critical in the context of tanzania where sex work – apart from being tedious, challenging, traumatic, dreadful, and dangerous – belongs to the realm of taboo where sex workers are not expected to talk about and/or reflect on their lived experience (beckham, 2013). besides, sex work is illegal in tanzania and is therefore criminalized and socially regarded to be reprehensible (government of the united republic of tanzania, 1981). because of this, some people come to believe that stigmatizing or even abusing a sex worker is justifiable, as she is seen as a criminal who deserves no good. as a result, sex workers often suffer from deeply held feelings of abuse, violence, exploitation, discrimination, oppression, and social stigma from many facets of society, including police and health officers (beckham, 2013). catharsis was therefore thought important as an explosive release of deeply held negative feelings which occurs when a person starts to experience validation and is given an opportunity to speak about and confide his/her lived experiences in someone interested and caring, alongside the opportunity to work through and express emotions (darra, 2008; dickson-swift et al., 2006; johnson, 2009). 1 a thin line exists between barmaid and sex worker in tanzania. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 19-28 21 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. participatory narrative inquiry kurtz (2014) participatory narrative inquiry (pni) which is regarded as a very pertinent approach for allowing people to be heard was found a pertinent approach for this study because of its capacity to free the voice from whatever disenables it from coming into being, and to face facts about the self (creswell & clark, 2007; mazzei & jackson, 2009). pni is and inductive approach which blends participatory and narrative approaches (see figure 1) for a group of people to work through their so as to unravel their complex situations (kurtz, 2014). i chose pni particularly because one of its essential characteristics is the discovery of knowledge by working bottom-up, using participants’ lived experiences to decipher broad and interconnected themes. in this way, pni allowed me to explore the lived experiences of participants from a new and different perspective, with freedom and openness as to the findings (creswell & clark, 2007). figure 1. blending participatory and narrative approaches to form pni. source: kurtz (2014). pni is also credited to be, and often is, an instrument which provokes affective thinking about events through talking about them and hearing them being told (abbott, 2008). it is said that memory itself is dependent on the narratives, for “we do not have any mental records of anything until narrative is presented as a kind of armature, giving shape to the records that are in our minds (abbott, 2008; schwandt, 1994). moreso, pni is founded on the ideas that “to understand this world of meaning one must interpret it” and that reality manifests itself through multiple and intangible mental constructions which are socially and experientially based (schwandt, 1994). in this respect, pni takes seriously social contexts, beliefs, feelings, and perspectives in obtaining new knowledge (kurtz, 2014). clandinin and rosiek (2007) write that pni focuses not only on individuals’ experiences but also on the social, cultural, and institutional fabrics within which individuals’ experiences are constituted, shaped, expressed, and enacted. in contexts where little previous exploration of social relationships and group behaviours has been done, pni is credited for capturing the conditions which affect people’s lives (crooks, 2001). most importantly, pni is also sensitive to “subtle textures of thought and feeling” (webster & mertova, 2007), at play in an account of lived experiences and allows for the events that have been of most significance to be brought forth in the stories participants tell. a researcher using pni, simply proposes paths along which to look but does not point at what is to be seen (blumer, 1954). he/she collects stories, asks questions, and lets the participants look at, think, and talk about the patterns themselves. he/she does not decide for the participants what the stories might mean (kurtz, 2014; schwandt, 1994) but rather lets the participants’ voices surface with the hope of gaining in-depth understandings of their lived experiences (guignon, 1999). in other words, the role researcher in pni process is to present both the opportunities for emancipation and transformation which allow individuals to speak and become privileged sources of information (freire, 1970; habermas, 1984; rogers, 1980). in this way, participants are seen less as subjects than as individuals who are actively doing something positive for their individual and collective well-being (yeich, 1996). 3.1. data collection knowing that many young rural women who relocate to urban centres in search of a better life often end up living in the suburbs and working as barmaids and/or sex workers, i made efforts to visit several bars in the suburbs of mwanza town and made contact with potential participants of the pni. this task would fall into what dickson and green (2001) call “bridge activity – something short term to help with entering a site or community, and giving its members a chance ‘to size you up and get to know you”’ (see also smith (1995)). i soon became acquainted with a bar manager in one of the popular bars in the neighbourhood who played a role in connecting me to two barmaids, and a purposeful dialogue and reflexivity started from there onward. i recall how difficult the initial contacts with these two barmaids were as i attempted to explain my process of pni and relate it as humanly as possible. i had to step out of my relatively privileged position that men in tanzania generally occupy (in relation to women) to ask delicate questions in a non-offensive manner, but also to be friendly, courteous, conversational, and unbiased towards the young rural women who were surviving by using unconventional livelihood strategies, including sex work. on occasions, the two young women would talk to me about their issues, hoping that i would be able to access practical support and/or help. they often portrayed themselves as suffering in need of help, expecting me to personally bring that help about. at times, i felt anxious, afraid that they would lose interest if i did not attend to their needs. i felt the challenge of enhancing rapport – building a considerate and sympathetic relationship of trust. i did this in several ways: acknowledging their difficulties, remaining respectful, validating their stories, and offering a meal or a drink. in this way, there was a possibility of breaking the ice and establishing a sympathetic mutual asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 19-28 22 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group relationship of kinship. let me add that oakley (1981) ways of doing feminist research were helpful. i became conscious of the need to strike a balance between being humorous and serious. the idea was to put the young women at ease so that they could be themselves and talk freely. i was naïve, however, to assume that i would find it relatively easy to contact and interview a barmaid and/or sex worker. i soon learned from the two young women that there were several groupings of young rural women who sell sex in suburbs of mwanza town, with different temperaments and social statuses. this posed challenges for my pni process. i had not conceptualized the situation before the inquiry began. i recall how difficult it was when i planned to visit brothels, for example, as this would interrupt the work and/or arouse suspicion. if i bought the time to interact with the young women in the brothels, i would not face strong resistance. however, this would present a number of ethical issues. most critically, i thought paying an interviewee in a brothel might be fruitless, as she might decide to say what she thought i wanted to hear rather than what she lived and knew. it was not something i was comfortable doing or wished to do in this process of narrative inquiry. at this stage, used a snowball sampling technique so as to reach out to young women in their respective categories (maher, 2000). my initial contact with the two barmaids, therefore, became providentially helpful in connecting and familiarizing me with their associates. the technique was possible thanks to the solidarity that existed amongst young rural women who work as barmaids and/or sell sex in the suburbs of mwanza town. the fact is that they knew each other well and met regularly for social and psychological support. i therefore had a rare and important opportunity to ‘enter’ their wider community, in which i became “a member of the landscape” (clandinin & connelly, 2000). once a close relationship was built between me and the young women who sell sex in the suburbs of mwanza town, i purposefully recruited six participants, for several reasons. first, a relatively small number of participants would foster trust more easily. second, a small number of participants would keep the process very personal and active, and would make our contact more direct and consistent, as suggested by ospina (2004). third, with a small number of participants, we could access thick and rich data, which is an important aspect of qualitative research (langdridge, 2007). in selecting the six participants, i made sure that the different categories of young rural women who sell sex in suburbs of mwanza town were represented in the sample. i targeted those aged between 18 and 25 years, an age group that i thought would articulate their lived experiences well. at this point, i sought the informed consent of the participants as we agreed on the use of pseudonyms for anonymity and preventing harm (see also karnieli-miller, strier, and pessach (2009)). we also agreed on how to store the data in a protected way. in this vein, we agreed on the need and importance of having a field diary where we would document and keep everything observed, heard, and found. we carefully selected times and locations for our pni process with a view to maintaining safety. most of the places where most of our meetings took place were considered marginal locations, thus presenting ambiguous statuses as sites that are both constraining (lower status and poor) and enabling (providing a safe space) for activities that are morally condemned by the state and the law (see also hubbard (1999)). 3.2. tools of data collection and analysis keeping a field diary was important in this pni process. i always took notes during our meetings so that i could focus on the person, using journal records (see also ellett (2011)). i also conducted unstructured open-ended interviews that were dyadic or one-to-one (see also polkinghorne (2005)). in addition, written or visual documents such as personal text messages, photos of the participants or artworks, for example, were collected as important pieces of information. this process of narrative inquiry revealed that statements became more meaningful within the context of a story (see also polkinghorne (2005)). therefore, taking notes on where and when the narrative emerged, and the circumstances surrounding it, was very important (see also ellett (2011)). the stories were first written in kiswahili2 were afterwards transcribed into english. attention was paid to ensure that all the participants were provided with the opportunity to use their own words when sharing their stories, and the exact words were transcribed verbatim in the field diary (see also cordero (2014)). on some occasions, texts were transcribed immediately after the meeting, to avoid accumulating a backlog or forgetting the material. the process of transcription confirmed the importance of accessing and understanding the contexts so as to correctly situate the lived experiences of the participants (see also berger and luckmann (1967)). some of the stories were repeated and paraphrased several times so as to make sure that the interpretations of the participants’ words were made correctly. i and the participants decided not to tape-record the stories, for several reasons. first, we were aware of edwards and holland (2013) warning that narrative inquirers should “think carefully about the analytic status they bestow on recorded accounts” and should “not fall into mistaking the socially shaped interview performance for a capture of the real and authentic” experiences. we therefore became concerned about the way tape recorders would cut across the socio-emotional signals between us in face-to-face interactions (see also james and busher (2006)). this was especially critical for this particular pni, the purpose of which was not to discover truth in any absolute sense, but to enrich and broaden understanding experiences of selling sex, from the participants own voices and perspectives. second, some participants were nervous about tape recorders and did not want to be recorded. therefore, we felt it was not mandatory to make any audio recordings of this particular pni process. instead, we decided to generate stories from and with actual living bodies of the participants. in this respect, we also observed and made use of the participants’ presentation of their bodies when narrating stories of lived experiences so as to know more than just facts but to engage emotionally with those experiences. for data analysis, i used thematic analysis in line with the general inductive method. this was because of its applicability to a study design whose aim is to describe and make sense of a phenomenon (thomas, 2006). i particularly liked this way of data analysis because it involves relating the facts obtained from the field to concepts 2 tanzania is one of the few countries in africa that has a common language, kiswahili, which almost the whole population (about 95%) speak and understand (brock-utne, 2002). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 19-28 23 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group drawn from models or theories – that is, it is data-driven (braun & clarke, 2006). in addition, thematic analysis, as part of the general inductive method, would immerse me in the raw material so as to allow me to look for more details and establish patterns of relationships (braun & clarke, 2006). in course of doing this, i was aware that i carried my own personal baggage and perspectives which might influence how i infer meanings from the participants’ voices – a temptation to intrude and take over the voices of the participants for my own purposes (see also devault (1999)). with this in mind, i made an effort to refrain from overriding the voices of the participants. instead, i assume the role of a passenger rather than a driver behind the steering wheel so as to allow the participants’ authentic voices to take the lead (see also mazzei and jackson (2009)). i therefore avoided interference and self-indulgence (see also taylor and white (2000)). in this way, the participants’ agenda becomes the central feature in the process of data analysis (see also karnieli-miller et al. (2009)). 3.3. emotional upheaval the need to feel how the participants felt during their experiences, was very important. i was particularly worried that to expect a value-free position of neutrality for the sake of objectivity might lead to what shacklock and smyth (1998) call an “obscene and dishonest position.” i was concerned that a failure to engage emotionally with the experiences of the participants, could itself produce a distorted data analysis (see also jackson, backett-milburn, and newall (2013)). i wanted instead to see a process of inquiry that was not only as an intellectual exercise, but also as “a process of exploration and discovery that is felt deeply” (gilbert, 2001a). the logic was that reason alone could keep the brain operating, but without emotions it would become difficult to gain an in-depth understanding of lived experience of the participants (kurtz, 2014). in the above perspective, therefore, i and the participants allowed ourselves to have certain feelings as a fundamental aspect in this sensitive process of inquiry (see also mccosker, barnard, and gerber (2001)). after all, one of the fundamental aspects of being human is the capacity to feel, show, and express emotions. however, one effect of allowing feelings in sensitive inquiry of this kind is emotional upheaval. in the course our interactions, i and the participants were often emotionally drained and overwhelmed – a reported threat to qualitative researchers (dickson-swift, james, kippen, & liamputtong, 2007; mccosker et al., 2001). some of the stories represented, in the participants’ own words, lives that had been shattered by incomprehensible acts of cruelty, violence and neglect. the details given were graphic, containing explicit and vivid descriptions of the dire circumstances to which the participants were subjected in their everyday lives. the emotional impact of such stories was unbearable, as a few selected stories tell it all: many of us were sexually abused even before we moved here, sometimes by our own people, the people we trusted so much, so we ran away from that. imagine your own relative or someone you trusted so much rapes you and feels justified in doing so (siti, 24 years old)3. going to school one dull morning, i met a man who pushed me into the bush and raped me. later he warned me not to tell anyone or risk being beaten each time i met him. i went to the victim support unit at kiomboi to report the case. but nobody there believed me, and the man who raped me was not apprehended. i continued to see him around, and because of that, i decided to run away, as i was afraid he would beat or even kill me (kibibi, 19 years old). having been raped before, it somehow prepares you for this work. you feel like nothing worse would ever happen to you again. you feel rubbished and garbage! it is like people can just come, get you, use you and throw you down there like a dirty piece of cloth. i probably would not have been so uncaring, so reckless about my life and myself, if i had not been sexually abused before (kibibi, 19 years old). it was so throbbing to hear that entering sex work, for most of the participants, was far more multifaceted than a simple distinction between voluntary and involuntary motives would suggest. sex work fell along a continuum of violence against women under male rule and hegemony. accustomed to frequent violence and exploitation, some of them came to think that sex work was in the nature of things or a role they ought to play well for their own survival. thus, sex work was a ‘choice’ made by those who have no choice in patriarchal society, as we find in the following stories: i got into this work soon after my mother’s death. we depended on her for food, clothes and education – for everything. she left us helpless: two little sisters and i. we had nothing to eat, never mind clothes and other things. i decided to take my siblings to our grandmother before i moved to mwanza to work, so that i could help them in return. when i moved here, the only available work was to become a barmaid. it was so tough to work there at first. i did not know how to get enough money for myself and for my siblings. i gradually learned to get cash from sex for myself and my family back home (bahati, 25 years old). i used to work in a hotel when i first came to mwanza. if i did not provide sexual favours to the managers, they would not promote me. if i refused to give in, i would receive very little pay and sometimes no pay. i would be insulted and threatened with dismissal when i protested. it happened countless times that i had to dance to their tune or risk losing the job, and it became a way of life. i feel better now because i have freedom to decide who to have sex with, how much, where and when (adama, 22 years old). not only that but also some of the participants’ stories depicted situations that were still ongoing in their lives, reflecting the freshness of the memories: i am scared each time i go to meet clients. first, you don’t know the person, you meet once or twice, say in a bar, and there, off you go. second, you don’t know his behaviour, never mind what he might be carrying in his belongings. worse still, he dictates where to go, and you don’t know the area well. this way of life is risky and frightening (chiku, 18 years old). i don’t know what may happen to me in the middle of the night. whether you know him or not, it doesn’t make things any easier, he is always a stranger. let us say you perhaps know him a little, fine, but he can turn against you any time. in his mind, you are only a whore who deserves no good at all (kibibi, 19 years old). 3 the names given here are fictitious, but the narrative, ages and occupations are real. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 19-28 24 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group it is disgusting to feel the sweat, the smell, whatever! it is like, oh gosh, why am i doing this? i don’t like to sleep with a man who stinks, i do it only for money. truthfully, i am beside myself when lying with him, i feel rotten, hate myself and life as a whole (siti, 24 years old). some of the participants described near-death experiences when they found themselves completely vulnerable and confronted by their own mortality: the man beat me almost to death because i refused to have ‘unusual sex’ with him – ‘sex from behind’. he tried to seal my mouth. i grew angry and fought back. i know i can be very brave and strong. i know i am a fighter and a survivor. i pushed him down and escaped. when i think about it now, i feel disgusted and sometimes angered (atupele, 21 years old). because sex work is illegal and socially reprehensible in tanzanian society, at least in daylight, the participants were reluctant to report the violence meted out to them for fear of being mocked, and also for fear of provoking punishment from law enforcement agencies. even when they managed to report the violence they experienced, the police tended not to take them seriously: if we go to the police to report, we are told that ‘you deserved it,’ ‘you are even lucky you survived.’ we are then chased away. when you report the abuse to other government officials, you are warned of harassment in retaliation. i brought a case to the department of social welfare against a policeman who had physically assaulted me, only to be rearrested a week later by the same policeman (atupele, 21 years old). i went to the police to lodge a complaint. the police officer asked me to come in, then i saw another police officer drinking alcohol and smoking. he inquired about me. he was told everything about my awful experiences in the brothel. after a while, he took me to a room and asked me to have sex with him instead of helping me. he warned me not to reveal it to anybody, threatening to shoot me if i opened my mouth (chiku, 18 years old). the impact of the above stories must not be understated. listening to and writing them down gave me and the participants a heightened sense of trauma – as if it were happening now. this was similar to moran-ellis (1996) experience of reading accounts of child sexual abuse, which made her feel “much pain by proxy.” while the participants and i were able to enter into a dialogue about the emotional demands of those stories in our various meetings, for the most part the emotional experiences were deeply active and privately felt (see also jackson et al. (2013)). managing the sadness, horror, and anger arising from those stories was incredibly difficult, and we often felt lonely (see also coles and mudaly (2010)). in the above context, hochschild (1979) theory of emotional labour was very helpful as it provided us with a better tool to conceptualize and manage our emotional states. rosenberg (1990) refers to it as an invocation of altered internal emotional states so as to carry out the cognitive work required for data presentation and analysis. however, this was not easy at all, it required from us considerable levels of what rosenberg (1990) calls “mental selfmanipulation.” i recall the enormous cognitive effort required to regulate, control, reduce, and sometimes displace feelings of immense sadness and bewilderment as i fought back my tears (see also jackson et al. (2013)). as a necessary self-care strategy and an impetus for good research, however, i also thought that by trying to feel less, i would minimize the emotional distress of the participants (see also dickson-swift, james, kippen, and liamputtong (2008)). i was particularly aware of malcolm (2012) remark that to try to feel something different, or to feel less, especially when there is an impetus to be a ‘good’ researcher, can lead to ethical uneasiness and/or could itself produce a distorted data analysis (see also jackson et al. (2013)). in this respect, i and the participants took gilbert (2001b) recommendations very seriously: “boundaries must be negotiated and renegotiated, an ongoing part of the research process, as a balance is sought between the dangers and benefits of being too far in or too far out of the lives of the researched.” in this vein, i and the participants talked openly about the issue of boundaries as an impetus for a good pni process, which also helped to protect us from becoming emotionally overwhelmed (see also green et al. (2006)). i also invited the participants to begin with stories they considered positive or good about their lives (e.g. stories that gave them a sense of pride) before telling the more disheartening stories. this was helpful for the management of our emotional landscapes, as it led us to see and think about the participants’ lived experiences beyond the incomprehensible acts of cruelty and negligence (see also kurtz, 2014: 4–5), as narrated here below: i don’t know what is bad about exchanging love for money. it is thanks to it that all my sisters have been able to study in good schools. i still support the family in all ways. it makes me laugh when some people think that i am a bad girl because of what i do. of course, it is very ugly work, but it gives you what you want, and i still hope for the best (bahati, 25 years old). the employer will pick you for the job [housemaid, barmaid, maid in a hotel] only when he thinks he can mould you as per his wishes. in the bars, for example, many employers would often pick newcomers who would not resist their demands for sexual favours. i went through that myself when i just started to work in the bar. i wanted some respect and because of that i choose to operate on my own (chuku, 18 years old). i also encouraged the participants to metaphorically place the story on a table and invite others to view and internalize it without exposing ourselves to the same degree of emotion as would arise if the story was stated directly (see also kurtz (2014)). even though some of the participants’ stories were in the present tense, reflecting the freshness of the memories, i encouraged them to use the past tense when telling their stories, so as to create an emotional distance from the narrated events (see also kurtz (2014)). when i was hustling for my life in the village, my friend invited me to come here for work. she introduced me to this kind of life and assured me of making lots of money if i stayed longer in mwanza, and that she would be there to support me. since i liked everything about her, her clothes, her hairstyle, her shoes, and above all her freedom, i chose to give it a go. i looked forward with excitement to becoming like her. (adama, 22 years old) what do you expect of us? it is like inscribed in our blood that as soon as we become adolescents we must leave home and go to urban centres for work [as domestic workers or barmaids]. for us, it is an expected deal which every girl back home longs for. when i was still young, i knew so many women in my own village who went to big cities to work and brought wealth back to their families. prior to me, my own sisters and some members of the extended family worked here in mwanza too. they brought us shoes and nice clothes. through them, and from a tender age, i imagined a better world beyond my rural community. (atupele, 21 years old) asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 19-28 25 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group on the other hand, giving the participants the freedom to choose the stories they wished to tell helped us all to manage our emotional states. it not only provided us with an emotional safety net, but also afforded the participants the chance to tell stories that had a cathartic benefit, as i already explained in the previous section (see also johnson (2009)). the cathartic benefits happened not only to the participants, but for me too. i was confronted with the potential costs of masculinity – the rigid culture-specific ideas, roles, and behaviours that we (men) have to live with to prove our manhood in patriarchal society. i became convinced that unless men’s practices and attitudes change, the efforts to achieve gender equality in tanzania will face an uphill struggle. 3.4. credibility and ethical considerations any process of inquiry that involves building of human relationships, like this one, raises issues of credibility and ethical questions, particularly on issues of power relations between the researcher and participants (karnieli-miller et al., 2009). the most obvious questions are about who the gatekeeper of knowledge is, and also about which objective facts are to be selected and which are to be excluded in an inquiry of this nature (grant, ward, & rong, 1987). the less obvious, but perhaps the most difficult, question is the positioning of the inquirer/researcher, especially when factors such as gender, education, and social status may weigh on the entire research process (narayan, 1993). because of all this, i had to take ethical issues very seriously in our pni process, bearing in mind that questions could be raised as to whether a male inquirer, from a highly patriarchal background, can effectively study and understand the lived experiences of young rural women who sell sex for livelihoods in a patriarchal society. what might be his source of motivation? thus, apart from acquiring ethical authorization from the research ethics committee of saut and the office of the regional commissioner of mwanza, i also made a deliberate effort to communicate clearly to the participants the risks that were involved in this sensitive process of inquiry, so as to gain their informed consent. i also drew on witkin (2014) advice to be both an internal and an external researcher which helped to clear up some ethical questions. as an internal researcher, i became mindful of the cultural and social contexts, especially the dos and don’ts. these protected me and the participants from any potential harm. as an external researcher, a university lecturer, i was perceived by the participants as unbiased and non-aligned with any subgroups. in that way, i gained their trust and won their confidence (see also merriam et al. (2010)). to account for any power imbalance, our pni included a process of reflexivity (see also maxey (1999)). with reflexivity, i was particularly made aware of gender stereotypes, and i was often reminded to act only as a catalyst to promote a process of inquiry into issues that affected the participants (see also shacklock and smyth (1998)). this enabled me to also document my personal biases and to think critically about the entire process of pni (see also watt (2007)). i should say that, although it has been claimed that most researchers have organizational and institutional power (henry, 2003), this was not strongly felt in this pni process (see also grenz (2005)). quite often, i and the participants experienced varying levels of power in different phases of our pni. at some stages, i felt that power was fluid and possessed by nobody – neither the participants nor i – an idea also noted by tang (2002). at the beginning of the inquiry, for example, i felt powerless while trying to recruit the participants, afraid that they would lose interest in the process of pni. i struggled several times to enhance the sense of rapport between me and participants, or among the participants themselves, so as to build a considerate and sympathetic relationship (see also karnieli-miller et al. (2009)). eventually the pni process placed me and the participants in a friendly and supportive context where we felt protected and confident as a group. 4. discussion the above treatise underscores the need for space and safety when carrying out research which involves dealing with multiple beliefs and delicate feelings. it was with such an awareness that pni was sought to help participants tell their stories in a confident way, make sense of their complex situations, and redefine themselves (find meaning in their lives). when a person has the space to tell a story, that space communicates a world of meanings and allows an appreciation of the attention given. the space also allows listening and caring, rather than judging and interrogating. kvale (1996) argues a space for storytelling and listening can be an essential strategy if we want to understand the other person positively, warmly, with interest, and respect. as storytelling creates an emotional distance between the narratives and the events narrated, it is also suitable for researchers who seek to uncover a deep understanding of participants’ lived experiences. taylor and bogdan (1998) urge that in order to enter the world of those who are suffering, researchers ought to employ narrative approach which “penetrates people’s defences” and makes them “open up about their feelings.” in the same vein, mccosker et al. (2001) recommend that “if we accept that qualitative research work is emotional work, we also ought to accept the embodied nature of the work” (mccosker et al., 2001). the need to do so is important in all qualitative research, and particularly in sensitive studies like this one. it is therefore fair to suggest that research based on rigid professionalism is not only inappropriate but can also “create unnecessary boundaries and unrealistic expectations” (green et al., 2006). fook (1993) argues that maintaining professionalism at all costs can be counterproductive to good practice. this literature encouraged me to consider boundaries in our pin process as stretchy pieces of elastic or a continuum between the ‘professional’ and the ‘helpful friend’, rather than setting up a binary dichotomy between professional and non-professional, as is found and emphasized in some research (see also green et al. (2006)). while professional distance can be important in narrative inquiry, it can also be flexible and elastic while still ensuring competent and appropriate practices (green et al., 2006). flexibility and elasticity of boundaries in narrative inquiry allow inquirers to imagine, initiate, and build rapport with the participants which, in the end, the inquirers to access the participants’ stories of lived experiences (scopelliti et al., 2004). to simply expect a value-free position of neutrality for the sake of objectivity in narrative approach might lead to what shacklock and smyth (1998) call an “obscene and dishonest position.” in this respect, narrative inquirers are urged to be as reflexive as possible (kimmel, 2000) part of which means being honest and ethical, and avoiding the elevation of researchers as “‘shamans’ of objectivity” (ruby, 1980). in other words, narrative inquirers may allow themselves to have certain feelings, but also deny or put aside emotions which they see as inappropriate for their social and educational enterprises (gilbert, 2001a). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(1): 19-28 26 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group it is in the above context that narrative approach can become quite therapeutic. indeed, some aspects of stories in narrative inquiry can become strikingly similar to those of therapeutic interviews (dickson-swift et al., 2006, 2008; emmerson, 2006) as also experienced in this pni. at times i felt confused as to whether i should accept or avoid being placed in a therapeutic role, because of my lack of skills to administer therapy. this concern has also been raised by other narrative inquirers (mauthner, birch, jessop, & miller, 2002). in this context, narrative inquirers are encouraged to follow (duncombe & jessop, 2002) advise, to involve some therapeutic aspects in their researches as there no neat boundaries around ‘rapport’, ‘friendship’ and ‘intimacy’ in qualitive research. in its place, narrative inquirers should convert themselves into active listeners while they also encourage their participants to use the storytelling as therapy in itself (emmerson, 2006). this is especially important for social work researchers who uses perspectives such ‘person-in-situations’ or ‘person-in-environments’ to view their clients within their physical and social environments (thompson & stepney, 2018). however, i am also aware of the criticisms made against narrative approach as if it were the only authentic source or mode of representing situations that affect people’s lives (atkinson & delamont, 2006). the use autoethnographies in narrative approach, for example, has been disapproved for being self-indulgent, narcissistic, introspective, and individualized (atkinson, 1997; coffey, 1999). while these criticisms are legitimate, it can nevertheless be argued that the purpose of narrative approach is not to discover truth in any absolute sense, its main drive is to enrich and broaden understanding of the other person positively, warmly, with interest, and respect (kvale, 1996). after all, in narrative approach, inquirers or researchers work through the gathered stories and look for supporting evidence from other literature (polkinghorne, 2007). their primary interest is to capture the ‘voices’ of the participants and seek input which fit their contexts (kreitzer, 2012). most importantly, the main concern of narrative inquirers is the creation of a space where participants would acquire practical life skills such as communication, problem-solving, and negotiation – a pedagogical practice which leads to emancipation (sewpaul & raniga, 2005). put differently, a chief aim of narrative approach is to develop ‘living knowledge’, where the inquirer or researcher becomes a catalyst who looks with participants at issues which directly affect them in society (swantz, 1996). i am also aware of the danger of drawing sweeping conclusions from a small-sample design in narrative approach (creswell, 2014). however, what is central in narrative inquiry is not about the generalization of findings, but about articulating a summary of the lived experiences of a particular group of people, as was this particular pni process. a useful theoretical justification for this is provided by romney, weller, and batchelder (1986) and weller and romney (1988). their consensus theory approach allows populations within a larger society to be reflected through small samples if appropriate sampling techniques are applied (see also (langdridge, 2007; trotter ii, 2012)). 5. conclusion pni afforded the young rural women who sell sex for livelihood in the suburbs of mwanza town the chance to freely tell their stories so as to enrich and broaden the understanding of issues that affect their life. the process was also cathartic is the sense that it rendered opportunity for the participants to validate their lived experiences, but also work through and express their emotions (darra, 2008; dickson-swift et al., 2006; johnson, 2009). while at times it was noticeably painful for the participants to recount their abusive relationships, they particularly noted that the sharing of stories was part of a healing process and a source of empowerment. hence, it is important that a platform is provided in sensitive research of this nature when participants can freely tell their stories for healing, regaining control, and most importantly giving meaning to their lived experiences from their own voices and perspective. this is particularly fitting for pni which is often credited for creation of a space where participants would acquire practical life skills such as communication, problem-solving and negotiation – a pedagogical practice which leads to emancipation (sewpaul & raniga, 2005). put differently, a chief aim of the pni process is to develop ‘living knowledge’ where the researcher is a catalyst who looks with participants at issues which directly affect them (swantz, 1996). it is therefore important that researchers consider using pni in their social and educational enterprises with their own epistemological stances, particularly in sensitive research. references abbott, p. 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(1996). grassroots organizing with homeless people: a participatory research approach. journal of social issues, 52(1), 111-121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1996.tb01364.x asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800406297670 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2012.05.008 https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1986.88.2.02a00020 https://doi.org/10.1080/j.1440-1614.2004.01486.x https://doi.org/10.1080/j.1440-1614.2004.01486.x http://unicatalog.mediu.edu.my:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/10889 https://doi.org/10.1177/107780049600200117 https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038502036003011 https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214005283748 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.07.003 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-010-9646-8 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1996.tb01364.x 51 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 12, no. 2, 51-58, 2025 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v12i2.7290 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the role of environmental taxes in protecting the environment and the justifications for its creation in the iraqi tax system hazzaa dawood salman1 jamal tarek mohammed sabri2 ( corresponding author) 1al-kitab university, iraq. email: hazzaa.d.salman@uoalkitab.edu.iq 2alnukhba university college, iraq. email: j.tarek@alnukhba.edu.iq abstract the countries of the world are increasingly working to establish effective mechanisms, adopt suitable policies, and implement legal legislations aimed at protecting the environment and reducing the various forms of pollution it faces. this growing concern is based on the fact that the survival and continuity of human life are inseparable from the natural environment, which must be preserved, protected, and used rationally without overexploitation or destruction. only then will future generations be able to benefit from its resources in a sustainable manner. among the many instruments of environmental protection, environmental taxes have emerged as one of the most influential and widely applied tools across many countries. these taxes are designed not only to reduce pollution and encourage cleaner production and consumption patterns but also to achieve fiscal objectives such as reducing unnecessary public expenditures and enhancing state revenues. experiences in developed nations, particularly within the organization for economic cooperation and development (oecd), have demonstrated the success of environmental taxes in balancing economic growth with ecological sustainability. based on this international experience, the current research adopted the basic hypothesis that introducing environmental taxes in iraq would generate significant positive effects at the environmental level. such a step could contribute to addressing pollution challenges, improving environmental quality, and laying the foundation for sustainable development in line with global trends and national priorities. keywords: environment, environmental pollution, environmental protection, environmental taxes, pollution. citation | salman, h. d., & sabri, j. t. m. (2025). the role of environmental taxes in protecting the environment and the justifications for its creation in the iraqi tax system. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 12(2), 51–58. 10.20448/ajssms.v12i2.7290 history: received: 2 june 2025 revised: 12 august 2025 accepted: 18 august 2025 published: 22 august 2025 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: not applicable. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: both authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. both authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 52 2. research methodology and previous studies ............................................................................................................................ 52 3. basic concepts about the environment and environmental pollution ................................................................................ 53 4. what are environmental taxes .................................................................................................................................................... 54 5. the basic justifications for introducing environmental taxes in iraq ............................................................................... 55 6. conclusions and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................. 57 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 57 https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v12i2.7290 https://orcid.org/0009-0003-2533-4111 https://orcid.org/0009-0007-7726-5196 mailto:hazzaa.d.salman@uoalkitab.edu.iq mailto:j.tarek@alnukhba.edu.iq https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 51-58 52 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study is original as it examines the feasibility of introducing environmental taxes in iraq, a context rarely addressed in previous literature. unlike existing studies focused on oecd countries, it highlights iraq’s specific environmental and economic conditions, offering a localized framework for sustainable policy development. 1. introduction in recent decades, environmental issues have gained increasing attention and have attracted significant global focus due to their repercussions on all aspects of life, including health, social, economic, and other areas. iraq is one of the countries suffering from environmental pollution caused by numerous factors that have negatively impacted the iraqi environment. additionally, economic activities, particularly agricultural and industrial, along with the methods employed in these sectors, have contributed to the worsening of this problem. if the traditional goal of taxation, considering the state's guardian role, was limited to financing the public treasury, the development of the state's role and the multiplicity of tax functions have led to a new goal and a newly created function: protecting the environment from pollution. today, it has become a duty for tax legislation to intervene in safeguarding the natural and artificial surroundings in which humans live, complementing the efforts of both international and local legislation in environmental protection. financial jurisprudence is almost unanimous in recognizing the important role that tax can play in protecting the environment from pollution. 2. research methodology and previous studies first: the research problem iraq suffers from the dangerous effects of environmental pollution resulting from the wrong behaviors associated with various economic activities (oil and industrial...) in addition to the weak environmental awareness in society, and this suffering is exacerbated by the state’s need to continue and expand those activities and the accompanying environmental damage, which is great for the country's environment and the health of its citizens. in the absence of an environmental tax law in the iraqi tax system, the state should intervene to reduce the pollution problem by enacting an environmental tax law in order to protect society and the environment from the dangers of this pollution. second: the importance of the research the importance of the research is to highlight the positive effects of introducing environmental taxes in iraq as a means of protecting the environment from pollution and increasing the general tax proceeds through diverse sources, among which environmental taxes are one of those sources. third: research objectives the research aims to achieve the following objectives: 1. introducing the environment and its pollution. 2. understand the role of environmental taxes in reducing environmental pollution. 3. show the motivating factors for enacting an environmental tax law in the iraqi tax system. fourth: the research hypothesis: the research is based on a basic hypothesis, which is: the introduction of environmental taxes in iraq leads to significant positive effects on the environmental level. fifth: research methodology the researcher relied in his study on the descriptive-analytical approach to study the concepts of environment and environmental pollution and analyze the importance of introducing environmental taxes as one of the means of government intervention to protect the environment from pollution damage. sixth: the structure of the research for the purpose of achieving the objectives of the research, it has been divided into four axes, namely. the first axis: the methodology of research and previous studies. the second axis: the environment and environmental pollution. the third axis: the nature of environmental taxes and their role in protecting the environment from pollution. the fourth axis: the justifications for introducing environmental taxes in iraq. fifth axis: conclusions and recommendations. seventh: previous research and studies 1. research al‑lami, jaber, and abboud (2018) entitled the impact of environmental tax in controlling the levels of environmental pollution resulting from the activities of foreign oil companies contracting with iraq. the study aimed to highlight the importance of applying environmental tax as an effective economic tool to reduce the resulting environmental pollution on the foreign oil companies contracting to work in iraq. the study reached a set of conclusions, the most important of which are: that the environmental imposition of pollution resulting from the activities of foreign oil companies leads to a reduction of pollution, and that imposing this type of taxes motivates these companies to adopt production methods that are less polluting to the environment. 2. research anbaki, nasrallah, hussein, and kazem (2016) entitled " the reality of environmental pollution and the use of environmental taxes to reduce it. analytical research for diesel generators in the province of baghdad. the research dealt with the depth and dimensions of the pollution problem resulting from the burning of fuel used in electric power generators, where this problem represents a local phenomenon. it has dangerous dimensions to human health, as well as the possibility of using one of the tax system tools represented by environmental taxes to reduce these pollutants. the research reached a set of conclusions, the most important of which was that environmental taxes will push workers in this field to reduce gas emissions resulting from fuel combustion, which is one of the most important causes of environmental pollution. 3. a study al‑saadi (2011) entitled “environmental tax and its role in reducing environmental pollution: an applied study in karbala cement factory (high diploma thesis equivalent to a master’s). the research aimed to develop solutions for the issue of the absence of financial statements related to environmental performance costs, which limit environmental pollution caused by economic units' production activities. it asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 51-58 53 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group focused on implementing environmental taxes (pollution taxes) as a practical approach to influence polluting facilities, serving as a deterrent to their negative environmental behaviors. the goal was to limit or reduce pollution to meet permissible limits both locally and internationally. 3. basic concepts about the environment and environmental pollution first: the concept of the environment definitions of the environment vary in terms of the angle from which it is viewed, and in this context, some of them can be presented: the environment means the natural and industrial surroundings in which man lives, including water, air, space, soil, and organisms, as well as lively and facilities set up by man to satisfy his growing needs (mikhlif, 2009). it was also defined as: the field in which a person exercises his life and activity with all its components, such as air, water, land, and what is in them and on them, including plants, animals, and various microorganisms (abdul hafeez & imad, 2008). the iraqi legislator defined the environment as: the ocean with all its elements in which living organisms live and the effects resulting from human economic, social, and cultural activities (omran & al-makhzoumi, 2021). second: the concept of environmental pollution is that the environment, with its living and non-living components, is an integrated vital system that can only be maintained in its balance (al-helou, atafa, jaber, & hussein, 2013). environmental pollution can be defined as the damages that occur to the ecosystem and cause an imbalance in its equilibrium, which reduces its ability to provide an optimal life for humans physically, psychologically, morally, and socially. these damages result from human behavior when performing production and consumption activities ahmed, ali, and ali (2013) as it was defined as: the quantitative and qualitative change accidental and intended that occurs in one or more elements of the environment and that would harm the life of the organism and weaken the ability of ecosystems to continue their production (sarhan, 2005). omran and almakhzoumi (2021) define environmental pollution as: the presence of any pollutant affecting the environment in an unnatural quantity, concentration, or quality that leads directly or indirectly to harm to humans, other living organisms, or biological components. where there are third: types of environmental pollution: there are several classifications that can be adopted to identify the types of pollution, including: 1. according to the form of pollution, and it is divided into (bou jomaa, 2015). a. physical pollution: it is the tangible pollution that surrounds a person, so he feels it and sees it with the naked eye. most of the time, man's neglect of himself and his continuous pursuit of modern technology have led to the disruption of the ecological balance, which has resulted in air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, and food pollution. b. moral (non-physical) pollution: it is the invisible pollution that people neglect in the belief that it does not affect the system of natural and societal life. moral pollution, intellectual pollution, value pollution. in turn, it is divided into two parts: • electromagnetic pollution: it refers to all forms of damage caused by electromagnetic waves to all creatures, arising from multiple sources. the most significant sources include radio and television stations, highvoltage networks that transmit electricity over long distances, mobile phones, and electronic computers. • audio pollution (noise): refers to a group of sounds whose levels exceed acceptable limits, which are considered harmless to humans. studies have shown that sounds exceeding 60 decibels fall within the range of harmful audio pollution to humans. 2. according to the activity, and divided into ahmed et al. (2013). a. industrial pollution: it appears in the form of side effects that accompany the production process, intended or unintended, and sometimes called external symptoms. the quality and quantity of industrial pollutants depend on the techniques and methods used, as well as the magnitude of the machinery. the quality of raw materials and the energy used also influence pollution levels. among the most notable factories polluting the environment are iron and steel factories, oil refineries, paper mills, chemical plants, construction industries, textile factories, and fertilizer industries. b. agricultural pollution: it occurs as a result of the excessive and incorrect use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, or because of the salinity of irrigation water. these substances kill beneficial microorganisms in the soil, which reduces its fertility. also, due to heat and light, they emit gases that are harmful to the atmosphere. c. civil pollution: it is represented by solid household waste, sewage water, and waste from light civil industries, hotels, restaurants, shops, and hospitals. fourth: effects of environmental pollution. there are many effects resulting from the problem of environmental pollution, and we can mention the most important of them as follows: 1. the rapid depletion of natural resources and the exposure of the environment to collapse, along with the destruction of the ecological framework in which humans conduct their economic activities, are significant concerns. this situation is evidenced by the high percentages of lead and various nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, as well as the widespread occurrence of desertification at high rates. additionally, there has been a reduction in forests and pastures, the extinction of some types of wild and marine animals, and industrial pollution of the environment. excessive urbanization and urban sprawl into agricultural lands contribute to soil erosion, while the use of fertilizers and pesticides pollutes waterways and the surrounding environments (ahmed abdel-sabour al-deljawi, 2017). 2. effects of pollution on human health are dangerous and extensive, and the world health organization has estimated that 23% of all deaths worldwide, amounting to 102.6 million cases, are due to environmental causes. lowand middle-income countries bear the burden of pollution-related diseases (un report) (ahmed abdel-sabour al-deljawi, 2017). 3. the economic effects of environmental pollution: the negative effects of pollution are not limited to the material losses it causes, but also include the substantial costs incurred to eliminate and combat pollution and to protect the environment from it, which is often at the expense of providing the necessary funds to implement development plans. this is because pollution and the irrational and unbalanced use of economic resources impose restrictions on the development process through their negative impact on production asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 51-58 54 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group growth and physical and human production factors. pollution of soil, air, and water constitutes a problem that has accumulated over time, and its disposal is difficult or unlikely. 4. what are environmental taxes first: defining environmental taxes environmental taxes can be defined as a forced deduction paid by the taxpayer to the state with the aim of protecting the environment, or in other words, it is a tax that exerts a desirable effect on the environment (abdel wahed, 2001). it is also known as: cash sums paid by the taxpayer forcibly to the state because of the actions or activities he carried out that caused damage to the environment (abbas, 2014) and the use of production techniques harmful to the environment (abdel halim, 2013). the organization for economic cooperation and development also defined the environmental tax as: “compulsory expenses without consideration that are collected for the account of the public treasury and are imposed because of the association of its container with the environment.”(a. a.-s. al-deljawi, 2018). second: the emergence of environmental taxes and their applications. environmental taxes were first introduced in the early twentieth century by the english economist arthur cecil pego, who served as a professor of political economy at the faculty of economics at the university of cambridge from 1908 to 1944 ad. in his book wealth and welfare, he proposed imposing taxes on those who pollute the environment as an effective means of combating pollution. he emphasized that government intervention through taxation could make pollution more costly for polluters. if the cost of pollution increases, polluters are likely to reduce their emissions. this tax became known as the peugeot tax (shia & al-rubaie, 2011) and since the early 1970s, environmental taxes have been recognized as a tool for environmental protection policy, with widespread and increasing acceptance and support in official scientific discussions, whether local or international. many countries have begun to incorporate it into their national legislation, and it has received attention from numerous international and regional organizations such as the united nations and the organization for economic cooperation and development (oecd) (ahmed abdelsabour al-deljawi, 2017). as well as many arab countries such as algeria, tunisia, egypt, syria, and the gulf states (nayef, jarallah, & mahdi, 2021). in algeria, the state imposed an environmental tax to reduce environmental pollution, represented by imposing fees on polluting or dangerous activities on the environment by institutions. the polluting productivity of the environment, where these fees were imposed at legally defined rates, and then the proceeds of that tax are allocated to the national fund for the environment and pollution removal, or allocated to the public treasury of the state or to the municipalities of the states (abboud, 2016). third: types of environmental taxes: there are types of environmental taxes (ayesh & mohsen, 2019). • a tax on products: a tax imposed on products whose production accompanies environmental pollution, with the aim of reducing the volume of production to decrease the volume of pollutants generated to acceptable levels. • carbon tax: it is an old tax that was imposed for financial reasons, which applies to types of fuels such as petroleum, petroleum fuels, diesel oil, and natural gas. • automobile engine tax: it is a tax that imposes a specific value and for a specific time on the car owner, regardless of the extent of the car’s use, with the aim that the owner bears part of the cost of road repair. fourth: the environmental taxpayer (the polluter pays principle). based on the general rules of social justice, the environmental taxpayer is the one who caused the environmental damage. the famous principle (the polluter pays) was formulated by the organization for economic cooperation and development in 1972 and then enshrined in the sixteenth principle of the declaration (rio de janeiro) in 1992, which urged that the polluter is the one who must, in principle, bear the costs of pollution, and this is within the framework of the public interest and without prejudice to the rules of international trade and investment. the principle of the polluter pays is based on the wellknown principle (sheep by paying), so the person practices his activity and takes advantage of his activity in return causing damage to others or to the environment in all its fields, and based on the requirements of justice, the latter must contribute to the expenses of pollution prevention through the tax he pays (ben yahya, 2018). this principle has been recognized by the european union as a basic principle for all environmental policies (al-rahimi, karbel, & karim, 2019). it should be noted that the adoption of the polluter pays principle as a principle of environmental policies was not intended to allow polluters to pay in exchange for permitting them to pollute the environment without any restrictions or controls set by the state, but was intended to be a means or tool to reduce the level of pollution as well as provide revenues needed to treat the effects of environmental pollution and preserve the environment (anbaki et al., 2016). fifth: environmental tax base and methods for determining their price. the rule of justice requires that each individual contribute to public costs and burdens according to his relative ability, which leads to the fair distribution of public burdens among individuals on the one hand, and the establishment of equality among them on the other. to achieve this, an accurate estimate of the amount charged to the polluter is necessary. 1. determining the environmental tax base: the tax base can be defined as the material on which the tax is imposed or the subject to which it is applied. choosing the base is the starting point in regulating any tax, and discussing the environmental tax base necessarily involves three issues: a. the first issue: the material on which the tax is imposed: the environmental tax base is not determined by a monetary value as is the case with other taxes but is determined by physical units, such as the volume of waste that flows into water bodies, the amount of pollution released into the air, or the degree of noise emitted by vehicles and aircraft. this method of defining the taxable substance is one of the distinguishing features of environmental taxes. b. the second issue: determining the part on which the tax is imposed, meaning the part that exceeds the optimal level of socially permissible pollution. this level is determined when the marginal cost of reducing pollution is equal to the marginal cost of the damage. c. the third issue: measuring the tax base in the sense of translating emissions, flows, and waste into equations and tables that are calculated based on the importance of the risks resulting from each type of these components, provided that the amount of tax allocated to each specific unit of measurement is clarified and indicated, according to the type and nature of those pollutants. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 51-58 55 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2. determining the price of the environmental tax: the tax rate generally refers to the amount that the taxpayer must pay for each unit of the subject of the tax, or it is the percentage by which the amount of the tax is calculated. there are two methods adopted in most state legislation that implement environmental taxes: • fixed price: that is, determining a fixed value from the value of the tax base, and it is an easy and simple method to apply to the taxpayer and the tax administration. • incremental price: as for the upward method, the tax escalation depends on the tax base escalation, and this allows approaching the principle of justice. developed countries, and it is the most appropriate application in the case of environmental taxes and has a good effect in reducing pollution (haroushi, 2021). sixth: environmental tax objectives environmental taxes are a set of objectives that make them one of the most important tools of both economic and environmental policies, among which we mention (abbas, 2014; al‑lami et al., 2018). 1. imposing environmental taxes aims primarily at protecting human beings. this is done by improving the surrounding environmental conditions and making them suitable and free from all manifestations of pollution, and this is what most of the legislations, laws, and agreements stipulate. 2. environmental taxes act as a catalyst for innovation among producers. when energy, water, raw materials, gaseous, liquid, and solid waste become taxable, taxpayers will develop new methods of production, which will help achieve greater economic efficiency. 3. finding and providing new financial sources whose purpose is to protect, treat, and improve the environment and rid it of all kinds of waste and damage caused by economic activities that pollute the environment, by increasing tax revenues that are used to cover environmental expenses. 4. directing employers’ decisions towards the use of modern and environmentally friendly technologies that would reduce the levels of polluting materials presented to the environment in the sense of seeking to positively modify polluters’ behavior by deterring them financially, and this is according to the degree of their pollution and damage to the environment, so that the higher the tax rate, the higher the polluter’s tendency towards adopting cleaner and more environmentally friendly production techniques, i.e., motivating companies and projects to constantly search for environmentally friendly technology. 5. contributing to the removal of pollution through the deterrent punitive measures included in the environmental tax, whether they are financial fines or criminal penalties to which all violators of the law are exposed. 6. environmental taxes are an incentive for society as a whole to move towards good environmental behavior, as they instill in society a culture of preserving the environment in which living organisms live, by avoiding the tax and not using the material subject to it. for example, if it is imposed on the emission of sulfur gases, this will generate incentives for producers to reduce emissions by using filters, etc., or by employing tools that lead to less pollution. seventh: the difficulties facing the imposition of environmental taxes imposing an environmental tax may encounter a number of difficulties, perhaps the most prominent of which are: 1. difficulties associated with determining the appropriate tax rate that leads to achieving the standard level of pollution. one production unit to another, given that these difficulties are embodied in the selection of appropriate estimation models, in addition to how to identify external costs, determine their scope, and find objective bases for their measurement. 2. low tax awareness in particular, as imposing such a tax, especially if it is of high prices, will create an incentive for individuals and establishments to evade tax, and pollutants and waste may be disposed of by illegal methods that may lead to increased damage to the environment. 3. the imposition of the tax has some undesirable distributional effects, as it is expected that the imposition of this tax will lead to an increase in the prices of products whose production is associated with environmental pollutants, and the price increase may be significant. this matter depends on the ability of economic units to transfer the burden of the tax and its price, as well as other factors that are not economically acceptable. socially, the problem becomes more difficult if these products are basic and necessary from an economic and social point of view, such as cement, iron, and steel products. the export of local products may be damaged or at least will impede economic growth as a result of the high cost of production due to the imposition of these taxes. 4. the difficulty of determining the environmental tax base: this base is not determined by a monetary value, but rather by physical units, such as the volume of waste disposed of in water bodies, the amount of pollutants released into the air, or the degree of noise emitted from aircraft and vehicles (arvand, dehsaraei, & esmaili, 2020). 5. the basic justifications for introducing environmental taxes in iraq there are many justifications motivating the introduction of environmental taxes in iraq, which we will explain as follows: first: environmental justifications: the environment in iraq suffers from many forms of pollution, the most significant of which are: 1. air pollution: it refers to the introduction of pollutants such as gases and chemical compounds into the components of the air, including carbon oxides, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides. the most significant sources of air pollution are: a. gaseous pollutants it is one of the most dangerous elements polluting the air, due to its easy spread and transmission in the air, in addition to its ability to interact more easily than other elements, and its health effects depend on the type of substance, exposure period, and the amount of its concentration in the air. the sources of these pollutants are many, including electric power plants, chemical plants, and brick and cement plants. hospital staples, as well as fuel used indoors for cooking or heating, in addition to fuel used for planes and cars, all of which are all considered major sources of air pollution. cfine particles (dust) and fumes that lead to acid rain affect agricultural areas and orchards. the impact of pollution on the biological world has become evident through its effects on respiratory systems, leading to the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 51-58 56 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group disappearance or migration of bird species and other living organisms under the influence of air pollution. this phenomenon is particularly observed in areas experiencing air pollution, especially those near factories and industrial sites, as shown in table 1. table 1. the amount of dust falling on some governorates in 2016. governorates maintaining dust amount (gm/m2/month) dhi qar 457 najaf al-ashraf 233 basra 155 kirkuk 169 muthanna 260 karbala 202 baghdad 146 source: ministry of environment (2017). 2. water pollution: it is one of the most dangerous types of pollution, and one of the main reasons for this is the contamination of water sources from various sources: a. wastewater: this water contains more than fifteen serious diseases as a result of containing many types of microorganisms, such as bacteria, parasites, and viruses. the data from the ministry of environment indicate that the treated sewage water on a daily basis represents twenty-seven percent of the total sewage water, while the largest part is drained into water sources without treatment, which constitutes an additional burden on the sustainability of iraq's water resources. through official statistics, it was found that the proportion of the population covered by sewage network services is twenty-seven percent, and they are distributed unevenly across the governorates of iraq, as some governorates do not include sewage project services (omran & al-makhzoumi, 2021). b. discharging the liquid wastes of industrial activities in various sectors into the environment causes pollution by inducing physico-chemical and biological effects on environmental elements, especially in the absence of necessary treatments to reduce pollutants present. table 2 shows the activities that discharge their liquid wastes to water sources during year 2016. table 2. classification of activities polluting water resources in 2016. the activities number power stations 11 oil sector activities 10 engineering and chemical laboratories 15 total 36 source: ministry of environment (2017). 3. soil pollution: soil pollution is defined as any physical or chemical change that causes a change in its exploitation and renders it incapable of useful exploitation. agricultural soil receives many types of pollutants depending on their origin, including natural pollutants and human pollutants. insecticides are among the different types of pollutants. 1. these pesticides are a double-edged sword. in addition to their importance in pest control, their excessive and improper use causes significant damage to the environment and humans due to their toxicity and slow decomposition (al-yasiri, 2021). 2. polluting activities: they refer to industrial, agricultural, and service establishments that discharge their liquid waste into neighboring lands without biological treatment, as seen in table 3 (omran & al-makhzoumi, 2021). table 3. activities (service, industrial, agricultural) that dump their waste on agricultural lands. governorate name of the activity location of the activity 1. baghdad poultry field agricultural 2. kirkuk cement plant, north oil company, north gas company industrial 3. babylon asphalt plant, dibis plant, power plant industrial 4. basra sixteen waste collection sites and gas isolation plants. service industrial source: ministry of environment (2017). 4. noise (audio) pollution: noise has become a main feature of cities, and crowding is primarily responsible for this. most city residents consider that excess noise ranks second, directly after water pollution. among the environmental issues of interest to them, numerous studies have shown that urban residents, in most cases, consider noise to be the worst characteristic of the residential area. the report of the ministry of environment on the state of the environment in iraq in 2017 indicated that there are very high noise levels in the streets, as well as in service and commercial areas in baghdad and the provinces. this situation warns of future negative consequences and may be dangerous to human health because the noise levels are much higher than the parameters set by the world health organization and the established national standards, which are: the national limiter for service and commercial areas (65) db. the national limiter for industrial zones is (70) db. the national determinant of health centers and hospitals (50 db). it is established on the basis of preserving human health in his environment and ensuring his living in an atmosphere that guarantees his psychological and mental safety, as the increase in the intensity of noise in the city is accompanied by a clear increase in the level of tension in the human personality, with a decrease in his mental absorption and an increase in cases of mental illness. studies indicate an increase in noise levels as a result of the increase in the number of vehicles and motorcycles and the spread of private generators in the streets of cities, residential areas, cafes, and public stores (omran & al-makhzoumi, 2021) in addition to the forms of environmental pollution that the environment suffers from in iraq and its causes. the aggravation of this problem, and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2025, 12(1): 51-58 57 © 2025 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group environmental awareness is defined as a mental state based on knowledge of environmental issues that results from positive behavior (al-hasnawi, al-mawla, abdel aziz, & ahmed, 2020). environmental awareness aims to protect the environment and preserve public health and is mainly based on the individual by changing his behavior pattern towards the environment and society. however, he notes the lack of interest in the issue of the environment and its problems due to the weakness of societal environmental awareness in general, which has contributed to the aggravation of the problem of environmental pollution in the country. the mentioned forms of pollution that the environment suffers from in iraq require government intervention to mitigate environmental pollution through many tools. the most important of these is the policy of imposing taxes on owners of projects that pollute the environment and obligating them to pay the tax legally to the state, while following the policy of granting exemptions to taxpayers who abandon the production of products polluting the environment and turn to the production of products free of harmful waste. second financial justifications: environmental taxes can be used to increase the state’s public revenues, diversify its sources, and reduce public spending. companies must choose one of three options. they either stop completely from the activity that pollutes the environment, or they bear the costs of their activities that are harmful to the environment, so that the tax proceeds are used to treat the damage caused by harmful environmental behavior, or they search for technical solutions to ensure that they carry out their activities without polluting the environment. it goes without saying that environmental taxes generate a large amount of revenue, and because the tax base is very broad, any modest amount of tax can bring large returns that contribute to financing the state’s general budget. these revenues obtained from imposing an environmental tax can contribute to reducing public spending from two sides. 1. it provides the state’s general budget with additional amounts that may exceed the amount required to be spent to reduce environmental pollution, and these revenues may contribute to reducing public spending if they are used to establish projects that were supposed to be carried out in order to advance the wheel of development. 2. environmental taxes contribute to reducing public spending through their effective role in eliminating the negative effects caused by pollution, which prevents the state from incurring additional expenses to address these effects if they occur or worsen (arvand et al., 2020). finally, the researcher believes that the imposition of environmental taxes on units polluting the environment should be accompanied by the granting of tax incentives to units that are able to adjust their conditions by reducing the quantities of pollution they emit to the environment, ensuring they remain within the limits of the percentages allowed by law. additionally, the same incentives should be granted to new projects that utilize environmentally friendly technology. 6. conclusions and recommendations 6.1. conclusions 1. we can define environmental taxes as: cash deductions imposed by the state forcibly on those who pollute the environment as a result of their use of methods and techniques harmful to the environment. 2. pollution that may be the subject of environmental taxation is defined as: every change in the properties of the environment that leads directly or indirectly to damage to human health and to the exercise of his natural life or damage to natural resources, living organisms, or biodiversity. 3. the iraqi environment suffers from all forms of environmental pollution (air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, noise pollution). 4. the effects of environmental pollution are varied between environmental, health, and economic effects. 5. the imposition of environmental taxes is based mainly on the principle of (polluter pays), which requires that each person whose activity causes or could cause harm to the environment bear the expenses of all pollution prevention and disposal measures, as well as the restoration of places and their environment to their original condition. 6.2. recommendations 1. the need for the iraqi legislator to enact an environmental tax law with the aim of protecting the iraqi environment from all forms of pollution and reducing public spending directed to getting rid of the adverse effects caused by pollution. 2. the necessity of following the economic price in calculating the price of the environmental tax, and that the tax price reflects the degree of pollution, so it increases with an increase in its level. 3. that the proceeds of environmental taxes are allocated for the purposes of protecting the environment, addressing the harmful environmental effects of pollution, and compensating those affected by environmental pollution. 4. paying attention to environmental awareness within educational programs in schools and universities, using widespread media, and deepening the culture of preserving the natural environment. 5. benefiting from the experiences of leading countries in the application of environmental taxes to protect the environment from pollution. references abbas, m. i. k. 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(2011). using environmental taxes to reduce pollutants emanating from car exhausts: a proposed model for environmental taxation in iraq. journal of accounting and financial studies, 6(17). 1-24 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.34093/jafs.v11i34.324 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13738-019-01761-9 142 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 4, 142-149, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i4.5154 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group education in crises times: lessons from an online practicum from the experiences of preservice early childhood teachers nada zal alwadaani prince sattam bin abdulaziz university, alkharj, saudi arabia. email: nada.alwadaani@hotmail.com abstract the world is witnessing increased crises affecting education worldwide, such as health and natural crises. recently, the world was challenged by the appearance of the covid-19 pandemic, which caused national and international closure. thus, learning and teaching shifted quickly to online teaching and assessment. the impact of this sudden shift on preservice early childhood (ec) teachers' practicums still needs to be discovered, especially with the insufficient preparation for online learning. this study aimed to explore the experiences and listen to the voices of preservice ec teachers about online practicum. there is little known about how preservice teachers experienced online practicums. how did they feel about them? what are the advantages and disadvantages? were there any challenges faced? thus, the study objectives focused mainly on shedding light on preservice ec teachers' experiences and bringing their voices to the forefront. this qualitative research study focuses on three preservice ec teachers who were suddenly forced into online practicum. the results showed that, despite the advantages of online practicums, participants experienced a mix of negative feelings. a primary recommendation was made to draw the attention of education policymakers that teaching is a social practice and emphasized the importance of providing an interactive and engaging online learning environment. keywords: creativity, crises, engaging learning, isolation, online practicum, preservice early childhood teachers, social practice. citation | alwadaani, n. z. (2023). education in crises times: lessons from an online practicum from the experiences of preservice early childhood teachers. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(4), 142–149. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i4.5154 history: received: 31 august 2023 revised: 18 october 2023 accepted: 2 november 2023 published: 20 november 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the prince sattam bin abdulaziz university, saudi arabia has granted approval for this study on 18 january 2021 (ref. no. 202015). transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................................143 2. methodology ................................................................................................................................................................................................144 3. results and discussion .............................................................................................................................................................................145 4. conclusion and recommendations .......................................................................................................................................................148 5. limitations ...................................................................................................................................................................................................148 references .........................................................................................................................................................................................................148 mailto:nada.alwadaani@hotmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i4.5154 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4209-7715 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 142-149 143 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature: this study will enhance online learning and practicum by emphasizing the importance of providing interactive, rich, and engaging online environments. it proposes a need to allow preservice teachers to develop their thinking, teaching skills, and understanding of incorporating technologies for learning in the twenty-first century. 1. introduction the world is witnessing an increasing number of crises that affect education worldwide, such as health and natural crises. these crises raise an urgent need to research education in crises and emergencies as they may threaten education for all and everywhere. education is a fundamental human right regardless of any circumstances, and the fourth goal of the sustainable development goals states that "education is one of the most powerful and proven vehicles for sustainable development" (united nation, 2023) and, thus, it is vital to ensure comprehensive equitable and quality education for all. however, despite the importance of education, health crises such as covid-19 affect education and cause significant disruption. according to the unesco (2020), the pandemic affected billions of learners. indeed, during the pandemic, many learners from different levels of education suffered from partial or total interruption of education for varying periods. many also have turned to distance or e-learning, which created a state of tension among learners, teachers, and families about the quality of education. what many learners and teachers have been exposed to during the pandemic necessitates researching education during crises for enhancement and discovering alternatives. the pandemic challenged education in the kingdom of saudi arabia (ksa) and many other countries (bao, 2020; ersin, atay, & mede, 2020). many educational programs, including teachers' programs, shifted quickly to online teaching and assessment (bao, 2020; daniel, 2020; kidd & murray, 2020; moyo, 2020). programs requiring a practicum were affected as a result of the closure. practicums in kindergarten contexts were prohibited entirely, leading to what kidd and murray (2020) called a “practicum vacuum” (p. 543), in which practicums were replaced with new teaching methods, such as online practicums. the sudden closure of schools thus created challenges and confusion for teacher education programs about the practicums of preservice teachers (moyo, 2020). as a result, many early childhood (ec) preservice teachers could not practice teaching in actual classrooms and kindergarten settings. the practicum is a crucial aspect of teacher education programs (ersin et al., 2020). according to ulvik and smith (2011), “practice teaching is regarded as a key component of teacher education and often highly valued by student teachers” (p. 517). the main aim of a practicum is to provide preservice teachers with opportunities for faceto-face experiences in which they gain knowledge, link theory, and develop their thinking and teaching skills based on real complex context situations (smith & lev‐ari, 2005). hands-on experience is essential for developing preservice teachers' teaching skills and enriching their professional knowledge (ersin et al., 2020; ulvik & smith, 2011). the practicum also plays a crucial role in preparing and supporting the entry of preservice teachers into the profession (ulvik & smith, 2011). teaching practice experiences influence and shape preservice teachers’ views of the teaching profession. according to smith and lev‐ari (2005), "the practicum does not only serve as a bridge between theory and practice in the learning of teaching, but it is the context in which student teachers develop a personal teaching competence" (p. 291). being involved in relationships with different people and real, complex contexts gives preservice teachers the necessary teaching skills to help build confidence and deal with unique situations professionally (ulvik & smith, 2011). teaching experiences prepare preservice teachers for the future; thus, ensuring and offering good-quality practicum experiences is crucial. given the shutdown of schools and universities as a result of the covid-19 pandemic, the sudden transformation to online practicums and teaching, and the importance of practicums in real and complex contexts, studies about preservice teachers’ experiences are needed (kidd & murray, 2020). this qualitative research focuses on the experiences of ec preservice teachers at the college of education at prince sattam bin abdulaziz university (psau) in the ksa. it aims to explore the experiences and listen to the voices of preservice ec teachers about online practicums. there is little known about how preservice teachers experienced online practicums. how did they feel about them? what are the advantages and disadvantages? were there any challenges faced? thus, this research aims to shed light on preservice ec teachers' experiences and bring their voices to the forefront. to contextualize this research, it is important to explore the nature of practicums at psau. as a result of the abrupt closure of schools and universities and the belief in the importance of practicums, we at the department of kindergarten education at psau had many discussions about what practicums should be like during the online education period. we worked quickly to ensure that we engaged all the preservice teachers in their practicum in ways that compensated for the loss of onsite practicums. the initial response was to move online. the practicum shifted suddenly from attending ec classrooms in kindergarten settings for 13 weeks, four days per week during the last semester of the ec teachers’ program, to a complete online practicum without access to real ec classrooms. the online practicum plan divided learning into weeks. the first week was dedicated to providing the p reservice teachers with specialized theoretical workshops and seminars conducted through apps such as zoom and blackboard. then, for two weeks, the students were required to attend practical workshops at the college, applying precautionary procedures such as social distancing and working in small groups of eight students each. for the next seven weeks, students learned and practiced online writing and implementing lesson plans, preparing and creating age-appropriate activities, producing creative learning materials, analyzing hypothetical situations, and creating proposals for initiating community partnerships. learning evaluation and assessment occurred during the semester's last three weeks. students were divided into small groups and then required to present their teaching skills in person at the college. each week presented a different aspect of the kindergarten program schedule, such as circle time, learning corners, and outdoor play. like many other educational institutions across the world (daniel, 2020), we had a very short time "to prepare for a remote-teaching regime" (p. 92). as a result of this unprecedented situation, questions about the quality of online learning have been raised, particularly in practicums where students are moving on to employment. this is asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 142-149 144 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group particularly important, as the covid-19 pandemic has caused disruptions in education and students' lives in many ways (daniel, 2020; kidd & murray, 2020). so, despite all the efforts, little is known about the quality of education provided and students' experiences during online education. thus, this research focuses on how ec preservice teachers at psau experienced online practicums. this study aimed to explore the experiences and listen to the voices of preservice ec teachers about online practicums. there is little known about how preservice teachers experienced online practicums. how did they feel about them? what are the advantages and disadvantages? were there any challenges faced? thus, this research aims to shed light on preservice ec teachers' experiences and bring their voices to the forefront. 2. methodology 2.1. design this study used a qualitative approach to collect and analyze the participants' experiences with online practicums. this study aimed to explore preservice ec teachers' experiences and gain a deep understanding of them. thus, a qualitative research design was chosen. according to cohen, manion, and morrison (2011), "qualitative research provides an in-depth, intricate and detailed understanding of meanings, actions, non-observable phenomena, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors” (p. 219). it also allows participants’ voices to be heard and explores hidden issues and factors that underlie action and behavior (cohen et al., 2011). in addition, it addresses questions of ‘what’ and ‘how’ and involves an understanding of the context and social milieu “by allowing the researcher to enter the world of others and to attempt to achieve a holistic understanding” (bloomberg & volpe, 2016). before conducting the interviews, the preservice teachers were informed about the purpose and aims of this study. information sheets and consent forms were distributed to all preservice teachers in the eighth level of their studies, which is the last semester of the program. the information sheet clearly explained that participation was voluntary, their privacy would be protected, and they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time without providing a reason. 2.2. research methods based on the aim of this study, interviews were chosen as the primary research method, as they would be the best strategy to understand and explore teachers' experiences. it helps the researcher to build direct communication with participants easily and explore their feelings, perceptions, and knowledge through interactive talk (alwadaani, 2019; matthews & ross, 2010), which produces knowledge by enabling "multi-sensory channels to be used: verbal, nonverbal, spoken and heard" (cohen et al., 2011). therefore, semi-structured interviews were conducted because they offer important and valuable data due to their flexibility as open discussions. moreover, the researcher’s ontological position acknowledges that participants’ opinions, perceptions, experiences, understandings, and interactions are meaningful components of the social reality to be explored (alwadaani, 2019). therefore, interviews where it was possible to access the participants' social contexts and understand the "issues that lie beneath the surface of presenting behaviors and actions” (cohen et al., 2011) were the most appropriate research method for achieving the aims of this research and reaching an understanding of the participants' experiences within this context. the interviews evolved around the following questions: • describe your experience with the online practicum. how did you feel about it? • what did you like/dislike about the online practicum? • what are the challenges you encountered during the online practicum? • would you agree to practicums being done partially online in the future? • do you have any suggestions for improving online practicums? what are they? 2.3. sample and settings due to the covid-19 pandemic, the research was conducted online through zoom, a communication program that helps contact others through either an audio or a video conference, as a replacement for face-to-face interviews. purposive sampling was used to collect data, meaning participants were chosen intentionally (alwadaani, 2019). this approach is generally used with small-scale, in-depth studies (matthews & ross, 2010). the purpose is not to produce generalization or comparison but to present a unique case with its own "intrinsic value" (cohen et al., 2011). our case concerned exploring the experiences of preservice ec teachers undertaking their practicum online and enrolling in an undergraduate kindergarten education program. the research included three female students who were doing their practicum online. all of the participants in this study were female because, in the ksa, only female teachers are allowed to study early childhood education (ece) (alwadaani, 2019). the researcher tried to invite more preservice teachers to participate by communicating with them through their supervisors and distributing the information sheet several times during the study year. however, unfortunately, only three preservice teachers contacted the researcher and signed the consent forms. although the researcher hoped to have more participants in this study, the three participants provided deep, rich, and interconnected data. there were similarities and differences in the data provided by the participants, but in some way, they reflected similar experiences with different emphases on some parts of those experiences. therefore, the researcher believes that the sample size is suitable and sufficient to achieve the study's aim, as there seems to be saturation at which "the data collection process no longer offers any new or relevant data" (dworkin, 2012). as discussed previously, this study aimed not to generalize the results but to understand the experiences of ec preservice teachers, shed light on those experiences and the hidden issues within those experiences, and explore the practice of online education. thus, qualitative research methods often use smaller than larger samples, as in quantitative research methods. according to dworkin (2012), “qualitative research methods are often concerned with garnering an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon or are focused on meaning (and heterogeneities in meaning)— which are often centered on the how and why of a particular issue, process, situation, subculture, scene or set of social interactions” (p. 1319). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 142-149 145 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.4. ethical considerations ethical issues were taken into careful consideration in this study. according to matthews and ross (2010), research ethics are “moral principles guiding research, from its inception through to completion and publication of results and beyond” (p. 71). ethics are about being aware of and sensitive to the rights of the participants (cohen et al., 2011). considering this, in this research, specific steps were taken and ensured to protect the participants and their rights (alwadaani, 2019). for example, before conducting the research, an ethical review of the research and its purpose, aims, questions, and methods was completed at the university of prince sattam bin abdulaziz (psau). after obtaining official permission, i contacted the preservice teachers through their supervisors and distributed an information sheet about this study. three preservice teachers agreed to participate in the study. they signed the informed consent form, which explained the study's purpose and assured them that their identities and information would remain anonymous. power relations were also taken into consideration in this study. it was explained to the participants that their participation was voluntary and that they had the right to withdraw at any time during the study without giving any reason. they were also informed that their participation would be of great value to the research field and would be highly appreciated (alwadaani, 2019). ensuring the trustworthiness of this study was also highly considered to demonstrate the authentic experiences of the participants. according to shenton (2004), trustworthiness in qualitative research consists of four main criteria: credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability. first, to ensure credibility, a few steps were followed. for instance, participants were invited to revise the interview scripts and to provide explanations; their engagement in the study was encouraged and welcomed. moreover, establishing mutual and respectful relationships was a priority in this study. thus, conversations were flexible, and positions and rights were explained explicitly, orally, and in writing. additionally, there were continuous opportunities for peer scrutiny of the study. feedback on the study, the chosen methods, and discussions about the findings from colleagues and academics were welcomed during the study. finally, this study examined previous similar studies to check the congruency of the results of this study with those of other studies (alwadaani, 2019). second, transferability, in which the reader receives the whole reflection of the phenomenon under investigation, was considered by providing detailed information about the study's context and findings to allow checking its applicability to other situations and populations. third, to ensure dependability, a detailed description of the process of the study was reported, including the research design and data-gathering process. lastly, to ensure confirmability, in which the findings reflect the genuine experiences and ideas of the participants rather than the researcher, the ideas, explanations, reasons, and ontological position of the researcher underlying the chosen methods were acknowledged, and a detailed methodological explanation provided (shenton, 2004). 2.5. data analysis thematic analysis and coding were used to pinpoint and explain themes, link different aspects of the data, and discover similarities (alwadaani, 2019). thematic analysis, according to matthews and ross (2010), is the “process of working with raw data to identify and interpret key ideas or themes” (p. 373). it helps to interpret and gain an understanding of the words and experiences of the participants. "it is not for purposes of generalizing beyond the case but rather for rich description of the case to understand the complexity thereof" (bloomberg & volpe, 2016). 3. results and discussion this study aimed to explore the experiences of ec preservice teachers with online practicums during the pandemic. the findings indicated that preservice teachers had confronted many challenges, including a mix of negative feelings due to teaching remotely and the inability to see, teach, and engage actively with children. the participants' experiences have indicated that, despite the advantages of online practicums, they faced many challenges. 3.1. anxiety, fear, sadness, and uncertainty “i was afraid, anxious, and unsure. i cannot say it was a good experience, i do not, i was suffering from the beginning. i was crying all the time the first two weeks, i did not know how to work, sitting only in front of the computer. negativity was all over the experience.” participants spoke of fear, anxiety, sadness, and uncertainty about what was happening, how long it would last, how they would work, and how they would be assessed. participants constantly referenced their emotions during lockdown and how their emotions while teaching online have significantly changed from excitement to practice to anxiety, fear, stress, and frustration during the covid-19 pandemic. one participant explained that the practicum, the way it was (face-to-face), was already scary, as it is the stage where preservice teachers are supposed to summarize and practice all of their theoretical preparation, let alone when it suddenly moved online. one participant felt uncertain about what was required from her and her ability to achieve it under the current circumstances: “it was terrifying as it was unclear how i would practice online, provide children with learning opportunities remotely without meeting them, and have face-to-face experiences. i wondered if i would succeed or fail my practicum because i was uncertain about what i was supposed to provide, how i would provide it, and whether i could do it!” according to tipton and schmitt (2021), uncertainty about what was expected from teachers and how they would achieve it while teaching children online was found among early childhood teachers who shifted suddenly from face-to-face to remote teaching. this could result from the nature of ec educational programs, which depend on direct contact and where learning happens through hands-on experience (kim, 2020). according to madsen, habbestad, and borch (2023), ec teachers had limited practice in some daily tasks during online practicums compared to physical practicums and, as a result, were unable to achieve the assigned learning outcomes. therefore, in adjusting the program, the methods of teaching and learning online involved many challenges that caused the teachers to feel a mix of negative feelings, such as fear, anxiety, and uncertainty (kim, 2020; madsen et al., 2023). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 142-149 146 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group participants also expressed anxiety and concern about the loss of the other "'real' practicum space" (kidd & murray, 2020). as one participant said: “the loss of direct contact with children during my practicum has made me unconfident about my teaching skills. i need more practicums, i need to see the children's progress in their engagement with activities and with me.” the practicum is a crucial aspect of any educational program (ersin et al., 2020). according to jin (2023), learning during a practicum happens through the transformation of experiences in which preservice teachers gain knowledge through direct contact and engagement. hands-on experiences and direct contact with children, colleagues, and families are essential in teacher preparation programs. authentic teaching experiences offer active collaboration and engagement (jin, 2023; kim, 2020). in this study, participants encountered several challenges that caused them to have mixed feelings of sadness, fear, and uncertainty as a result of the absence of real space, as described in the findings of ersin et al. (2020); kidd and murray (2020) and varea and gonzález-calvo (2020). those mixed feelings toward their experiences indicated their realization of the importance of the practicum and its main elements and their feelings toward the loss of authentic practicum spaces. despite participants’ negative feelings toward their experiences, they all agreed that those feelings were most intense at the beginning of the practicum. as time passed, those feelings changed slightly as they became accommodated to the online practicum. likewise, ersin et al. (2020) found that student teachers felt anxious at the beginning of their e-practicum "but then things happened spontaneously" (p. 120). this finding could be attributed to the need for more experience with online practicums and learning. in this study, participants had yet to gain experience with online practicums and teaching. according to kim (2020), the nature of the ec educational program—with its insufficient focus on learning technology—and the nature of the practicum have affected the efficacy of ec teachers in utilizing technology actively, thus causing feelings of fear and uncertainty. it was found to be a factor that impacted the effectiveness of online practicums and learning (kim, 2020; murray‐harvey, 2001; pappa, 2021). 3.2. ill preparation “if i was sure that next semester would not be online, i would postpone my practicum. the online practicum did not qualify me to teach.” “it did not prepare me to deal with children, to manage classrooms, nor to deal with other teachers or school administration; we only learned to create activities and produce materials.” similar to what was described by kidd and murray (2020), participants in the current study felt unprepared to work as teachers. according to them, online practicums did not equip them with the necessary teaching skills or authentic and hands-on classroom teaching experience. according to participants, the online practicum was: “ineffective, it is a solution for a situation like this but not as a replacement for a real practicum.” participants attributed their feelings of ill preparation to the absence of face-to-face interactions with children and teachers. they could not see the children's progress and observe their learning, nor could they see other teachers' teaching skills and reactions to different situations. similarly, ersin et al. (2020) and jin (2023) indicated that the absence of face-to-face experience was one of the challenges preservice teachers confronted during online practicums and caused them to feel unprepared. the participants in the current study experienced a gap between the lessons they prepared and the absence of observing children's learning and reactions to lessons and activities. this gap led them to feel insecure and insufficiently prepared. however, despite this challenge, the online practicum allowed them to recognize their challenges and pursue potential solutions. for instance, one of the participants said that she had to practice the activities with children from her surroundings to check the appropriateness of the activities and receive feedback. another participant said that whenever she felt challenged, she searched for solutions through reading and consulting with other teachers. although participants felt unprepared, their experiences with online practicums pushed them toward inquiry and understanding. 3.3. lack of motivation one of the challenges that preservice teachers faced in this study was their lack of motivation. they said: “nothing pushed me to achieve; i wanted to see children's reactions and receive face-to-face feedback from my supervisors.” “it did not replicate the reality of classrooms; it was frustrating and unmotivating.” özkanal, yüksel, and uysal (2020) reported that students experienced issues with motivation and attention. this could result from a lack of interaction between the participants, the children, the teachers, and the supervisors. according to murray‐harvey (2001), limited support and ineffective communication with teachers and supervisors are considered critical components that affect the success of preservice teachers in their practicums. preservice teachers rely on learning directly from teachers to overcome some of the difficulties they encounter. those relationships, especially if they were positive, were found to be an effective strategy for coping with stress (murray‐ harvey, 2001). additionally, the participants had no prior experience with online practicums, so part of the problem could be their need for knowledge and skills to utilize technology to teach children. according to al malki and al-hattali (2022), creating collaborative learning and encouraging children's engagement were some of the issues that preservice teachers faced during online practicums, in addition to the need for more experience in using technology in learning and teaching. all of these issues affected their motivation and led them to feel unprepared. 3.4. social isolation participants expressed that they missed an important component in their practicums: interacting with others. they also explained that the absence of social interaction and real engagement caused them to feel that their learning was insufficient and unreal. this finding resembles the findings of varea and gonzález-calvo (2020), özkanal et al. (2020), and kidd and murray (2020). one participant said: “it was unreal. i prepared activities, produced them, and used them by myself. the only one who practiced my activities was me. i missed interacting with children and getting feedback from them. i missed being in a real school where i could interact with children, teachers, and administration and exchange knowledge and learning with my friends.” asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 142-149 147 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group according to murray‐harvey (2001), the interaction between preservice teachers and their teachers and supervisors is a significant component of the success of a practicum. preservice teachers found that social support networks were crucial for developing coping strategies to deal with a practicum's stress and challenges (murray‐ harvey, 2001). for the participants in this study, interacting with others (children, friends, teachers, and school administration) was a rich source of effective learning. indeed, as black (2020, as cited in robinson and rusznyak (2020)) explained, "effective teaching and learning is about relationships. personal, professional, knowledge-rich, expertise-informed relationships between pedagogue and student” (p. 520). in the current study, preservice teachers expressed their feelings of missing out on an essential part of their practicum experience due to the absence of direct contact with children and teachers and limited contact with supervisors. one participant said: “it was not a practicum; it was only paper, pencil, activity, and computer, without interaction.” this finding indicates that learning to teach is much more than learning to prepare and conceptualize lesson plans. it also points to the importance for preservice teachers of gaining “insight, at l east in a preliminary way, into the nuances of teaching in particular settings, with particular learners, and learning to engage with unpredictability and complexity” (robinson & rusznyak, 2020). social interaction and support are essential in developing teaching skills and maintaining coping strategies for stress (murray‐harvey, 2001). the findings of this study indicated the impact of online teaching and learning with no direct communication with others on preservice teachers' feelings, emotions, and readiness to enter the profession. the findings relate to sociocultural theory, which views learning as a social processes caused by people interacting with their society and surroundings. social interaction allows the acquisition of knowledge and skills. therefore, the immediate and sudden shift to online practicums might reduce preservice teachers' opportunities to fully develop teaching skills and capacity (kalloo, mitchell, & kamalodeen, 2020). preservice teachers went into their practicum experiences with no prior experience in teaching, utilizing technologies with no direct contact with children, teachers, and the context itself. these could be strong factors affecting their experience and the development of their interpersonal qualities. interpersonal qualities are professional parts of early childhood education that require training and physical interaction with the kindergarten class, including the children and teachers (madsen et al., 2023). indeed, "the practicum not only serves as a bridge between theory and practice in teaching, but it is the context in which student teachers develop a personal teaching competence" (smith & lev‐ari, 2005). murray‐harvey (2001) mentioned that the novice status of preservice teachers, in which they have no prior knowledge, necessitates the need for social support in practicums. relationships with teachers and supervisors were critical components of the success of practicum experiences as they provided the strongest support to preservice teachers (smith & lev‐ari, 2005). 3.5. advantages of online practicums “the most amazing thing about the online practicum is that it developed creative skills and thinking in producing activities and materials.” the participants agreed that their experiences improved their creative skills and thinking abilities. they were able to produce safe, appropriate, and new learning activities. this finding is supported by kidd and murray (2020), who reported that online practicums provided participants with a sense of innovation despite their many challenges. participants believed that, despite difficulties they encountered, which involved feelings of stress and fear, the online practicum encouraged them to seek new ways of learning and thinking regarding various ways to practice, such as creating electronic lessons, games, and plans to encourage children's participation in the future. moreover, due to the reality that preservice teachers had no access to physical practicums and face-to-face experiences with children, teachers, colleagues, and supervisors, the department constructed the practicum plan and added hypothetical situations. those hypothetical situations aimed to increase preservice teachers' confidence and preparedness and widen their learning by offering various situations requiring implementing new strategies, finding solutions, and dealing with problems. all participants agreed that the hypothetical situations reflected the reality of schools and the possible situations they might encounter. according to the participants, those hypothetical situations helped to supplement the real physical practicum. one participant said: “hypothetical situations were the cornerstone of the online practicum. they provided us with ideas about children; we had to return to our course materials and books to find the best practices. beautiful.” these hypothetical situations offered preservice teachers opportunities to rethink their pedagogies and ways to develop relationships with children. they also allowed different and new teaching methods, such as online lessons, assessment, search for resources (al malki & al-hattali, 2022), and reflection on classroom management strategies. “it encouraged independence in learning through self-learning and research.” moreover, participants expressed a sense of independence. although they explicitly sa id that they missed the interaction, engagement, and exchange of knowledge with their friends, they still appreciated the opportunity for independence that the online practicum provided them. they valued the opportunity that the online practicum offered to discover new ways of teaching and learning. the feelings of independence might result from the level of control preservice teachers have over their context, time, and learning (garrison & baynton, 1987). based on the nature of the practicum, preservice teachers had the opportunity to adjust their learning and practicum based on their own needs and ways of learning. this happened as a result of the absence of interaction with others. according to garrison and baynton (1987), individuals feel independent when there is no interaction, and there is freedom from others' influence. “it saved time. we had sufficient time to prepare and create activities and had reduced travel. i worked from my room.” the lockdown caused the re-organization of working times and spaces. to the participants, the online practicum was timeand effort-saving. they could work at any time and for as long as they wanted. they also reported that they appreciated working from home rather than traveling daily to schools and the college. kim (2020) reported a similar finding in which participants acknowledged that online practicums increased participation and decreased traveling. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 142-149 148 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3.6. suggestions during interviews, the preservice teachers were asked for suggestions to enhance online practicums in the future. one participant said: “even if the pandemic continues, the online practicum should not continue like that. we should join e-classes with young children so we can learn.” participants expressed their need to join online classes with young children. they did not want only to join but also to have opportunities to teach, interact, and provide activities for the children directly. this would enhance their learning by providing a context to refer back to. indeed, according to black (2020, as cited in robinson and rusznyak (2020)), “teacher education thus requires that students understand how choices in teaching need to be both conceptually informed and contextually relevant” (p. 520). as mentioned earlier, due to the sudden closure of schools and universities, preservice teachers had their practicums online with the hypothetical existence of children. at the beginning of the pandemic, there were no collaborations between schools and universities, as they were all busy adjusting to the sudden changes and solving the unforeseen issues related to these changes. “i would love to have a training program in a real school. i would be the first to enroll.” all the participants shared their need for an onsite training program as it would complement their learning and provide them with opportunities to interact and receive feedback from children, teachers, parents, and administration. according to them, they need it, as they need to learn about their performance as teachers. they only mastered creating activities that cannot substitute the rich relational nature of real practicums in school contexts and "could never replace the kinds of human relationships that are so central to good teaching" (robinson & rusznyak, 2020). 4. conclusion and recommendations this study aimed to explore the experiences and listen to the voices of preservice ec teachers regarding online practicums. despite its complexity, the practicum is considered a crucial aspect of teacher education programs (ersin et al., 2020). the findings of this study show that, despite the advantages the online practicum offers, such as encouraging independence, self-learning, creative skills, and thinking, and being less timeand effort-consuming, the challenges and unfavorable mix of feelings preservice teachers encountered outweighed those advantages. the findings of this study have significant implications for practicums in higher education. they emphasize the importance of drawing attention to the issues preservice teachers encounter and finding solutions about how to provide interactive, rich, and engaging online environments that allow preservice teachers to develop their thinking and teaching skills and to develop an understanding of how to incorporate technologies for learning in the twentyfirst century. therefore, it is critical to think ahead about the possibilities we have right now and those we need to have in the future. providing preservice teachers with opportunities and skills for online practicums is important, including interacting with children through different platforms and allowing them to reflect on how best to promote development and learning while maintaining engagement and effective interaction. despite our efforts to mimic the social and cognitive aspects of teaching face-to-face in a real classroom context, the findings indicated that it still could not match the complexity of the classroom context in interaction, engagement, and classroom management. therefore, from the findings, teaching is a social practice. indeed, as sociocultural theory highlights, learning is a social process enacted by people interacting with each other and their environment. it allows for acquiring knowledge and skills (vygotsky & luria, 1993). as kalloo et al. (2020) explain, “there is also a need for fostering the skills of social interaction, interpersonal relationships, and effective communication, which form an integral part of the teaching process” (p. 9). thus, there is a massive need to increase opportunities for interaction and engagement by allowing preservice teachers access to online ec classrooms. despite the limitations of the online practicum mentioned by the participants, the findings asserted the importance of integrating technologies and online teaching in practicums. integrating technology into ec teaching is very important and, thus, still improving. however, future teachers must acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for traditional and online teaching (jin, 2023). this is especially important when education is in crisis, and social distancing is needed. according to madsen et al. (2023), there is a need for alternative methods to ensure collaborative learning when crises such as pandemics force isolation and individual learning activities. creating alternatives means adjusting the original plan as best as possible and finding the best ways to do it kim (2020). 5. limitations this is a small-scale qualitative study; thus, the findings are not generalizable. this study aimed not to generalize the results but to understand the experiences of ec preservice teachers and shed light on those experiences and the hidden issues within those experiences, as well as to explore the practice of online education. therefore, the findings of this particular study show what happened in a particular context when the practicum was forcefully and suddenly moved to an online format, and “how with this ‘practical space of practice’ gone, the online informal spaces became the new sites of learning” (kidd & murray, 2020). however, reviewing the literature indicated similar situations globally; thus, these findings are hoped to generate new possibilities for reforming practicums and teachers' educational programs worldwide. references al malki, m. a., & al-hattali, w. 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(eds.) . hillsdale, new jersey: psychology press. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-022-01316-3 https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2020.1800407 https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1820480 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-020-00272-6 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11135-z https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11135-z https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2020.1802702 https://doi.org/10.1080/08878730109555286 https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2020.1800408 https://doi.org/10.3233/efi-2004-22201 https://www.unesco.org/en/covid-19/education-response https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals/quality-education?gclid=cj0kcqjw6kunbhdxarisakfugs9_linpxoaervmjc_kytn7kggdeb0eyrvefg5n7qn-d3qjpdrdvitmaagbtealw_wcb https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals/quality-education?gclid=cj0kcqjw6kunbhdxarisakfugs9_linpxoaervmjc_kytn7kggdeb0eyrvefg5n7qn-d3qjpdrdvitmaagbtealw_wcb https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals/quality-education?gclid=cj0kcqjw6kunbhdxarisakfugs9_linpxoaervmjc_kytn7kggdeb0eyrvefg5n7qn-d3qjpdrdvitmaagbtealw_wcb 15 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 2, 15-21, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i2.5575 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group empowering communities for peace: multitrack strategies for sustainable peacebuilding in africa joshua okyere department of peace and conflict studies, university of manitoba, canada. email: okyerejoshua10@gmail.com abstract the paper discusses approaches and analyzes strategies that has the potential to effectively address the root causes of conflicts and promote long-lasting peace in africa. the study utilizes the concept of multitrack diplomacy theory to explore various interventions and strategies that might contribute to the transformation and prevention of conflicts. it emphasizes the importance of comprehensive approaches that involve citizen diplomats, political elites, religious leaders, ngos, the media, conflict resolution educators, and traditional rulers. the paper underscores the need to involve and empower local communities to give them a sense of ownership and authority over peacebuilding initiatives. storytelling, interfaith activities, legal accountability, and education are recognized as useful methods for promoting reconciliation, preventing trauma, and developing the ability to resolve conflicts. the literature indicates that adopting a relationship -focused strategy, bolstered by multitrack diplomacy and local empowerment, can play a role in achieving lasting peace in africa and other regions. the paper offers pragmatic insights for policymakers, practitioners, and stakeholders engaged in peacebuilding endeavors. it emphasizes the significance of promoting conversation, harmony, and shared comprehension while taking into account the specific requirements, objectives, and resolutions of the local community. by employing these tactics, individuals or groups with a vested interest in a particular issue can actively strive to bring an end to harmful disputes and facilitate inclusive processes of change that foster positive and enduring peace. keywords: citizen diplomats, conflict resolution, inclusive approaches, local participation, multitrack diplomacy, sustainable peacebuilding, traditional rulers. citation | okyere, j. (2024). empowering communities for p eac e : multitrack strategies for sustainable peacebuilding in africa . asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(2), 15–21. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i2.5575 history: received: 29 january 2024 revised: 22 march 2024 accepted: 4 april 2024 published: 19 april 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: not applicable. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is honest, t ru th fu l, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been om it ted , and that any differences from the study as planned have been clari fied . this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. contents 1. introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16 2. multitrack diplomacy................................................................................................................................................................................. 16 3. peacebuilding actors and strategies ..................................................................................................................................................... 16 4. conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20 references ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20 mailto:okyerejoshua10@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i2.5575 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5753-309x asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 15-21 16 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature the importance of inclusive approaches that engage a wide range of stakeholders is highlighted, acknowledging their potential contributions to peace processes. this contribution adds value to the existing body of knowledge by highlighting the active role and involvement of local communities in shaping their own peacebuilding efforts. 1. introduction the building of peace that is sustainable through theory, research, and practice is at the heart of peace and conflict studies (pacs). pacs brings together theories from different fields to discover ways of knowing through indigenous means (mcdonough, 2013). the scholarship in this field involves conflict analysis geared towards peaceful, positive, and sustainable peace. since the end of the cold war, the international community has been faced with challenges in trying to ensure a world peace order. the ideological confrontation between the west and east was generally viewed as a major barrier to attaining political and economic stability, especially in the global south (sandole, byrne, sandole-staroste, & senehi, 2009). however, this was not the case, as many countries became engulfed in identity-based conflicts. its pervasiveness drew the attention of the international community and scholars to do critical studies of the underlying causes and propose ways to enhance effective conflict transformation (reimer et al., 2015). through these critical studies, it became evident that addressing root causes such as inequality, discrimination, and historical grievances was essential to preventing and resolving conflicts. by promoting dialogue, reconciliation, and mutual understanding, the international community could work towards building sustainable peace and stability. it became increasingly clear that a comprehensive and holistic approach was needed to address the complex nature of conflicts in the global south and beyond. as a result, efforts were made to implement conflict resolution mechanisms and peacebuilding initiatives that focused on long-term solutions (sandole et al., 2009). this paper therefore draws on "multitrack diplomacy theory” in discussing a range of interventions and measures that could help in transforming and preventing conflicts from further escalation to enhance sustainable peace in africa and beyond. multitrack strategies involving a diverse range of stakeholders in conflict resolution efforts, such as citizen diplomats, political elites, religious leaders, ngos, the media, conflict resolution educators, and traditional rulers, are discussed. 2. multitrack diplomacy multitrack diplomacy involves approaches that are multidisciplinary in nature and are used in the transformation of the underlying antagonisms of a conflict to improve relations between the parties and enhance positive change in individual attitudes and behaviours to foster and build a peaceful society (barua & vij, 2018; byrne & senehi, 2012; chrismas, 2012; dudouet & dressler, 2016; effendi, 2015; mcdonald, 2012). diplomacy refers to the activity and process of negotiating, discussing, and meeting between recognized officials of nations and multilateral bodies (asare, 2011). the growing notion of diplomacy led to a shift from diplomacy that focuses on the activities of government and non-government actors to a more inclusive track, herein referred to as multitrack diplomacy or intervention (effendi, 2015). the concept is premised on the idea of enhancing relationships between parties in the system by targeting levels of society and decision making concurrently in a way that is well coordinated and interconnected (dudouet & dressler, 2016). the building of strong relationships and dealing with the power dynamics at play in conflict require different approaches, resources, and perspectives (byrne & senehi, 2012). the sustainability of the peacebuilding interventions is highly dependent on the participation and ownership of the local people (creary & byrne, 2014; galtung, 2011; thiessen, 2011). therefore, multitrack diplomacy as an intervention, prevention, and transformative approach to addressing conflicts in africa has the potential to open the door for the local people to own the peace process. this would give them a sense of agency (mac ginty, 2014). various actors would therefore have to play a variety of roles as an intervention strategy in working towards the achievement of a sustainable peace. based on this the range of actors are discussed below. 3. peacebuilding actors and strategies 3.1. citizen diplomats/local people the core of citizen diplomacy is to offer opportunities for conflicting parties to cooperate and work together, which will ultimately create a “culture of peace” by transforming the conflict. the people at the grassroots who would want to make a difference engage themselves in the peacebuilding process (lederach, 2005). local individuals could engage in this process by joining peace advocacy groups or multicultural conflict resolution groups that enable and generate dialogue amongst the various groups (byrne & senehi, 2012). this would be able to foster the broken relationships that exist in society. relationships between the elites and the non-elites would be fostered. relationships are at the heart of every community. for there to be development, the people must come together to build their community. the citizens who have the will to pursue this course of peace must embrace the “principle of solidarity” (chinn, 2013). this solidarity unites the group and also gives a clear distinction and similarities with regards to what they all honor or not. this kind of union bonds them together, which eventually develops into a community. humans like a sense of belonging and identity, a place where they will feel safe. in modern cultures, for a group to function effectively, cohesiveness and diversity must be adhered to (chinn, 2013) . thus, members of the group, while working to maintain their commonality, also do well to respect individual differences without the differences ruining the relationship. in effect, acknowledging diversity and cohesion in the group helps all to appreciate that everyone has a different perspective and a different way of looking at issues, which paves the way for divergent ideas and opinions. respecting each other’s opinion and working together towards a mutual resolution of differences. there can be said to be peace when a group has achieved harmony, trust, and constructive solutions to problems. the empowerment that peace enhances is phenomenal. empowerment for (chinn, 2013) comes from real solidarity. thus, when people are united toward a common goal, they become empowered. therefore, active engagement with others who share a common value propels asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 15-21 17 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group empowerment. the citizen diplomats could also employ the aria model to bring together the conflicting parties to dialogue in their quest to mend the broken relationship that had existed over decades (rothman, 2012) . aria represents four conflict intervention categories that correspond to distinct forms of conflicts: action, resonance, antagonism, and invention. it offers a structured approach to encourage productive interaction, deepen understanding, and facilitate beneficial transformation in situations of conflict. when parties that are in antagonistic situations come together in a process that facilitates listening and understanding, they can truly begin to create solutions. the aria model gives equal and fairgrounds to bring all the conflicting parties to the mediation table and enables communication between them. there is an eventual realization of the problem and the available options after going through each stage. they will then be able to come up with a road map that will guide them to ending the conflict. the brain behind the entire process is to facilitate the togetherness of the parties for an effective resolution of the conflict. a thorough examination of the antagonistic and reflexive frameworks would enlighten us to recognize that even in issues of protracted conflict, both parties wanted harmony (rothman, 2012). additionally, peacebuilding in conflict societies must be premised on the idea of local participation, ownership, and control of the processes involved (creary & byrne, 2014; galtung, 2011; liaga, 2019; thiessen, 2011). thiessen (2011) argues that the theory of local participation focuses on emancipating and encouraging the pursuit of justice for all, both state and non-state actors (p. 118). thus, it calls for a grass-roots approach where the voice of the masses or voiceless could be heard in the peacemaking processes. the peacebuilding process must take into consideration what the local people need and aspire to while rejecting the centralization that stems from the neoliberal approach as the “objects and subjects of peace” (thiessen, 2011). there is a high propensity for sustainability, attainability, and responsivity when the peace processes take into consideration local needs, goals, and solutions (creary & byrne, 2014). this therefore calls for the creation of a space for the local people to take part in the peace processes. to be able to take possession, control, and participate fully in the peacebuilding process, thiessen (2011) contends that there should be a bottom-up approach that engages the locals who are involved in the conflict, right from identifying the root cause of the conflict, the needed interventions, and their implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. identification of all stakeholders, which will provide a fair system for people’s participation, would enhance ownership. the success of even international peacemaking programs is dependent on local participation, ownership, and control of the process (creary & byrne, 2014). stroschein (2013) argues that various factors exist in local settings, and as a result, the international community, which may want to intervene, must engage in an approach that focuses on inclusiveness in the “local ecosystem,” taking into consideration the different dynamics at play. in line with the above, the conflicting factions must consider bringing the locals on board to settle their differences in identity in terms of religion, ethnicity, or politics. the convergence of the voices of the locals would go a long way toward ceasing fire, and hence, peace would prevail. 3.2. political elites the constructive or destructive mode of ethnopolitical conflict is premised on the quality of leaders (byrne, 2017). these leaders ought to promote intervention measures that give the various groups a voice. this will foster togetherness among the various groups in conflicting societies to ensure peace (lederach, 1997). the political and ethnic leaders in societies plagued by conflict must work to get all members of their group to participate in the process geared towards the creation of new ideas of cooperation that are all inclusive. thus, in an attempt to come up with new policies devoid of discrimination, the various leaders must urge the full participation of all members. group member participation would not allow only the elites or leaders to make decisions for the whole group (boudreau, 2011). participation in the form of dialogue would help transform the underlying understanding behind the conflict and, hence, acknowledge the other groups or all parties involved (fisher & shapiro, 2005; fisher, 2009). the political elites can work towards the achievement of peace by ensuring that all the different ethnic groups and minorities have a fair share of the national cake in terms of resources, jobs, etc. it has to be noted that human wants are many, but the resources for satisfying those needs are limited. amidst the scarcity of resources, the sharing of the limited resources is likely to generate conflict. as a result, the political elites must manage the conflict by giving all citizens equal access to these limited resources. there should be an equitable distribution of resources by these elites, which would go a long way toward ensuring tranquilly in conflicting societies. elections must also be organized devoid of rigging and must be free and fair to all contesting parties (paris 2004, as cited in byrne and senehi (2012)). a political system where the elites work together with the minority groups paves the way for fairness because the political elites are restricted from exploiting the minority groups for their own gains (türkmen, 2018). in the case of countries with diverse ethnicities, the elites are able to work together to share power with the aim of upholding democratic principles and ensuring the protection of the dignity and rights of all citizens. the citizens cultural, political, social, and economic rights are all upheld by the elites in such a democratic terrain (türkmen, 2018). the middle level elites can play a role in educating the national and community level parties during the peace process in such societies. education can take the form of bringing to the fore issues that were hitherto not acknowledged by the top elites to be addressed (byrne & senehi, 2012). through the organization of problem-solving workshops, they can participate and pave the way for individuals to informally represent the parties in conflict so that they can examine the problems shared in common. this allows the conflicting parties to have a direct interaction while developing alternatives and new options for the amicable resolution of the conflict (sterio & levy, 2020). 3.3. religious leaders the role of religious leaders in the resolution of conflicts cannot be ignored (babalola & onapajo, 2018; silvestri & mayall, 2015). the various religious leaders in the conflict society could use their position to call the conflicting parties to the peacemaking table to have a discussion on the way forward to dealing with the menace. they can work towards reconciliation and forgiveness (ramsbotham, miall, & woodhouse, 2011). looking at how religious leaders are revered in african societies for their non-compromising attitudes coupled with their level of integrity, they are likely to gain the trust of all groups in their quest to mediate conflicts. their positions place them at an advantageous point in promoting tolerance in society centered on their religious beliefs, values, and ideals (babalola & onapajo, 2018). interreligious activities like the celebration of holidays and ceremonies can be a asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 15-21 18 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group starting point for transforming the sour relationships that exist among the different religious groups and identities (babalola & onapajo, 2018; byrne & senehi, 2012). for instance, the celebration of christmas and ramadan together could be encouraged by the religious leaders, and this has the potential to change the behaviours of the groups by seeing others as inimical to their progress. the religious leaders must continue to preach forgiveness, tolerance, and unity to the political leaders so they can pass it on to their followers, acknowledging that the national interest is what matters (babalola & onapajo, 2018). therefore, the groups should put aside their differences, come together, and fight towards a common goal of eradicating poverty and underdevelopment that have engulfed the country for a better future. smock succinctly highlights the above position by noting that “the use of rituals and symbols, scriptures, and text allows for a deeper and more meaningful engagement” by religious leaders through interfaith dialogue groups to nonviolently “promote understanding and reconciliation,” compassion, and tolerance, to improve, repair, and restore relationships (smock 2002, cited in byrne and senehi (2012)). for instance, the religious leaders in africa could learn from the expertise of desmond tutu, who championed the course of truth and reconciliation in south africa , to facilitate the peacebuilding process to deescalate and ceasefire completely. also, during the conflict in northern ireland, the christian movement was able to advocate and bring people together to realize their common goals (byrne, 2001). the religious institutions must therefore equip and build the capacity of the religious leaders to handle these kinds of conflicts to ensure sustainable peace. this can be achieved through training programs, workshops, and dialogues that focus on conflict resolution, reconciliation, and mediation skills. by empowering religious leaders with the tools and knowledge necessary to navigate and resolve conflicts peacefully, they can play a crucial role in promoting unity and understanding within their communities. ultimately, investing in the capacity building of religious leaders can contribute to the long-term stability and peace within societies affected by conflict. 3.4. nongovernmental organizations non-governmental organizations (ngos) have been recognized as key actors championing human rights, humanitarian action, development, the environment, and many other areas of public action (lewis, 2010). they also play a key role in restoring relationships. generally, ngos work at the grassroots to examine the underlying causes of conflict so as to work on appropriate measures or put tools in place to transform the conflict and restore broken relationships (bartoli, 2009). ngos have served as valuable allies for both national governments and multinational diplomatic and dispute resolution organizations (carment & schnabel, 2010). most often, due to the slower nature of intergovernmental organizations in intervening in issues of conflict, as was seen in the case of the 1994 rwandan genocide, it is expedient that the ngos, who work closely with the local people, intervene to restore order before things get out of control (byrne & senehi, 2012). they can intervene by monitoring the conflicts, trying to prevent arms from being delivered into the country, and also making attempts to make sure the existing government institutions, if any, are strengthened to deal with issues of human rights violations and atrocities perpetrated by people (byrne & senehi, 2012; lewis, 2010). they can also promote dialogue between the conflicting parties and groups in such societies while addressing the existential economic, social, political, and cultural inequalities. through their activities, people would gain confidence and trust to be able to participate, build themselves, and work together to enhance cordial relationships (fisher, 2009; lewis, 2010). most conflict arises as a result of needs or identity issues (cook-huffman, 2009). the ngos could help the people by trying to understand their fears and what they need while sharing with them a sense of hope and optimism. the establishment of the truth and reconciliation council that happened to restore peace in south africa could be instituted by ngos in conflicting societies to help restore peace. the ngos could act as mediators of the conflict by helping the different ethnic and political groups to express appreciation, build affiliations or alliances, respect autonomy, acknowledge status, and choose a fulfilling role that focuses on how to see oneself in relation to others and vice versa (fisher & shapiro, 2005). this act will have the capacity to address negative emotions that emanate from any of the groups. in doing so, they could adopt these tenets of negotiating an agreement by “separating people from the problem, focusing on interests rather than positions, inventing multiple options looking for mutual gains before deciding what to do, and insisting that the result be based on an objective standard (fisher, ury, & patton, 2011). also, the ngos can work to address human rights violations in conflict affected societies. bell (2013) has argued that throughout the peacebuilding process, human rights and law play an important role, whether through limiting current violence, maintaining peaceful relations, establishing frameworks for agreements, or frameworks for human rights and law. essentially, human rights violations are an important part of the peacebuilding process because they can be the cause of conflict and manifest through conflict (bell, 2013). in order to have sustainable peace, these human rights violations must be addressed, and there must be ways to regulate and deter future human rights violations. the way this is done is usually through the legal processes, both international and local (bell, 2013). the intervention to build peace must therefore consider rebuilding and reestablishing the credibility of legal institutions. the main underlying issue in this process is trying to use the law to create peace while trying to re-legitimize the legal system simultaneously (bell, 2013). this delicate balance requires a careful approach to ensure that justice is served while also promoting reconciliation and healing within the community. it is essential to work towards restoring trust in the legal system, as this is crucial for maintaining peace and preventing future conflicts. by addressing human rights violations through legal channels and promoting accountability, societies can move towards a more just and peaceful future. 3.5. the media media and journalism can be a great help in the intervention and building of peace in ivory coast. the media 's position in conflict management and intervention continues to evolve, requiring more detailed and general awareness of these dimensions (ukka & kombate, 2019). apart from the distribution of information, the media can help create an environment that accepts varied opinions to achieve symmetry in information. the media that is responsible would stand for truth and fairness in its reporting (saleem & hanan, 2014). the local media can broadcast news using the radio stations since they have access to many different areas. in this way, they could address people directly in their own languages and try to spread the message of peace and do away with hate (savrum & miller, 2015). the local media typically provide a better view of current power systems, dispute actors, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 15-21 19 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group and developments preceding the eruption of the conflict. the local media can therefore have an influence on the conflict, either before or after. since the local media is recognized to be part of the society in which the conflict has occurred, they can act positively by reducing or diffusing fears and tensions that have erupted between various political parties and ethnic groups (savrum & miller, 2015). they must serve as gatekeepers by serving as watchmen for the government, opposition, and society. they must make sure credible information is being supplied to reach a larger audience. they can continue to preach the tenets of democracy and let the people understand their fundamental rights. they can also encourage reconciliation and societal development to help transform the conflict. in addition, enhanced peace journalism could play a salient role. journalists can try to uncover the main reason or causes behind the conflict and try to understand the parties’ objectives. with that knowledge, they could institute measures to help solve the menace and also help those victimized. thus, journalism must be geared towards finding possible solutions that would prevent further escalation of the conflict (galtung & fischer, 2013 ). in culturally diverse societies, the media could engage in educating the people about the different cultural practices as a form of awareness creation to help coexist harmoniously. the media can focus on highly respected individuals in the community to help in the articulation of the peace campaign. this is in line with the notion that it is salient for peace journalism to seek out diverse voices and express a variety of interests in a conflict situation (galtung & fischer, 2013; webel & galtung, 2007). in the creation of a just and peaceful society, the media plays a critical role in drawing awareness and building multicultural relationships, which enhances de-escalation rather than escalation of conflict (byrne & senehi, 2012). 3.6. conflict resolution educators the field of conflict resolution can deploy experts to offer education to the citizens of conflict affected societies on the skills, theories, and procedures necessary for making peace. education would help in changing perspectives regarding how conflict is resolved, which would lead to the adoption of innovative measures necessary for ensuring impartiality (bekerman, 2010). grassroots mediation centers could educate the people on the various peace management techniques that help boost their confidence to analyze and dissect issues critically, devoid of any political lens (byrne & senehi, 2012). teachers in the various schools can engage in public education where the masses are taught the different types of violence, be they structural or cultural, the propelling mechanisms for the eruption of conflict, and also, when conflict arises, how to handle it (harris & morrison, 2012). a safe space must be provided for all students, irrespective of their identity, and as they continue to interact, they will have changed perceptions of each other, which will help them to coexist peacefully. such students would grow to know that t hey are all humans, irrespective of their identities, and as a result, they are unlikely to engage in acts of political violence when they grow up. thus, the educators should teach the children the way they should go so that they will not depart from it when they grow up. there ought to be an incorporation of peace education and peace literacy in the curriculum from preschool to tertiary level (maulden, 2013) as well as exploring new ways to meet the legitimate goals of all parties (galtung, 2011). this education would serve as a source of liberation from the bondage or habit of violence and inequity . it would go a long way toward empowering the populace to deal with conflict when they encounter it (maulden, 2013). thus, peace education, whether formal or informal, must empower the citizens to garner the necessary skills and attitude needed to resolve conflicts and enhance harmony and coexistence in the community (maulden, 2013) . the past and the future must inform the peace process (ross, 2013). the educators can adopt a multidisciplinary approach to understanding peace and peacebuilding. the existence of complexity behooves teachers, researchers, and practitioners to learn about the perspectives of the different disciplines about peacebuilding and how these are interconnected using multidisciplinary studies (boudreau, 2012). that is, what are their definitions of peace, and how can peace be achieved? in their quest to add their voice, many authors have taken up the challenge of explaining their positions on the different disciplines with respect to peace and peacebuilding. for instance, mckeown (2013) writing on social psychology and peacebuilding, emphasized the position of social psychology by analyzing intergroup relationships that are critical to achieving peace and contending that it is vital to put in place necessary mechanisms that could help improve intergroup relationships. developing theories that assist in both understanding and improving intergroup relationships is the key function of social psychology in peacebuilding. apart from this, educators, teachers, and practitioners of conflict resolution could employ the tactics of storytelling to allow room for the various political parties, ethnic groups, religious groups, and other minorities to tell their stories to enhance understanding of the conflict and help transform the crisis while building relationships as well. senehi (2019) contends that there is easy accessibility to storytelling because it does not require any special equipment or training and is easily understandable regardless of culture, age differences, etc. for senehi, storytelling serves as the means through which people enact their past, identify their commonalit ies, and build bridges for the peaceful resolution of conflicts, especially identity-based conflicts. similarly, it provides a voice for the voiceless, evokes memory, and provides space for people to emotionally express their feelings of anger and revenge (senehi, 2019). with storytelling as a method for community building and peacebuilding, it provides the opportunity for the psychosocial aspects of the conflict to be resolved. storytelling also addresses traumas that have always contributed to the protracted nature of conflicts (maiangwa & byrne, 2015; senehi, 2019). it has to be noted, however, that the narrator may sometimes formulate the story to suit their interests, but it does not debunk the fact of acknowledging certain events and experiences. storytelling will help us to understand the historical relationship that existed between the parties and how the relationship has shaped the dynamics of conflict (senehi, 2019). peace may be enhanced when storytelling takes the form of a dialogue coupled with a mutual acknowledgment that seeks to enhance consciousness devoid of domination. also, educators could help adopt reconciliation to help those who lost their loved ones in the cause of the crisis recover from the trauma that is likely to resurge a conflict. the continual existence of issues of identity and lack of access to resources, coupled with political issues, makes it necessary for steps to be taken to deal with the crisis. 3.8. traditional chiefs to the rescue chiefs are believed to be the custodians of the lands and have the capacity to protect the culture, traditions, and history of the various communities. they are highly revered, especially in african societies. as a result, they have asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 15-21 20 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group played and continue to play a salient role in mediating or resolving conflicts that arise in their communities (marfo, 2019). in ghana, for instance, there are numerous times where the paramount chief of the ashanti, otumfo osei tutu, summons all political parties and talks to them when he realizes tensions are boiling up. the traditional authorities in conflict societies in africa could also employ the same tactics by bringing the conflicting parties together for a dialogue. through this, the root causes of the conflict would be unearthed, and a solution could be arrived at. this means that the chiefs should help the parties come to the negotiation table to have a solution that would help all to live together in harmony (issifu, 2015; nwolise, 2005). the traditional leaders can play a role as mediators between the political parties. the traditional leaders must address the need for justice. this justice must result in a win-win situation where all the political parties feel satisfied. the chiefs can lead the various parties to engage in intercultural dialogue as a way of uniting the various ethnic identities or groups. this can be achieved by addressing issues of emotions and trauma, which play a significant role in protracted conflicts due to the deficiency of intervention strategies to incorporate them into the peacemaking processes (abu-nimer, 2013; thiessen, 2011) . people who have experienced grievances will be able to express some emotions about important events that happened, which would be relevant in seeing the way forward to bringing peace. in effect, the significance of a group's collective memory is highly necessary for achieving sustainable peace (ross, 2013). the inability of intervention strategies to address collective memory has the tendency to create a narrative that is used for the justification and continuation of violence (ross, 2013). again, using traditional leaders can be said to be a form of indigenous approach to peacebuilding. many scholars contend that indigenous approaches in conflict zones are at the heart of the practice of peacebuilding (galtung, 2011; rice, 2011; thiessen, 2011; tuso, 2011; wanis-st john, 2013). in culturally relevant ways, the indigenous approaches help resolve conflicts in the locality while managing the social relationships that exist and providing the platform or avenues for forgiveness (wanis-st john, 2013). the survival of indigenous societies is dependent on the coexistence between humans and their environment, and as a result, indigenous approaches are hinged on the experiences of the locals with their environment (rice, 2011). the indigenous peacebuilding processes are premised on decisions that emanate unanimously and are geared towards the restoration of a balance in the relationship between humans and the environment (tuso, 2011). due to the unintended consequences that emerge when local dynamics are not considered, peacebuilding processes must involve the people of the soil (stroschein, 2013). tuso (2011) contends, however, that proper care must be taken so that local structures will not be oppressive, as well as including all genders in the process. involving the people of the soil in peacebuilding processes ensures that their experiences, knowledge, and needs are taken into account, leading to more sustainable and effective outcomes. by including all genders in these processes, a more inclusive and diverse perspective can be achieved, resulting in solutions that are more comprehensive and representative of the community as a whole. it is crucial to strike a balance between respecting local structures and traditions while also ensuring that they do not perpetuate oppression or exclusion within the community. ultimately, by prioritizing the voices and agency of the locals, peacebuilding efforts can truly address the root causes of conflict and promote long-lasting reconciliation and harmony. 4. conclusion this paper has drawn on the “multitrack diplomacy” theory in discussing a range of interventions and measures that could help in transforming and preventing conflicts from further escalation to enhance sustainable peace. it brought to light some actors and the various roles they need to play in achieving sustainable peace in africa and beyond. the conflict intervention, prevention, and transformation processes, when harnessed effectively, would go a long way toward ending destructive conflicts while building something more desirable in a relationship-centered manner, which would eventually promote change processes that are constructive and inclusive. it is time african societies moved from violent and destructive patterns of conflict resolution to potential creative, constructive, and nonviolent ways of dealing with conflict. this shift in mindset and approach requires a deep understanding of the root causes of conflict as well as a willingness to engage in open and honest dialogue with all parties involved. it also necessitates a commitment to building trust, empathy, and understanding among conflicting parties in order to create a foundation for lasting peace and reconciliation. by embracing these principles and actively working towards conflict transformation, african societies can pave the way for a more peaceful and prosperous future for all. this transformation process may not be easy, as it requires individuals and communities to let go of deeply ingrained beliefs and prejudices. however, by investing in education, training, and resources for conflict resolution and peacebuilding, african societies can begin to make significant strides towards sustainable peace. it is crucial for leaders and citizens alike to prioritize collaboration and cooperation rather than resorting to violence or aggression in times of disagreement. with a collective effort towards embracing peaceful solutions, africa can set an example for the rest of the world on how to effectively address and resolve conflict. references abu-nimer, m. 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(2007). handbook of peace and conflict studies. london: routledge. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315642680 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5&q=carment%2c+d.%2c+%26+schnabel%2c+a.+%282010%29.+conflict+prevention.+path+to+peace+or+grand+illusion.&btng https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5&q=carment%2c+d.%2c+%26+schnabel%2c+a.+%282010%29.+conflict+prevention.+path+to+peace+or+grand+illusion.&btng https://doi.org/10.1080/21647259.2013.866459 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203893166-37 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5&q=galtung%2c+j.+%282011%29.+peace+and+conflict+studies+as+political+activity.+in%3a+maty%c3%b3k%2c+t.%2c+senehi%2c+j.%2c+%26+byrne%2c+s.+%28eds%29.+critical+issues+in+peace+and+conflict+studies%3a+theory%2c+practice%2c+and+pedagogy.+%283-18%29&btng https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5&q=galtung%2c+j.+%282011%29.+peace+and+conflict+studies+as+political+activity.+in%3a+maty%c3%b3k%2c+t.%2c+senehi%2c+j.%2c+%26+byrne%2c+s.+%28eds%29.+critical+issues+in+peace+and+conflict+studies%3a+theory%2c+practice%2c+and+pedagogy.+%283-18%29&btng https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5&q=galtung%2c+j.+%282011%29.+peace+and+conflict+studies+as+political+activity.+in%3a+maty%c3%b3k%2c+t.%2c+senehi%2c+j.%2c+%26+byrne%2c+s.+%28eds%29.+critical+issues+in+peace+and+conflict+studies%3a+theory%2c+practice%2c+and+pedagogy.+%283-18%29&btng https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32481-9_8 http://www.beyondintractability.org/user https://doi.org/10.1007/springerreference_75552 https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010614550899 https://doi.org/10.13110/storselfsoci.11.1.0085 https://doi.org/10.7238/joc.v3i2.1629 https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203068175-13/social-psychology-peacebuilding-shelley-mckeown https://doi.org/10.51594/ijarss.v1i2.12 98 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 3, 98-108, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.4984 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group territorial human capital and the economic development of territories: study socially innovative aspects of cooperatives in the prefecture of agadir ida outanane abdeljalil mazzaourou1 jamal agouram2 mustapha amzil3 ( corresponding author) 1,3faculty of legal, economic and social sciences agadir, university ibn zohr, morocco. 1email: mazzaourou@gmail.com 3email: mustapha.amzil@edu.uiz.ac.ma 2faculty of economics and management guelmim, university ibn zohr, morocco. 2email: jamal.agouram@edu.uiz.ac.ma abstract this paper is situated within territorial economics, with the noble aim of elucidating the intricate interplay between territorial human capital and the economic advancement of the esteemed agadir ida outanane prefecture, particularly within the social innovation concept. it endeavors to navigate the nuances of theoretical intricacies and empirical analysis tools, all in a concerted effort to address the paramount inquiry: "to what extent can territorial human capital serve as a propelling force for the development of the agadir ida outanane area, and how might social innovation contribute thereto?" in pursuit, we have adopted a methodological approach rooted in deductive reasoning and underpinned by a post-positivist paradigm. through a judicious synthesis of theoretical constructs and observed realities, we have deftly formulated a hypothetical model that interweaves the concepts of territorial human capital, social innovation, and economic valorization of the territory. this model has been tested on a dataset comprising 180 operational cooperatives in the revered agadir ida outanane area. the discerning findings of this inquiry concur with the existence of substantial and noteworthy contributions among the multifarious concepts under scrutiny. keywords: agadir ida outanane, economic development, human capital, social innovation, territory. citation | mazzaourou, a., agouram, j., & amzil, m. (2023). territorial human capital and the economic development of territories: study socially innovative aspects of cooperatives in the prefecture of agadir ida outanane. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(3), 98–108. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.4984 history: received: 21 june 2023 revised: 26 july 2023 accepted: 28 august 2023 published: 11 september 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: not applicable transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 99 2. methodological choices and tools ............................................................................................................................................ 102 3. presentation and discussion of results .................................................................................................................................... 103 4. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 108 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 108 mailto:mazzaourou@gmail.com mailto:mustapha.amzil@edu.uiz.ac.ma mailto:jamal.agouram@edu.uiz.ac.ma https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.4984 https://orcid.org/0009-0006-9538-3818 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1574-1464 https://orcid.org/0009-0007-9875-1775 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 98-108 99 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature these are the efforts made to collect data from cooperatives in the agadir ida outanane prefecture, given that there are no previous empirical studies dealing with this subject in this area. theoretical efforts were also made to mobilize the key concepts of our work. 1. introduction the concept of territorial human capital is emerging as a critical element in the economic development of territories. in particular, in the prefecture of agadir ida outanane, territorial human capital is of particular significance as a potential lever for the economic enhancement of the region's territory. whether territorial human capital can function as a locomotive for the development of this prefecture is a major challenge for decision-makers and stakeholders in territorial development. with this in mind, particular attention is being devoted to social innovation, seen as a key factor in stimulating the dynamics of territorial human capital. cooperatives, as social and economic organizations, are major players in social innovation in the agadir ida outanane prefecture. these cooperatives, entities based on cooperation and solidarity between their members, can play a crucial role in the economic enhancement of territories by fostering employment creation, local development and promoting the social and solidarity economy. in this line, this article's primary issue is whether territorial human capital can act as a catalyst for the development of the agadir ida outanane prefecture and, if so, how much social innovation can do so. in order to investigate the socially innovative features of cooperatives in the agadir ida outanane prefecture and their impact on the economic improvement of the region, a multidisciplinary approach will be used to address this subject. with this in mind, this article analyzes the issues and challenges in promoting territorial human capital as a lever for territorial economic development, focusing on cooperatives as key actors in social innovation in the agadir ida outanane prefecture. to do so, we will adopt a methodological posture based on a hypotheticodeductive approach, including reviewing existing literature and analyzing field data. the results of this research will contribute to enriching our understanding of the social and economic dynamics linked to territorial human capital and social innovation in the agadir ida outanane prefecture and may serve as a basis for the development of policies and strategies for the economic enhancement of territories focused on strengthening human capital and social innovation. 1.1. human capital and social innovation at the crossroads of different territorial conceptions human capital and social innovation are two key concepts that interact at the crossroads of various territorial conceptions. territories are spaces where interactions between individuals, institutions and resources unfold complexly, giving birth to specific social and economic dynamics. human capital, comprising all the knowledge, skills, and talents of individuals, is recognized as a decisive factor in the economic development of territories. at the same time, social innovation, which encompasses new practices, creative approaches and collective initiatives geared at solving social problems, is emerging as a catalyst for the positive transformation of territories. this section explores the complex and dynamic relationship between human capital and social innovation in the context of diverse territorial conceptions. thus, we will analyze how territorial conceptions influence how human capital is perceived and exploited in a specific territory through social innovation. by exploring these complex interactions between human capital, social innovation and territorial economic enhancement, we will strive to understand how these elements interact and mutually reinforce each other to foster territories' economic and social development. we will highlight the challenges, opportunities and best practices associated with mobilizing human capital and social innovation in the territorial context. we will highlight the potential synergies between these key concepts to stimulate economic growth, promote social cohesion, and foster territorial sustainability. 1.2. the territorial dimension of human capital the concept of territorial human capital has originated in the economic theory of human capital, developed in particular by becker (1962) and mincer (1958) who consider that the education, professional training and experience acquired by individuals are investments that can increase their future productivity and income. this theory was subsequently enriched by numerous authors, including schultz (1961) who introduced the notion of human capital in the context of economic development. territorial human capital can be defined as the skills, knowledge and aptitudes of individuals living and working in a given territory and their ability to collaborate and exchange information with other territorial players. this notion was developed in particular by french economists boutinet (2005) who emphasize the importance of social capital and the relational dimension in building territorial human capital. territorial human capital can positively affect a territory's economic and social development. moreover, according to a study conducted by boutinet (2005) on the governance of cities, territories with a high level of human capital, particularly in art, culture and new technologies, tend to be more innovative and economically competitive. however, building territorial human capital can be hampered by various factors, such as geographical isolation, lack of educational and cultural infrastructure, or social and ethnic discrimination. similarly, regions that have suffered significant spatial segregation tend to have less developed human capital and lower economic growth. in conclusion, territorial human capital is a complex social and economic process involving mobilizing the skills and aptitudes of individuals living and working in a given territory and their ability to collaborate and exchange information with other territorial players. this concept can positively affect a territory's economic and social development, but various structural and social factors can also hamper it. ultimately, bringing the concept of territorial human capital closer together leads to the same territorial dimensions of social capital developed by many researchers. these are presented in the figure 1. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 98-108 100 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 1. reconciling the concept of territorial human capital. new readings focused on social innovation by territorial players, specifically cooperatives, have been developed regarding the nature of players' actions and the tools implemented to organize and innovate in space. these readings run parallel to reflections on territorial human capital and the socioeconomic functioning of the territory. in this section, we will break down social innovation's technical components. 1.3. social innovation of cooperatives current discussions on the emergence of refreshed businesses that are better prepared to address the challenge of competitiveness worldwide place a high priority on innovation. no of an organization's status, industry, size, or target market, there is a consensus that innovation is a critical component of success, whether in academic or professional settings. an orientation towards a post-industrial innovation paradigm is emerging in response to the rising interest in social innovations (howaldt, kopp, & schwarz, 2015). according to this view, a holistic or global approach to innovation could incorporate social innovations alongside technological breakthroughs and economic elements as parts of social transformation (hochgerner, 2011). according to moulaert, maccallum, and hillier (2013), cajaiba-santana (2014), and van der have and rubalcaba (2016), the debates dealing with the concept of social innovation reflect the fragmented nature of this theoretical corpus and the ambiguity surrounding the scope and meaning of this concept. moulaert, martinelli, swyngedouw, and gonzalez (2005) represent one of the first attempts to broaden the discussion of social innovation. they propose three interdependent dimensions: responding to unfulfilled social and human needs, improving interpersonal relationships, and empowering people through improved sociopolitical skills and resources. cajaiba-santana (2014) created an analytical paradigm for tackling social innovation more recently. by departing from standard methods, he defines social innovations as new social practices that result from deliberate, purposeful group acts that are directed toward changing how social goals are achieved to bring about social change. however, his study mixes the agency perspective, which emphasizes human actors and their traits as social innovation determinants, with the structural perspective of social innovation, focusing on organization and social structures. two characteristics of social innovation are crucial from this angle. first, social innovation continuously creates or improves human capital edwards‐schachter, matti, and alcántara (2012) which is not a tangible consequence but is likely to lead to one eventually. social innovation should therefore concentrate on creating assets rather than needs. this factor is as vital to social innovation's success as the result (moulaert et al., 2013). according to this interpretation of social innovation, learning and empowerment are both the causes and the results of well-being. in addition, only some social learning, networking, or collaborative processes result in social innovation for us to say that social innovation was practical. following up on these observations, we can draw territorial stakeholders into the discussion of social innovation by mentioning three key elements: mobilization and collective management of territorial resources, remediation of social problems, and dynamism of economic and social. figure 2. a closer look at the concept of social innovation. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 98-108 101 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 2 shows how the concept of social innovation can be reconciled. however, social innovation alone is not enough: the mechanisms of territorial human capital are a necessary condition for achieving the economic enhancement of a territory. hence, cooperatives, with their many facets, can act as a springboard to guarantee better spatial registration of human capital and social innovation, in a context of economic enhancement. 1.4. economic appreciation of the territory in the framework of territorial development strategies, the economic development of territories is a key approach, reflecting a developing trend aimed at supporting the enhancement and growth of the territories in a way that benefits both parties. territorial valuation has made considerable theoretical and practical advancements since its inception in 1975. due mainly to the globalization of the economy, which led to an increase in urban areas, the favorable economic environment throughout the 1980s drove its expansion. this new reality has compelled the territories to stand against global competition and stand out by promoting their territorial specificities, which are now valued at their full economic potential. therefore, to differentiate their territory from other territories, territorial decision-makers are now conscious of the significance of respecting local actors and their area (howaldt et al., 2015). the goal of territorial valorization is to promote the territorial object and answer the requirements of the territorial stakeholders. it is a communal process encompassing all governmental, private, and civil players. it positions itself as a method for formulating and putting into practice a territorial development strategy applicable in market settings and directly related to concerns about economic development. territorial valuation is another strategic strategy for connecting with customers or between local governments and the residents they want to draw. having social capital built up through interactions conducted in the territory allows for the adjustment of territorial development policies following the expectations of the local population. as we continue with these findings, we can draw closer to the idea of the territory's economic appreciation by mentioning three factors, namely: figure 3. a closer look at the concept of economic development of the region. figure 3 shows how the concept of economic development of the region can be reconciled. the literature review carried out throughout this section has enabled us to draw up an analytical framework describing the three key concepts and the underlying hypothetical links, from different theoretical perspectives, which can serve as a reliable basis for developing measurement scales and validating them. in this respect, the research model resulting from the back-and-forth between theory and observed reality can be represented in the figure 4. figure 4. search model. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 98-108 102 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group to test our research model, we capitalize on the main concepts and sub-concepts. this is one of the most important steps. within this framework, we have mobilized twenty-two measurement items referring to aspects that characterize the forms of territorial human capital, the economic enhancement of the territory, and social innovation. these measurement items will be coded using a five-point likert scale. the following table 1 shows the different items used to reconcile the latent concepts studied: table 1. operationalization of the concepts studied. latent concepts measurement scales codes territorial human capital the sharing of the same culture, values and values similar lifestyles cogc_1 sharing the same philosophy and approaches for business relationships cogc_2 a shared vision with common goals and objectives compatible lenses cogc_3 frequent, intensive, close personal interaction relc_1 respect and mutual trust relc_2 dissemination and exchange of information within the business networks strc_1 interaction at different territorial levels and at in a variety of ways strc_2 economic development of the region the region's investment climate is conducive to economic valorization cpp_1 spreading the entrepreneurial culture means setting up value of the territory cpp_2 promote and support projects in the following areas to enhance the value of the region cpp_3 the presence of a physical infrastructure contributes to the territory enhancement ld_1 the development of logistics platforms is a a form of land enhancement ld_2 modernizing access structures to the region enables better economic value ld_3 the existence of a territorial identity contributes to the economic valorization iti_1 territorial branding enhances the value of the territory iti_2 preserving the region's heritage enhances the territory iti_3 social innovation cooperatives optimize financial resources and non-financial crm_1 cooperatives manage skills and knowledge based on their activities crm_2 promote and support projects in the following areas to enhance the value of the region esd_1 the development of social care facilities a form of land enhancement esd_2 territorial projects contribute to employability young people and women rsp_1 territorial projects contribute to improving the well-being of the population rsp_2 we now turn to the justification of our methodological choices and the description of our research field to give more deontology to our research. 2. methodological choices and tools our methodology follows the post-positivist paradigm and is based on a logical approach. this method entails going "back and forth" between field observations and abstract theory. without initially examining causal linkages, the researcher develops his or her study topic based on accepted theoretical ideas, leading to the generation of hypotheses that will either be confirmed or disproven. through an extensive analysis of concepts and theoretical and empirical literature, we could answer our dilemma by consulting several structuring works directly or indirectly related to the key terms. this allowed us to develop an adequate analytical framework. we continued to model the data following the logic outlined by the post-positivist paradigm used in this study to understand better issues connected to human capital and social innovation, which will ultimately result in the economic improvement of the region. due to the multiplicity of the entities interacting there, whether institutional, economic, or civic, we have chosen the prefecture of agadir ida outanane as our research area. in morocco's economic and political structure, agadir plays a significant role. the fact that we uncovered numerous cooperatives that are important to the growth of the moroccan economy thanks to access to this study field is equally noteworthy. it was controlling the prefecture of agadir ida outanane. therefore, many cooperatives must participate in the area's economic development, which happens gradually over many years. it would have been essential to conduct many surveys among a representative sample of the different cooperative groups to understand this process comprehensively. selecting a target group is still inappropriate for our study because we must select a sample for the survey's aims and follow statistical standards. however, all of the cooperatives present in the prefecture of agadir ida outanane serve as our target population—several people thought to be known and limited. therefore, to highlight the characteristics of the respondents, pilot research among several randomly chosen cooperatives is required as part of the sampling approach. more specifically, our pilot study allowed us to compute the central tendency and dispersion properties underlying the variable of interest, "annual frequency of participation in territorial projects over the last ten years," and validate the complete questionnaire. on the same page, 52 cooperatives provided information about how many territorial projects they had taken part in during the previous ten years and their involvement frequency annually (number of participations/10 years). the goal is to determine the sample size calculation method and assess the normality of the distribution of participation frequencies. we will calculate according to the suggested method if the distribution is regularly distributed. if so, we will fall back on the bienaymé-chebyshev inequality innovations, which were created for populations in which the distribution of the relevant variable was not known. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 98-108 103 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 𝒁𝟐 𝟏 𝒏 = 𝟐 𝟐 the interest variable's mean, median, and mode are equal at first glance, indicating that the distribution is normal. however, we ran the kolmogorov-smirnov and shapiro-wilk normality tests to sharpen our statistical thinking. as the p-value is over the 5% significance level, it has turned out that the null hypothesis, which asserts that the distribution is normal, is verified in both instances. as a result, we may affirm that the distribution of the relevant variable is gaussian. in a similar vein, in order to determine the sample size for a limited population with a normal distribution, it is required to use the calculation method that statisticians prescribe for this purpose, which is as follows: • 𝑥: the variable of interest. • 𝜀: desired precision. • 𝑛: sample size. • 𝑁: population size. • z: the value of the reduced centered variable for a probability of 1 𝑎 ; 𝟐 • 𝛼: significance level. it is now essential to move on with sample extraction while considering the previously developed calculation method and parameters. in this regard, it is essential to consider the strata and sampling lists to guarantee the sample's applicability and representativeness. to this purpose, the table 2 clearly lays out the data that went into choosing the sample and the calculating methods applied to choose the ideal number of cooperatives to survey. extreme diligence and rigor must be used during this vital investigation phase. table 2. sample size calculation and extraction procedures. parameter symbol/formula value variance of variable of interest var (x) 28.293% 95% probability threshold z 1 𝑎 𝟐 1.96 accuracy required 𝗌 5% population n 306 sample 𝒁²𝟏-𝑎 𝑽 (𝒙) 𝒏 = 𝟐 𝗌²𝑵 + 𝒁²𝟏-𝑎 𝑽 (𝒙) 𝟐 180 cooperatives we used a questionnaire to survey about 180 agadir ida outanane prefecture cooperatives. to evaluate the proposed model and get some insight into how human capital has influenced the growth of the agadir ida outanane prefecture, extrapolation of the collected data was done. 3. presentation and discussion of results this quantitative study employed factorial and structural analyses as part of a strict two-phase methodological procedure. we chose to use the method suggested by churchill jr (1979) for the objectives of this study. first, the measuring scales underwent an exploratory factor analysis. the significance of kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) and bartlett's sphericity tests was used to combine the findings of several principal component analyses. evrard et al. (2009) recommended eliminating items with factor contributions below 0.5. finally, to determine the dependability of the measurement scales, cronbach's alpha coefficients were computed. the partial least squares (pls) approach, which is more appropriate than covariance-based methods regarding objectives and uses limitations, was then utilized to assess our model. indeed, it enables us to test emerging models, account for data with non-normal distribution, and work with tiny samples. the remainder of our study will go into great detail on the outcomes of these analyses. 3.1. presentation of data analysis results therefore, it is crucial to thoroughly evaluate the quantitative measurement tools by evaluating their validity and reliability before building the structural equation modeling (sem) model. this ensures the scales used to measure the constructs they evaluate. in light of this, we chose to take a thorough approach, purifying and testing the homogeneity of the scales included in the questionnaire using exploratory factor analysis. the purpose is to use principal component analysis to see whether these scales can effectively assess the variables they are intended to measure and whether the items are grouped coherently into components. 3.1.1. purification of the territorial human capital measurement scale this makes it necessary to evaluate the data's dependability before beginning a factorial analysis. to assess the homogeneity of the measurement items with the factors of the understudied construct, it is important to investigate the factor structure and goodness-of-fit indices resulting from an orthogonal varimax rotation. the table 3 displays the findings of this analysis. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 98-108 104 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 3. summary of the pca on the "territorial human capital" scale. representation quality correlation between item and factor factor 1 factor 2 factor 3 cogc_1 0.8230 0.848 cogc_2 0.8261 0.864 cogc_3 0.8141 0.830 relc_1 0.4032 0.302 relc_2 0.7351 0.851 strc_1 0.3918 0.332 strc_2 0.8537 0.848 interpretations cognitive capital relationship capital structural capital indices factorization values reviews calculated values eigenvalue of factor used > 1 2.531 2.105 1.727 % of variance explained 30.317 22.174 18.243 % of variance cumulative explained > 60% 30.317 52.491 70.734 cronbach's alpha > 0.6 0.991 kmo index > 0.5 0.867 meaning bartlett < 0.05 0.000 in light of the findings, it is important to note that the correlations show values more than 0.5, with the exception of the "relc_1" and "strc_1" items, indicating that these variables share traits. purifying them is necessary as a result. the value of 0.867 for kaiser's test for overall integrity between variables allows us to evaluate sampling accuracy. it has been demonstrated that more variables can be factored the closer this index is to 1. according to the research of evrard and roux (2009), the measuring scales also provide a high level of dependability, with a respectable cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.991. 3.1.2. refining the scale for measuring the economic value of the region by evaluating the caliber of the factorial contributions, we will use the same principal component analysis (pca) approaches to examine the validity and homogeneity of the items with the factors on the scale measuring the economic worth of the territory. the factor structure was clearly defined and the goodness-of-fit indices were tolerable as a result of orthogonal varimax rotation (see table 4). we decided to remove the "cpp_1", "iti_1", and "iti_3" items from the factor space since their quality of representation in the factor space is unsatisfactory. instead, we chose to stick with the remaining measurement variables. the other items' and their components' substantial correlations point to low discriminant validity. the measurement scale in use satisfies the validity requirements based on sample precision and reliability tests. 3.1.3. purification of the social innovation measurement scale six items that correspond to cooperatives' socially creative features concerning a previously examined component make up our operationalization of the social innovation construct. given that structural equation modelling would consider this construct, adding this latent variable represents a methodological and statistical difficulty. in this regard, we examined the scale homogeneity in the presence of the factorization parameters. the table 5 shows the findings of the principal component analysis. table 4. summary of the pca on the "territory economic enhancement" scale. representation quality correlation between item and factor factor 1 factor 2 factor 3 cpp_1 0.4070 0.318 cpp_2 0.8115 0.890 cpp_3 0.8282 0.822 ld_1 0.8221 0.871 ld_2 0.8365 0.854 ld_3 0.8051 0.839 iti_1 0.3784 0.429 iti_2 0.7864 0.780 iti_3 0.4131 0.327 interpretations creation of promising projects logistics development image and territorial identity indices factorization critical values calculated values eigenvalue of factor used > 1 2.345 2.041 1.631 % of variance explained 30.244 22.371 17.241 % of variance cumulative explained > 60% 30.244 52.615 69.856 alpha de cronbach > 0.6 0.881 kmo index > 0.5 0.844 meaning bartlett < 0.05 0.000 thanks to the factorial analysis, we maintained the "social innovation" dimension in the operationalized form that it has been given. since the factorization parameters are acceptable, keeping this dimension is possible without bias. we improved the hypothetical model by considering the purified components thanks to the three exploratory factor analyses, which helped us develop a statistically representative specification for the structural equation model. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 98-108 105 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 5. summary of pca on the "social innovation" scale. representation quality correlation between item and factor factor 1 factor 2 factor 3 crm_1 0.8241 0.825 crm_2 0.8012 0.851 esd_1 0.8081 0.844 esd_2 0.8555 0.805 rsp_1 0.8133 0.852 rsp_2 0.8818 0.876 interpretations information availability steering and support intentional coordination indices factorization values reviews calculated values eigenvalue of factor used > 1 2.822 2.349 1.995 % of variance explained 30.788 21.402 18.234 % of variance cumulative explained > 60% 30.788 52.190 70.424 cronbach's alpha > 0.6 0.855 kmo index > 0.5 0.851 meaning bartlett < 0.05 0.000 testing quantitative measuring tools' validity and reliability is required before structural equation modeling (sem) modeling. therefore, exploratory component analysis was done to clean up and test the scales' homogeneity and to see if they accurately assessed the construct they were meant to measure. according to the results, most of the coefficients were far from their critical values, which attested to the construct's good fit. 3.1.4. structural equation modeling a graphic depiction of the overall model's measurement method is necessary for the model's specification, which is the first stage of structural equation modeling (sem) modelling. in this stage, the model's various components are defined, along with the presumed relationships between them. this step is essential before moving on to the other structural equation modeling (sem) modelling steps, such as model identification, model estimation, model goodness-of-fit evaluation, and, lastly, model confirmatory analysis. in our study, we tested our model using the smartpls v.4 process and current advancements in the partial least squares (pls) algorithm. figure 5 shows the global specification of our model. the identification of the model, which consists of seventeen observable variables and is designed to measure two latent factors in accordance with the theory, is the second step in our sem modeling process. according to schumacker and lomax (2004) advice, we evaluated the order condition by making sure there were more degrees of freedom than zero. with a positive degree of freedom (dll=143), this order requirement is in fact verified for our model. the next step in our methodology entails estimating the model over all statistical units, or the 180 cooperatives functioning in the agadir ida outanane prefecture, using the partial least squares factorial algorithm. this process allowed us to get the figure 6, which illustrates the outcomes. figure 5. global model specification (smartpls v.4). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 98-108 106 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group figure 6. global model estimation (smartpls v.4). the results of estimating the model parameters show that the majority of the employed measurement items had loading factors that were more than 0.7. it is possible to evaluate the overall model's goodness of fit based on how effective it is at explaining the data. in this regard, it's crucial to assess the discriminant and convergent validity of the model. calculating one or two metrics, such as cronbach's alpha and the internal consistency metric created by fornell and larcker (1981) is required for convergent validity. the generated results can be interpreted similarly, and nunnally (1978) methodology can likewise be used. the average extracted variance shared between the construct and its measurement markers is used to evaluate discriminant validity. the variance between the construct and the other constructs in the model must be bigger than this amount. chin (1998) suggests an average variance extracted (ave) greater than 0.5 in a similar vein. the correlation matrix, which comprises the correlations between the constructs in the components on the lower left of the matrix diagonal and the values of the square root of the ave determined for each construct along the diagonal, can be used to demonstrate these elements. the correlation matrix is presented in the table 6. table 6. discriminant validity by ave of the model. latent constructs ave territorial human capital social innovation economic development of territory territorial human capital 0.964 0.982 social innovation 0.626 0.649 0.791 valuation the region's economy 0.595 0.713 0.633 0.761 as a result, we put our best effort into thoroughly assessing the whole model using the metrics and crucial values suggested for this purpose. in order to do this, we provide the results of several critical indicators, including cronbach's alpha, composite reliability, mean extracted variance, coefficient of determination r2, and goodness-offit index gof, in a detailed table 7. table 7. indicators for assessing global model fit. latent constructs alpha de cronbach reliability composite ave r² index gof territorial human capital 0.991 0.992 0.964 0.597 economic development of territory 0.881 0.891 0.595 0.559 social innovation 0.855 0.909 0.626 0.422 from the results obtained, it appears that our model offers a satisfactory quality of representation with regard to the criteria recommended by data processing specialists. however, to confirm the robustness of our results, we need to carry out a bootstrap analysis. this method will enable us to assess the significance of the relationship between territorial human capital, territorial enhancement, and social innovation in cooperatives, in various scenarios. the results of this analysis are presented in the table 8. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 98-108 107 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 8. bootstrap estimation of causal model and hypothesis testing. hypotheses β (correlation coefficient) t-student (bootstrap) p-values decision h1. territorial human capital => economic enhancement of the territory 0.522 5.213 0.000 validated h2. territorial human capital => social innovation 0.649 8.672 0.000 validated h3. social innovation=> local economic development 0.294 2.549 0.001 validated the inferences from the bootstrap analysis findings indicate the positive and significant contributions made by the territory's human capital to social innovation and the equivalent contributions made by social innovation to the territory's economic development. nevertheless, these results prevent us from making a definitive claim about the mediating function of social innovation in the connection between territorial human capital systems and economic valorization. as a result, it makes it logical to run independent regressions using cohen, maiersperger, gower, and turner (2003) recommended methodology. the traditional illustration of a mediator effect entails the manipulation of three different variables: the independent variable (territorial human capital), the dependent variable (territorial economic development), and the mediator variable (social innovation). utilizing standardized correlation coefficients, we may evaluate the correlations between these variables. the existence of the mediation effect was verified using a four-stage study. the table 9 provides a summary of the different regression steps. table 9. mediation test: territorial human capital → social innovation → economic enhancement of the territory. regression regression coefficients (+ t-test value) decision territorial human capital => economic development of the region c1= 0.823; t =15.241 presence of the mediator effect territorial human capital => social innovation c2 = 0.651; t = 8.064 territorial human capital + innovation social => economic development of the region c3 = 0.521; t = 4.438 c4 = 0.297; t = 2.603 mediating effect: • c1 > c3: the mediator effect is established • c3 is relatively low, but significant: mediation is partial in order to provide a robust response to the issues raised, we plan to discuss the main results obtained from the literature review. 3.2. discussion after this analysis, it is evident that combining a theoretical approach with a field study provides this research with a significant contribution to the debate over territorial human capital concerning cooperatives' socially innovative features and territorial valorization. any present research into economic valorization must consider how social innovation has evolved, at least in terms of the goals underpinning its current configuration, to promote its success. according to the study's findings, a city's economic value—in this case, the prefecture of agadir ida outanane—is positively and strongly ( = 0.522) influenced by its human capital. this study's findings enable us to conclude that human capital contributes positively and significantly ( = 0.522) to the growth of the agadir ida outanane prefecture's economy. the cooperatives in the agadir ida outanane prefecture have long had access to a consequent relational and cognitive potential that structures their contribution to the enlightenment if we view human capital strictly in terms of the mode of production and territorial regulation based on the management of territorial affairs negotiated between the representatives of the urban government and the dominant economic players. however, the findings of this study suggest that fostering an entrepreneurial spirit, building physical infrastructure networks, and protecting the region's cultural legacy are what the agadir ida outanane prefecture depends on most for its economic development. the agadir ida outanane prefecture has been able to leverage the diversity of its functions, taking advantage of its many natural assets and the legendary dynamism of its population, and leveraging its strategic geographic position as a pivotal point between the north and south of the country, making it highly attractive to national and international investment. it should also be stressed that territorial human capital, when seen only in terms of enhancing cooperative capacities, may be considered a risk or even a threat to democracy and citizenship. in fact, within the context of talks between cooperatives, the public interest could be demoted to the status of a category interest, among others. it would therefore add to the subjection of areas to an exclusive economic logic to confuse democracy and management. therefore, fostering a network of cooperation and coordination at the prefecture level is essential through sectorial initiatives carried out by outside government agencies. such a plan, which significantly incorporates social innovation techniques, should be a policy component to refocus cooperatives' activity on enhancing this network, notably in the agadir ida outanane prefecture. based on the findings, social innovation must now partially mediate a shift to successfully increase the value of the area through the development of cooperative networks. this result is not unexpected given that a comparison of the empirical parameters of the shift from human capital to value enhancement through social innovation to reality demonstrates that it is reasonable and realistic to suggest, with the aid of a set of standard measures, an assured path towards an efficient system of value enhancement for the agadir ida outanane prefecture. however, it must be acknowledged that such a transformation is complex to complete, given the significant challenges in running the prefecture and the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 98-108 108 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group complexity of the coordination, engagement, and involvement task, even within cooperatives. any suggestion along these lines would only be indicative and not prescriptive because the re-founding of the territorial unit is a project that needs to be contextualized and carried out while considering the numerous environmental factors. 4. conclusion as part of this study dedicated to the contribution of territorial human capital forms to the development of the territory's prefecture, we have developed a series of theoretical conceptions, definitions, and analytical tools relating key concepts and underlying hypothetical links. our work is structured around three axes: in the first section, devoted to the conceptual genesis and theoretical meanings of key concepts, we set out the conceptual and evolutionary workings that enable us to propose concrete definitions before highlighting the measures that can be identified. subsequently, in the second section, we presented the methodological choices and the research field, carrying out a questionnaire survey among a sample of cooperatives operating in the agadir ida outanane prefecture for a total of 180 definitive grids, whose data were extrapolated for the envisaged analyses. the third axis consisted of presenting the results of analyses carried out using recent developments in structural equation modeling under the smartpls procedure. these results enabled us to draw conclusions on the contribution of territorial human capital to the economic value of the territory. in fact, there are many indications that the relationship between territorial human capital mechanisms, the socially innovative practices of cooperatives on the one hand, and the economic enhancement of the agadir ida outanane prefecture on the other, evolves in a win-win logic, where the gain of one represents the gain of the other, and where the strengthening of one is not to the detriment of the unity and integrity of the other. this is supported by the state of transition of the territorial environment and the mutations of various kinds—social, institutional, and managerial—in which the prefecture of agadir ida outanane is evolving. these elements testify to the need to diversify players and establish new standards to reinforce the transition from a monocentric conception of the territory to an economic valorization based on a polycentric conception of valorization. the territorial environment is in a state of transition, and the prefecture of agadir ida outanane is undergoing a variety of changes that are social, institutional, and administrative in nature. these factors show the necessity of diversifying actors and establishing new norms to strengthen the shift from a territory with a monocentric design to one with an economic valuation based on a polycentric valuation design. despite the research's contributions, it is important to relativize the conclusions reached as a result of several investigational technique constraints, particularly the challenges associated with data collection from cooperatives. we suggest new research directions to improve the work as a result of exposing these limitations. to this end, we are considering conducting a study that involves not only the prefecture of agadir ida outanane but also all the cooperatives involved in the management of territorial affairs in the souss massa region in order to provide answers to the questions underlying the relationship between the triptych of human capital, social innovation, and economic appreciation of the territory. references becker, g. s. (1962). investment in human capital: a theoretical analysis. journal of political economy, 70(5, part 2), 9-49. https://doi.org/10.1086/258724 boutinet, j. p. (2005). territorial human capital and economic dynamics. économie et solidarités, 36(2), 85-97. cajaiba-santana, g. (2014). social innovation: moving the field forward. a conceptual framework. technological forecasting and social change, 82, 42-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2013.05.008 chin, w. w. (1998). commentary: issues and opinion on structural equation modeling. in (pp. vii-xvi): jstor. churchill jr, g. a. (1979). a paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. journal of marketing research, 16(1), 64-73. cohen, w. b., maiersperger, t. k., gower, s. t., & turner, d. p. (2003). an improved strategy for regression of biophysical variables and landsat etm+ data. remote sensing of environment, 84(4), 561-571. edwards‐schachter, m. e., matti, c. e., & alcántara, e. (2012). fostering quality of life through social innovation: a living lab methodology study case. review of policy research, 29(6), 672-692. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2012.00588.x evrard, y., pras, b., roux, e., desmet, p., dussaix, a. m., & lilien, g. l. (2009). market-foundations and methods of marketing research no. hal-00490724. fornell, c., & larcker, d. f. (1981). structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: algebra and statistics. journal of marketing research, 18(3), 382-388. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800313 hochgerner, j. (2011). the analysis of social innovations as social practice. the analysis of social innovations as social practice. vienna and berlin: center for social innovation (ed.), oscillating between science and practice: zsi contributions to social innovations. howaldt, j., kopp, r., & schwarz, m. (2015). social innovations as drivers of social changeexploring tarde's contribution to social innovation theory building. in new frontiers in social innovation research. in (pp. 29-51). london: palgrave macmillan. mincer, j. (1958). investment in human capital and personal income distribution. journal of political economy, 66(4), 281-302. https://doi.org/10.1086/258055 moulaert, f., maccallum, d., & hillier, j. (2013). social innovation: intuition, precept, concept, theory and practice. in the international handbook on social innovation: collective action, social learning and transdisciplinary research. in (pp. 13-24). cheltenham: edward elgar publishing. moulaert, f., martinelli, f., swyngedouw, e., & gonzalez, s. (2005). towards alternative model (s) of local innovation. urban studies, 42(11), 1969-1990. https://doi.org/10.1080/00420980500279893 nunnally, j. c. (1978). an overview of psychological measurement. in: wolman, b.b. (eds.), clinical diagnosis of mental disorders. boston, ma: springer. schultz, t. w. (1961). education and economic growth. teachers college record, 62(10), 46-88. schumacker, r. e., & lomax, r. g. (2004). a beginner's guide to structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). mahwah: lawrence erlbaum associates. van der have, r. p., & rubalcaba, l. (2016). social innovation research: an emerging area of innovation studies? research policy, 45(9), 1923-1935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2016.06.010 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1086/258724 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2013.05.008 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2012.00588.x https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800313 https://doi.org/10.1086/258055 https://doi.org/10.1080/00420980500279893 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2016.06.010 52 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 2, 52-57, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i2.4690 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group seventh-day adventist church corporate governance and educational institutions’ financial stability in tanzania dickson matiko kisyeri1 ( corresponding author) alex reuben kira2 1college of business and economics, university of dodoma, tanzania. email: matikod@gmail.com 2department of accounting and finance. college of business and economics, university of dodoma, tanzania. email: alexkira10@gmail.com abstract corporate governance is a global issue that has caught the interest of many researchers and business owners. however, there is scanty literature that is done on the influence of corporate management on educational institutions’ financial stability and in particular the adventist church in tanzania. the secondary schools owned by the seventh-day adventist (sda) church in tanzania have faced a financial crisis and this study investigated the church’s corporate governance and the financial stability of these educational institutions in tanzania. the study adopted qualitative research design, used purposive sampling technic to collect information form the fifteen institutions, used the questionnaire to collect data from the respondents. the study used frequency statistics for the analysis with the help of spss version 26. the findings show that poor administration, inefficient and unprofessional boards, nepotism, bad treatment of employees, not addressing audit reports, poor customer care, poor infrastructure, and improvement of the government secondary schools have contributed to the financial crisis of these institutions and the church is advised to adhere to good corporate governance to bring remedy to the situation. keywords: corporate governance, transparency, financial stability, financial crisis, confidentiality, nepotism. citation | kisyeri, d. m., & kira, a. r. (2023). seventh-day adventist church corporate governance and educational institutions’ financial stability in tanzania. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(2), 52–57. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i2.4690 history: received: 27 february 2023 revised: 2 may 2023 accepted: 16 may 2023 published: 25 may 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. authors’ contributions: both authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. ethical: this study followed all ethical practices during writing. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 53 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 53 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 54 4. results and analysis ........................................................................................................................................................................ 54 5. discussion of the findings ............................................................................................................................................................. 56 6. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 7. recommendation.............................................................................................................................................................................. 57 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 57 mailto:matikod@gmail.com mailto:alexkira10@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i2.4690 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2687-1093 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9147-6500 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 52-57 53 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to the stock of literature by discovering the impact that corporate governance has on the sda educational institutions’ financial stability in tanzania. this kind of study has not been done on the sda institutions particularly in tanzania that have faced the serious financial crisis. 1. introduction the seventh-day adventist church (sdac) in tanzania, historically, had many primary schools and a few secondary schools before the independence of tanzania in 1961 but most of them were nationalized in 1967 and others died. from the 1990s, the church started establishing more secondary schools and ended up having 18 of these institutions in the northern union and four in the southern union. despite their contribution to educating the citizens of tanzania and east africa, they have been experiencing financial difficulties since 2013 to date. according to the internal audit reports of these schools, accounts payables have grown from a few million before 2013 to the tune of 2.8 billion tanzanian shillings which is equivalent to 1.209 million usd. adesewa and ekundayo (2021) study revealed the corporate governance of the sda church which starts from the general conference to the division, union, conference/field, district, and local church. this can also be referred to in the east-central division working policy pg. 43 to 46. however, adesewa and ekundayo (2021) study mainly reviewed the governance structure of some churches in nigeria with the proposition that the principles of such governance will improve transparency in the day-to-day management of church activities. the findings indicate the researched churches in nigeria follow different governance mechanisms. the challenges revealed by the scholars in nigeria like dual board system where the chairman of the executive committee of the union is the same chairing boards of subsidiary institutions within the union territory and the auditing service of the seventh-day adventist church (adesewa & ekundayo, 2021) are the same worldwide and in this case in the two unions of the same church in tanzania. therefore, this study intends to find out if these challenges are some of the ones that have contributed to the financial crisis of the sda educational institutions in tanzania or not. 2. literature review 2.1. the concept of corporate governance governance according to beghetto and karwowski (2018), is used in a complicated manner depending on where it is applied, however, governance is perfect and productive to the company when it takes care of the rights and respect of workers and adheres to the law governing the operations of the organization. referring to azam (2022) in the financial context, good governance looks at economic improvement. good corporate governance is further defined as the capacity, efficiency, and effectiveness of the company in performing its day-to-day activities (johnston, 2017). on the other side, churches focus more on human rights (johnston, 2017). the author considers good performance as a reflection of good corporate governance. in the church context, good corporate governance must combine the physical and spiritual elements to ensure wholistic growth (sarah, 2017). while talking about physical and spiritual growth as the way churches should be led, the physical element which should consider the church’s economic growth is but down looked and to some churches, this could be the reason why their institutions are not performing well economically. the economic approach as revealed by azam (2022) can be of help to improve church subsidiary institutions financially. mande (2018) considers corporate governance as the relationship among various players in finding out the direction and performance of business companies. the primary players are the board of directors, shareholders, and the institutions’ management. mande further relates corporate governance with the secondary players which include the community, suppliers, debtors, and workers. this approach considers the employment of effective boards and structures to ensure the resources owned by these institutions are effectively and efficiently used to meet the needs of these institutions (azam, 2022). while not pushing aside the physical and the spiritual elements in governing the church institutions, this paper considers the creative learning approach in investigating how corporate governance influences the sdac educational institutions’ financial situation. awuku-gyampoh and asare (2019) study assessed the impact of good governance, church management, and structure on growth and the development of the church and found that to improve the growth and development of the church institutions, corporate governance should be involved in the planning of the strategies considering vision, mission, and values of a particular church. additionally, goodchild (2016) suggests that good corporate governance ensures the financial stability of church institutions. the author suggests that with good governance, there will be no misconduct or misuse of the church’s finances. achim, borlea, and mare (2016) add to goodchild’s contending that good corporate governance is what helps companies to perform well. the results of these two papers are replicated in the study by bocean and barbu (2007) and khatab, masood, zaman, saleem, and saeed (2011) suggest that without good corporate governance, companies will never perform well. the findings of the empirical literature reviewed are mixed and mainly follow a quantitative research approach. for instance, other studies have revealed companies with good corporate governance perform well (achim et al., 2016; aggarwal, 2013; ahmed & hamdan, 2015; ahmed sheikh, wang, & khan, 2013; ali, 2018; bocean & barbu, 2007; mishra & mohanty, 2014; vintila, paunescu, & gherghina, 2015), and others have revealed corporate governance having a negative effect on company performance (husemann, 2006) while other scholarly literature has revealed a weak relationship between corporate governance in terms of board independence and company performance (zabri, ahmad, & wah, 2016). this implies that one of the components of corporate governance which is the independence of the board in decision making does not influence company performance in malaysia. furthermore, other studies have revealed corporate governance in terms of policies and financial instability, challenges of staffing and students’ enrolment negatively influences the performance of church institutions in zimbabwe (nyarugwe, rudhumbu, chinhara, & kurebwa, 2021). the study by kyere and ausloos (2021) revealed negative and positive results between corporate governance and company performance which may not be generalized elsewhere and calls for further studies. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 52-57 54 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group however, the reviewed studies have concentrated quantitatively on the impact of corporate governance on company performance using secondary data save three research papers done nigeria, uganda and south africa that considered the influence of corporate governance on church institutions. this research paper intends to find out the influence of corporate governance on the financial situation of sdac educational institutions in tanzania. 3. methodology this study adopted a qualitative research design where a questionnaire of ten questions was used to gather information from a total of 60 respondents, four from each of the audited fifteen secondary schools of the northern tanzania union conference of sdac in tanzania. the study used frequency statistics employing spss version 26 to do the analysis. corporate governance was represented by the ten statements on the questionnaire which needed the response from the employees. the study used purposive sampling technic to collect information form the fifteen institutions. the questionnaire was supplied to four respondents of each secondary school namely senior accountant, oldest serving teacher, second master/mistress and academic master who are not appointed by conference executive committee but by school board. the oldest serving teacher and the senior accountant were not members of the board but with managerial positions and we believed that they would give unbiased information. likewise, the other two who are board members were believed to give unbiased information having experience what happens in their boards. confidentiality was highly observed for their safety. table 1. gender of respondents. gender response percent cumulative percent male 45 75.0 75.0 female 15 25.0 100.0 total 60 100.0 100 4. results and analysis table 1 above shows that out of the 60 respondents, male were 45 (75%) and only 15(25%) were female. table 2. education of respondents. education response percent cumulative percent diploma 32 53.3 53.3 bachelor 23 38.3 91.7 masters 5 8.3 100.0 total 60 100.0 100 table 2 above shows that diploma holders were 32, 23 had bachelor’s degrees and only 5 hold master’s degrees. the table further indicates that many leaders in these institutions hold diploma and bachelor’s degrees. table 3. reliability statistics. cronbach's alpha n of items 0.912 12 a general accepted rule is that cronbach’ alpha of 0.6-0.7 indicates an acceptable level of reliability, and 0.8 or greater indicates a very good level (hulin, netemeyer, & cudeck, 2001). the results in table 3 above indicates a cronbach’s alpha of 0.912 which is the best and therefore the tool used to collect the data is reliable and the data seems to have no problem to be used for the analysis. the following ten frequency tables show analysis results of the sixty respondents’ answers to the ten questions sent to the online. table 4. the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced between 2013 and 2021 are caused by administration incompetence at all levels. statement response percent cumulative percent strongly agree 34 56.7 56.7 agree 20 33.3 90.0 neither agree nor disagree 2 3.3 93.3 disagree 4 6.7 100.0 total 60 100.0 100 examining the results in table 4 above, 90% (n=54) agree to the statement that the financial crisis faced by the educational institutions of the sdac in tanzania are caused by the incompetence of administration at all levels. it is only 6.7% (n=4) of the respondents who disagreed to the statement and 3.3% (2) of the respondents who did not know what to answer. table 5. the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced between 2013 and 2021 is caused by the institutions’ administration’s incompetence. statement response percent cumulative percent strongly agree 41 68.3 68.3 agree 9 15.0 83.3 neither agree nor disagree 5 8.3 91.7 disagree 5 8.3 100.0 total 60 100.0 100 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 52-57 55 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group looking at the results in table 5 above, we find that 83.3% (n=50) of the respondents agree to the statement that the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced between the mentioned period were caused by the local institutions’ administration incompetence. however, 8.3% (n=5) did not agree to the statement. table 6. the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced between 2013 and 2021 are caused by nepotism. statement response percent cumulative percent strongly agree 31 51.7 51.7 agree 13 21.7 73.3 neither agree nor disagree 9 15.0 88.3 disagree 3 5.0 93.3 strongly disagree 4 6.7 100.0 total 60 100.0 100 the results in table 6 above reveals 73,3% (n=44) agree to the statement that the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced in the period mentioned were also caused by nepotism while 11.7% (n=7) disagreed to the statement and 15% (n=9) did not know what to answer. table 7. the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced between 2013 and 2021 are caused by poor customer care. statement response percent cumulative percent strongly agree 29 48.3 48.3 agree 14 23.3 71.7 neither agree nor disagree 11 18.3 90.0 disagree 6 10.0 100.0 total 60 100.0 100 the findings in table 7 above indicate that the financial crisis faced these church educations institutions in the mentioned period were also caused by poor services to the customers as shown by 71.7% (n=43) of the respondents. 10% (n=6) of respondents disagreed to the statement and 18.3% (n=11) had no side on the statement. table 8. the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced between 2013 and 2021 are caused by misuse and theft of institutional money and auditing reports not acted upon. statement response percent cumulative percent strongly agree 31 51.7 51.7 agree 20 33.3 85.0 neither agree nor disagree 3 5.0 90.0 disagree 6 10.0 100.0 total 60 100.0 100 according to the results in table 8 above, the financial crisis that was faced by the church educational institutions in the period mentioned were also caused by theft, misuse of institutional money and not acting upon the audit reports. this is indicated by 85% (n=51) of the respondents. 5% (n=3) were neutral and only 10% (n=6) of the respondents disagreed to the statement. table 9. the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced between 2013 and 2021 is caused by the wrong treatment of employees who are really customer carers. statement response percent cumulative percent strongly agree 31 51.7 51.7 agree 19 31.7 83.3 neither agree nor disagree 3 5.0 88.3 disagree 6 10.0 98.3 strongly disagree 1 1.7 100.0 total 60 100.0 100 according to the results of table 9, 83.3% (n=50) of the respondents indicated that the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced between 2013 and 2021 are caused by the wrong treatment of employees who are really the customer carers. only 11.7% (n=7) who disagreed with the statement. table 10. the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced between 2013 and 2021 are caused by inefficient boards. statement response percent cumulative percent strongly agree 2 3.3 3.3 agree 41 68.3 71.7 neither agree nor disagree 10 16.7 88.3 disagree 6 10.0 98.3 strongly disagree 1 1.7 100.0 total 60 100.0 100 based on the results in table 10 above, 71.7% (n=43) agree with the statement that these educational institutions suffered financial problems partly due to inefficient boards while 11.7% (n=7) disagreeing with the statement. 16.7% (n=10) did not have side on the statement. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 52-57 56 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 11. the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced between 2013 and 2021 was partly caused by unprofessional board members that gave poor governance. statement response percent cumulative percent strongly agree 13 21.7 21.7 agree 29 48.3 70.0 neither agree nor disagree 12 20.0 90.0 disagree 5 8.3 98.3 strongly disagree 1 1.7 100.0 total 60 100.0 100 based on the results of table 11 above, 70% (n=42) of respondents indicate that boards that govern these institutions are not professional while 20% (n=12) do not know if the boards are unprofessional or professional. on the other side, it is only 10% (n=6) of the respondents who disagreed with the statement and who think that the boards are professional. table 12. the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced between 2013 and 2021 was caused by poor services and poor infrastructure. statement response percent cumulative percent strongly agree 1 1.7 1.7 agree 39 65.0 66.7 neither agree nor disagree 15 25.0 91.7 disagree 5 8.3 100.0 total 60 100.0 100 referring to the results in table 12 above and combining those who strongly agreed to the statement and those who just agreed, we notice that 66.7% (n=40) indicated that these educational institutions have poor services to their customers and also do have poor infrastructure. only 8.3% (n=5) disagreed with the statement. 5 employees see the institutions have good infrastructure and good customers services. table 13. the financial crisis that the church educational institutions faced between 2013 and 2021 is caused by the improvement of the government educational institutions giving the same services which took customers from our schools. statement response percent cumulative percent strongly agree 29 48.3 48.3 agree 17 28.3 76.7 neither agree nor disagree 9 15.0 91.7 disagree 4 6.7 98.3 strongly disagree 1 1.7 100.0 total 60 100.0 100 furthermore, based on the results in table 13 above, 76.7% (n=46) of the respondents agree that due to the improvement of government schools attracted more customers to join them than joining the adventist schools while 8.4% (n=5) of the respondents think that the improvement did not bring the situation stated and 15% (n=9) did not have a specific answer to the statement. 5. discussion of the findings when we refer to all tables that represent the ten statements on the questionnaire, the larger part of the respondents agreed with all the statements. taking the average of all positive responses which is 70% (n=42) of the respondents, the indication is that the institutions under investigation in this study faced a financial crisis due to administration incompetence at all levels, boards that are inefficient, and which are composed of unprofessional members. additionally, the crisis was also caused by the challenge of nepotism where, those in power, use their position to favour relatives or friends in giving appointments or employment even if they are not able to deliver. the responses seem to portray a true picture because the boards are chaired by bishops or their assistants from conferences’ headquarters or unions depending on who governs the subsidiary institution in question. heads of these institutions are not appointed by respective boards but by executive committees which are chaired by the same bishops. furthermore, the crisis that these institutions faced in the period mentioned in reference to the findings, was also caused by these institutions’ practices of poor customer care, and the improvement of the government secondary schools which also give free education from standard one to form four. this implies that the low registration of students that these institutions experienced between 2015 and 2021 was caused by the transfer of students to free education services by the government of tanzania. likewise, referring to the results section of this study, we notice that the management of these institutions did not make use of audit reports which show misuse of funds and embezzlement on a large scale as indicated by the audit reports of chome and parane secondary schools under the leadership of northeast tanzania conference and the financial statements of other secondary schools under other conferences. mistreatment of employees is another issue that the respondents indicated to be one of the reasons why these institutions faced financial crises within the mentioned period. this is one of the reasons why the debt of all these institutions rose to the tune of 2.8 billion tanzanian shillings. the analysis of the responses indicated the inefficient and unprofessional boards to be one of the reasons for the crisis. this means that board members being unprofessional do not question reports because they may not understand them or because of fear of losing the appointments. the findings of this study agree with the finding by mande (2018) which clearly shows that the anglican church did not care about the qualities of the member but representation per interest. the findings of this study agree with the findings by khatab et al. (2011) who suggested that with poor boards, companies will not perform well. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(2): 52-57 57 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group the results have also indicated that poor infrastructure and poor service are contributing factors to the crisis. this implies that some customers moved to inviting infrastructure and to those who care for their needs adding to the financial crisis of the institutions in question. 6. conclusion referring to the findings of this study, we conclude that there is a weak administration at all levels meaning that those at the supervisory level are not doing their part well and those who are at the day-to-day administration of the institutions at the local level are also not efficient for the trust given to them and the boards have failed to make them accountable due to this relationship and the boards that do not have professional members to give professional and skilled guidance. we have further noted that nepotism is the practice whereby leaders’ relatives and friends are given responsible positions even if they are not capable of delivering as they would be expected to. not using audit reports to put controls over the loopholes, poor services, poor infrastructure, bad treatment of employees, and government improvement of the facilities that give the same services that the church schools give are the reasons that brought the financial crisis of these church’s institutions. 7. recommendation we recommend that the church in tanzania should make sure that they establish boards that are independent, professional, and not chaired by the archbishop or bishops of unions and conferences that appoint their management. we further recommend that the church should stop exercising nepotism, should improve the institutions’ infrastructure, be responsible to take decision on audit reports. following these recommendations will contribute to reducing the financial crisis faced by these institutions. references achim, m.-v., borlea, s.-n., & mare, c. 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(2016). corporate governance practices and firm performance: evidence from top 100 public listed companies in malaysia. procedia economics and finance, 35, 287-296. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2212-5671(16)00036-8 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.3846/16111699.2013.834841 https://doi.org/10.9790/487x-1330105 https://doi.org/10.1108/10569211311301420 https://doi.org/10.29226/tr1001.2018.7 https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v14n4p99 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-021-00781-2 https://doi.org/10.1515/ctra-2018-0011 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp1001&2_05 https://doi.org/10.7763/ijtef.2011.v2.76 https://doi.org/10.1002/ijfe.1883 https://doi.org/10.1108/cg-12-2012-0089 https://doi.org/10.21511/ppm.15(4-1).2017.11 https://doi.org/10.21511/ppm.15(4-1).2017.11 https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v8n8p27 https://doi.org/10.1016/s2212-5671(16)00036-8 87 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 3, 87-97, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.4969 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group rural women's access to land: an appraisal of land rights campaigns in missenyi district tanzania theopister joseph kabiito department of sociology, st. augustine university of tanzania, tanzania. email: kabiito@saut.ac.tz abstract this paper aimed at appraising the land rights campaigns towards women's land access in missenyi district in tanzania. the study was guided by liberal feminism theory. the qualitative approach was used to help the participants explore their attitudes, behaviours, and understanding of the women's land rights campaigns. this approach enables a comprehensive assessment of the campaigns' effectiveness, their response within rural communities, and the factors influencing their implementation. the data for this study were gathered through semistructured interview schedules, focus group discussions and observation schedules. the researcher analysed data through the thematic analysis procedure. the study involved fiftythree participants. these included; rural men, rural women, and religious and local government leaders. the findings indicate that campaigns have raised awareness of women's land rights. this is due to seminars, workshops, village and ward meetings, social cognition, and the enforcement of laws. ultimately, the findings aim to inform more effective strategies for promoting rural women's land rights campaign and achieving gender equitable access to land resources in missenyi district, tanzania and similar contexts. moreover, the study highlights the importance of sustained efforts in capacity-building, legal reform, and community engagement to ensure lasting improvements in rural women's access to land. the study recommends that more efforts through various campaigns are needed to raise awareness about land rights. also, community members, especially women, still need more education and training to reduce their ignorance of women's land rights and dispel misconceptions about women's land access. keywords: awareness, campaigns, gender equality, land access, land rights, ownership and women. citation | kabiito, t. j. (2023). rural women’s access to land: an appraisal of land rights campaigns in missenyi district tanzania. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(3), 87–97. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.4969 history: received: 5 june 2023 revised: 10 august 2023 accepted: 21 august 2023 published: 5 september 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of the the university st augustine university of tanzania, tanzania has granted approval for this study on 2 march 2020 (ref. no. saut/soc/f.2/40). transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 88 2. background and literature review .............................................................................................................................................. 88 3. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................... 89 4. findings and discussion ................................................................................................................................................................. 90 5. conclusion and recommendations ............................................................................................................................................... 96 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 96 mailto:kabiito@saut.ac.tz https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i3.4969 https://orcid.org/0009-0009-8284-7654 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 87-97 88 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature for purposes of addressing your question with regard the nature of the contribution of this study, i hereby request the reader to go through the literature review documented in this study. it is my sincere belief that the reader will be able to identify the lacunae or the gaps in knowledge which has been expressed in the said literature review. 1. introduction gender inequality in land ownership has been a serious problem in tanzania, as it is in most african countries as well, as jacobs (2002) and moyo (2017) discovered in their studies. women have been facing land ownership discrimination, whereby traditional laws are seen as the main source of women's oppression. this situation led to unsuitable conditions for rural women when accessing land. women in tanzania have less access to land ownership as compared to their male counterparts, as revealed by osorio, percic, and di battista (2014). this is due to some customary laws and cultural norms in africa that do not recognise ownership of land by women. instead, customary practices favour men over women in land matters. this has resulted to most women in tanzania remain landless. however, nationally, different institutions and women's advocates groups realised the problem and put more effort into revamping the situation. currently, the government, together with various organisations or women's advocates, is launching campaigns to inspire women to be aware of their rights. this includes the right to own land, which gives women the chance to access land for their livelihoods. therefore, the study aimed at appraising women’s land rights campaigns towards women’s land access. it also, examines the awareness of women towards land rights, assesses the presence of women's land campaigns, and realises the contribution or efforts of women's land rights campaigns to inspire rural women in kilimilile ward, missenyi district. 2. background and literature review tanzania as one of the most african countries, farming is a core economic activity. this concur with jacobs (2002) and moyo (2017) who commented that, access to land is essential to guaranteeing family livelihoods. similarly, economic commission for africa (eca) (2003) and mutangura (2005) reported that three-quarters of households in rural areas in tanzania are cultivators and depend entirely on the land for their livelihoods. women are observed as the main land users as moyo (2017) reported that: "women play a great role in farming activities in tanzania". also, moyo (2017) claims that: nowadays the rural productive working force has relocated to metropolitan areas in search of formal occupations, mining, and/or business-related activities. women’s access to land, as experienced from society to society at the regional level in tanzania in particular, is pathetic. scholars (moyo, 2017; tsikata, 2003) have commended that: women in tanzania, both in patrilineal and matrilineal societies, have indirect access to land through husbands, fathers, sons, or administrators. furthermore, moyo (2017); mutangura (2005) and tsikata (2003) contributed that: women receive secondary rights as land title normally follows the male line. due to indirect access to land, land title and other conditions, women have limited chances to control, use and possess the land. the rights to land, which are under customary law, seem to hinder women from making good decisions to control the land and its productions. the government of tanzania, non-governmental organisations, and international agencies have made efforts to emancipate women from destructive traditional practices and abuses of landlessness (duncan, 2014; united republic of tanzania, 2016). there are many institutions involved in the women's rights campaign so that women can get their basic rights, including land tenure. according to kempster (2011), such efforts are evidenced in organisations and institutions where women's advocates are raising and regulating women's rights issues. in this regard, the government of tanzania has taken a very strong position on the general principles of equality as human rights. the constitution of the united republic of tanzania of 1977 provides for equality in land ownership and other properties, among many other rights to be given to each citizen legitimately. also, land act no. 4 and no. 5 of 1999 suggest equal rights for land ownership and its usage that both men and women have. the village land act no. 5 declares and limits the use of customary laws if they are likely to reject women's legal rights to own land. furthermore, 'vision 2025' recognises and addresses the significance of gender equality and women's empowerment. as well, tanzania formulated the national strategy for poverty reduction 1 and 2 (nspr), commonly known as 'mkukuta" which aims to show the place of interest in gender issues and particular strategies related to gender-based violence (gbv) (united republic of tanzania, 2016). (mkukuta is the abbreviation of swahili words that stands for “mpango wa kupambana na kupunguza umaskini tanzania” which means the national strategy for poverty reduction). tanzania signed international rights conventions for more implementations to meet the requirement of gender balance (duncan, 2014). to promote gender equality concerning property rights, the government of tanzania ratified and signed treaties with various conventions and institutions nationally and internationally, such as the southern african development community (sadc), which inspires and emphasises the implementation of women's rights in the national constitutions and in all signed conventions locally and internationally; the protocol on gender and development; and the international covenant on civil and political rights (iccpr). these protect key rights, enabling people to enjoy a wide range of human rights. the african charter on human and peoples' rights (banjul charter) promotes and protects women's rights and basic freedom in africa. the united nations convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (cedaw) of 1979, where article 13 (b) of this convention asked state parties to take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women to ensure equal rights in many fields, including land rights (meena, 1996; tanzania mainland legal and human rights centre (lhrc) & zanzibar legal services centre (zlsc), 2019; united republic of tanzania, 2016). fundamentally, these ratified documents have been adopted to support the application of human rights and, in this regard, property rights for women; above all, they defend and protect equal rights between men and women. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 87-97 89 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group also, in tanzania, there are some local groups, women’s advocates groups and professional women's groups that form associations and join together to empower other women. empowerment include women who have little knowledge concerning legal matters and other social issues that could need assistance. for instance, the tanzania media women's association (tamwa), tanzania women lawyers association (tawla), and women's legal aid centre (wlac) have played a big role in liberating their fellow women legally, socially, politically, ideologically, and culturally (legal services facility (lsf), 2019). women's advocates have been creating awareness of women's rights all over the country, and they insist on gender balance. 2.1. the problem through the background of this study, it is observed that most women all over the world face the problem of land access. as far as tanzania is concerned, women have difficulties accessing land. as it has been observed, the issue is largely due to the existing traditions and customs in the country, which restrict women's rights to own land. this condition has led to the formation of women’s rights campaigns at different levels, from local women's groups to national and international levels. efforts made by women's advocates in tanzania to implement gender equality by recognising women's rights have been made in various regions. for example, organisations like tamwa, tawla, lsf, and others have put their efforts into doing various campaigns in the country to liberate women's minds and teach them more about their basic rights (legal services facility (lsf), 2019). despite the efforts of various women's rights campaigns in tanzania, gender inequality, especially in land access, still exists in many parts of the country (moyo, 2017). considering all these issues, therefore, the problem is to evaluate how women's land rights campaigns have promoted the understanding of women's land rights, how women's access to land has been successful, and the researcher wanted to identify women's campaigns related to their contribution to the mobilisation of women's land rights in the missenyi district. this study therefore, aims to answer the following research questions: what are the strategies used by women's rights campaigns to promote women’s awareness of women's land rights? how have women's rights campaigns contributed to promoting land access and ownership for women? which kind of organisation for women's rights campaigns is available in missenyi district? 2.2. theoretical framework the study employed liberal feminism theory. liberal feminism is a branch of feminism that focuses on achieving gender equality through legal and political reform, as well as the promotion of individual freedom and autonomy for women. liberal feminists believe that women's rights are essential and should be protected under the law, and they advocate for policies that aim to eliminate gender-based discrimination and inequality. nienaber and moraka (2016) comments that, liberal feminism's perspective is based on women's rights and gender equality. thus, liberal feminists support women's rights by emphasizing on the rights to life, freedom, and property ownership and hold leadership positions. they also believe that women should have the freedom to make their own choices about their lives, including their careers, relationships, and family planning. overall, liberal feminism emphasizes the importance of individual rights and freedoms in achieving gender equality, and it seeks to promote a society where women have the same opportunities and rights as men. from liberal feminism theory, the conclusion can be drawn on gender equality which can be traced through social recognition, political and legal reform. women’s rights are likely to be attained if national laws and women’s recognition in societies are clearly understood and practised. thus, this theory is employed in this study because the problem of inequality in access to land denies women rights of land possession built on perceptions of male domination. 3. research methodology 3.1. research approach and research design the study employed a qualitative approach. the researcher selected qualitative research because it enabled the participants to explore their attitudes, behaviour and understanding of women rights campaigns which intended to be gained in the study. this is in correlation with mohajan (2018) who explains that the qualitative approach enables the researcher to capture people’s views, opinion, motives and beliefs related to the study. it is from the participants’ understandings; the researcher was able to collect primary data needed to answer the research objectives. a case study research design was involved to allow the extensive collection of data to be adopted and gain an in-depth understanding of the topic under the study. 3.2. study area the study was conducted in kilimilile ward, missenyi district in kagera region, tanzania. the researcher selected the kilimilile ward because it is one of the rural areas which preserve customary laws that hinder women's basic rights, especially in land access. in kilimilile ward, customary land rights are widely accepted as a practical option in rural life. in addition, men in this area like in other rural areas tend to own land and position to their eldest sons. then, the researcher selected this area to appraise the women's land rights campaigns which deny man’s autonomy in land access support women’s land access. therefore, the researcher selected this area to evaluate women's land rights campaigns where; the freedom of a man to use land in the african environment suppresses a woman's autonomy in using the land. 3.3. sampling procedure and sample size the study used non-probability sampling with a purposive sampling technique that seeks to identify rich information cases which can then be studied in depth (gray, 2014). the researcher used a purposive sampling technique in selecting the sample size. the technique was used to help the researcher to select the sample size under the knowledge and experience of the participants since all live with women in society. although the purposive sampling technique was used, the sample size still appears to be large. this is because the researcher asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 87-97 90 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group chose to conduct research in a ward with three villages. therefore, each village required two group discussions, one for men and one for women. the reason behind this was to avoid mixing women and men in the same group. the researcher thought it could be an obstacle to getting real data from women in the same group as men. the study involved a sample size of fifty-three participants. the sample size was obtained after the researcher collected the data until the point of research saturation through semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and observation. the sample size involved rural women cultivators because were the ones who could provide their views, experiences and perceptions on women land rights. other participants were men, advocates of women, religious leaders and government leaders. in terms of the nature of study, women were mainly included in order to present their understandings on the matter 3.4. data collection methods and presentation the study employed semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and field observation methods. according to yin (2014), the interview was used in order to supplement the extent of knowledge about individuals’ thoughts, feelings, meanings and interpretations. this instrument collected qualitative data required in addressing the study need. the technique was used to probe the key informants like village executive officers (veos), ward executive officer (weo), religious leaders and women advocates. thus, more justifications for understanding an appraisal of women's land rights campaigns were obtained. the information from focused group discussions was gathered from rural women and men. the purpose of using focus groups was successful because the researcher was able to receive immediate responses about the study. participants shared their interests with one another and proposed opinions as people with the same interests (nyumba, wilson, derrick, & mukherjee, 2018). also, it was a good technique which used to assess the possibility of intervention as well. the discussion rose suggestions among the group members which led to obtaining different ideas at one time which could not be obtained from individuals. observation helped the researcher to link what was being observed and what was discussed during the interviews and focused group discussions. the researcher involved multiple methods to collect detailed, relevant and concrete data to avoid biases and increase the internal validity of women's land rights campaigns. thematic analysis (ibrahim, 2012) is a type of inductive strategy of qualitative analysis which the researcher selected for data analysis. it was used to analyse, classify and present themes or patterns that relate to the data. it demonstrated the data in huge aspects and involved different themes through interpretations. 3.5. ethical considerations as commented by gray (2014), the researcher sought permission from relevant authorities for fieldwork in missenyi district – kilimilile ward. this included obtaining a research permit which formalizes the research and is brought by the researcher to the research subjects. permission was obtained from the head of the department of sociology at the university of saint augustine tanzania (saut), and a letter of identification was obtained from the office of the region administrative secretary of kagera (ras), introducing the researcher to the district and ward governmental officers and the respondents. on other hand, the researcher considered the participants' informed consent. according to the nature of this study, the researcher was aware of the sensitivity of the study that women rights concerning land rights in the societies is not well acknowledged, thus, some issues might arise if ethical consideration is not taken into account. respect for privacy, anonymity and confidentiality of participants were considered during study procedures. 4. findings and discussion 4.1. introduction the study aimed to assess the impact of land rights campaigns on women's land access in kilimilile ward, missenyi district. the findings were obtained through observation, semi-structured discussions and focus group discussions. referring to the analysis method, the researcher has drawn various themes from the results of the participants. from there, the presentations and discussions are presented below. 4.1.1. women’s campaigns in kilimilile ward it was informed by various researchers that the work of liberating women has always been carried out in collaboration between private and public institutions. likewise, the participants were able to identify government and non-government organisations such as missenyi aids and poverty eradication crusade (mapec) (this project aims to motivate and provide grants for technical training on promoting organic farming and encouraging afforestation and reforestation activities in missenyi division, also, to facilitate enhanced access for tanzanian orphans and marginalized youngsters, adolescents, and individuals facing vulnerabilities due to hiv and various challenges, so that they can utilize suitable services related to hiv and aids and other relevant areas ), mhola, elct, world vision, and legal institutions involved in providing training to women. although each organisation has its own goal of liberating women, they are able to work in partnership, so there is solidarity among them. every institution that stands firm brings about significant changes. the participants reported on the presence of various non-governmental organisations that promote women's rights awareness apart from governmental organisations. during group discussion, women in sequence explained: there are non-governmental organisations like world vision that conduct seminars to educate us about our rights. they teach us many things, among which women’s rights are and how we can claim them for the benefit of society. in fact, these seminars have helped us a lot. we were in darkness, but now we know our rights and no one can cheat us like in the past. elct (evangelical lutheran church of tanzania) gives seminars to different groups of women about entrepreneurship and women's basic rights. for instance, getting an education and educating our children, as well as knowing our rights about ownership of land and other family properties. for example, my brother wanted to take the inherited land of our parents by himself; i went to the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 87-97 91 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group ward tribunal council, and i was given my share of my parents' land. so, the seminars helped women become aware of their rights and brought about equal rights within the family. another non-government organisation that tries to bring awareness to women is called mapec. at first, this organisation was interested in children’s rights but later found that children are tampered with because of their parents. if women’s rights are not realised, children's rights are also in danger. therefore, this organisation also started educating women about their rights to help women take care of their children. so, with mapec seminars, we have been helped to understand our rights! also, one man explained the contribution of mapec: "there is mapec, its workers are passing through the villages to find women and educate them. they have their village representatives as well; they pass and gather women’s groups in the rural areas to educate them." the success of non-governmental organisations (ngos) was sometimes obtained through local women’s groups. the researcher observed the presence of local groups in kilimilile, where she found some groups in meetings before focus group discussions started. women themselves seemed to assist each other through their local groups called tuinuane, upendo, and umoja. they were elaborating for their fellow women, who were new members, had not attended any seminars, or had no idea about women's rights. during group discussion, most of the women appreciated this, and one of them said that: another place where we get awareness is through women's local associations. there are various social groups like tupendane, tuinuane, umoja, and so many others. now, these local women's groups assist us greatly. on the other hand, we are getting training from women consultants from mhola. when those new members join us, we educate them about women's rights. that education has helped a lot of women get their rights when they are oppressed. the findings above were related to women consultants from the mamas hope organisation for legal assistance (mhola). she revealed that today's women are aware of their rights because of the training that has been given to them through seminars and workshops. for that action, the woman consultant from mhola stated: nowadays, women are aware of their rights, we meet them in their local groups, village meetings, or ward meetings. therefore, we go and educate them in those places because meeting one by one could be very difficult. on the other hand, we are providing training by taking a few of them. therefore, the chain becomes big, and many women attain an understanding of what is being taught because one teaches the other, and so the message spreads. in addition to that, she said: apart from village or ward meetings, we, as mhola, are following up by meeting them in their local groups. as we prepare our schedule, we find that on a certain date in a certain month, a certain group will have a meeting. so, we go to such groups, meet them there, and educate them. although sometimes time is very limited, women get some awareness and are then oriented to find out more about their rights. i can say that we have liberated many women who gained their violated rights concerning land access; now they are owning or inheriting the land as theirs. in general, women's advocacy groups in the kilimilile ward have shown great effort to make society aware of women's rights. it is through the hard work they have put into educating women and the kilimilile community that women have been seen to be able to own land in their families and in the community in general. the work they do is to educate society to understand women's rights because they have been violated for a long time. it is the hope of the researcher that, society will gradually change and obey the law without coercion. as was the aim of this study, land rights campaigns to defend women will bring developmental changes as many women in rural areas depend on agriculture, so a woman's lack of land is holding development back in society. 4.1.2. women's awareness of land rights the study revealed that, currently, women are aware of their rights. this is due to the findings obtained from the participants during focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews. it exposed that today's women can demand them, protect them and sometimes teach them to other women. in this regard, during focus group discussions, the researcher asked about the participants' experiences with women's awareness of their land rights. in their response, the participants indicated that they were quite aware of women's land rights. in this remark, one woman said: some revolutions have been brought about by various institutions in our village through various seminars. these seminars have been very helpful to us and have tried to create balance in the family. i did not attend primary school, and those rules i had never heard of. but through the seminars, i got... i am not deceived anymore. we learned a lot about our rights and the rights of children. this has helped me to know my rights and the steps to take if they are violated. in the same line-up concerning women's awareness, the district state attorney also had this to say: as women face conflict and come to the office, you see that they are people of understanding. even when they come to the office with their problems, they tell you, i did this and that until i came here. compared to past decades, today the number of women who come into the office to demand their rights is high. this shows that they already understand the procedures to follow to get their rights, and they feel obligated to do so. furthermore, one of the village executive officers clearly explained during the interview that: we give training about women's rights during public meetings. at these meetings, we normally have some perennial agendas concerning the village’s development, including women's rights such as women’s land access and general human rights. therefore, during our public meetings in villages, village members get educated on their rights, including asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 87-97 92 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group women's rights. in addition to that, there are other organisations that help us a lot on that issue. moreover, in expressing awareness of women's rights and government support at the ward level, during the interview, one of the religious leaders has this to explain: some women have understood so much about human rights and land rights. this is possible due to the education provided to them. for instance, education from women's advocacy groups: governmental and non-governmental organisations has created an understanding of women rights. this led them to be aware of their rights and to demand them where necessary; today, we can see that women are owning more land compared to the past. according to the data collected, women's awareness was also attained through listening to various programmes on the radio, as the ward social development officer explained: there are people, including women, who gain awareness through radio programmes. for example, in our locality, there is fadeco radio (family alliance for development and cooperation) and karagwe radio, which provide programmes on the law. there is one lawyer called ally chamani who is very helpful to the community in legal matters through the various radio topics he provides. the findings show that women's rights to land have been recognised, which enables them to improve women’s access to land. due to that, women are owning land, as discussed below. most of the participants showed that, currently, women know the procedures for demanding their rights. they know the offices where to take their cases, and they can identify that this case can be taken to this office, not that one. this was possible because women's training was provided by women's advocates, who built awareness among women about their rights. this concurs with moyo (2017), who discovered that there is an increase in awareness of women's rights and property issues. for example, land titles that identified spouses as joint owners were previously issued in the name of the man, as head of the family. therefore, this implies that, after the efforts of women advocates, awareness of women’s rights and land issues has increased. the views above are supported by nienaber and moraka (2016) who explained that liberal feminists rely on empowering women, which raises awareness in society about women's rights. awareness has the capacity to shrink gender inequality in land access that can be demonstrated and bring about gender stereotypes. therefore, this hinders women's participation not only in various social positions and decision-making but also in property ownership, particularly land. it can be suggested that women's awareness is the source of social development. as it is said, educating women means educating the entire society. 4.1.3. women’s access to land the participants, especially women, seemed aware of women's land access. this was revealed when they reported that they own land in various forms, like by inheriting, renting and buying. access to land ownership by succession or inheritance was the most common form of land ownership in the study setting, as participants declared. referring to the findings gained from the participants, it seems that there is a large number of women who own land compared to previous periods. the participants voiced their excitement about the familiarity of current women's land acquisition. at the same time, they agreed on the efforts of women's advocacy groups, the enforcement of laws, and the use of media, which helped women become aware of their rights to land ownership. for that concern, during the focus group discussion, one woman explained: various trainings we received have helped us. we own land through inheritance, purchase, or renting in our areas because of our understanding of our rights. before the realisation of land rights, i got nothing because i was evicted by my husband’s relatives when i got married for the first time. now we have a farm we bought with my second husband, and we own it together. i also own the land i inherited from my parents, and we also rent and earn the same. this is because the seminars i attended made me realise my rights. during the men’s analysis of women's land access in the discussion group, one of them describes: it seems now that women have begun to be given priority in inheriting their parents’ land as the means of land acquisition. on the husband’s side, it is understood that the wife must own her share. if you look at a large percentage, male dominance disappears. and saying women should not own land is dead; as we see, even when a parent dies and leaves a will, daughters are sometimes given land in large portions differently than in past years. in addition, another woman said: i thank my father, before his death he called all his children and everyone got their portion of the land. this has helped me to rise economically; otherwise, i would struggle after the death of my husband, who was a distant man and did not own a farm. this has created equal rights for all. the concept associated with renting land to women was also classified as a means of getting land. this form enabled women to choose what they wanted to plant during the season. women could plant crops for sale and for family consumption. in the focus group discussion, one of the women explained that: my husband and i agreed that i should rent land from the village's government and that what i would harvest would help me with my needs. it has now been fifteen years since i have been planting and harvesting for my needs and those of my family as well. i own the land, though it is for rent. this also did not prevent me from farming, even on our inherited farm. the issue of women renting land was also clear to local government leaders. during the interview, the district social development officer had the following to say: nowadays, women acquire land in the village council; they are given land to use for growing various crops for their families and for meeting their basic needs. probably it is asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 87-97 93 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group given to them and completely becomes their property. for example, due to the women's need for land for cultivation in kilimilile village, there is apportioned land distributed to women who now own it as theirs. there was a connection between the information of the district social development officer and the village executive officer concerning land renting, whereby the veo said that: in my workplace, there is an area of land that has been used for renting to both men and women or a family, although women are many. most women have no other place for cultivation and have no family (they are single parents). as we know in our area, when women have a child or children without a husband (this is after being abandoned by them), they live uncomfortably until they have a place to live. due to that, they took their need to the office of the social development officer, and that problem was solved by giving them their portions of land permanently. now, women who own land are many in this area. in addition to the forms of land above, purchasing land seemed to be adopted by women for some reasons. the findings show that some women are accessing land through purchases. through focused discussion, one of the women said: others we own through purchasing land and ownership in the clan. this helps us to get food and to sell it. we are used to having two parts so that if there is a separation in the family or a dispute with the clan, it will find us a place of refuge before the case is resolved. likewise, one woman clarified that: i tell you; inherited land is sometimes problematic. if the land you used to own is small and your husband dies, you start to panic, but if you have enough land, you feel strong. i bought the land that i own for that reason. it was found that the inheritance form of ownership was the prevailing means of attaining land in kilimilile ward, as it was in the past. the study found that most of the women had acquired land by inheritance, either through family or clan land, after the death of a parent or a husband. moreover, the participants revealed that women currently own land during the existence of their parents or husbands. female participants manifested this, as some had inherited land from their parents or their husbands before dying. this means that women will gradually be able to own land and earn a living. even those who are not able to, because of the efforts of their peers, will succeed as well. the above findings are in line with previous studies, which explain that most women in africa, including tanzania, own land through inheritance through family or clan land. for instance, moyo (2017) reported that in tanzania, women own land in their husbands’ or sons’ names. moreover, the situation of women’s land ownership is increasing. it is a fact that the process of empowering women and raising social awareness of women’s rights is the cause of the reforms being witnessed today. thus, the status of women inheriting land in the family is the basis of women’s liberation and social development in general. it was found that some women have been purchasing land as a means of being permitted to use it. the findings are solely the same as those of namubiru-mwaura (2014), who reported that pakistanis’ and indians’ women rely on purchasing land because of traditional gender roles and a shortage of financial resources. also, in nigeria, chigbu, paradza, and dachaga (2019) observed that women focused more on buying land to invest in commercial kiosks for rental purposes. likewise, moyo (2017) and shayo (2016) observed that women purchase land to compensate for the absence of land to inherit, which resulted in unequal land allocation in tanzania. also, women seemed to purchase land individually or jointly for family development. the action of purchasing land for women is done for reasons such as a woman being abandoned by her husband, a lack of enough land for cultivation, divorce, fear of demanding her land right in the family or clan, the need for economic continuity, and land discrimination. this implies that the feeling of belongingness encouraged women to purchase land that has no restrictions. purchasing land for ownership seemed to be preferred by some women because they were searching for freedom in land use. renting is also a means of acquiring land through village administration and village rents. the findings expressed that village leaders were fulfilling their roles by assisting people to rent land on village administrative land. some women who were renting village land were given the right to own it forever. land renting to women was classified as a means of getting freedom on what a woman wanted to plant during planting season. women could plant crops for sale and family consumption as they wished. this implies that women are free to ask for the land in the village administration and get it. the reasons women to demand land depend on being abandoned by their husbands or having a small plot for cultivation, among others. also, due to land scarcity, or families having limited land, many women see land renting as part of the solution to that need. 4.1.4. social recognition of women's land rights and status the response from the majority of participants revealed that women and society today realise women's rights more than in past decades. the participants in different situations during focus discussions and interviews agreed that society today knows how women are recognised. society, including the government, is aware of women's land rights and land access due to the education they require. in supporting that, one man clarified that: education has brought light, whether it is for schools or seminars offered. after people became educated, for example, like us in buhaya, we knew that a girl child inheriting land was a waste of land. but as we got to know later, we realised that even a girl is a great supporter in the family. we have already discovered that what made us understand that was education. so, if the state educates the people on the laws at the grassroots level, we will have a good foundation for building justice and understanding the role of the law. sticking to that direction, the responses from the majority of participants revealed that women and society today realise women's rights more than in past decades. in support of that, during a focus group discussion, two of the men in sequence clarified that: education has dramatically helped raise awareness of women's rights. for us muslims, for instance, we are advised to marry wives whose husbands will be able to meet their needs. therefore, a woman who gets married knows that there is a right to own what is there. the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 87-97 94 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group seminars offered also reveal that. so, the husband knows that i must give my wives equal rights in the allotment of land, and women are aware of that. a woman is more valued today than ever. if you look at the parents’ heritage, they give it to both girls and boys. in families, the sensitive men give their wives land when they are still alive, and as a united family, they farm together. if the husband happens to be preceded in death by a will, the wife is currently given a share that could not be abusive. there are changes towards women in society today, and equality between husband and wife continues to be recognised. women also realised social consciousness, which brought knowledge obtained in various trainings and led to social recognition. during focus group discussions, two women explained: compared to the past, the situation has changed, and there is a significant improvement in a woman's life. the education i got from knowing my rights and that i am also entitled to own or buy a piece of land, has made me conscious. presently, the understanding is strong compared to the past, when education was limited. now we get it at conferences and seminars, even on women's day (8/03), which helps us remind society about the rights of women. there is a substantial enhancement in women's education, for example, in the past, men could sell land without family sharing, and after selling, you would not know where the money had gone. but now the situation has greatly reduced until the land is sold, and the wife must have a say in it. this is the result of the education given to society, specifically to mothers. however, despite all efforts to liberate and empower women, there are some people who are still conservative and whose minds are not changing. according to the findings, some women and men do not understand why women own land while married. some women find it tolerable not owning land, and some men see women’s access to and ownership of land as copying other cultures. during the focus group discussion, one of the women said: traditionally, a woman was prepared by her mother or other relatives for marriage and only listened to her husband; other things should not be interfered with, as long as the husband fulfilled the needs of the family. for me, it will be hard to compete with my husband because i want to land. i can be asked where you are taking the land. if land does exist and you cultivate whatever you want, what is the problem again? as we have been taught, gender balance has been brought about by europeans. for us africans, the men stand as the symbol of keeping peace and solidarity in the family or clan. on the other hand, during group discussions, it was found that among almost all the men participants, no one was ever invited to attend a seminar concerning women's rights apart from village or ward meetings. for the good implementation of women's rights, particularly land ownership, most male participants suggested mutual training on women's rights, as one of them suggested: surprisingly, every day you hear about women's rights, there are women's seminars about their rights. however, they forget to include those who are deprived of such rights. if the one cause of injustice is not involved, where will a woman then get those rights? it is good that the seminars provided involve both men and women. each one should know his or her rights and which rights each should receive, thus creating balance. the state of women’s rights and social recognition have been discussed above. this reflects the relationship between awareness and recognition of women in the missenyi community, especially in kilimilile ward. this has been fuelled by governmental and non-governmental organisations, groups of women campaigners, community awareness, and the delivery of justice to law enforcement agencies. it is clear that there is a greater social awareness of women compared to previous years, but it needs to be monitored regularly. the main reason is that people's traditions and cultures are ongoing processes that change all the time. there is a possibility that the understanding will become clearer or diminish due to the way society develops. however, seriousness is still needed in implementing women’s land rights. the main reason societies carry cultural beliefs women’s land rights can be implemented in all tanzanian societies, with a particular focus on positive developmental, social, economic, and political outcomes. it should be noted that, what is required is not competition between men and women but equality for the benefit of all. 4.1.5. enforcement of land laws among women during focus group discussions, the majority of women clarified land law enforcement as a way of giving them confidence and equipping them for justice when applied well. women were happy to express that today women's rights are considered in case of land dispute that emerges from family conflicts, one woman had to say: the changes have been brought into our culture due to government laws. these laws have helped us to claim our rights and get them. for instance, the law now states clearly that in cases of divorce, the man and woman have to divide the land and other family properties equally. for more explanation about the enforcement of the laws in rural areas concerning women's land rights, during an interview, one of the women advocates commented: in the past, ward tribunals did not do well. women’s rights were probably violated because of patriarchy. but these days, they do a good job. when women submit their cases, justice is done. that is why land cases are decreasing nowadays. the law is clear, so men understand it and know that if they go against it, it will take its course. also, a consultant woman from mamas hope organisation for legal assistance (mhola) said that: now women are getting their rights accordingly. the rules work. if a woman has a case, if she fails this level, she steps to another level until she gets it right. for example, she can start at the village office, ward office, and social welfare office up to the court level. a woman uses them to get her rights, even though there are meanders. similar to the explanations above, the united nations human rights (2014) and sida (2015) display the efforts of putting law enforcement into practices that seemed to free women from the unknown and help them understand the laws. in the same line, sylivester (2013) suggested that, if every part plays its role as claimed in order to get rid of the problem of land ownership discrimination, women would be aware of the legal rights that asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 87-97 95 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group protect them and help them own land and other properties. the intention here is that when women own land and have access to it, it is easier for them to manage their families and promote social development through farming activities. different from the above observations, some scholars, including landesa (2012) and mhango, malima, and lukumay (2014), argue that legal institutions are trustless about justice, which oppresses one part. several african countries have promulgated legal statutes to address women’s lack of land rights. on the other hand, dancer (2017) recognises african countries, including tanzania, as being recommended to improve and reinforce laws that discriminate against women in various spheres. nevertheless, mcferson (2010) submits that unfortunately, most african countries do not implement measures of correct law enforcement. for instance, mcferson (2010) states, while kenya’s constitution outlaws gender discrimination, it also upholds customary law on marriage, divorce, and inheritance. in tanzania, two land acts, the land act and the village act, repeal customary rules that exclude women from property possession. however, in the view of mhango et al. (2014), they have not been fully implemented due to a shortage of awareness in general. along with the confusion above, in this study, the participants have acknowledged the existence of access to women's rights, in a unique way; the right to access land for women. therefore, the enforcement of laws in this study came to demonstrate the changes in the previous observations. women's awareness about their basic rights in the kilimilile ward was raised by various institutions, including legal bodies. findings show that most of the participants appreciated the work done by legal institutions today and that justice is observed sincerely. these give equal rights to both women and men to own land. so, the laws helped women realise their rights because, if they own land, it helps them engage in agricultural activities, which improves their livelihoods. for instance, during group discussions, men explained that women are not disturbed because justice is done. similar to that, men reduced family violence because they knew if they were taken to court, there would be no joke or giving a bribe as in the past, and they knew they would be taken to jail. 4.1.6. government involvement in women’s land rights campaigns during semi-structured interviews, participants revealed the presence of government and private bodies that carried out strategic planning to emancipate women and make them aware of their basic rights, including rights to land ownership. the findings reported a number of social institutions like ward tribunals, social welfare development offices, and legal bodies like mamas hope organisation for legal assistance (mhola), missenyi aids and poverty eradication crusade (mapec), world vision, and the evangelical lutheran church of tanzania (elct), which are involved as tools of women's land rights awareness and enforcement. even if some of the organisations mentioned above are non-governmental organisations, the government is still concerned about allowing them to follow up with them and know their contributions to society. the views were explored by one of the religious leaders during the interview, who explained: the government has its facilitators; for example, there is a ward executive officer, a district social welfare development officer, a ward coordinator, and a gender desk (dawati la jinsia) who take care of women. the gender forum is really used, and that is why we direct people to go there. for instance, i had a case here, but i had to send it there after realising that there is a need for lawful conduct in such a matter. the government nowadays provides education on the rights of women and all people; this has helped us as well in reducing the cases we have been facing in previous times. also, the district social welfare development officer assured: laws are now well regulated, especially after the (united republic of tanzania, 1999). land reform legislation has eliminated much discrimination and brought about equal rights. it reduced those traditions that were depriving women of justice. currently, women’s voices are heard, and they are given their rights accordingly. so, the situation is at least not as bad as before. nowadays, women own land and other things by inheritance, whether they have bought them or rented them. the participants were impressed with the services provided by the ward tribunals, the ward social development office, and the gender desk (dawati la jinsia). women and men, when they had family disputes, the cases seemed to be taking a short time, and justice was obtained quickly. one man in the group discussion explained that: for those who are fortunate enough to come to the judiciary, such as the courts, the judiciary has given them legal rights, and law enforcement has brought about a great revolution and self-awareness as well. men feel it is right for a woman to get land and not be abused. generally, the findings above revealed how women access or own land through possession, purchasing, and renting. the study revealed that sometimes women’s ability to own land in another way is obtained through legal enforcement or legal justice. the participants agreed on law enforcement through district legal bodies, the ward tribunal, and dawati la jinsia. on the above views, some scholars like dancer (2017) and kameri-mbote (2005) claimed that currently, many countries have formulated laws that protect women from land access in their societies. international and national bodies are struggling to eradicate this belief that undermines women, especially rural women who depend mostly on land as a means of survival. tanzania (united republic of tanzania, 2016) specifically signed various international treaties that protect women's rights. it has also formulated laws that have been enforced to bring justice to women concerning land disputes. similarly, two land acts, the united republic of tanzania (1999) and united republic of tanzania (1999) of tanzania, undermine customary laws that exclude women from property ownership (mcferson, 2010). this is in correspondence with liberal feminists, as stated by nienaber and moraka (2016), who criticise practices that deny women equal protection under the law and inequality in access to legal, social, political, and economic institutions that lead to women's oppression. furthermore, they condemn laws that truly discriminate against women in various spheres and undermine their freedom of choice. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(3): 87-97 96 © 2023 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group 5. conclusion and recommendations the collected findings revealed that awareness of women's land rights has, to some extent, brought about changes in kilimilile society. in most cases, workshops and seminars provided by governmental and nongovernmental organisations raised the knowledge of women and some men on women's land access. likewise, the big support from the ward tribunal council, village, and ward meetings was observed, whereby through them women's rights were addressed and justice was applied to those who went for family dispute resolution. most women were seen to be aware of land rights, and most of them seemed to own land in various forms, like land ownership for an inheritance, land ownership for renting and land ownership for purchasing. this indicates that the trend of holding customary laws and traditional beliefs, which have been delaying women's awareness, has been changing and women's understanding of their rights has been rising. however, what has sucked with women from traditional backgrounds needs individual and social efforts to be reduced, if not eradicated. with the cultural beliefs and traditions that have been nurtured and taken root in social life, it is difficult for them to be quickly abandoned by the majority. that is to say, efforts to create equity in land tenure are still needed. also, the findings recognised the social understanding and attitudes towards women's land rights. this implies that individual mindset and social realisation brought social revolution and recognition, which seemed to maintain gender equality in land ownership. people have been able to gain understanding through training provided by various groups that enable women to recognise themselves and realise their rights as well. this is possible if society is aware and law enforcement is done effectively. moreover, participants were asked to comment on current agencies that have been promoting women's land rights. they were able to state that women's awareness is currently highly perceived, and the recognition of women's rights is also clear. the findings reported several social institutions like ward tribunals, social welfare development offices, legal bodies, mhola, mapec, world vision, and elct that are involved as tools of women's land rights awareness and enforcement. this means that the contribution of government and social institutions to bringing about equality within the community is great. every organisation or party strives to liberate a woman so that she can understand her rights and take action wherever needed. on the other hand, despite the efforts to liberate women from the darkness of not understanding their rights, there are still a few who do not see the importance of a woman claiming her basic rights. they see claiming or owning land as an act of disrespect for african traditions and customs. for that future, community education is still needed. the researcher would like to give recommendations concerning what she has witnessed during the field study. the government, ngos, and other women's advocacy groups should continue to rethink new strategies on how to maintain and improve their services. new strategies are needed to reach more women who have not yet received information about women's rights and women’s land access. training on the importance of human rights towards women's land access should be provided to community members as motivation for realising women's contributions to development in society. men and women need to be educated in order to stabilise social life by realising the existing laws of each part. the government and its legal institutions should continue to provide fair justice to both men and women to maintain the role of laws and justice. there should be deliberate efforts to ensure awareness of the law among women and the entire society is achieved. this was also recommended by mhango et al. (2014). village and ward meetings should be modified and organised to enable each person to recognise his or her rights. this will eliminate the exclusion of women from various decisions, including the implementation of their rights; this will raise more awareness about cultural beliefs that hinder women from realising their rights to land access as also observed and recommended by shayo (2016). references chigbu, u. e., paradza, g., & dachaga, w. (2019). differentiations in women’s land tenure experiences: implications for women’s land access and tenure security in sub-saharan africa. land, 8(2), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.3390/land8020022 dancer, h. (2017). an equal right to inherit? women’s land rights, customary law and constitutional reform in tanzania. social & legal studies, 26(3), 291-310. https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663916677560 duncan, j. (2014). women’s land rights guide for tanzania. landesa: rural development institute. economic commission for africa (eca). 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(2014). qualitative research from start to finish (2th ed.). new york: the guilford press. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.4102/ac.v16i2.417 https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210x.12860 https://cdn.sida.se/publications/files/-gender-and-ict.pdf https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0366.00053 132 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 10, no. 4, 132-141, 2023 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v10i4.5099 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group multi-faceted identities of teacher assessors: a qualitative study in the vietnamese educational context phuong hoang yen1 pham trut thuy2 le thanh thao3 nguyen anh thi4 nguyen huong tra5 huynh thi anh thu6 ( corresponding author) 1,3,4,5,6can tho university, vietnam. 1email: phyen@ctu.edu.vn 3email: thaole@ctu.edu.vn 4email: nathi@ctu.edu.vn 5email: nhuongtra@ctu.edu.vn 6email: htathu@ctu.edu.vn 2nam can tho university, vietnam. 2email: ptthuy@nctu.edu.vn abstract within the educational landscape of vietnam, the professional identity of teachers when acting as assessors remains a comparatively uncharted domain and requires further explorations. consequently, this qualitative investigation was initiated to delve deeper into the intricate identities vietnamese teachers adopt in their capacities as assessors. relying upon frameworks such as constructivist grounded theory and identity theory, the study meticulously analyzed selfreported narratives from 15 tertiary lecturers based in vietnam. through this rigorous analysis, a spectrum of fifteen distinct identities was uncovered. these identities included “gatekeepers of knowledge and competency”, “nurturers”, “diplomatists”, “auditors”, “confusian sages”, “innovators”, “social justice advocators”, “cultural mediators”, “emotional anchors”, “scalfolders”, “technological navigators”, “lifelong learners”, “community builders”, “ethical guardians”, and “democratic facilitators.” intriguingly, these identities were not merely seen as additional layers to their professional duties; instead, they emerged as foundational components of teachers’ professional self-image. the forces molding these roles are diverse, encompassing deepseated cultural values, prevailing educational paradigms, and personal lived experiences of educators. unraveling these identities offers consequential implications for the broader educational sector. it underscores the imperative to holistically re-envision teacher training programs and assessment design, ensuring they resonate with the multifaceted roles educators play in steering both academic achievements and wider societal outcomes. keywords: competency-based education, professional identities, qualitative study, teacher assessors, teacher roles, vietnamese educational context. citation | yen, p. h., thuy, p. t., thao, l. t., thi, n. a., tra, n. h., & thu, h. t. a. (2023). multi-faceted identities of teacher assessors: a qualitative study in the vietnamese educational context. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 10(4), 132–141. 10.20448/ajssms.v10i4.5099 history: received: 29 august 2023 revised: 13 october 2023 accepted: 23 october 2023 published: 1 november 2023 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: the ethical committee of can tho university, vietnam has granted approval for this study (ref. no. tđh202302). transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. this study followed all ethical practices during writing. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction .....................................................................................................................................................................................................133 2. literature review............................................................................................................................................................................................133 3. methods ............................................................................................................................................................................................................134 4. findings and discussion.................................................................................................................................................................................135 5. conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................................................139 6. implications......................................................................................................................................................................................................139 7. limitations and recommendations for further studies............................................................................................................................140 references .........................................................................................................................................................................................................140 mailto:phyen@ctu.edu.vn mailto:thaole@ctu.edu.vn mailto:nathi@ctu.edu.vn mailto:nhuongtra@ctu.edu.vn mailto:htathu@ctu.edu.vn mailto:ptthuy@nctu.edu.vn https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v10i4.5099 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0137-4795 https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6596-2686 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8471-8305 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2835-7330 https://orcid.org/0009-0005-7511-5579 https://orcid.org/0009-0006-3190-3968 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 132-141 133 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study uniquely elucidates the diverse identities of vietnamese teacher assessors through a qualitative lens. notably, it unveils a spectrum of fifteen distinct identities based on self-reported narratives, enriching our understanding of the vietnamese educational landscape and spotlighting the profound implications for teacher training and assessment design. 1. introduction in educational settings, the role of a teacher extends far beyond that of an instructor or facilitator. one of the significant yet often understudied facets of a teacher’s role is that of an assessor. while educational research has frequently delved into instructional methods, curriculum design, and classroom management (e.g., (macalister & nation, 2019; wolff, jarodzka, & boshuizen, 2021; wu, lechago, & rettig, 2019)), less attention has been paid to the teacher’s identity as an assessor. this oversight becomes particularly notable in the vietnamese context, characterized by its historical emphasis on exam-centered education and rote learning (abdullah, 2020). in such a landscape, the role of teachers as assessors becomes not merely functional but highly influential, affecting both educational trajectories and societal perceptions of learning. despite the substantial role that teachers play as assessors in the vietnamese educational system (nguyen, 2022), there has been limited research into how they view this part of their professional identity. gaining insights into the types of teacher assessor identities in this particular context could have broad-reaching implications, potentially informing more equitable and effective educational practices. the primary focus of this qualitative study is to explore the types of teacher assessor identities that exist within the vietnamese educational environment. the study revolves around a single, pivotal research question: “what types of teacher assessor identities exist in the vietnamese educational context?” an in-depth understanding of the types of teacher assessor identities in vietnam could not only elucidate current assessment practices but also serve as the basis for future educational reforms. this research has the potential to pave the way for more targeted teacher training programs and influence educational policies that focus on fair and comprehensive assessment methods. 2. literature review 2.1. conceptual frameworks of teacher identity identity in educational contexts is a complex, multi-faceted construct often influenced by a range of factors, including institutional norms, societal values, and individual beliefs (beijaard, meijer, & verloop, 2004). numerous theories of teacher identity have been proposed, each emphasizing different aspects such as professionalism, relational dynamics, and agency (day, kington, stobart, & sammons, 2006; pennington & richards, 2016; stenberg, karlsson, pitkaniemi, & maaranen, 2014). the literature suggests that teacher identities are not static but evolve over time and are shaped by professional experiences and challenges (akkerman & meijer, 2011). this concept of fluid identity underscores the need to explore teacher assessor identities, which might be influenced by a multitude of variables over a teacher’s career. 2.2. role of the teacher as assessor the concept of assessment in education has been studied from various angles, encompassing formative assessments, summative assessments, and assessments for learning (black & wiliam, 2010; brookhart & nitko, 2019). teachers engage in different types of assessments depending on the educational context, learning objectives, and institutional demands. besides, research has indicated that teachers’ perceptions of assessment often impact their instructional decisions, student interactions, and educational outcomes (brown, 2004; garner, thorne, & horn, 2017). however, limited research exists on how these perceptions shape teachers’ identities as assessors, especially in non-western contexts. 2.3. cultural influences on teacher assessor identity research on comparative education has shown that teachers’ assessment practices can be deeply rooted in cultural norms and expectations (ratnam-lim & tan, 2015; stobart, 2008). for example, collectivist cultures might prioritize group assessments, while individualist cultures may focus on individual performance. bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital has been applied to educational assessment, exploring how socio-cultural backgrounds influence teachers’ assessment practices and, by extension, their identities as assessors (bourdieu, passeron, melendres, & subirats, 1977). 2.4. vietnamese educational context the vietnamese educational system has been influenced by its colonial past and traditional confucian values, which emphasize respect for authority and rote learning (thanh, 2010). in contemporary vietnam, there is an increasing shift towards global educational standards, yet the system remains heavily exam-oriented, placing teachers in a pivotal role as assessors (ngo, 2018). while some studies have explored the challenges and reforms in vietnamese education (thao & mai, 2020), there is a dearth of research specifically focusing on teacher assessor identities in this context. in summary, while extensive literature exists on teacher identities and educational assessments separately, there is limited research at the intersection of these two areas, particularly in the vietnamese context. this study aims to fill this gap by focusing on the types of teacher assessor identities that exist in vietnamese educational settings. by mapping out the existing literature, this review sets the stage for an empirical investigation into teacher assessor identities in vietnam, thereby contributing to the academic discourse and offering insights that could inform educational policy and practice in the country. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 132-141 134 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. methods 3.1. research design given that the study aims to understand the nuanced and complex nature of teacher assessor identities, a qualitative approach is deemed most suitable (creswell & poth, 2016). it allows for in-depth exploration of teachers’ perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs in the context of vietnamese education. there are two theoretical frameworks underpinning the study, including constructivist grounded theory (cgt) and identity theory (it). this study adopted the cgt (charmaz, 2014), which posits that both data and theories are socially constructed through interaction with participants. this approach allows for the development of a theory grounded in the data collected, while acknowledging the impact of social and cultural factors. besides, given the focus on teacher assessor identities, the study was also influenced by it (stryker & burke, 2000). this framework offers insights into how identity shapes behavior and interaction, particularly within institutional settings. 3.2. participants the participants in this study consist of 15 lecturers working in a higher education institution in vietnam. these lecturers bring a wealth of expertise, coming from diverse academic fields. the composition of the participant group is intended to capture a broad range of perspectives on the role and identity of teacher assessors within the vietnamese educational landscape. the participant group consists of 8 males and 7 females, offering a balanced gender perspective for the study. the average age of the participants is 42.8 years, with an average teaching experience of 17 years. this level of professional experience is expected to provide rich, nuanced insights into the complex role of the teacher as an assessor. of the 15 lecturers, 11 hold ph.d. degrees, while 4 are currently ph.d. candidates. this high level of academic achievement indicates a depth of subject matter expertise, as well as an understanding of research methodologies, both of which are likely to contribute to the quality of the data collected. the participants represent a range of academic disciplines, encompassing the sciences, social sciences, humanities, and professional studies. this diversity is intended to offer a comprehensive view of teacher assessor identities across different fields, thereby capturing the multi-disciplinary nature of higher education in vietnam. participants were selected using purposive sampling to ensure a wide range of academic fields and teaching experience were represented. while the primary criteria were their roles as lecturers and assessors in a higher education institution, considerations were also made to ensure diversity in terms of gender, age, and academic qualifications. 3.3. data collection the primary method of data collection for this study is semi-structured interviews, chosen for their ability to provide in-depth, nuanced insights into the identities of teacher assessors in the vietnamese higher education context (adeoye‐olatunde & olenik, 2021). prior to the main data collection phase, a pilot study was conducted to test the feasibility and effectiveness of the interview protocol. this involved conducting interviews with three lecturers who met the study’s participant criteria but were not part of the main study. feedback from the pilot study was used to revise and refine the interview questions to ensure their relevance and clarity. based on feedback from the pilot study, some questions were revised for clarity, and additional questions were added to address areas that were initially overlooked. the finalized list of questions was designed to guide a conversation that would last between 45 to 60 minutes with each participant. the interview protocol consisted of a series of open-ended questions designed to explore various facets of teacher assessor identity. some of the preliminary questions included: “can you describe your experience and approach to academic assessment?”, “how do you perceive your role as an assessor in relation to your other roles as a teacher?”, “what influences, if any, do you believe your cultural background has on your assessment practices?”, “how has your approach to assessment evolved over the years?”, “what challenges do you face in your role as an assessor, particularly in the vietnamese context?”, and “how do institutional policies and norms affect your assessment practices?” the interviews were conducted in vietnamese to allow participants to express themselves more freely and to ensure cultural nuances were captured. the use of the native langua ge was also aimed at establishing rapport and trust between the researcher and the participants. interviews were conducted in a quiet, comfortable setting to minimize distractions and were audio-recorded with the consent of the participants for later transcription and analysis. 3.4. data analysis the analysis of data in this qualitative study aimed to generate a nuanced understanding of teacher assessor identities in the vietnamese higher education context. first, all recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim. given that the interviews were conducted in vietnamese, they were also translated into english to facilitate the analysis process. to maintain the integrity and nuances of the data, both the vietnamese and english versions were cross-referenced throughout the analysis. initial engagement with the data involved reading through all transcriptions multiple times to achieve an overarching grasp of the content. highlighting, memoing, and making preliminary notes were part of this initial review process. in line with the principles of cgt, open coding was employed as the first level of analysis. during this stage, data were segmented into discrete parts and coded to identify primary patterns and themes. this was a crucial step in moving from specific observations to broader generalizations. following open coding, axial coding was used to identify relationships between the coded data. this involved categorizing the open codes into higher-level themes and establishing links between them. the aim was to start constructing a coherent picture from the fragmented data. selective coding involved integrating and refining the categories developed during axial coding. at this point, a central narrative or “story” began to emerge, which was then aligned with the theoretical frameworks—cgt and it—to build a grounded theory around teacher assessor identities in vietnam. for enhanced validity, the study employed data triangulation by cross-referencing findings with existing literature and feedback from participants. this helped in affirming the study’s findings and ensuring they were wellasian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 132-141 135 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group grounded. as an additional measure for ensuring validity, member checking was used. summaries of the findings were sent to participants for review and feedback. this step served to validate that the researchers’ interpretations aligned with the participants’ experiences and viewpoints. strict confidentiality was maintained during the analysis process, and all data were stored securely. identifiable information was anonymized during transcription and coding to safeguard the identities of the participants. 4. findings and discussion the study was focused solely on understanding the identities that teachers embody when they assume the role of assessors in the vietnamese higher education context. interviews with 15 lecturers across various fields of study yielded multiple, layered identities that are key to understanding this specific role. 4.1. the gatekeepers of knowledge and competency identity one dominant theme was that of teacher assessors as “gatekeepers” of knowledge and competency, a sentiment expressed by 13 out of 15 participants (n=13). participant 4 noted, “when i assume the role of an assessor, i feel like a gatekeeper, ensuring that students meet the standard before progressing.” participant 10 added, “as an assessor, i uphold the quality of education by setting and enforcing rigorous standards.” the concept of teachers as “gatekeepers” of knowledge and competency is not entirely new and finds resonance with previous research. for instance, novak and jones (2021) pointed out that teachers often act as gatekeepers in shaping curriculum and educational standards, which directly or indirectly impacts how students progress through educational systems. however, this current study makes a significant addition by delving deeper into the psychological and sociological dimensions of this identity, utilizing frameworks like cgt and it. one of the key differences between this study and earlier research is the focus on the teacher’s own perception of their role as a gatekeeper. most previous studies were largely evaluative and considered this role from an institutional or societal perspective (butera et al., 2021). these studies frequently looked at the macro impacts of this gatekeeping role, such as its influence on curriculum standards or educational policy. this current study shifts the lens to a more micro level, exploring how the ‘gatekeeper’ identity becomes part of the teacher’s professional self-concept. this study found that this identity is not merely an imposition from above but is often voluntarily adopted and internalized by teachers, influenced by their individual experiences and the broader educational ecosystem. another distinction is the cultural context; this study is situated in the vietnamese educational landscape, which adds another layer of nuance to the ‘gatekeeper’ role. earlier studies, often conducted in western settings (e.g., (blanchard & muller, 2015; manan, channa, david, & amin, 2021)), might not have accounted for cultural elements that are unique to vietnamese or similar educational systems, where the teacher often carries an additional burden of moral and ethical responsibility. 4.2. the nurturer identity nine of 15 participants (n=9) also spoke about a “nurturer” identity, emphasizing the nurturing aspects of assessment. participant 6 expressed, “assessment is not just about grading; it is about nurturing growth.” participant 12 concurred, stating, “i see myself as a nurturer when i assess. it is my chance to guide students toward improvement.” the idea of the teacher as a “nurturer” has been explored in various research studies, albeit through different terminologies and theoretical frameworks. for example, the seminal work by noddings (2012) on the ‘ethic of care’ proposes that teaching is essentially an act of caring, a notion that aligns well with our finding of teachers identifying as nurturers. similarly, studies in educational psychology, such as those focusing on self-determination theory (ryan & deci, 2000), have emphasized the critical role teachers play in fostering students’ autonomy and competence, which is congruent with nurturing. one notable point of divergence between this current study and previous research is the context of assessment. the nurturing role of teachers is often discussed in the literature in broader pedagogical terms, such as classroom interaction (boorn, hopkins dunn, & page, 2010), curriculum design (cheng, 2014), or emotional support (sharp, 2014). this study adds a new dimension by specifically linking this nurturing identity to the process of assessment. according to the findings framed by cgt, teachers see assessment not merely as a mechanism for grading but as an opportunity for fostering relational and developmental growth in students. moreover, this research, interpreted through it, emphasizes that this nurturing role is integral to teachers’ professional identity. while other studies have discussed teachers’ caring or supportive roles, they have not always considered how deeply this role is internalized as part of the professional self-concept of teachers. the difference is subtle but crucial: in this current study, being a nurturer is not an additional task or external expectation but a core facet of what it means to be a teacher for the participants. similar to the ‘gatekeeper’ identity, this investigation of the ‘nurturer’ identity also adds cultural specificity, considering that the research is grounded in the vietnamese context. this adds another layer of complexity and could prompt future research to explore how cultural norms and expectations influence the adoption of nurturing roles among teachers. 4.3. the diplomat identity another identity that surfaced was that of a “diplomat,” brought up by 7 out of 15 participants (n=7). participant 2 said, “balancing fairness and understanding individual needs makes me feel like a diplomat.” participant 14 added, “the diplomatic part of assessment comes when you have to navigate parental expectations and institutional pressures.” the idea of teachers embodying a “diplomat” identity has not been extensively addressed in prior educational research, but it does echo existing theories and discussions about teachers navigating complex social systems and stakeholder expectations. for example, research on “emotional labor” in teaching (hochschild, 1983; kariou, koutsimani, montgomery, & lainidi, 2021; sutton & wheatley, 2003) has touched upon how teachers manage their own emotions and those of others (e.g., students, parents, administrators) to create a functional and conducive learning environment. this could be seen as a form of diplomatic labor, though not explicitly termed as such. the concept of teachers as diplomats also aligns with studies exploring the professional ethics and responsibilities of asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 132-141 136 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group educators, which often involve mediating between various interests (strike, 1990; yildiz & dayan, 2022). however, these discussions typically do not explore the identity implications or how teachers themselves conceptualize this role. the current study contributes to the literature by explicitly naming and describing the ‘diplomat’ identity within the specific context of educational assessment. through the lens of cgt, the findings show that the diplomat role is not just an external imposition but a socially constructed identity that teachers adopt as they negotiate complex pressures like institutional standards, parental expectations, and individual student needs. moreover, this study uniquely positions the ‘diplomat’ identity within it as a segmented part of the teachers’ professional role, which suggests that teachers modulate this identity according to specific environmental pressures. unlike the ‘gatekeeper’ and ‘nurturer’ roles, which were described as more core to teachers’ sense of professional self, the diplomat role seems to be more situational, activated in response to particular external conditions. 4.4. the auditor identity six participants (n=6) described their role as akin to an “auditor,” particularly emphasizing the responsibility for ensuring procedural integrity in the assessment process. participant 7 expressed, “i feel like an auditor, making sure that every step of the assessment is transparent and fair.” participant 15 added, “as an assessor, it is my role to scrutinize, much like an auditor would, to ensure that educational standards are consistently met.” the concept of teachers embodying an “auditor” identity aligns in some ways with the existing literature on accountability and fairness in educational assessment. previous research has delved into the importance of procedural integrity and fairness in both formative and summative assessments (dixson & worrell, 2016; shepard, 2000; stobart, 2008). yet, these discussions have typically focused on the systemic level or the construction of the assessments themselves, rather than considering how teachers internalize this aspect of their role. the current findings introduce a new perspective by identifying the ‘auditor’ identity that some teachers adopt, particularly within the context of assessment. according to cgt, this role is socially constructed around the imperative for procedural fairness and transparency. in terms of it, the ‘auditor’ identity is perceived by teachers as a key part of their professional responsibilities, stressing their commitment to ensuring that educational and ethical standards are consistently upheld during assessments. compared to previously researched identities like ‘gatekeeper,’ ‘nurturer,’ and ‘diplomat,’ the ‘auditor’ identity brings in a unique focus on scrutinizing and validating the assessment process itself, rather than primarily focusing on student outcomes, relational dynamics, or external pressures. this identity implies a heightened sense of responsibility for the ‘how’ of assessment, ensuring that the procedures align with institutional and ethical norms. 4.5. the confucian sage identity five participants (n=5) reflected an identity deeply rooted in the confucian heritage of vietnamese culture, which they referred to as the “confucian sage.” participant 3 shared, “in our culture, a teacher has always been more than just an instructor. they are expected to be wise and moral figures. when i assess, i feel this pressure to be a confucian sage—judging not just knowledge but character.” participant 9 added, “the role of a teacher in vietnam has always been to shape morals alongside intellect. i see my role as an assessor as part of that ancient tradition.” the emergence of a “confucian sage” identity among vietnamese teachers provides a culturally specific lens to understand the roles that educators assume, adding to a rich tapestry of teacher identities delineated in existing literature. previous studies have often focused on teacher identities that are prevalent in western educational settings, such as the “facilitator” (finn & schrodt, 2016) or the “reflective practitioner” (tonna, bjerkholt, & holland, 2017). these identities, although encompassing moral and ethical dimensions, generally prioritize pedagogical methods and student-centered approaches. in contrast, the “confucian sage” identity rooted in vietnamese culture highlights the teacher’s role in shaping not just the intellect but also the moral character of students (le ha, mcpherron, & van que, 2013). this aligns with confucian educational philosophy, where the educator is a moral exemplar (kim, 2017). according to cgt, this identity is socially constructed, but it is uniquely influenced by the cultural and historical background of vietnam. from the standpoint of it, the “confucian sage” role is a complex one that may co-exist or even conflict with other identities like ‘auditor’ or ‘gatekeeper,’ given its broader scope that transcends mere academic evaluation. the “confucian sage” identity raises questions about how teachers navigate these complex, sometimes conflicting roles, particularly in a global educational landscape where standardization and accountability are emphasized. 4.6. the innovator identity four participants (n=4) described themselves as “innovators,” emphasizing the need to adapt and evolve assessment methods to better cater to the learning needs of students. participant 11 explained, “as an assessor, i also see myself as an innovator, constantly looking for ways to make assessments more meaningful and effective.” participant 5 added, “innovation in assessment is crucial; it is not just about following a rubric but about capturing the full scope of a student’s abilities.” the “innovator” identity adds a dynamic layer to our understanding of teacher identities, resonating with but also diverging from previous literature on this topic. research on teacher identities has often discussed the roles of ‘facilitator,’ ‘curator,’ or ‘coach,’ which emphasize guiding student learning rather than dictating it (beijaard, verloop, & vermunt, 2000). however, these identities rarely delve into the aspect of active adaptation and evolution in the realm of assessment that the “innovator” identity brings into focus. while the identities like ‘gatekeeper’ or ‘auditor’ often emphasize adherence to pre-existing standards and protocols, the “innovator” identity suggests a teacher who is not just a passive implementer of assessments but an active designer, constantly refining and adapting methods to better capture student learning. according to cgt, this identity arises in response to changing educational landscapes, reflecting an agile mindset. from the perspective of it, this role is not merely an added layer to a teacher’s professional self-concept but could be central to it, especially for those who view teaching as a dynamic, evolving profession. teachers with this identity are likely to seek ongoing professional development and be more open to pedagogical changes, including the integration of technology in assessment. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 132-141 137 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.7. the social justice advocate identity three participants (n=3) saw their roles as “social justice advocates,” high lighting the ethical responsibility to ensure fair and equitable assessments. participant 8 stated, “my role as an assessor is also to be a social justice advocate, making sure that assessments are free from bias and provide equal opportunities for everyone.” participant 13 echoed this sentiment: “assessment is more than just grading; it’s also about leveling the playing field for all students.” the emergence of the “social justice advocate” identity presents an intriguing angle to the evolving understanding of teacher identities in the context of educational assessment. prior research has touched upon teachers as moral agents or ethicists (carr, 2007; rosenberg, 2015), focusing on general ethical considerations in educational practice. however, the specific framing of the teacher as a “social justice advocate” in the context of assessment is less commonly explored. this identity places an additional layer of ethical obligation upon the teacher, aligning their role not only with institutional guidelines but also with broader societal values of equity and social justice. according to cgt, this suggests some teachers are explicitly aware of and responsive to wider systemic issues of inequality that can manifest in educational settings, potentially influenced by current social dialogues on justice and equality. from an it perspective, this role could significantly overlap with personal values, thus becoming a deeply ingrained part of the teacher’s professional identity. the “social justice advocate” identity highlights a proactive approach towards equality and could represent a counterbalance to identities like ‘gatekeeper’ and ‘auditor,’ which might inadvertently perpetuate existing inequalities if not carefully managed. 4.8. the cultural mediator identity two participants (n=2) described their assessor role as being a “cultural mediator,” highlighting the navigation between local cultural norms and global educational standards. participant 1 mentioned, “in a globalized world, i find myself serving as a bridge between our traditional ways of teaching and the modern, more globalized app roaches in assessment.” participant 15 concurred, “being a cultural mediator is crucial. i aim to reconcile the expectations of our students, who are deeply rooted in vietnamese culture, with international standards.” the identity of “cultural mediator” enriches the already complex tapestry of roles that teachers assume, particularly in multicultural or non-western educational settings. earlier research has explored the role of teachers in the process of cultural transmission and adaptation (gay, 2002; nieto, 2015). however, those studies often look at the role of teachers in facilitating students’ cultural adaptation rather than the teachers themselves actively navigating between different cultural paradigms in their professional roles. the “cultural mediator” identity, through the lens of cgt, suggests that teachers are increasingly aware of the transnational factors affecting education and see themselves as agents who can harmonize local traditions with global educational standards. from an it viewpoint, this is a complex role that requires teachers to stretch their professional identities to encompass skills usually associated with intercultural competency. this identity can be particularly relevant in the modern age of globalization, where teachers are tasked with preparing students to be global citizens while preserving cultural identities. the emergence of this identity suggests a nuanced perspective that blends traditional and modern, local and international, necessitating a type of cultural fluency that goes beyond mere knowledge transmission. 4.9. the emotional anchor identity three participants (n=3) emphasized their role as an “emotional anchor” during the assessment process. participant 2 stated, “assessment can be stressful for students. i see my role as an assessor as also being an emotional anchor, offering a sense of stability during this high-stakes process.” participant 7 added, “i consider emotional intelligence a key part of assessment. i become an emotional anchor to guide students through this journey.” the concept of teachers serving as an “emotional anchor” has emerged as an interesting addition to the body of literature on teachers’ multiple identities. prior research has largely focused on teachers as facilitators of academic knowledge and skills (amin, 2016; su & wang, 2022), overlooking the emotional labor that often accompanies teaching roles. recent trends in educational research have started to explore the emotional aspects of teaching (pastore & luder, 2021), but the “emotional anchor” identity presents a unique focus on the high-stakes, emotionally charged period of assessment. according to cgt, the emergence of this identity suggests that teachers view emotional support as an integral part of the assessment process, possibly affecting both how they conduct assessments and how students experience them. from the it perspective, this role adds an emotional dimension to teachers’ professional self-concept, making them not just facilitators of cognitive development but also emotional guides during challenging academic events. as the education landscape evolves, acknowledging the complexity of teachers’ roles is critical for training and professional development programs. understanding the role of an “emotional anchor” can provide fresh insights into how emotional support could be systematically incorporated into assessment strategies. 4.10. the scaffolder identity three participants (n=3) identified themselves as “scaffolders,” helping students build upon their existing knowledge during assessments. participant 9 stated, “assessments should not be pitfalls; they should be scaffolds. my role is to help students build upon what they already know.” participant 5 added, “i design assessments as a scaffolding process, as stepping stones for students to reach higher.” the notion of teachers as “scaffolders” adds a developmental dimension to our understanding of teachers’ identities, and it aligns with vygotsky and cole (1978) theory of scaffolding as an instructional strategy. previous studies have predominantly focused on scaffolding within classroom interactions (van de pol, volman, & beishuizen, 2010), often ignoring how it applies to assessments. the “scaffolder” identity fills this gap by extending the constructivist approach to the realm of student assessments. cgt posits that this identity showcases the teachers’ role as facilitators of learning, using assessments not merely as measurement tools but as constructivist devices to help students develop higher-level understanding. this implies a broader role for assessments in the educational process, beyond mere judgment of competence. from the lens of it, this suggests that teachers who identify as “scaffolders” are likely to align their teaching and assessment practices with developmental and constructivist asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 132-141 138 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group philosophies. this also marks a departure from traditional views of assessment as a summative p rocess, highlighting its formative potentials. 4.11. the technological navigator identity three participants (n=3) talked about being a “technological navigator,” especially pertinent in the age of digital education. participant 11 said, “with more exams moving online, i consider myself a technological navigator, guiding students through this new landscape.” participant 8 added, “i find myself constantly learning new tech tools to improve my assessment strategies. i navigate, so my students can too.” the “technological navigator” identity contributes a modern perspective to existing literature on teacher identity, particularly in the context of an increasingly digital educational landscape. previous studies on teacher identity have often overlooked the role of technology, focusing more on traditional teaching paradigms (beijaard et al., 2004; olsen, 2016). with the advent of new educational technologies and e-learning platforms, the identity of teachers as “technological navigators” gains prominence. in terms of cgt, this identity demonstrates teachers’ capacity for adaptability and lifelong learning, key traits for navigating the digital shift in education. i t also shows that teachers are not just passive recipients of technological change but active navigators, making conscious choices about how to integrate technology into their assessment strategies. according to it, the emergence of this identity highlights an evolving facet of professional roles in education. teachers who see themselves as “technological navigators” are likely committed to ongoing professional development in technology, aligning their practices with the needs and expectations of 21st-century learners. 4.12. the lifelong learner identity two participants (n=2) specifically mentioned their role as “lifelong learners,” especially while conducting assessments. participant 4 mentioned, “i do not just assess to evaluate my students; i also learn from them. i consider myself a lifelong learner during this process.” participant 12 echoed, “every assessment is a new learning opportunity for me, as much as it is for my students.” the “lifelong learner” identity adds a dynamic layer to the discussion on teacher identities in assessment, emphasizing the bidirectional nature of learning that happens during the assessment process. prior studies have often focused on the teacher as the provider and facilitator of knowledge, but less often as a co-participant in the learning process (bulte, betts, garner, & durning, 2007; lasky, 2005; wegner & nückles, 2015). the idea of teachers as “lifelong learners” situates them not just as experts or disseminators of knowledge but also as active learners who grow professionally and personally through the assessment process. from a cgt perspective, this identity underscores the relational and reciprocal aspects of assessment. it supports the idea that the act of assessing can be a learning experience not only for the student but also for the teacher. according to it, the “lifelong learner” identity also implies a commitment to ongoing professional development and a willingness to adapt and evolve in pedagogical practices. 4.13. the community builder identity two participants (n=2) emphasized their role in creating a sense of community in the classroom through assessments. participant 6 said, “as an assessor, i also see myself as a community builder. i design assessments that can encourage collaboration and community building among the students.” participant 14 added, “in a way, how i assess impacts the classroom atmosphere. i see myself as setting the tone for a learning community.” the “community builder” identity offers a fresh perspective on the multidimensional role of teachers in the context of assessment. it aligns with previous research that has explored the role of teachers in fostering a positive classroom environment and encouraging student engagement (cornelius-white & harbaugh, 2009; pedler, hudson, & yeigh, 2020). while much of the extant literature has focused on how teachers manage and disseminate content (perrotta, 2013), the “community builder” identity suggests that the act of assessment itself can be a tool for fostering a sense of community among students. through the lens of cgt, this identity is viewed as a product of the social and cultural context within which the teacher operates. it signifies an attempt to bring about not just individual learning but collective growth and cohesion. according to it, this identity could co-exist, complement, or even conflict with other professional identities that a teacher may hold. for instance, it may harmonize with the “nurturer” identity but could potentially conflict with the “auditor” identity if strict compliance to procedural integrity is perceived as inhibiting the building of a classroom community. 4.14. the ethical guardian identity two participants (n=2) emphasized their role as “ethical guardians,” responsible for maintaining the moral integrity of the assessment process. participant 10 declared, “my duty is not just about giving grades ; it is about ensuring that the process is ethical and honest.” participant 3 concurred, “as an assessor, i see myself as an ethical guardian, committed to eliminating all kinds of biases and upholding academic integrity.” the “ethical guardian” identity resonates with the increasing emphasis on ethics and integrity in educational literature, specifically in the context of assessment (cizek, 2003; garg & goel, 2022; gudiño paredes, jasso peña, & de la fuente alcazar, 2021). previously, discussions around ethical considerations often appeared in isolation, concentrated on specific issues such as plagiarism or biased evaluation (ison, 2018; yeo & chien, 2007). this identity, however, holistically integrates the ethical dimension into the teacher-assessor role, framing it as a core part of professional responsibility. in terms of cgt, the emergence of the “ethical guardian” identity is significant because it reflects the teachers’ adaptive responses to the complexities of modern educational environments, where issues like academic dishonesty are of growing concern. according to it, this particular role marks a moral commitment that could potentially intersect or even conflict with other roles the teacher holds. for instance, while it may align well with the “social justice advocate” identity in striving for fairness, it could be at odds with the “innovator” identity if new assessment methods are perceived as less secure or more susceptible to dishonesty. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 132-141 139 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 4.15. the democratic facilitator identity two participants (n=2) identified themselves as “democratic facilitators,” giving students a voice in the assessment process. participant 13 mentioned, “i always incorporate some form of student feedback in my assessments. it is not just me assessing them; they have a say too.” participant 15 stated, “in my role, i see the importance of democracy in education. i aim to make assessments a two-way street.” the emergence of the “democratic facilitator” identity ties into a broader pedagogical discourse that advocates for student-centered learning and participatory approaches to education. previous studies have explored the role of democratic processes in classrooms, primarily focusing on the curriculum and classroom management (apple & beane, 2007; sanahuja, moliner, & moliner, 2020). however, the “democratic facilitator” identity extends this discussion to the realm of assessment, indicating a shift in teachers’ perception of their roles as not just evaluators but also as facilitators of a democratic dialogue around evaluation. within the frameworks of cgt and it, this identity aligns closely with educational philosophies that emphasize participatory practices and shared authority. teachers adopting this identity would likely resonate with freirean pedagogy, which sees education as a practice of freedom and calls for a shift from the “banking concept of education” to problem-solving education (freire, 2015). 5. conclusion the study reveals a multifaceted tapestry of identities that teacher assessors in vietnamese educational settings navigate. these identities range from being the “gatekeepers of knowledge and competency” to “democratic facilitators,” indicating that the role of a teacher assessor is complex, nuanced, and deeply influenced by individual, cultural, and institutional factors. the most dominant identity that emerged was that of teacher assessors as “gatekeepers,” highlighting the pivotal role teachers play in upholding educational standards. this finding is in line with the larger global discourse around the quality of education and the vital position that teachers occupy in it. however, the findings also signal that teachers do not view themselves solely as enforcers of standards. they adopt roles as “nurturers,” “diplomats,” “auditors,” and “innovators,” among others. these identities often co-exist, sometimes even conflict, pointing to the dynamism and fluidity of the teacher’s professional self-concept. unique to this context is the “confucian sage” identity, underscoring the distinct socio-cultural influences that shape how teachers view their roles. this specific identity reveals that teachers in vietnam negotiate not just academic but also ethical dimensions, indicating that local traditions continue to have a strong impact on contemporary educational practices. another remarkable finding is the emergence of identities that are inherently forward-looking and adaptive, such as the “innovator” and the “technological navigator.” these identities suggest that teachers are not passive recipients of change but active agents who are willing to adapt and evolve. of note is the existence of social-justice oriented identities like the “social justice advocate” and the “democratic facilitator.” these identities reflect a growing awareness among educators about the broader societal implications of assessments, adding another layer of complexity to their roles. the study’s findings, interpreted through cgt and it, contribute significantly to the existing literature on teacher identities in assessment contexts. they reveal that identity is not monolithic but a composite of various roles that are continually being negotiated. this multiplicity in identities emphasizes the importance of providing teachers with professional development opportunities that are cognizant of this complexity, equipping them to be effective in their multifarious roles. 6. implications understanding that teachers view themselves in multiple roles—such as gatekeepers, nurturers, diplomats, and innovators—has significant implications for professional development programs. tailoring these programs to acknowledge and enhance these different identities could be beneficial. for instance, modules could be developed to focus on ethical assessment practices, innovative methods, and emotional intelligence. the emergence of roles like the “nurturer” and “scaffolder” further indicates that assessments should be developmentally appropriate and more geared towards building student competencies rather than merely evaluating them. cultural considerations also come into play, with roles like the “cultural mediator” and the “confucian sage” underscoring the need for culturally sensitive curriculum and assessment frameworks. in a rapidly evolving digital landscape, the identity of the teacher as a “technological navigator” emphasizes the need for ongoing professional development in the use of educational technology, especially as online assessments become more prevalent. lastly, the role of the “democratic facilitator” suggests that involving students in the assessment process could be beneficial, possibly through formative feedback mechanisms or even co-designing assessment criteria. the diversity of assessor identities among teachers necessitates a nuanced approach to policy formation and educational reform. a one-size-fits-all approach to either assessment design or teacher evaluation would be insufficient and could lead to professional dissonance. importantly, the identity of the teacher as a “social justice advocate” brings to light the imperative for policies that explicitly address fairness and equity in educational assessments. ensuring that assessments are culturally, socially, and gender-neutral becomes a policy priority. additionally, the “emotional anchor” identity points towards a need for institutions to provide emotional support systems for both students and teachers, particularly during the stressful period of assessments. policymakers must also grapple with the challenges of balancing global educational standards with local cultural norms and values, particularly in settings like vietnam where this balance is a notable aspect of the teacher’s professional identity. from a theoretical standpoint, this study contributes valuable insights to existing literature. the multidimensional view of teacher identities as assessors can enrich frameworks like cgt and it, especially within educational contexts. the roles teachers adopt are shown to be complex and shaped by a myriad of factors, adding depth and nuance to these theories. furthermore, the influence of culture, as seen through identities like the “confucian sage,” offers a unique lens for future research in cultural studies in education. additionally, the emergence of ethical considerations, especially through the identity of the “ethical guardian,” suggests that this research can contribute to the ongoing academic discourse on ethics in education, particularly concerning issues of academic integrity and equitable assessment. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2023, 10(4): 132-141 140 © 2023 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 7. limitations and recommendations for further studies while this study provides valuable insights into teachers’ multifaceted roles as assessors in vietnam, there are several limitations to consider. first, the sample size and geographic scope were relatively limited, focusing on teachers in specific regions of vietnam, which may not fully capture the diversity of assessor identities across the country or in different educational settings. second, the study primarily relied on self-reported data, which might be subject to social desirability bias. the teachers participating in the study could have idealized their roles or downplayed conflicts or challenges they face in assessments. finally, the cross-sectional design of the study does not allow for tracking changes in teachers’ perceptions and practices over time, making it difficult to establish causal relationships or account for the influence of external factors like policy changes or technological advancements. given these limitations, future research could aim to diversify the sample by including teachers from various educational levels, geographic regions, and even different countries to get a more comprehensive view of assessor identities. longitudinal studies could be beneficial for tracking how teacher identities evolve over time and in response to shifts in educational policy or technology. researchers should also consider employing triangulation methods, using interviews, classroom 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(2022). a tiny look at hizmet service movement teachers’ diplomatic mission. international journal of social science research and review, 5(6), 188-191. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v5i6.277 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2020.1839219 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.08.002 https://doi.org/10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4817 https://doi.org/10.1177/1555458920976736 https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.643617 https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2020v45n3.4 https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688216631219 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2012.01304.x https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594x.2014.1001319 https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2020.1716631 https://doi.org/10.2307/1176145 https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2014.882309 https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-051x(90)90006-q https://doi.org/10.2307/2695840 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.943851 https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1026131715856 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429259371-39 https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2020.1846041 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijmce-04-2017-0032 https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2013.842213 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09542-0 https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.564 https://doi.org/10.1080/13538320701629202 https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v5i6.277 78 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 3, 78-87, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5996 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group attitudes of lecturers towards e-learning: ba isago university tendani mbangiwa1 patience lunga2 johanna pule3 evies joina4 wiston zivanai5 segolame kalayakgosi6 ( corresponding author) 1,3,4,5,6department of business management, ba isago university, private bag br 94, gaborone, botswana. 1email: tendani.mbangiwa@baisago.ac.bw 3email: johanna.pule@baisago.ac.bw 4email: evies.tlhatlogang@baisago.ac.bw 5email: wiston.zivanai@baisago.ac.bw 6email: segolame.kalayakgosi@baisago.ac.bw 2department of educational foundations, private bag ub 0022, gaborone, botswana. 2email: patielunga@gmail.com abstract in botswana e-learning is still in its infancy with most universities currently implementing different strategies to integrate e-learning into the teaching and learning process. a cross-sectional study was conducted to investigate whether the variables age, gender, training to use e-learning tools, elearning experience, internet access, and computer skills were associated with the lecturer’s attitudes towards e-learning. the study consisted of thirty-eight randomly selected lecturers at ba isago university, gaborone campus. the data was collected using a closed-ended questionnaire with items that seek to ascertain their attitudes towards e-learning. to test out the study hypothesis descriptive statistics, pearson correlations and independent samples t-test were computed. the results indicated that half of the participants had positive attitudes towards e-learning. proving that e-learning was an acceptable teaching method to be utilised at this tertiary education institution. the study further showed that age and gender were not significantly associated with the lecturers’ attitudes towards e-learning. also, the results indicated that there was no significant relationship between attitudes towards e-learning and training to use e-learning tools, e-learning experience, internet access as well as computer skills. it was therefore concluded that these variables had no impact on attitudes of lecturers towards e-learning as lecturers had become competent and confident in using computers as part of teaching methodology at ba isago university. it is crucial for this university to strengthen the digital culture through training and support, and motivational strategies to build positive attitude towards e-learning. keywords: attitudes, covid-19, e-learning, lecturers, tertiary education, botswana. citation | mbangiwa, t., lunga, p., pule, j., joina, e., zivanai, w., & kalayakgosi, s. (2024). attitudes of lecturers towards e-learning: ba isago university. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(3), 78–87. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5996 history: received: 6 march 2024 revised: 12 september 2024 accepted: 23 september 2024 published: 2 october 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: not applicable. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 78 2. literature review ............................................................................................................................................................................ 79 3. methodology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 82 4. analysis and results ........................................................................................................................................................................ 83 5. discussion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 84 6. conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 85 7. recommendations ............................................................................................................................................................................ 85 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 85 mailto:tendani.mbangiwa@baisago.ac.bw mailto:johanna.pule@baisago.ac.bw mailto:evies.tlhatlogang@baisago.ac.bw mailto:wiston.zivanai@baisago.ac.bw mailto:segolame.kalayakgosi@baisago.ac.bw mailto:patielunga@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i3.5996 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1509-6944 https://orcid.org/0009-0008-2049-9757 https://orcid.org/0009-0004-0775-0768 https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1437-494x https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0736-841x https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8914-9455 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 78-87 79 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature e-learning is under-researched in botswana, where universities have recently adopted it. this study offers unique insights into local attitudes toward e-learning, revealing potential barriers and informing policy and practice. it bridges gaps in understanding and contributes valuable data for similar contexts. 1. introduction covid-19 has been classified as a pandemic that poses a current threat to humanity by the world health organisation (2020). the coronavirus originated in wuhan, china and rapidly spread all over the world. the director general of who in march 2020 declared covid-19 as a pandemic along with social distancing, sanitization, washing hands with soap as ways of containing spread of the pandemic (world health organisation, 2020). many global activities, including educational activities, have been forced to close due to the pandemic. the covid-19 pandemic is having a significant impact on educational institutions (el-sabagh & yamani, 2020). the pandemic has thrown a wrench into almost every traditional classroom setting, in which students are gathered in one place and the lecturer presents learning materials face to face. it has become obligatory for academic institutions to embrace alternative ways to continue the teaching and learning activities. covid-19 has made it mandatory for all the teachers of developing countries to use online platforms for teaching and learning to support the education sector (mulenga & marbán, 2020). tertiary educational institutions in botswana, are increasingly seeking to implement innovative technology-enabled e-learning as a primary teaching method as it appeared to be a panacea for disrupted academic activities. however, the adoption of this technology as a tool for teaching and learning in botswana’s higher education institutions is still in its infancy, most universities are still having trouble integrating e-learning into the teaching and learning process. 2. literature review technology has permeated every aspect of human existence in today's modern world. according to the world economic forum, by 2025 technological advancements will eliminate 85 million jobs thus making it crucial for the education systems to equip learners with growing demand of information technology skills (masterson, 2022). with the increased use of technology, the creation of technology-based classrooms for teaching and learning has become essential. unika (2021) mentioned that technology has made teaching and learning processes easier. the learning and teaching processes at many universities and colleges around the world has changed as a result of technology (mulenga & marbán, 2020). with advanced information and communication technologies technology being utilized to facilitate online education, it has proved to be more practical in terms of financial and operational efficiency (palvia et al., 2018). the internet has become one of the most important tools for instructors to share and acquire information for teaching and learning. almost 3 million students complete their entire higher education online (welding, 2022). in 2020, as the coronavirus pandemic began to disrupt the educational system, e-learning became increasingly important. according to pokhrel and chhetri (2021) e-learning tools have played a crucial role during the pandemic, helping schools and universities facilitate student learning during the closure of universities and schools. these technologies have become indispensable for education and training processes as a result of the covid-19 pandemic (pokhrel & chhetri, 2021). since the corona virus pandemic, e-learning has become a necessity for higher education institutions, the institutions, which had previously been reluctant to change, are now forced to embrace modern technology (dhawan, 2020). mulenga and marbán (2020) claim that the covid-19 pandemic has influenced how effectively people use digital devices, online resources, social media, and e-learning activities. e-learning has gained prominence as a result of effects of covid-19 pandemic on the education sector (el-sabagh & yamani, 2020). prior to the covid-19 pandemic, e-learning was merely a supplement to the classroom learning process. currently online teaching technologies are the only way in which universities can serve with teaching and learning as covid-19 is still a threat in the world. e-learning has been defined in a variety of ways over the years by different scholars. .according to aparicio, bacao, and oliveira (2016) the term "e-learning" was coined in 1955. e-learning has been defined as the use of computer network technology to provide information and instructions to individuals, mainly through the internet (abaidoo and arkorful (2014). welsh, wanberg, brown, and simmering (2003) refers to e-learning as “the use of computer network technology, primarily over an intranet or through the internet, to deliver information and instruction to individuals”. tladi and nleya (2021) define e-learning as the use of contemporary instructional technologies, especially digital and network technologies, to create, foster, deliver, and facilitate learning, anytime and anywhere. according to hani et al. (2021) the term e-learning refers to using electronic technology to access educational resources and curriculum outside of traditional classroom settings. in simple terms, e-learning refers to any learning that is electronically enabled which commonly, includes the use of interactive artificial intelligence technology, web-based applications, and smart mobile phone technologies (unika, 2021). it is a tool that has developed from information and communication technology and has been adopted by many universities (unika, 2021). e-learning is an innovative form of education that improves the quality of teaching and learning in higher education (bertea, 2009). according to maphosa (2021) e-learning is a key component of the knowledge economy. the knowledge economy's emergence has altered the learning process by giving students access to technological tools that enable them to produce new knowledge, interact with others, collaborate, and learn at their own pace (maphosa, 2021). in this paper, e-learning refers to any learning that is aided by information and communication technology. early literature on e-learning argues that e-learning initiatives bring many advantages to the education system. these include the potential to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of lecturers, it tackles time and distance limitation making it possible for students to learn at their convenience (chinyamurindi & shava, 2015) flexibility in terms of availability-anytime, anywhere. it enables students to access the material from anywhere at any time, selfpacing for slow or quick learners, learners take responsibility of their studies and develop self-awareness and confidence, and also develops knowledge of using latest technology and internet (abaidoo & arkorful, 2014). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 78-87 80 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group according to abaidoo and arkorful (2014) through use of discussion forums, e-learning helps to break down barriers to participation, such as apprehension about speaking in front of other students. maphosa (2021) has noted that students today prefer informal learning that is free of time and space constraints. according to keengwe and georgina (2013) our students are mostly digital natives who prefer autonomy and flexibility in their learning styles. according to bose (2003) e-learning technologies benefit a variety of learner groups at the university, including those with disabilities, parenting students, and working students, to mention a few, because they allow them to access module content and study materials at times and places that are convenient to them. it is reportedly very convenient and can even be accessed in rural and remote areas (dhawan, 2020). e-learning may encourage students to work independently, fostering the growth of students' capacity for self-learning (bose, 2003). dhawan (2020) argues that through increased flexibility, creativity, and student-centeredness, e-learning enhances the teaching-learning process. due to e-learning, there are many students today who are pursuing their education in numerous universities abroad without having to leave their home country in order to study abroad full-time (dhawan, 2020) which offers greater flexibility and less expense. it is regarded as a relatively more affordable form of education due to the lower costs of travel, lodging, and institution-based education as a whole (dhawan, 2020). e-learning allows learners to learn whenever they want, regardless of their geographical location. welsh et al. (2003) noted that many companies also use e-learning when they need to quickly deliver training to a large number of people and when many people need to train in less time because it is not limited by the number of instructors and classrooms. furthermore, hondonga, chinengundu, and maphosa (2021) mentioned that elearning also provide environments where teachers can collaborate with experts outside of their local area to improve the quality and relevance of their online training provision. however, for e-learning requires a number of factors such as technical know-how, internet accessibility and also affordability to be an effective tool for teaching and learning (hasan & khan, 2020). in developing countries, the adoption and implementation of e-learning remains a challenge although online teaching and learning is increasingly encouraged (hasan and khan (2020). according to unika (2021) the lack of computers and access to the broadband internet connections, outdated infrastructure, training costs and poor competence are significant obstacles to elearning. moakofhi, leteane, phiri, pholele, and sebalatlheng (2017) in their study at the botswana university of agriculture and natural resources (biurst) found that poor infrastructure, inadequate it support, a lack of an elearning policy, and a lack of university management support, were among the problems that the institution faced in adopting successful e-learning. additionally, a study conducted by chomunorwa and mugobo (2023) noted challenges to e-learning adoption in south african public schools, which included the lack of device access, high internet costs, teacher disinterest, and perceived ineffectiveness of e-learning as a teaching and learning tool. other e-learning drawbacks have been cited which limit the applicability of e-learning for effective teaching and learning. dhawan (2020) mentioned that e-learning is very flexible that some students never find time to engage with the content provided. also, e-learning requires a high level of self-discipline on the students such that students with low motivation or bad study habits may fall behind as it lacks direct interaction amongst students and lecturers which limits students’ engagement in deep learning (abaidoo & arkorful, 2014). e-learning may result in a reduction in the roles played by institutions and lecturers in fostering learning, severely impacting students’ values, the educational process, and their social lives (jawad & shalash, 2020). abaidoo and arkorful (2014) noted that not all academic disciplines can use the e-learning as an effective teaching tool, for instance studying pure scientific disciplines that require practical applications. although e-learning has been seen as the best replacement of face to face classes during covid-19, it cannot completely replace the efficiency and effectiveness of traditional classrooms for professional and practical courses (chandwani, singh, & singh, 2021). furthermore, in e-learning the instructor is not physically present to provide instant feedback or solve any student queries which the physical classroom provides (unika (2021). swanson et al. (2015) argues that it can also be challenging for learners to correctly interpret messages online when there aren't any facial expressions and body language. as such, some lecturers find e-learning to be ineffective teaching and learning tool to foster student engagement with content. several studies have shown that attitudes towards e-learning systems play a significant role in the success of elearning teaching methodology (krishnakumar & rajesh, 2011; van raaij & schepers, 2008; xhaferi, farizi, & bahiti, 2018). according to liaw, huang, and chen (2007) “no matter how advanced or capable the technology is, its effective implementation depends upon users having a positive attitude toward it.” it is, therefore, very critical to understand attitudes of lecturers towards e-learning especially at institutions where it is newly or to be adopted (xhaferi et al., 2018). attitudes have been used by social psychologists to describe human behaviour (kisanga & ireson, 2016). there is a strong link between one's attitude and one's behaviour (kisanga & ireson, 2016). they are useful predictors of behaviour. attitudes are positive or negative evaluations of objects, peoples, or situations that predispose us to feel and behave towards them in positive or negative ways (fabrigar, macdonald, & wegener, 2005). mun, jackson, park, and probst (2006) define attitude as a person's feeling, either positive or negative, that is connected to engaging in a particular behaviour. according to. a favourable attitude towards e-learning of lecturers indicates that they are more likely to accept the e-learning system. xhaferi et al. (2018) argues that knowledge of attitudes towards elearning would help academic staff to adapt e-learning models and formats to meet their needs especially in the context where online learning is still at infant stage. lecturers play a critical role in the successful implementation of e-learning in higher education institutions. the success of incorporating technology into teaching and learning is dependent on the lecturer's personal attitude as well as lecturer digital knowledge (xhaferi et al., 2018). xhaferi et al. (2018) contend that it is important to understand lecturers' attitudes prior to implementing e-learning since they are the ones who utilises it. according to ahuja, kaur, and panda (2019) over the past years there has been an increase in availability of e-learning tools in schools however lower usage of these tools due to negative attitudes of instructors. furthermore, the literature indicates that lecturer attitudes towards e-learning are associated with variables such as age, gender, specialty, and experience. bahiti, xhaferi, and farizi (2022) asserts that the individual characteristics of academic staff, such as gender, age, faculty, teaching experience and e-learning experience, can affect the adoption of a technology. before introducing an e-learning system, it is also crucial to understand how characteristics of the lecturers influence attitudes towards the adoption of e-learning. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 78-87 81 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group numerous of studies show that lectures have favourable attitudes toward information communication technology (alshorman & bawaneh, 2018; bahiti et al., 2022; chandwani et al., 2021; unika, 2021; xhaferi et al., 2018). they argued that when it comes to an e-learning system, lecturers who have positive attitude toward elearning are more likely to embrace its integration into the teaching and learning process in higher education. unika (2021) conducted a study to examine the shift of lecturers’ attitudes towards online class in the chennai city. there were 52 participants who responded to the questionnaire. the results showed that 35 lecturers can shift their attitudes towards the online classes while 17 lecturer preferred traditional classroom methods. this indicated that most lecturers had indicated positive attitude towards e-learning. researchers tena, almenara, and osuna (2016) examined how lecturers at six different andalusian universities use e-learning and evaluated their satisfaction with it. a quantitative study was employed. data was collected from 1302 lecturers using questionnaires. they discovered that university lecturers demonstrated positive attitudes towards the e-learning however found that there were significant gender differences between lecturers in two areas; male lecturers had more knowledge of the e-learning tools, while female lecturers used them more. there has been a mix of research results in lecturers' attitudes towards e-learning as an influence of their demographic characteristics such as gender, age, faculty, academic level, access to technology and experience. a study was conducted by alshorman and bawaneh (2018) to identify the attitudes of university/ faculty members towards the use an online learning management system (lms) in teaching and learning. the findings indicated that faculty members had positive attitudes towards using the lms and gender was a significant factor with male lecturers in favour of using the lms. also, the results of this study did not demonstrate any statistically significant differences based on the faculty members’ experience and the academic level. similarly, el-sabagh and yamani (2020) investigated faculty members attitudes towards an online lms at umm al-qura university and they found that male and female participants' attitudes toward using the lms were significantly different, favoring male participants. this study also revealed significant difference in the attitudes of faculty members towards using lms depending on whether they are humanities, scientific or medical colleges. faculty members in the scientific college were more willing to use the learning management system than those in the humanities college. bahiti et al. (2022) carried a study with 49 lecturers at the university of tetova to investigate the influence of lecturer’s demographic factors on their attitudes towards integration of e-learning in teaching and learning. the findings of the study indicated that lecturers had positive attitudes towards e-learning and there were no statistically significant differences in the attitudes of lecturers due to gender, faculty and age. however, the results revealed statistically significant differences based on teaching experience and e-learning experience. chandwani et al. (2021)’s study also demonstrated that teachers' attitudes about online instruction were not significantly different based on their gender, however, age, familiarity with online learning resources, and teachers' attitudes towards online instruction were significantly correlated with one another. furthermore, research conducted by ekunola, onojah, talatu, and bankole (2022) found no gender-based difference in lecturers' attitudes toward using virtual classrooms for instruction but a significant difference between the attitudes of less experienced and more experienced lecturers toward using virtual classrooms for instruction, favouring the less experienced lecturers. suri and sharma (2017) also conducted a study to identify the attitudes of university lecturers towards e-learning and the effect of demographics on attitude of lecturers. the sample consisted of 85 university lecturers in 6 major faculties. the findings of the study indicated that lecturers had positive attitudes towards e-learning. according to the findings, neither gender nor the faculty of lecturers had a significant impact on lecturers' attitudes toward computers and e-learning, but age had a significant impact. however, the results did not demonstrate any statistically significant differences based on the faculty members’ experience and the academic level. xhaferi et al. (2018)’s study findings also demonstrated similar results. the study found that while lecturers' attitudes regarding e-learning did not differ significantly with their personal variables gender, faculty, and age they did differ considerably with factors related to their teaching experience and e-learning experience. karasneh et al. (2021) observed that prior experience with online teaching was associated with more positive attitudes. almost two thirds (66.9) of educators in the study reported having a prior experience with online learning and teaching. karasneh et al. (2021) believed that negative attitudes towards e-learning stem from lack of technical skills leading to discomfort with utilising new technologies and dealing with technical difficulties. ntereke, conteh, ramoroka, and tlhobogang (2021) also argue that use of emerging technologies in education requires the ability of the lecturer to effectively communicate the lesson's content using the right technology, strategies, and teaching methods for student-centred learning. therefore, in order to design and teach online, lecturers should possess the necessary knowledge and digital technology literacy. faculty members, in the study by lee, march, and peters (2015) found online education to be more valuable after receiving training and using it for teaching. alanazy (2018) and lufungulo et al. (2021)’s studies findings also indicated that experience with online learning has a significant effect on a faculty member’s attitude toward online teaching. although the majority of more recent studies show no statistically significant differences in lecturers' attitudes related to age (adhya & panda, 2022; alshorman & bawaneh, 2018; bahiti et al., 2022; xhaferi et al., 2018) earlier studies found that lecturers' age was relevant factor for lecturers with favourable attitude toward e-learning (becker, 1999; tuparova, tuparov, ivanov, karastranova, & peneva, 2006). tuparova et al. (2006)’s study found that lecturers with extensive teaching experience (more than ten years) were less likely to create and implement electronic learning materials while becker (1999) found that the majority of educators who use information technology as a teaching tool and for student product development were under 30 years old and in their first few years of teaching. chawla and joshi (2012)’s study also revealed that those under the age of 25 were more likely than those over the age of 25 to have a favourable perception of e-learning. similarly, almazova, krylova, rubtsova, and odinokaya (2020) found that lecturers over the age of 55 required more training and assistance from information technology teams. previous research studies have also suggested a link between lecturer’s attitudes toward e-learning and internet access. internet access is one of first factor that influence lecturer’s attitudes toward e-learning and their willingness to adopt it (guessoum, 2006; javier, 2020) internet access is the most critical requirement for e-learning. according to dramani, tang, and coffie (2022) the university's provision of internet services, as well as other online resources, make it possible for users to easily access the university's e-learning services. in mutisya and makokha (2016)’s study, inadequate internet connectivity was ranked as the second most serious barrier to lecturers' adoption of easian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 78-87 82 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group learning in public universities after inadequate time to develop e-learning materials. 76% of 420 lecturers revealed that there were not enough hotspots and bandwidth to support users' internet access needs. pelgrum (2001) asserts that teachers' computer skills are a key factor in determining whether educational innovations are successful. according to harrison and rainer jr (1992) research, participants with negative attitudes toward computers were less adept at using them, and as a result, they were less likely to accept and adopt new technology than those with positive attitudes. similarly, a study carried by krishnakumar and rajesh (2011) on the attitude of teachers of higher education towards e-learning found that teachers who are knowledgeable with computer have favourable attitude toward e-learning than those who do not have computer knowledge. ba isago university is a private university in botswana. ba isago university first opened its doors in 2002 as a university college. it is a small university with four faculties and about 3500 students in all the three campuses, that is, gaborone campus, francistown campus, and maun campus. it is a traditional university where students are gathered in one place and the lecturer presents learning materials face to face. however, ba isago university began implementing e-learning in 2020 as it became obligatory for academic institutions to embrace alternative ways to continue with the teaching and learning activities during covid-19 period. there are few courses that are delivered online particularly evening part-time classes. this process is still at initial stage, with noted observation of lack infrastructural setup, unpreparedness of lecturers and students, inadequate it support, a lack of an e-learning policy and deficiency in information communication technology skills to adapt to e-learning teaching and learning environment. due to the covid-19 pandemic, ba isago university had to shut down institution-based activities two times in 2020, during the month of april to august and between july to august in 2021, to prevent the virus from spreading. consequently, ba isago university, like other higher education institutions, must recognize innovative change and implement virtual learning opportunities to continue teaching and learning. at present, less knowledge is available on the reality of e-learning particularly in the context of botswana. there is a growing need to design and formulate new policies on the implementation of e-learning across the education sector more particularly at university level. however, there are few studies on e-learning (leteane & moakofhi, 2015; moakofhi et al., 2017; thurab-nkhosi, lee, & gachago, 2005) especially the attitudes of lecturers regarding such learning settings in botswana. this study, therefore, investigate e-learning attitudes of lecturers at ba isago university because this has been regarded as a key aspect of teaching and learning (liaw et al., 2007; xhaferi et al., 2018). it also investigates various factors, such as age, gender, training to use e-learning tools, e-learning experience, internet access, and computer skills that might have an impact on their attitude. this study will be one of the few to offer empirical data relevant to botswana. 2.1. research objectives objectives of the study are: 1) to investigate the overall attitudes of lecturers towards e-learning. 2) to assess whether attitudes of university lecturers towards e-learning varies according to age and gender. 3) to investigate if there is any relationship between lecturer’s attitudes and training to use e-learning tools, elearning experience, internet access, and computer skills. 2.2. study hypothesis hypothesis 1: university lecturers have positive attitudes towards e-learning. hypothesis 2: there are no statistically significant differences in the lecturer’s attitudes towards e-learning according to age and gender. hypothesis 3: there is a relationship between attitudes towards e-learning and training to use e-learning tools, e-learning experience, internet access, and computer skills. 3. methodology this study used quantitative research method to develop a questionnaire to determine lecturers’ attitudes towards e-learning. using a quantitative method ensures that the study is subjected to validity and reliability testing (tredoux & durrheim, 2006). quantitative methods make up an important part of social science research. tredoux and durrheim (2006) argue that quantitative methods are useful because “they are efficient in communicating information, they allow modelling of real-world phenomena, and they are part of a well worked-out and powerful disciplinary language. the study employed a cross-sectional design to investigate whether the variables age, gender, training to use elearning tools, e-learning experience, internet access, and computer skills could predict the lecturer’s attitudes towards e-learning. this method was used because it is cheap and fast to use (mann, 2003) and it easily enabled the researcher to study the relationships between the variables. research permit was granted by ministry of tertiary education and research science and technology. the study sample consisted of 38 randomly selected lecturers from a total of 87 lecturers currently employed at ba isago university, gaborone campus. the sample consisted of 15 females and 23 males who completed the attitudes towards elearning questionnaire (ateq), which is a self-report questionnaire with closed-ended items on a likert scale to assess attitudes of the respondents. this data collection method was used so that respondents would have ample time to respond comfortably and because it allows for quick, accurate, and easy analysis of the data collected. the questionnaire consisted of three sections with the first section detailing the demographics of the participants namely gender, age category, faculty, department and academic level. the second section had items that focused on knowledge of e-learning and resources. the last section of the questionnaire included those items that measured the participants attitude where they were required to rate statements using a five-point likert scale from 1(strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). a questionnaire was developed with the following considerations. firstly, the object of the study was clearly defined (loewenthal, 2001). items were constructed using a number of different sources including brainstorming, group discussions and existing theory (loewenthal, 2001). the questionnaire was validated by establishing face and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 78-87 83 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group content validity through the use of experts on the topic and also conducting a pilot study on the intended population. the items were also assessed for readability, complexity level, adequateness, and representativeness of the topic, as well as for language clarity and the amount of time needed to complete the questionnaire (cohen, manion, & morrison, 2011). the cronbach's alpha of the pilot study data was calculated to assess the reliability of the questionnaire. the obtained cronbach alpha value was 0.846. statistical package for the social sciences (spss) was then used to analyse the study data. descriptive statistics were used to summarise and describe the information gathered from the respondents. 4. analysis and results to analyse the data ibm statistical package for the social sciences (spss) statistics 25 was used. descriptive statistics were used to provide an overall summary of the sample characteristics and parametric tests that is, pearson correlation and independent samples t-test were used to test the study hypothesis. table 1. descriptive statistics for demographic details. variable categories n % age 31-40yrs 23 60.5 41-50yrs 10 26.3 51-60yrs 4 10.5 missing 1 2.6 gender female 15 39.5 male 23 60.5 academic level phd 6 15.8 masters 32 84.2 current position senior lecturer 1 2.6 lecturer 37 97.4 faculty commerce 18 47.3 education 1 2.6 law 5 13.2 built environment 13 34.2 missing 1 2.6 table 1 shows frequency and percentage distributions for the age, gender, academic level, current position, and faculty to illustrate the demographic characteristics of the lectures. from all the 38 participants 60.5% were aged 31 – 40 years, 26.3% were aged 41 – 50 years while 10.5% were those aged 51 – 60 years. the majority of the participants were males at 60.5%. 84.2 % of participants are masters holders while only 15.8 are phd holders. only one participant was a senior lecturer while all others were lecturers. faculty of commerce had majority of participants (47.3%), followed by faculty of built and environment (34.2%), faculty of law and public administration (13.2) and lastly faculty of education (2.6%). hypothesis 1: university lecturers have positive attitudes towards e-learning. descriptive statistics were used to assess whether the lecturers generally had positive attitudes toward elearning. for this study, total scores from the ateq were used to determine the proportion of participants who scored above the mean score of 60.5 to indicate those had positive attitudes whereas those who scored below the mean had negative attitudes. the percentages and frequencies from the ateq were then used to determine how many participants had positive and negative attitudes towards e-learning. the results indicate that 50% of the participants had positive attitudes towards e-learning. table 2 shows that attitudes scores for the participant on the ateq measure for attitudes towards e-learning. table 2. descriptive statistics for the ateq measure. categories frequency percentage frequency n 38 100% above average of 60.5 19 50% below average of 60.5 19 50% hypothesis 2: there are no statistically significant differences in the lecturer’s attitudes towards e-learning according to age and gender. to address hypothesis two, an independent samples t-test was used to test for differences in attitudes towards elearning among participants according to age and gender respectively. assumptions that were checked for include normality, independence, and homogeneity of variance. table 3. independent samples t-test. variable n mean sd t-score p-value age 38 -1.288 0.206 above 40yrs 14 (60.5%) 62.93 10.02 below 40yrs 23 (36.8%) 58.48 10.29 missing 1 (2.6%) age: table 3 shows the results of an independent samples t-test conducted to see whether there were no differences in attitudes between participants below the ages of 40yrs and the above 40yrs of age. the attitude scores for participants below 40yrs (m = 58.48, sd = 10.29) was slightly lower than the attitude scores for those above 40yrs (m = 62.93, sd = 10.02). consequently, the mean difference in attitudes scores between participants below the ages of 40yrs and the above 40yrs of age was not statistically significant, t (35) = -1.288, p = 0.206 therefore we accept the null hypothesis. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 78-87 84 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 4. independent samples t-test. variable n mean sd t-score p-value gender 38 0.249 0.805 male 23 (60.5%) 60.87 9.61 female 15 (39.5%) 60.00 11.82 gender: table 4 shows the results of an independent samples t-test conducted to see whether there were no differences in attitudes between male and female. the female attitude score (m = 60.00, sd = 11.82) was slightly lower than the male attitude score (m = 60.87, sd = 9.61). however, the mean difference in attitudes scores between females and males was not statistically significant, t (36) = 0.249, p = 0.805 thereby we accept the null hypothesis. hypothesis 3: there is a relationship between attitudes towards e-learning and training to use e-learning tools, e-learning experience, internet access, and computer skills. pearson’s correlation was used to assess the relationship between attitudes towards e-learning and training to use e-learning tools, e-learning experience, internet access, and computer skills. pearson’s correlation deemed appropriate as the scatterplot revealed a linear relationship, (a linear relationship is required (laerd statistics, 2018) between attitudes and the other variable. table 5. pearson correlation coefficients. variable attitudes training experience internet access computer skills attitudes 1 training -0.029 1 experience -0.134 1 internet access -0.080 1 computer skills 0.129 1 table 5 shows the results of pearson’s correlation conducted to assess the relationship between attitudes towards e-learning and training to use e-learning tools, e-learning experience, internet access, and computer skills. none of the variables showed significant relationship. the results show that there was no significant relationship between attitudes and the training to use e-learning tools, (r = -0.029, p = 0.860); e-learning experience, (r = -0.134, p = 0.421); internet access, (r = -0.080, p = 0.633), as well as computer skills, (r = 0.129, p = 0.439). 5. discussion the results of this study revealed that half of the participants had positive attitudes towards e-learning. the results shows that lecturers have a positive attitude towards e-learning. this could be due to the fact that technology has become part of instruction; they have been working with computers and therefore gained self-efficacy. this finding is in agreement with the earlier findings of alanazy (2018); suri and sharma (2017); ekunola et al. (2022); falode, usman, ilufoye, and awoyemi (2019) and xhaferi et al. (2018) who found lecturers to have positive attitudes toward online learning and concluded that positive attitudes among lecturers toward e-learning suggest a higher likelihood that they will accept its integration into the teaching and learning process in higher education. the study further showed that age and gender were not significantly associated with the lecturers’ attitudes. this suggests that irrespective of age, both females and males have favourable attitudes toward elearning. this finding supports (bahiti et al., 2022) who found that age and gender did not influence lecturers’ attitude towards elearning. furthermore, adhya and panda (2022) found no significant difference on the attitude of teacher educators towards technology-enabled learning based on age and gender. additionally, chandwani et al. (2021) and suri and sharma (2017)’s studies also found no gender-related differences in the attitudes of lecturers toward online teaching, however, in contrast to this study finding, found a significant correlation between the age and the attitude of teachers with respect to online teaching. in contrast to this study findings also murthy and srishylam (2016)’s study found that the mean scores of the teacher educators' attitudes toward elearning significantly differ depending on their gender. this study found that male teachers are more favourable to online teaching than female teachers. the majority of lecturers at this university have no experience of e-learning neither gender nor age has any impact on their attitude because both males and females are equally experiencing e-learning. the results of this study show that there was no significant relationship between attitudes and the training to use e-learning tools. however, several studies have found that lack of training to use elearning tools is associated with negative attitudes towards elearning. lakbala (2016)’s cross sectional survey of 30 lecturers from nursing and midwifery faculties revealed that the majority (66.7%) indicated that inadequate technological training was a barrier to the implementation of elearning. according to karasneh et al. (2021) negative attitudes towards elearning might result from lack of comfort with unfamiliar technologies. karasneh et al. (2021) emphasized the importance of digital competency in effective transition to e-learning. lufungulo et al. (2021) in their qualitative study found that lecturers were hesitant to use online tools because they had little to no experience with it. further, results show that there was no significant relationship between attitudes and e-learning experience. this could be due to the fact that the vast majority of lecturers at this university have no prior experience with elearning. this finding is similar to that of abdelaziz (2015) whose study revealed that there was no substantial difference in the lecturers’ attitude towards the use of elearning due to e-learning teaching experience. this is in contrast with findings of those of alanazy (2018); chandwani et al. (2021) and xhaferi et al. (2018) who found a positive correlation between the attitude of faculty towards online teaching and their experience with online learning tools and concluded that positive attitudes of lecturers regarding online teaching are facilitated by their experience with the relevant online learning tools. furthermore, ekunola et al. (2022) found a significant difference between the attitudes of less experienced and more experienced lecturers toward using virtual classrooms for instruction, favouring the less experienced lecturers. in-turn, there was no significant relationship between attitudes and internet access as well as computer skills. this might be because all lecturers must be computer literate in order to teach in the university, and the university has good internet access. abdelaziz (2015) also analysed the difference in attitudes of female faculty of art and asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(3): 78-87 85 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group education members at king khali university towards using the blackboard learning management system and found no significant relationship between attitudes and computer skills. razkane, sayeh, and yeou (2021)’s study revealed that one of the main challenges that they had in delivering online classrooms was lack of internet access. however, javier (2020) found that although lecturers had a positive attitude towards elearning, internet access was limited. in mutisya and makokha (2016) ‘s study lecturers indicated that non-accessibility of internet outside the university had impact on the adoption of e-learning. 6. conclusion the covid-19 viral outbreak has created a new opportunity to consider alternative and adaptable educational content delivery methods, with e-learning emerging as one measure. it is critical to ascertain lecturers’ attitudes toward e-learning in order to take the necessary steps to ensure the success and sustainability of this venture. the results of this study indicate that attitude of lecturers is positive towards using e-learning. there were no significant differences in the lecturers’ attitudes towards elearning based on age and gender. also, there was no significant relationship in their attitudes with the training to use e-learning tools, e-learning experience and internet access. all the variables do not have impact on attitudes of lecturers towards e-learning. we ascertain that this may be due to the fact that lecturers have become competent and confident in using computers as part of teaching methodology at the university. 7. recommendations as e-learning is still in its infancy in this university, it is imperative to strengthen the digital culture. the university should assess the skills gap for lecturers in relation to it competency and put in place measures to upskill those who may be lacking. e-learning requires a different set of skills and knowledge from traditional teaching methods. it is essential to provide continuous training on how to use e-learning tools and techniques. furthermore, educating lecturers on the benefits of e-learning could be critical to change negative attitudes towards it. providing case studies, success stories, and testimonials from other universities or colleges that have successfully implemented e-learning can be useful in promoting the benefits of e-learning. additionally, the university should also consider motivational strategies to build positive attitude towards e-learning. providing incentives such as financial compensation or recognition for lecturers who successfully incorporate e-learning into their courses can also be effective in motivating them to embrace this technology. it will be essential to broaden the research to other campus of this university. this study recommends a replicate of this study with a larger sample size and across all university campus to ensure generalizability of the findings. it will be also crucial to conduct a qualitative study for depth understanding which is difficult to gain from a closed question survey. further research on the attitudes and experiences of lecturers towards e-learning is crucial for promoting the successful adoption and integration of e-learning in higher education, particularly in the context of the covid-19 pandemic and the increasing demand for flexible and adaptable learning opportunities. references abaidoo, n., & arkorful, v. 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(2018). teacher'attitudes towards e-learning in higher education in macedonia case study: university of tetovo. european journal of electrical engineering and computer science, 2(5), 1-4. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2006.09.001 https://www.bestcolleges.com/research/online-learning-statistics https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-3736.2003.00184.x https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-mission-briefing-on-covid-19---12-march-2020 https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-mission-briefing-on-covid-19---12-march-2020 133 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 4, 133-139, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i4.6240 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group digitalization of the professional training of foreign students in a russian educational institution alina aleksandrovna pozdnyakova1 tatiana evgenievna kolyadina2 larisa yurevna morozova3 marina evgenevna kalita4 fatih düzgün5 ( corresponding author) 1,2the kosygin state university of russia, 33/1, sadovnicheskaya str., moscow, 117997, russian federation. 1email: apozdnyakova@live.ru 2email: kolyadina-te@rguk.ru 3,4moscow pedagogical state university, 1/1 m. pirogovskaya str., moscow, 119991, russian federation. 3email: lyu.morozova@mpgu.edu 4email: marina-kalita@mail.ru 5akdeniz university, antalya, turkey. 5email: fatihduzgun@akdeniz.edu.tr abstract the professional training of foreign students is currently strongly influenced by the "mobility factor", which is why digital technologies are pivotal for shaping a future specialist. the methodological possibilities of the digital environment allow not only to provide foreign students with the necessary knowledge and skills for interaction in a multicultural space, but also systematically build various aspects of professional competence, bringing it to the level of prolonged self-development. in this study, we analyzed the current concepts of digitalization of professional training of students to select practices that are suitable for integration into the russian higher education system. the aim of this work is to challenge the negative view of digitalization of higher professional education and define conditions for the reform of the content of the professional training of foreign students. the following research methods were used: 1) review of the relevant literature; 2) analysis of modern pedagogical practices of teaching foreign students in remote conditions; 3) analysis of statistical data evaluating the state of digitalization of professional training in a university. as a result, we identified three groups of concepts for the digitalization of professional training: 1) self-regulated learning; 2) supportive learning; 3) generating learning. despite the existing practical and methodological limitations, the latter appears to be the most promising. keywords: digital technologies, education digitalization, foreign students, information and communication technologies (ict), professional training, self-regulated learning. citation | pozdnyakova, a. a., kolyadina, t. e., morozova, l. y., kalita, m. e., & düzgün, f. (2024). digitalization of the professional training of foreign students in a russian educational institution. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(4), 133–139. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i4.6240 history: received: 5 november 2024 revised: 9 december 2024 accepted: 17 december 2024 published: 23 december 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: not applicable. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 134 2. methods ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 134 3. results .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 135 4. discussion ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 137 5. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 138 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 138 mailto:apozdnyakova@live.ru mailto:kolyadina-te@rguk.ru mailto:lyu.morozova@mpgu.edu mailto:marina-kalita@mail.ru mailto:fatihduzgun@akdeniz.edu.tr https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i4.6240 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2864-5332 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2167-8668 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6444-8109 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3124-0256 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2199-0640 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 133-139 134 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature to our knowledge, this is the first in-depth analysis of the current state of digitalizing professional training for foreign students in russian educational institutions. we suggest a classification of the key practices for integrating digital technologies into higher education, aiming to enhance the quality of professional training for foreign students. 1. introduction professional training of a student involves creating "a system of organizational and educational measures that ensure the formation of professional knowledge, skills, and abilities on the one hand, and readiness for future professional activity on the other" (9: 230). in recent years, due to the changing socio-political situation, professional training for foreign citizens has been carried out using digital technologies, and at times with full immersion in the digital environment. it can be said that this is a natural process that corresponds to the trends of the times and more narrowly the interests and needs of the students (gao, 2021; infante-moro, infante-moro, gallardo-pérez, & martínez-lópez, 2022; marcelo & rijo, 2019; pham, 2022). the methodological possibilities of the digital environment allow not only to provide foreign students with the necessary knowledge and skills for interaction in a multicultural space, but also step-by-step, systematically form various aspects of professional competence, bringing it to the level of prolonged self-development. in our research, we assume that there is much room for improvement in the quality of the digital environment for higher education, as well as for graduate studies. the training of foreign specialists who are studying educational programs remotely requires the inclusion of such components as computer graphics (tai, hu, wang, zhang, & chen, 2013; wang, 2011) virtual and augmented reality (alnagrat, ismail, & idrus, 2022; morimoto et al., 2022; vergara, rubio, & lorenzo, 2018) virtual modeling and gaming technologies (antoniou, vassilakis, theodoropoulos, & lepouras, 2018; bampatzia et al., 2016; fishwick, henderson, fresh, futterknecht, & hamilton, 2008; potkonjak et al., 2016) in the digital methodological toolkit. these tools should be integrated into a professional training program, while the educational program itself should be initially oriented towards the possibility of such integration, functioning as a digital platform with enhanced functionality. cekha (2021) writes that the combination of "educational program digital platform" can "integrate digital technologies that provide more effective substantive filling of the educational process, regardless of the type of educational program" (13: 86). effectiveness in this case corresponds to the criteria of efficiency, productivity, and economy of the educational process. efficiency implies a high degree of achievement of the set goals (planned learning outcomes). productivity allows evaluating the "result in time," manifested, for example, in the reduction of timeframes (passing topics) and individualization of learning, self-study of individual program sections and course topics using digital platform resources. economy is manifested in cost reduction: a well-balanced digital resource is more cost-effective compared to traditional forms of education (pathak, 2016; zotov, pozdnyakova, morozova, grafkova, & kalita, 2022). it should also be noted that such a program, based on the common requirements of the russian educational system, can be more oriented towards the characteristics of the target audience foreign students, taking into account their level of proficiency in the russian language, the peculiarities of the national academic tradition, and the national specifics of the profession studied nathadwarawala and unhelkar (2020). however, for this to happen, the digital and technological potential of russian higher education must not only be sufficient but also mobile, ensuring the integration of domestic higher education programs into the educational systems of partner countries. currently, options for such integration are only offered in the implementation of "narrow" interuniversity programs, which is clearly insufficient to ensure competitiveness in the modern market of educational services (pozdnyakova, nikitaeva, zotov, kuznetsova, & morozova, 2022; zotov et al., 2022). as part of this study, we conducted the analysis of current trends in digitalization of the professional training of foreign students in universities worldwide to select practices that are most suitable for integration into the russian higher education system. the aims of our study are: 1) to challenge the already established negative view of digitalization in higher education as a "forced necessity", and 2) to identify conditions for qualitative reform of the content of professional training of foreign students. 2. methods the proposed study is analytical in nature, and therefore we have used the following main methods: 1) the study of relevant academic literature related to the general methodological issues of digitalization of higher professional education (aviram, ronen, somekh, winer, & sarid, 2008; goyal, 2012; horvitz, dabbagh, & bannanritland, 2007; neborsky, 2021; peres & pimenta, 2011; yot-domínguez & marcelo, 2017), technological aspects of digitalization of higher professional education (evers & chen, 2021; garcia & backer, 2005; huerta, atahua, guerrero, & andrade-arenas, 2023; parvez & otri, 2017; suleimanov & porshnev, 2008; ziegler & moeller, 2012), problems of student readiness for digital and hybrid learning in various professional fields (adams, chuah, sumintono, & mohamed, 2022; adams, tan, & sumintono, 2020; gao, 2021; kalogiannakis et al., 2023; salim et al., 2018; smith et al., 2019) and the readiness of the teaching staff to implement digital teaching (antón, fernández arias, & vergara rodríguez, 2023; kalogiannakis et al., 2023; salim et al., 2018; zhao, llorente, & gómez, 2021); the role of the ethno-cultural component in the professional training of foreign students (laskareva, pozdnyakova, bazvanova, dmitrieva, & chepkova, 2021; nathadwarawala & unhelkar, 2020; pham, 2022; pozdnyakova, markova, kolyadina, zotov, & kalita, 2022; smith et al., 2019; song & oh, 2011); 2) analysis of modern pedagogical practices of the professional training of foreign students in remote conditions (pathak, 2016; a. pozdnyakova et al., 2022; salim et al., 2018; xidirbaev & abdurahmanov, 2021; yot-domínguez & marcelo, 2017; zotov et al., 2022); 3) analysis of statistical data assessing the state of digitalization of the professional training of foreign students in universities (anisimov, afanasyev, & gohberg, 2022; arefyev, 2020; oecd, 2021). in our case, the material for the study was a set of relevant information on the problem under consideration, especially those aspects that require further study. thus, the experience of digitalization of professional training of foreigners in leading moscow universities (the kosygin state university of russia (msudt), moscow pedagogical asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 133-139 135 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group state university (mpgu), mirea russian technological university) was thoroughly studied, and its positive aspects were identified. primary data was not used in the work, since the goal of the study was to select practices that are most suitable for integration into the russian education system, based on the analysis of the current concepts of digitalization of professional training of foreign students in universities worldwide. as the results of the study, we aimed to provide a scientific justification for the concepts of digitalization of professional education from the perspective of their feasibility for use in the training of foreign students in universities. experimental justification of the prospects and feasibility of certain practices is seen by us as the next stage of problem development. 3. results analysis of current scientific literature and modern pedagogical practices allows us to identify three groups of concepts for digitalization of the professional training, which can be applied to teaching foreign students in a university. the first concept is based on the theory of self-regulated learning, where a student "controls and regulates activities aimed at achieving goals of obtaining information, expanding knowledge, and self-improvement" (34: 98). this concept was detailed within the iclass self-regulated personalized learning project (srpl) (8: 1-3), aimed at creating a digital learning management system by incorporating personalization and self-regulation mechanisms to enhance students' internal motivation. analyzing this theory, fok and ip (2004) note: "from the pedagogical point of view, the major requirement for distance learning via personalized courses is the flexibility of the system to adapt easily, dynamically and with minimum overhead to the individual student’s progress, needs and interests. the subject, the content, the details, and the tempo should be dynamically personalized on the flow" (18: 407). ziegler and moeller (2012) point out that the inability to incorporate personalization is one of the central reasons for the failure of e-learning models and projects (ziegler & moeller, 2012). under this approach, a student is essentially given only the direction of learning, and the student organizes and structures the entire educational process themselves (moeller, theiler, & wu, 2012). researchers such as marcelo and rijo (2019) and yot-domínguez and marcelo (2017) adhere to this concept. in their work, they systematize digital technologies for self-regulated learning according to the strategies of their implementation (see table 1). table 1. strategies and technologies of self-regulated learning (srl). no. technology strategies 1. communication tools: whatsapp, line, skype, google talk exchange information solve doubts discussion 2. repositories: slideshare, instagram, pinterest, issuu, calameo, youtube, itunes, ivoox review of specific material obtained for studies be informed share one’s own productions and material 3. social networks: twitter, facebook comment information information exchange be informed 4. production and storage tools in the cloud: wikis & blogs, dropbox, google + team work comment information be informed 5. social markers & rss: delicious, sage record information receive information 6. multimedia resources: podcast, video listen to the previously recorded lesson self-listening self-observation 7. assessment tools: examtime, google application forms verify learning 8. internet: wikipedia or online dictionaries; translators; google academic, dialnet translate information locate information 9. management tools: cmap, mindmanager; refworks, mendeley; viper create concept maps, draft texts managing bibliography draft texts and verify plagiarism 10. other technology: specific apps (kalkulilo, whiteboard lite) & organisers (google calendar, evernote) resolve academic activities making them more attractive manage academic activities note: excerpted from yot-domínguez and marcelo (2017); slr: self-regulated learning, rss: really simple syndication feeds. the concept of self-regulated learning requires significant "intellectual investments" from the learner, which should grow and enrich in the information environment. however, scientists warn that "it is obvious that not all choice supporting options and functions should be open to the learner at once and in all circumstances" (8: 7). this thesis is extremely important for the professional training of foreign students, as the level of proficiency in the russian language (more precisely, the stage-by-stage formation of communicative competence) is the driving factor in learning. it takes time for foreigners to combine knowledge of the russian language and the language of their specialty, and these should be combined with the stages of social and cultural adaptation of a person in a new society, his "maturation" as a future specialist. in other words, the use of the concept of self-regulated learning at the early stages of a foreigner's professional development in a university (and in general, in case of low proficiency in russian) is unproductive. the second concept is that of supplementary, supporting learning. the essence of this concept lies in the parallel functioning of standard ("non-digital") and digital educational programs (cohen & ellis, 2002; peres & pimenta, 2011). digital resources in this case are implemented as online courses, which usually have the status of elective asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 133-139 136 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group disciplines. the development of such courses is mostly carried out by departments or interdepartmental university associations, since it is the departments that are interested in having their own resources adapted to the needs of specific educational programs. researchers note that resources formed at the departmental level are the most voluminous in content and in demand. they can make up to 75% of the volume of the entire university portal information (20: 60-61). digital platforms (moodle®, wordpress®, blackboard®, etc.) play the central role in this type of learning system. other resources can serve as additional tools for optimizing the learning process (see table 2). table 2. supportive digital resources. no. digital tool categories forms of digital tools 1. content creation tools power point®, prezi® 2. communication tools skype®, facebook®, whatsapp®, telegram®, twitter® 3. tools for collaborative content creation youtube®, instagram®, ivoox 4. standard management tools mendele®, zotero® note: excerpted from peres and pimenta (2011). one can consider the following drawbacks of online supporting courses in general and specifically: 1) lack of systematic transfer of professional knowledge (courses pursue different goals); 2) lack of connection between specialized (professionally oriented) material and language material; 3) mono-aspect nature (each course has its own direction); 4) insufficient methodological support for resources (it is not provided for autonomous resources). accordingly, the task of modern researchers working in this direction can be considered as the creation of online supporting courses integrated into the educational environment of the university. the third concept is the concept of generating learning. within this concept, two approaches can be distinguished "broad" and "narrow". the "broad approach" is reflected in the work of cekha (2021) who writes that the most logical way to transform an educational program in the context of digitalization is "to connect it with a digital platform" (13: 85). this same idea can be observed in the works of foreign researchers (infante-moro et al., 2022; pathak, 2016). the "narrow approach" involves education going beyond traditional forms, but with a clear distribution of functions. for example, control and administrative functions remain entirely with the digital platform, which, according to many researchers, ensures objectivity in assessing the results of professional training (batra & kumar, 2022; infante-moro et al., 2022). the functions of presenting course content are carried out autonomously, through multimedia systems or digital materials for students (garganté, naranjo, & tamarit, 2014). supporting functions at all stages remain with the human, including methodological, psychological, and technological support for learning (laskareva et al., 2021). within this approach, digital tools are classified according to their applicability to various educational activities, while educational activities are part of a whole. antón et al. (2023) analyze the classifications proposed in garganté et al. (2014) and agree with the chosen approach (antón et al., 2023; garganté et al., 2014). the researchers propose considering digital resources depending on their orientation – towards a teacher or towards a student. the first group includes all those aimed at creating and presenting educational materials, while the second group includes those oriented towards maintaining communication with students and other teachers, as well as organizing control over the educational process. despite the relative conditionality of such a classification, it has the right to exist (see table 3). table 3. didactic classification of digital environment tools. academic activity the use of digital resources examples content technologies support oral presentations of contents word processor present contents through multimedia systems video creating conduct tutorials with students online platforms show useful tools to students microsoft office® interaction technologies dynamize virtual classes moodle®, delicious® communicate with students skype®, e-mail monitor the progress of the learning process e-portfolio, self-assessment provide guidelines to facilitate learning intelligent tutoring system note: excerpted from garganté et al. (2014) and antón et al. (2023). in addition, antón et al. (2023) propose their own classification of digital tools (information communication tools, ict) (antón et al., 2023). the classification is based on the scientific justifications mentioned above but is more oriented towards subject-subject relationships that distance learning presupposes (see table 4). table 4. classification of ict means for educational purposes. family of ict tools examples presentations for class power point®, prezi® ict tools for class use pdf-3d®, virtual lab meetings with the staff google meet®, skype® tutorials blackboard®, zoom® content sharing youtube®, ivoox® evaluation tools socrative®, quizziz®, google forms®, kahoot note: excerpted from antón et al. (2023). conducting research in latin america and the caribbean, antón et al. (2023) note the fact that during the pandemic, digital tools were essential for tasks such as searching, collecting, and transmitting data, and then crossed this boundary and "suddenly became cognitive learning tools, promoting cognitive reflection and fostering students' asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 133-139 137 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group mental representations" (5: 131). this extremely important conclusion, in our opinion, testifies to a change in the scientific community's view of the functions of digital resources from auxiliary to generating, determining the movement of personality along the trajectory of professional development. according to the researchers, this fact "leads to a global methodological shift" (ibid.: 131) "the adoption of a constructivist approach to learning, focused on the learner and capable of being carried out at any time and in any place" (antón et al., 2023; dubey & kanvaria, 2020). currently, the process of the professional training of foreign students in russian universities is governed by the general principles that apply to educational programs. national specifics of the learners are not taken into account, and programs that are oriented towards foreign students are not provided for in most cases, which is quite logical for stream learning. only a few universities create independent programs for foreign students, and not all of them are suitable for implementation in a distance learning mode due to the lack of appropriate infrastructure in the university or insufficient technological capabilities of foreign students from certain regions (zhang, khan, dagar, saeed, & zafar, 2022). as a result, the effectiveness of such programs is doubtful. however, the digitization of professional education is inevitable and, in our opinion, has extremely high potential. 4. discussion the analysis carried out allowed us to select concepts of digitalization of vocational training that could be applicable to foreign students' education in a university. these are: 1) the concept of self-regulated learning; 2) the concept of accompanying learning; 3) the concept of generating learning. the latter seems to us to be the most promising, despite the limitations associated with its implementation. our choice is largely due to an understanding of the possibilities provided by the digital environment as a tool for not only disseminating but also generating knowledge. let us cite the opinion of professor s.r. filonovich, who explains the process of forming academic knowledge as follows: "...when a student or teacher reads a textbook, they receive information. they still have to turn this information into knowledge in their mind. knowledge is always associated with action" (shiversky, 2007). it is this "action" that is provided by the resources of the digital environment, which, firstly, are incorporated into the structure of the vocational training program, secondly, are available to a student, and thirdly, are skillfully used by a teacher. the methodological possibilities of the digital environment relevant for the vocational training of foreign students include: 1) access to various sources of information; 2) availability of interactive content; 3) availability of visualization tools; 4) providing the possibility of collaborative activities and fast feedback; 5) facilitating self-study; 6) objective control and evaluation. within the framework of the generating learning concept, the digital environment can be a good tool for developing professional communication skills and ensuring effective interaction between teachers and students. this is emphasized, in particular, by dubey and kanvaria (2020) who highlight the importance of integrating digital technologies into the content of traditional professional education (dubey & kanvaria, 2020). however, such integration is only possible with sufficient competencies of educators who are able to organize and enrich digital educational content, as stated in the works of gao (2021); infante-moro et al. (2022); antón et al. (2023). this same idea is traced in the research of kalogiannakis et al. (2023) who analyzed electronic tools in terms of the necessary expansion of teachers' digital competencies (25). professional training should shape a person's personality and provide "orientation in the world of professions and competence in a specific job" (9: 230). in order for this task to become feasible, the digital resources of the university must be significantly changed towards greater adaptability and expanded functionality (huerta et al., 2023; neborsky, 2021). this corresponds to the idea of generating learning. there is also another aspect of the problem of digitalization that we want to draw attention to in the context of this research. researchers emphasize that the concept of "digital environment" is not unambiguous: "it is at the same time an algorithm of the relationships between participants, a platform for content placement, a combination of digital tools, and an information-analytical system" (32: 6). based on such a broad interpretation, some authors argue that a digital environment (resource, platform) with artificial intelligence "as a participant in educational relationships can independently organize the educational process with the learner, selecting the necessary information and methodological resources for implementing the educational program according to pre-defined parameters" (13: 8586), i.e. they impose additional functions on the digital environment that may not always be feasible or applicable. for example, the development of a foreign student as a future specialist is impossible without revealing their inner potential and defining the vector of personal development (gao, 2021; nathadwarawala & unhelkar, 2020). in traditional education, the supporting and accompanying functions are performed by a teacher, who motivates the student and helps them adapt to the new socio-cultural environment. in the information environment, this function is only partially implemented thanks to the virtual component of digital technologies, which ensures the creation of situations that are as close to reality as possible. a controversial aspect in terms of the positive influence on foreign students is the excessive accumulation of information in the electronic educational environment. due to insufficient language preparation, foreign students are not able to "refresh their knowledge" and find themselves in a situation of constant catching up with their russianspeaking peers (laskareva et al., 2021). this state, which is almost never paid attention to by teachers and psychologists, is a significant demotivating factor that does not allow students to fulfill their potential in the educational and professional sphere. other negative phenomena and processes observed in modern educational practice are also related to these factors. for example, cases where the digital environment is an aim in itself and is used only for the sake of the digital environment; the education system becomes detached from reality and moves into a mode of "virtual reality". it should also be noted that some researchers see the potential of digital technologies in overcoming ethnic and social gaps between different categories of students and teachers, in leveling the "communicative field" between individuals from different backgrounds. this is discussed, in particular, in the study by nathadwarawala and unhelkar (2020). however, in our opinion, this positive assumption is not entirely achievable. in this case, we are talking not only about the availability of technical possibilities for learning or any necessary competencies among asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 133-139 138 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group teachers and students, but about the inability to break stereotypes in learning at a specific stage. this applies to all areas of the education system. undoubtedly, people can be taught to load a presentation, compose and perform a computer test, but it may take not only months but years to make these procedures natural. therefore, at a university level, it is more appropriate to talk about the formation of positive motivation towards a new style of learning and its correct "ethnic interpretation". thus, the professional training of a foreign student can be full-fledged only under the complementary influence of three factors on an individual: 1) positive motivation (adams et al., 2020; paris & paris, 2001; yot-domínguez & marcelo, 2017) initiating influence of the educational digital environment (alnagrat et al., 2022; kalogiannakis et al., 2023; xidirbaev & abdurahmanov, 2021) sufficient (and necessarily positive) educational and professional experience that can only be acquired online within the framework of generating learning concept (laskareva et al., 2021; smith et al., 2019). the digital format of professional training does not impose restrictions on the use of traditional forms of interaction but creates additional opportunities for the transmission and acquisition of knowledge, as well as for the implementation of professional skills in practice. 5. conclusion currently, the professional training of foreign students is strongly influenced by the "mobility factor," which is why digital technologies are considered a necessary condition for forming future specialists. the methodological possibilities of the modern digital environment not only enable foreign students to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills for interaction in a multicultural space but also to some extent shape a new personality and ensure its continuous development in all areas of activity. the analysis of existing concepts of digitizing professional education of students conducted within this study allowed selecting those that could be applicable for use in russian universities. these are: 1) the concept of selfregulated learning; 2) the concept of supplementary learning; 3) the concept of generating learning. despite existing limitations in the implementation of each concept, the latter is seen as the most promising in terms of the professional training of foreign students. currently, the process of professional training of foreign students in russian universities follows the general principles laid down in educational programs. the national component and creating programs oriented towards foreign students is not usually considered, which is quite logical for cohort learning. only some universities create independent programs for foreign students, and not all of them are implementable in a remote setting due to the lack of required infrastructure in a university or the lack of technological possibilities for foreign students from specific countries and regions. as a result, the efficiency of such programs is insufficient. however, digitalization of professional education is inevitable and has exceptional potential both in the field of direct professional education and in overcoming the ethnic and social gap between individual categories of participants in the educational process. the next stage of the problem's development, in our view, is the experimental substantiation of the feasibility and effectiveness of using certain educational practices implemented within the existing concepts of digitalization of the professional training of foreign students. references adams, d., chuah, k. m., sumintono, b., & mohamed, a. 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(2022). management of the export of educational services in a modern university operations and project management: strategies and trends. paper presented at the ii international scientific and practical conference. springer, lecture notes in networks and systemsseries. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.12795/pixelbit.2015.i46.01 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-007-9071-4 https://doi.org/10.25082/amler.2023.01.011 https://doi.org/10.3390/su14138112 https://doi.org/10.25082/amler.2023.01.019 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2011.01231.x https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11020470 https://doi.org/10.15862/41pdmn321 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3602_4 https://doi.org/10.5815/ijeme.2017.06.01 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-016-0223-4 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.02.002 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-018-1315-y https://doi.org/10.20533/licej.2040.2589.2019.0415 https://doi.org/10.15702/mall.2011.14.3.133 https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci8040153 https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3803104 https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0076-8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121570 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104212 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2012.01205.x 22 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 2, 22-31, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i2.5576 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group exploring the potential of ai techniques in teaching english as a foreign language: a systematic literature review wesam saad almehmadi department of english language and translation, saudi electronic university, jeddah, saudi arabia. email: w.almehmadi@seu.edu.sa abstract the rapid evolution of artificial intelligence (ai) technology and its integration into different fields, including language teaching, have inspired a growing body of literature. scholars have particularly examined the integration of ai techniques into the teaching of english as a foreign language (efl). however, it is becoming more challenging to identify the most suitable and efficient tools for implementation in efl education because of the massive amount of innovation. accordingly, in this systematic review, we examine the latest literature on the integration of ai into efl teaching. the objective of this study is to explore how ai is being incorporated into this field, its impact on enhancing core english skills, and the potential pedagogical implications. a total of 284 articles published between 2019 and 2023 were initially identified from the most popular databases, including eric, sciencedirect, jstor, proquest, and scopus. following preestablished inclusion and exclusion criteria, 13 papers were selected for the final review. the findings of this review highlight the benefits of using different ai techniques such as chatbots, automated writing evaluation, and writing assistance technologies in the instruction of fundamental efl skills, namely speaking, listening, and writing. this review also provides useful insights and indicates some promising directions regarding the appropriate and effective application of ai in efl classrooms. keywords: artificial intelligence, chatbots, chatgpt, english as a foreign language, learning, systematic literature review, teaching. citation | almehmadi, w. s. (2024). exploring the potential of a i techniques in teaching english as a foreign language: a systemat ic literature review. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(2), 22–31. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i2.5576 history: received: 2 february 2024 revised: 18 march 2024 accepted: 8 april 2024 published: 19 april 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: not applicable. transparency: the author confirms that the manuscript is honest, t ru th fu l, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been om it ted , and that any differences from the study as planned have been clari fied . this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. contents 1. introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 2. literature review......................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 3. methodology .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 24 4. conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30 references ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30 mailto:w.almehmadi@seu.edu.sa https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i2.5576 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8971-164x asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 22-31 23 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this study contributes to the existing literature by reviewing the most recent research on the use of artificial intelligence (ai) techniques in teaching of english as a foreign language (efl). it explores the current state of ai integration, evaluates the effectiveness of early efforts, and discusses potential pedagogical implications in this domain. 1. introduction digital technology has been used in language learning of all kinds and at all levels for many years, and there is a large literature on topics such as computer-assisted language learning and technology-enhanced language learning (schmidt & strasser, 2022). educators and students have benefited from a wide range of digital tools both in and beyond the classroom. computer-mediated material can provide input and feedback that is personalized and responsive to each learner’s individual needs, such as their learning style, the time they need to learn, and the context in which they learn best. flexibility, convenience, and choice are key benefits of such material, helping to provide additional practice for learners in all four basic skills—speaking, listening, reading, and writing—with reduced reliance on the expensive resource of face-to-face interaction with a teacher (kim, cha, & kim, 2021 ). the rapid adoption of the internet across the world has also vastly increased the volume and accessibility of digital materials and methods available for language learning. these early innovations and the ongoing trend of everexpanding technological possibilities have paved the way for the world in which we live today. however, it is becoming increasingly difficult amid this massive amount of innovation to identify the most appropriate and effective tools to use in efl education. the origins of ai are widely believed to lie in the 1950s, when scholars in the united states began working on the creation of machines that could carry out complex tasks, such as playing a game of chess or deciding what to buy on a shopping tour (cordeschi, 2007). throughout the second half of the twentieth century, these developments moved out of the industrial and technical spheres into all walks of life, including education. there has been a prevailing focus on the benefits of big data analytics, especially in combination with increasing computational and memory capacity in computers, allowing educators to assess and track student performance, analyze students’ behavior in class, and monitor their use of study aids. on the other hand, scholars have warned about the privacy issues that can arise in this context and the risks of reducing learning to a “numbers game, thereby inviting positivistic and behaviouristic responses” (godwin-jones, 2017). ai in education is here to stay, and the formation of interdisciplinary partnerships will be required if we are to bring to fruition the many benefits it promises (luckin & cukurova, 2019). new programs, apps, features, and techniques appear almost daily, many of which seem to offer new affordances and learning opportunities in the field of teaching english to speakers of other languages, even if they were designed for entirely different purposes, such as automatic text generation or text editing for journalists, advertisers, and other professionals. there has not yet been time to explore what is on offer, let alone evaluate the appropriateness and effectiveness of the most familiar and popular ai applications or identify any disadvantages or risks that might arise. this study aims to make a small contribution to this overwhelming task by reviewing the most recent literature on ai in efl education. we explore how ai is currently being integrated into this field, how effective these early efforts have been, and what the possible pedagogical implications might be. 2. literature review 2.1. background of the topic there is no single agreed-upon definition of ai because it is a complex and layered phenomenon that is advancing rapidly in a wide range of different fields (roschelle, lester, & fusco, 2020). it can be helpful to think of ai in three different but complementary ways: “as an ambitious leading edge of computing, as a set of specific capabilities that are rapidly advancing, and as a toolkit for synthesizing (and exploring) possible futures [as well as] inspiring new design concepts” (roschelle et al., 2020). these approaches highlight the novelty of ai and its anticipated importance in our world, but they focus on the theoretical dimension. thus, they are a good starting point, but not very helpful to teachers and learners looking for immediate benefits from these new technological advances. the application of some types of ai to the efl field has occurred rapidly, most obviously in areas such as administration and assessment, where teaching and learning data can be easily gathered, analyzed, and integrated within wider systems (godwin-jones, 2017). according to singh and hiran (2022) a new phase of engagement has begun, and thanks to the ability of ai to be embedded within the wider, data -rich environment of a school or college, “teachers and instructors can collaborate with robots in the form of cobots or humanoid robots and chatbots can perform teacher or instructor-like functions.” one recent study noted that the adoption of ai in education is part of a much broader trend in the emergence of the internet of things and that, so far, innovations in this field have been “largely driven by intuition and common-sense extrapolations, rather than being solidly underpinned by research-informed models and frameworks” (bonfield, salter, longmuir, benson, & adachi, 2020) . it always takes time to embed new ideas into education, and teachers are rightly reluctant to subject their students to new, untested approaches. interestingly, however, some recent events, such as the global pandemic of 2019–2022, the turbulence caused by climate change, and the spread of military conflict, have accelerated the adoption of ai systems and processes in all aspects and subjects within the educational field (baidoo-anu & ansah, 2023). analyses of pedagogic interventions introduced during the covid pandemic have once again highlighted how economic factors, such as unequal access to reliable broadband provision, can seriously affect the impact of all types of online learning, including ai-supported learning (cullinan, flannery, harold, lyons, & palcic, 2021). at the same time, neither planners and educators nor students were prepared for the sudden, widespread integration of ai into everyday learning, which suggests that we should be wary of drawing premature conclusions from research carried out during this unusual period. the insights gathered may well be useful, but there were undoubtedly design flaws, asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 22-31 24 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group compromises, and omissions in the rush to provide any educational support at all when institutions were forced into lockdown. moreover, there are considerable dangers in rushing to implement new practices without properly evaluating early, experimental work. a large-scale review of research on ai in education across the world before the pandemic found that research was heavily skewed toward just a few countries (most notably, the us, china, taiwan, and turkey) and dominated by projects in the subject areas of computer science and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (zawacki-richter, marín, bond, & gouverneur, 2019). furthermore, there was a predominance of quantitative methods, a lack of longitudinal research, and very few implementation or impact studies (zawackirichter et al., 2019). however, some exceptions to these trends can be found. taguchi (2015) for example, advocates using the traditional approach of pragmatics along with a highly innovative package of online resources to provide an alternative to studying abroad, with consequent cost savings and convenience for students, not to mention benefits to the environment from reduced travel. similarly, divekar et al. (2022) point out the underexplored potential of immersion in digital extended-reality contexts, including social interaction with authentic-sounding speakers of the foreign language. another intriguing study conducted over a whole year explored how five students used virtual reality (vr) headsets and rooms to meet online and review vr products available on the web (cowie & alizadeh, 2022). the study acknowledged its selection bias, as the participants were all enthusiastic ai users in their lives outside education, and they identified multiple risks and challenges, such as ethical and health issues with the equipment, access issues due to cost, and the need for extensive educator training in order to align the teacher’s own “signature pedagogies” (cowie & alizadeh, 2022) with the ai app and master any technical issues that arise. the literature reviewed above covers a wide but not exhaustive range of approaches to the impact of ai generally and in the efl classroom specifically. an important limitation on this body of work, however, is that these studies often involved a small number of participants, and the settings varied across different source languages and geographical areas. this means that when variation in the results is observed, it i s difficult to establish whether this was caused by some aspect of interaction with ai or other contextual variables that may not have even been measured. all in all, therefore, the somewhat random and fragmented data are difficult to interpret, and the most obvious gap that emerges is the need for a broader, more consistent view with a larger sample size. a large-scale primary research project would be expensive and impractical, however. therefore, in this study, we undertook a systematic review of 13 highly relevant articles from within the existing literature. this addresses the issues of small sample sizes and disparate groups since it allows comparisons to be drawn and overarching theories to be devised. this, in turn, can provide a firmer basis for future research in this vital and expanding field. it is evident from this brief summary of the current research that many existing pedagogical approaches can be adapted for use in new ai-supported teaching and learning programs. this sketch also shows that i t is time for a more thorough and systematic exploration of the use of ai in efl. this brings us to the heart of this review, in which we analyze 13 recent articles written by and for efl specialists about their use of ai over the last few years. 3. methodology 3.1. research instrument to investigate the various approaches used in implementing ai technology to teach efl and the impact of ai use on efl teaching, a systematic literature review (slr) was conducted. slr is defined as a systematic process for identifying, organizing, and summarizing existing evidence on a particular topic to answer specific research questions by presenting a comprehensive study plan (colquhoun et al., 2014; tawfik et al., 2019). this methodological approach is useful because it provides a clear and concise mapping of the studies published on specific topics, helps identify research gaps, and provides decision-makers with suitable implications and suggestions (tricco et al., 2018). khan, kunz, kleijnen, and antes (2003) five-step method for conducting slr was used in this study to conduct a comprehensive search and analyze the articles collected from different databases (i.e. eric, sciencedirect, jstor, proquest, scopus, and google scolar). these five steps include framing the research questions, identifying relevant publications, assessing each study’s quality, summarizing the evidence, and interpreting the findings. 3.2. research procedures step 1: framing the research questions our aim was to investigate the potential of ai techniques in teaching efl and their role in improving core english skills. this systematic review was designed to answer two key research questions: 1. what are the various methods and approaches used in implementing ai technology to teach efl, and how do these methods contribute to enhancing student learning outcomes? 2. what are the pedagogical implications of integrating ai techniques into efl instruction? step 2: identifying relevant publications establishing inclusion and exclusion criteria. this stage involved determining the inclusion and exclusion criteria for selecting relevant sources from the literature. to be included in this review, studies had to meet the selection criteria listed in table 1. the table also describes the exclusion criteria; any study that did not meet one or more of these criteria was excluded from the review. search strategy. to gather a comprehensive collection of relevant literature, a systematic search strategy was employed that took into account the predetermined criteria for inclusion and exclusion. to capture as many relevant studies as possible, five scientific databases (eric, sciencedirect, jstor, proquest, and scopus) and one search engine (google scholar) were used to find papers. this search was performed using the english keywords “artificial intelligence” and “teaching efl,” “artificial intelligence” and “efl,” “artificial intelligence” and “language learning,” and “chatgpt” and “language teaching.” asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 22-31 25 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 1. inclusion and exclusion criteria. criterion inclusion exclusion publication date 2019–2023 prior to 2019 publication type scholarly articles from peerreviewed journals book chapters, dissertations, conference proceedings, observational studies, editorials, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses article focus using ai technology in the efl context any other technological context related to ai research method and results experimental studies designed to yield practical results for efl reviews, opinions, discussions that did not contain empirical data analysis language english any other language in the initial stage of the literature search, 284 articles were retrieved using these keywords and phrases. the potential relevance of these articles was evaluated based on the inclusion criteria, and 255 articles were removed, which reduced the total number of studies to 29. following this, the remaining 29 papers underwent further examination to identify those directly related to the incorporation of ai into efl teaching (see figure 1). based on this examination, 13 articles were assessed using a quality assessment checklist and chosen for inclusion in this slr. figure 1. search process flowchart. step 3: assessing study quality in a review, it is crucial to ensure the reliability and credibility of the selected studies and evaluate their quality in addition to applying inclusion and exclusion criteria. employing a quality assessment checklist enables researchers to establish more specific criteria for inclusion/exclusion and investigate whether discrepancies in study findings can be attributed to differences in quality (kitchenham & charters, 2007). it also enables the researcher to give appropriate weight to each study separately by synthesizing its results and acknowledging its importance and strength. in this study, kitchenham and charters (2007) quality assessment checklist was used to evaluate the quality of the 13 studies included. their checklist assembles a list of questions and suggests that researchers should not use all of these proposed questions but rather select the quality assessment questions that are most relevant and appropriate to their particular study context and questions. therefore, five questions were selected from kitchenham and charters’ checklist to evaluate the quality of the studies included in this review (as shown in table 2). the assessment process took place as follows: while reading the full text of each article, each of the five questions was answered, and scores were assigned to evaluate these answers on a scale ranging from 0 to 1. these answers reflect the extent to which the article met the reviewed criteria. for example, if the study clearly stated its objective, it would receive a full score of 1 for criterion q1. conversely, if the study did not mention its intent, it would receive a score of 0. a score of 0.5 would be given if the objective was vaguely stated. studies with a total score below 4 out of 5 were not considered for inclusion. table 3 presents the quality level of the 13 articles included in this review. after evaluating the articles based on the five questions, it was found that ten arti cles received a score of 5, one article got a score of 4, and two articles got a score of 4.5. therefore, all 13 articles are eligible to be included in this systematic literature review. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 22-31 26 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 2. quality assessment questions. no. question scores q1 are the aims clearly stated? yes (1) / no (0) / partly (0.5) q2 are the data collection methods adequately described? yes (1) / no (0) / partly (0.5) q3 is the population being studied clearly defined? yes (1) / no (0) / partly (0.5) q4 are the results interpreted and reported clearly? yes (1) / no (0) / partly (0.5) q5 do the findings highlight the impacts of incorporating ai in an efl context? yes (1) / no (0) / partly (0.5) source: kitchenham and charters (2007). table 3. study quality assessment scores. article q1 q2 q3 q4 q5 total (level of quality) al-garaady and mahyoob (2023) 1 1 1 1 1 5 rad, alipour, and jafarpour (2023) 1 1 1 1 1 5 han et al. (2023) 1 1 1 1 1 5 çakmak (2022) 1 1 1 1 1 5 alsadoon (2021) 0.5 1 1 1 1 4.5 lin and mubarok (2021) 1 1 1 0.5 1 4.5 xiao and park (2021) 1 1 1 1 1 5 dizon and gayed (2021) 1 1 1 1 1 5 kim et al. (2021) 1 1 1 1 1 5 el shazly (2021) 1 1 1 1 1 5 kholis (2021) 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 4 qinghua and satar (2020) 1 1 1 1 1 5 dizon (2020) 1 1 1 1 1 5 step 4: summarizing the evidence background details pertaining to each study reviewed are summarized in table 4. the table includes the objective of each study, the english skill under investigation, the participants, and the ai tool used . additionally , the data collection method and key findings are briefly summarized. the articles are organized chronologically, with the most recent study (from 2023) listed first, followed by older studies. step 5: discussion (interpreting the findings) having reviewed the recent academic literature on the use of ai techniques and tools in the context of teaching efl, we can now draw together our findings and consider the potential pedagogical implications. this discussion addresses each of the research questions in turn, providing answers based on the evidence contained in the relevant literature. to keep the scope manageable, the focus remains on efl classroom teaching and learning in further and higher education, excluding settings with younger children and applied or specialized areas, such as professional or technical fields. the conclusion follows below, which provides some practical guidelines on how ai can be successfully integrated into this kind of efl provision. research question 1. research question 1 sought to identify the various methods and approaches used in implementing ai technology to teach efl and explore how these methods contribute to enhancing student learning outcomes. student use of a chatbot appears to improve conversational practice (alsadoon, 2021; çakmak, 2022; el shazly, 2021; kim et al., 2021; lin & mubarok, 2021). improvements have been observed even when students use the applications outside the classroom (çakmak, 2022) and enhancements with mind-mapping capabilities can be beneficial (lin & mubarok, 2021). negotiation for meaning can also be enhanced by pedagogical and conversational chatbot interventions (qinghua & satar, 2020). chatbots can be used to prepare for roleplay work in the classroom (el shazly, 2021) enhance vocabulary acquisition (alsadoon, 2021) and facilitate essay revision (han et al., 2023). these studies show that this type of chatbot technology can, and arguably should, be integrated with the standard curriculum in ways that enhance rather than replace teacher–student interaction. there is no single approach to this integration but rather many different options that can be adapted to local circumstances and targeted at a range of different language skills. the use of a personal assistant such as alexa can also enhance speaking skills, but, perhaps surprisingly, it did not improve listening skills (dizon, 2020). this result may be partly due to the design of the relevant experiment, which involved only 2 small groups of 13 and 15 students and may not have been able to measure listening skills adequately. some research suggests that the benefits of ai interventions vary according to the language level of the student (kim et al., 2021; qinghua & satar, 2020). these studies offer some insight into the importance of contextual factors in the use of ai, and they suggest that needs analysis and monitoring are essential for the best results. the use of an intelligent writing assistant has positive effects on student performance, as evidenced by fewer errors and greater lexical variation (dizon & gayed, 2021) as well as improved engagement and feedback literacy (rad et al., 2023). some positive results have been reported regarding the use of chatgpt by instructors to identify and analyze writing errors (al-garaady & mahyoob, 2023) but these benefits may be limited to the more superficial aspects of language learning. similarly, automatic speech recognition can be used to enhance error diagnosis in pronunciation (kholis, 2021; xiao & park, 2021) and this may, in turn, enhance pronunciation itself (kholis, 2021). more research is needed to explore how ai can best be implemented for written and spoken error analysis and pronunciation in efl. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 22-31 27 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 4. overview of the studies reviewed. no. authors and year objective of the study language skill participants ai tool used data collection method findings 1 al-garaady and mahyoob (2023) to evaluate the effectiveness of chat generative pre-trained transformer (chatgpt), an aibased tool, in detecting writing errors made by efl learners compared to human instructors writing university students (male = 54, female = 34) chatgpt • a corpus-based research design • human instructors analyzed texts written by students • the same written texts were analyzed using chatgpt 1. chatgpt primarily identified surface-level errors and struggled with identifying errors related to deep structure and pragmatics 2. human instructors were more adept than chatgpt at identifying complex issues in writing 3. incorporating chatgpt into language-learning environments enhances error analysis and improves writing skills and language proficiency 2 rad et al. (2023) to investigate the role of ai implementation in developing writing feedback literacy, enhancing writing engagement, and improving the overall writing outcomes of english learners writing 46 efl students from an iranian– english language institute wordtune (an ai-based writing app) • preand post-tests (writing tasks) • intervention: • the control group was exposed to a traditional lecture-based teaching strategy; the experimental group used an ai application (wordtune) to practice writing skills • writing feedback literacy scale • writing engagement scale • semi-structured interviews 1. the experimental group, which used the ai-based application wordtune, demonstrated significant improvements in writing outcomes, engagement, and feedback literacy 2. students expressed positive feedback regarding the effectiveness of wordtune in enhancing their writing 3 han et al. (2023) to investigate students’ perception and usage of chatgpt in english writing through a novel learning platform called recipe (revising an essay with chatgpt on an interactive platform for efl learners) writing 213 college students and 7 instructors in south korea chatgpt • preliminary questionnaire (to investigate students’ attitudes toward and expectations for chatgpt) • educational platform (recipe) • interviews (to explore the platform’s potential for integrating ai into the field of efl education) 1. students reported a positive user experience using chatgpt 2. students actively engaged with recipe, suggesting that it has the potential to enhance the learning experience 4 çakmak (2022) to examine the impact of chatbot–human interaction, specifically with the replika chatbot, on students’ second language (l2) speaking performance and speaking anxiety speaking 90 english efl students enrolled at a state university in turkey replika application • preand post-tests (to measure students’ performance in speaking tasks and speaking anxiety) • intervention: conversational tasks using the chatbot replika • an open-ended questionnaire (to gather students’ opinions on using chatbots for l2 speaking practice) 1. the chatbot had a positive impact on students’ speaking performance, leading to significant improvement 2. although students performed well with the chatbot, their speaking anxiety increased after interacting with the chatbot 3. students reported a negative perception of the chatbot as an english conversation partner 5 alsadoon (2021) to investigate the influence of an interactive chatbot enhanced with vocabulary-learning tools on efl vocabulary learning vocabulary 20 efl students (aged 18–33 years) at the british council in ai chatbot • a chatbot with four vocabulary tools: a dictionary, images, a translation tool, and a concordance • screen recordings (recording students’ 1. the vocabulary-learning chatbot positively impacted learners’ vocabulary knowledge, with the dictionary tool being the most favored and effective 2. participants reportedly enjoyed interacting with asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 22-31 28 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group no. authors and year objective of the study language skill participants ai tool used data collection method findings among saudi students saudi arabia look-up behavior) • preand post-questionnaire (to explore students’ attitudes toward the chatbot) • preand post-tests (to evaluate vocabulary knowledge and learning outcomes from using the chatbot) • delayed post-tests (to check students’ retention) the chatbot, perceiving it as a valuable resource for both authentic conversational practice and vocabulary acquisition 6 lin and mubarok (2021) to investigate the effect of an integrated mind-map guided and ai chatbot approach (mm-ai) in facilitating students’ speaking performance and interactions during the learning process speaking/ interaction 50 efl students at a taiwanese university ai chatbot • preand post-tests of speech • intervention: activities using the ai chatbot • experimental group (students who used mm-ai) • control group (students who used the conventional ai chatbot) 1. the mm-ai approach had a positive impact on students’ english-speaking performance 2. the mm-ai approach facilitated and organized interaction between robots and humans 7 xiao and park (2021) to examine the effectiveness of automatic speech recognition (asr) technology in identifying english pronunciation errors and investigate the attitudes of teachers and learners towards the use of asr technology as both a pronunciation assessment and learning tool pronunciation five chinese efl learners (ages 19-20) asr tool • read-aloud tests • a human-assessed test • an asr-assessed test • interviews (to investigate students’ attitudes) 1. the pronunciation errors identified by the asr overlapped with those detected by human raters 2. the asr technology successfully met the diverse pronunciation-learning needs of the learners 8 dizon and gayed (2021) to assess the effects of an intelligent writing assistant tool (grammarly) on the quality of english writing produced by japanese students writing 31 university efl students at a private japanese university grammarly (an intelligent writing tool) • freewriting tasks on students’ smartphones under two conditions: • control: writing without any aid • experimental: writing with the assistance of grammarly 1. grammarly had a significant, positive effect on the grammatical accuracy and lexical richness of l2 students’ language and helped them write more accurately 9 kim et al. (2021) to examine the effects of using ai chatbots in class activities according to students’ proficiency levels and how they motivate and shape students’ speaking experiences in the efl classroom speaking 49 university students who enrolled in a general english course ai chatbots (replika, andy, and google assistant) • preand post-test • design (to compare students’ improvement in english speaking within and between two proficiency levels) • speaking practice with ai chatbots on students’ smartphones 1. students showed significant improvement in the speaking tasks, and most of them spoke more proficiently after practicing with ai chatbot 2. the students improved their pronunciation, intonation, and stress 10 el shazly (2021) to investigate the use of ai in managing foreign language anxiety (fla) and improving speaking 48 undergraduate participants in egypt (aged 18– online chatbots (audrey, charles, cristal, • self-report questionnaire (to evaluate fla) 1. learners experienced fla both before and after the intervention, with slight intensification of anxiety during interactions with ai chatbots asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 22-31 29 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group no. authors and year objective of the study language skill participants ai tool used data collection method findings foreign language speaking proficiency in an efl class 20 years) and mike) • preand post-tests of speech (to evaluate the oral proficiency of the learners) • intervention (the students were introduced to different ai-driven applications with web chatbots as written and oral communicative virtual partners) 2. however, there was a significant improvement in speaking proficiency scores following the intervention, highlighting the potential of ai chatbots for enhanced communication in efl contexts 11 kholis (2021) to investigate the effect of implementing english language speech assistant. elsa speak application on students’ pronunciation skills pronunciation 18 higher education students at nahdlatul ulama university of yogyakarta (unu), indonesia elsa speak • preand post-tests of pronunciation • intervention (using elsa speak when teaching pronunciation) • interviews (to investigate students’ feelings about using elsa speak) • a questionnaire related to the use of elsa speak in teaching pronunciation • the elsa speak application helped the students pronounce more easily and precisely • elsa speak can support and improve students’ pronunciation 12 qinghua and satar (2020) to investigate chatbots’ potential in foreign language educating by exploring the frequency and patterns of negotiation for eamning (nfm) in computer-mediated communication conversation (nfm) eight undergraduate and postgraduate efl students from china ai chatbots (mike and mitsuku) • interact with the chatbots for 30 minutes each, resulting in 16 chat scripts 1. interaction with chatbots can provide learners with opportunities for nfm and thus language learning 2. learners with lower language proficiency benefited the most from interacting with the chatbots 3. learners with higher language proficiency expressed dissatisfaction with the chatbots and showed limited engagement in their interactions with the chatbots 13 dizon (2020) to investigate the use of an intelligent personal assistant (alexa) in the classroom setting to enhance listening comprehension and speaking proficiency among efl students listening and speaking 28 efl students at a japanese university (alexa) • two listening comprehension tests • a speaking proficiency test • intervention (a 10-week in-class treatment consisting of 12 minutes of alexa interaction each week) • survey (to assess students’ perceptions of alexa) 1. students demonstrated notable advancements in l2 speaking proficiency through the use of alexa 2. there were no significant impacts of alexa on students’ listening comprehension 3. students perceived alexa as a useful tool for learning english. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 22-31 30 © 2024 by the author; licensee asian online journal publishing group these improvements to core skills, such as speaking, listening, and writing, were identified through quantitative analyses of student performance. thus, they can be relied upon as a general endorsement of the integration of chatbots, automated writing evaluation, and writing assistance technologies into efl. however, other research methods, such as attitude questionnaires, have provided quantitative results that are much more mixed. some researchers have reported positive student attitudes toward chatbot ap plications (alsadoon, 2021) while others have reported increased anxiety (alsadoon, 2021; çakmak, 2022). research question 2. we must conclude from these decidedly mixed findings that the pedagogical implications of integrating ai techniques into efl are bound to be varied, complex, and difficult to quantify. results appear to vary in different settings and among individual students and teachers as well as across different levels of language ability, leading to contradictory recommendations in the relevant literature. this is, perhaps, to be expected in a field that is so new. overall, this analysis provides strong evidence that a range of different chatbot applications, used in a variety of different ways, can have a positive impact on pronunciation and speaking performance. this comes, however, with some caveats and limitations, such as decreased motivation in some students, increased anxiety, and benefits in one skill (e.g., speaking) but not another (e.g., listening). the benefits are likely to be more obvious in the more superficial areas of language learning, and as students become more proficient, they may be more easily bored with ai, so that the benefits are less apparent. the evidence for writing assistants of various kinds also suggests great potential and fewer negative implications, but the number of studies thus far is small, and cohort sizes tend to also be small. therefore, the results may not yet be reliable. 4. conclusion this decisively mixed picture makes it difficult to provide uniformly applicable guidelines for effectively integrating ai into language classrooms. nevertheless, the following specific guidelines point the way toward the successful integration of ai: • it is best to aim for more basic and superficial levels and skills at first to avoid vague or unrealistic expectations. • efl professionals must clearly define and convey the precise goals that they aim to achieve with the use of ai (e.g., routine practice of listening, speaking, reading, or writing; vocabulary building; error analysis; and essay revision). • chatbots and writing assistants are a good starting point for the use of ai, but time must be devoted to familiarizing instructors and students with the benefits of their use as well as any potential limitations or disadvantages. • attention must be paid to integrating ai techniques with other teaching and learning methods and equipment inside and outside the classroom. • more empirical studies are needed in order to test the theories and results presented in the slowly emerging research in this exciting field. references al-garaady, j., & mahyoob, m. 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(2019). systematic review of research on artificial intelligence applications in higher education–where are the educators? international journal of educational technology in higher education, 16(1), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0171-0 asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12861 https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2023.2208170 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed614308 https://doi.org/10.33675/angl/2022/1/14 https://doi.org/10.33423/jhetp.v22i13.5514 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2014.09.001 https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-019-0165-6 https://doi.org/10.4018/ijcallt.2021070105 https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0171-0 32 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 2, 32-40, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i2.5704 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group industrial policy and diversification in the economic development of kazakhstan heejae yeo1 jai s. mah2 ( corresponding author) 1nh investment & securities, uk. email: heejaey0922@gmail.com 2ewha womans university, south korea. email: jsmah59@gmail.com abstract this paper explains the role of industrial policy and diversification in kazakhstan. the oil and gas sector has led kazakhstan’s economic growth. kazakhstan’s economic growth rate has been mediocre compared with its neighbouring countries. the government pursued market-based reform, privatization, and diversification. although it has emphasized developing agriculture and manufacturing, development in sectors other than oil and gas has not been apparent. the dominance of the extractive sector suggests the existence of the dutch disease. after explaining industrial policy measures, this paper evaluates the role of government policy and provides policy implications for developing countries. although the government has tried to diversify from a heavy reliance on the oil and gas sector to the agricultural and manufacturing sectors, the diversification strategy has been unsuccessful overall. kazakhstan’s government must pay more attention to improving human capital and raising r&d expenditure. active government policy is needed to diversify fdi inflows by sector. the government must clarify the objective of sme promotion and fiscal incentives must be finely targeted, considering industrial policy objectives. clusters must be closely related to the overall direction of the industrial policy. the government must establish other infrastructure that may attract foreign investors to value-added industries. keywords: diversification, economic development, industrial policy, kazakhstan, natural resources. citation | yeo, h., & mah, j. s. (2024). industrial policy and diversification in the economic development of kazakhstan. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(2), 32–40. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i2.5704 history: received: 18 march 2024 revised: 13 may 2024 accepted: 23 may 2024 published: 7 june 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: not applicable. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 33 2. the industrial structure of kazakhstan ...................................................................................................................................... 33 3. industrial policy and structural transformation ..................................................................................................................... 34 4. measures of industrial policy: regulations and incentives .................................................................................................... 37 5. conclusions and policy implications ........................................................................................................................................... 39 references .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 39 mailto:heejaey0922@gmail.com mailto:jsmah59@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i2.5704 https://orcid.org/0009-0005-7557-4185 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4909-8606 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 32-40 33 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature this paper explains the role of industrial policy and diversification in kazakhstan. kazakhstan’s economic growth rate has been mediocre. the government pursued market-based reform, privatization, and diversification, while the dominance of the extractive sector suggests the existence of dutch disease. this paper provides policy implications for developing countries. 1. introduction following independence from the soviet union, kazakhstan’s annual average real gross domestic product(gdp) growth rate plummeted to -10.0% during 1993-1995. it has since recovered, recording a growth rate of 5.2% during 1996-2021. economic growth has been primarily led by a boom in the oil and gas sector. gdp per capita increased from us$1,552 in 1992 to us$9,935 in 2021. despite kazakhstan’s rich natural resources, its economic growth rate since independence has been mediocre compared with neighboring transitioning economies in central asia, such as uzbekistan (bae & mah, 2019; unctad, 2023a). despite gradual rises in the shares of other sectors, the oil and gas sector has led the economy, comprising close to two-thirds of exports as of the mid-2010s (oecd, 2016). oil, gas, and related sectors generated 17% of the gdp in 2020 and about half of the government revenue (iea, 2022). in the process of transition, the government pursued market-based reform, privatization, and diversification to decrease the heavy reliance on the oil and gas sector. in trying to diversify sectors, the government has emphasized the development of agriculture and manufacturing. despite these diversification and industrialization efforts, development in sectors other than oil and gas has yet to be notable. this paper explains the evolution and current status of kazakhstan's economy and discusses the government’s diversification and industrialization policies in its economic development process. it evaluates the role of government policy considering kazakhstan’s economic structure. the structure of this paper is as follows: section 2 explains kazakhstan’s evolving industrial structure. section 3 provides the direction of kazakhstan’s industrial policy since independence. section 4 explains the government policy measures for diversification and industrialization. conclusions and policy implications for developing countries dependent on natural resources are provided in section 5. 2. the industrial structure of kazakhstan kazakhstan is abundant in natural resources, particularly crude oil and natural gas, with the oil and gas sector acting as the primary economic driver. despite the increased shares of non-oil sectors, the oil and gas sector still comprised about 30% of gdp and nearly two-thirds of exports as of the mid-2010s (oecd, 2016). 2.1. dependence on the extractive sector kazakhstan possesses oil reserves of 30 billion barrels and gas reserves of 2.3 trillion cubic meters, encompassing 1.7% and 1.2% of the world’s total reserves, respectively (bp, 2022). despite the substantial contributions of the oil and gas sector, it employs only 1% of the country’s workers (anderson, capannelli, ginting, rosbach, & taniguchi, 2018; iea, 2022; oecd, 1998). the proportion of value-added from the oil, gas, and mining sectors increased from 8% in 1998 to 20% in 2010 (oecd, 2016). as delineated in table 1, crude oil production more than tripled, escalating from 1.1 million terajoules (tjs) in 1990 to 3.6 million tjs in 2020. natural gas production quadrupled from .3 million tjs in 1990 to 1.2 million tjs in 2020. the oil and gas sector’s share moderately decreased from 25.3% of gdp in 2010 to 18.6% in 2020 (agency for strategic planning and reforms of the republic of kazakhstan bureau of national statistics, 2023). the top five exports, predominately concentrated in the extractive sector, amounting to about 70% of total exports as of the mid-2010s (oecd, 2016). table 1. oil and natural gas production in kazakhstan (unit: million tj). 1990 2000 2010 2020 crude oil 1.1 1.5 3.3 3.6 natural gas 0.3 0.3 1.1 1.2 source: bp (2022). kazakhstan had been deeply integrated into russia’s oil and gas supply network, with the majority of its crude oil being exported to russia and other nations of the former soviet union through russian pipelines. within these pipelines, export margins were smaller than those of western markets. the government's medium-term public investment program for the oil and gas sector prioritized the completion of the caspian petroleum consortium (cpc) pipeline, a strategic initiative to enhance kazakhstan’s export capacities (oecd, 1998). as of the early 2020s, around 80% of kazakh oil was exported predominantly to russia via the cpc pipeline. however, in an effort to mitigate the risks in its over-reliance on russian markets, kazakhstan has embarked on a mission to diversify its export destinations. for example, it has tried to increase the export of oil and gas to china, although this remained trivial as of the early 2020s (iea, 2022). 2.2. agriculture and manufacturing sectors in the late soviet era, the government centrally controlled the production, distribution, and processing of food, boosting the agriculture sector through subsidies. upon independence, the government tried to decrease dependence on food imports by increasing domestic food production (oecd, 2022). kazakhstan has a vast agricultural land area of 222 million hectares, with the availability of agricultural land per rural resident exceeding that of any other country in the region (oecd, 2022; petrick, raitzer, & burkitbayeva, 2018). leveraging this comparative advantage, the government has attempted to develop the agricultural sector using various policy measures aimed at developing the agricultural sector. donor agencies such as the asian development bank (adb), recognized the agricultural sector’s potential in the 1990s, providing agribusiness loans. furthermore, the sector has attracted foreign direct investment asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 32-40 34 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group (fdi), such as joint ventures for grain production with the us company cargill. another notable foreign investment was made by philp morris, investing us$300 million in cigarette manufacturing using local tobacco in the 1990s (oecd, 1998). an agglomeration of enterprises in the agricultural sector garnered considerable fdi in the early 2000s (petrick et al., 2018). despite the government’s efforts, improvement within the agricultural sector has been limited. as illustrated in table 2, the share of the agriculture, forestry, and fishing sectors has been stagnant, steadfastly hovering between 4 and 6% of gdp throughout 2007 to 2021. the self-employment rate in agriculture is very high, at about 50%, indicating that many agricultural workers have low productivity, mainly producing for subsistence (oecd, 2016). table 2. composition of gdp by sector (unit: percentage of gdp). year agriculture, forestry, and fishing industry construction services 2007 5.7 28.3 9.4 54.3 2010 4.5 32.9 7.7 51.7 2015 4.8 24.7 6.0 59.4 2020 6.1 27.1 6.1 56.0 2021 5.7 29.6 5.7 53.8 source: agency for strategic planning and reforms of the republic of kazakhstan bureau of national statistics (2023). despite generous governmental support, livestock production is yet to recover to the pre-independence level. priority sectors such as meat and milk production remain below pre-transition levels. the agricultural sector has been crowded out and made less competitive due to the burgeoning influence of the oil and gas sector. despite kazakhstan's rich resource endowments and governmental support, the agricultural sector persistently underperforms relative to its potential, and kazakhstan remains a net food importer. the export performance of his sector has been uninspiring, with the agro-food sector accounting for merely 5% of total exports (petrick et al., 2018). additionally, the manufacturing sector hasn’t been noteworthy. this sector's contribution to gdp has shown a constant downfall from 16% in 2000 to 12% in 2005, 11% in 2010, and 10% in 2015. reflecting the government’s effort to improve the manufacturing sector in the 2010s, the gdp share slightly increased to 14% in 2021. however, this figure remains significantly smaller than the average share of upper-middle-income countries, which equalled 22 and 23% during the 2010s (world bank, 2022). meanwhile, kazakhstan’s manufacturing sector showed a considerable increase in productivity and employment in the mid-2010s (oecd, 2016). 3. industrial policy and structural transformation 3.1. the overall direction of industrial policy after independence, the government of kazakhstan focused on nation-building and transitioned away from a centralized economic system. during the 1990s, it pursued privatization and offered large shares to foreign and private agents (oecd, 1998). however, despite its active efforts of privatization, the government sector remains very much present, with state-owned enterprises (soes) comprising 35 to 40% of the national economy by the mid to late 2010s (world bank, 2018). as a country highly dependent on natural resources, kazakhstan faces risks associated with highly volatile resource prices (anderson et al., 2018; world bank, 2013). as a response, the government has strived to diversify its economy. the government has implemented multiple programs throughout the years to facilitate diversification and identify new avenues for growth (oecd, 2016). a pivotal moment in this strategic shift was marked by the introduction of ‘kazakhstan 2030’ in 1997, the country’s first long-term development strategy, which not only acknowledged its vulnerabilities but also mapped a way towards diversifying the economy away from its traditional reliance on the extractive sector to other value-added industries with potential (world bank, 2013; zhelev, 2019). subsequently, a variety of plans and initiatives were implemented to promote the development of non-oil sectors and attract fdi (world bank, 2018). 3.2. the promotion of the non-extractive sectors in light of kazakhstan’s abundant land, the government has continued to iterate its ambition of becoming a major global supplier of agricultural products. this goal has been supported through several economic plans and programs that include land reforms, expanding access to credit, input and output subsidies, and lending at preferential interest rates (oecd, 2022; petrick et al., 2018). beginning in 1992, the government of kazakhstan actively pursued market-based reform. the agricultural sector was no exception, starting with the price liberalization of agricultural products (oecd, 2022). the land market liberalization progressed gradually from an initial state of complete state ownership at the beginning of independence. although a new land code granted full private ownership of agricultural land in 2005, its effect was limited. large agricultural enterprises were the main beneficiaries, and private ownership of agricultural land comprised a mere 1.4% by 2019 (kvartiuk & petrick, 2021; ministry of agriculture of kazakhstan, 2020; petrick et al., 2018). furthermore, discriminatory agricultural and forestry land use regulations have deterred fdi in the agricultural sector (oecd, 2017a). government subsidies have been the cornerstone of agricultural business growth. five organizations were established to provide direct financing to address the limited access to credit faced by agribusiness in the 2000s (oecd, 2013). restructuring agricultural loans commenced in 2013, aimed at easing credit conditions for those in the agricultural sector by lowering interest rates and writing off penalties for overdue loans. the government identified priority sectors, such as livestock and meat, providing concessional lending to promote these sectors (oecd, 2015, 2022). government spending on livestock subsidies and veterinary services amounted to one-third of all agricultural policy expenses as of the early 2010s (petrick et al., 2018). although production subsidies in the agricultural sector have decreased since the mid-2010s, the producer support estimate (pse) as a share of the gross asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 32-40 35 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group farm receipt (gfr) peaked at 22.3% in 1998, then decreased to 10.2% from 2011-2015, and subsequently to 3.9% from 2016-2021 (oecd, 2023). the food sector has sought substantial investment since the 1990s (oecd, 1998). the government has also established investment and trade liberalization initiatives. however, government policies have failed to yield the intended results; producer support lacked consistency and subsidies did not have a balanced effect as they were concentrated among large enterprises and agro-holdings (anderson et al., 2018; petrick et al., 2018). developing the manufacturing sector was a big part of kazakhstan’s diversification strategy. the government’s intention to focus on this sector was explicitly mentioned in the state programme for accelerated industrial and innovative development (spaiid) for 2010-2014. the government highlighted seven sectors for the state plan, including transport equipment, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. nonetheless, the results of spaiid 2010-2014 were overall unsatisfactory in reaching manufacturing output growth targets (julian & taniguchi, 2018). despite these shortcomings, the policy successfully attracted fdi to the manufacturing sector, bringing in 2.9 times more fdi in the five years of implementing the plan than the five years preceding it (united nations conference on trade and development (unctad), 2020). the state programme for industrial and innovative development (spiid) for 2020-2025 was enacted to nurture a competitive manufacturing industry, setting the target of increasing the export volume of the manufacturing sector by 1.9 times that of the 2018 level (baiterek, 2023). 3.3. promotion of smalland medium-sized enterprises (smes) a critical characteristic of kazakhstan’s economy is the substantial presence of soes. soes in operation are responsible for about 30-40% of gdp, and the presence of soes in the national economy is the highest among oecd countries (world bank, 2018). the government has attempted to reduce this by banning new soes in the manufacturing sector and replacing them with smes (julian & taniguchi, 2018). however, the contribution of kazakhstan’s smes is relatively low. as of the mid to late 2010s, smes accounted for 20% of the gdp and 28% of employment, which is low compared to other countries heavily relying on natural resources like saudi arabia (world bank, 2018). most smes are in the wholesale and retail trade sector, which generally do not require advanced entrepreneurial skills (oecd, 2014a). realizing that concentrating on soes with little support for smes hinders diversification, the government set ‘kazakhstan 2050 plan’ with the target of raising sme contribution to gdp to 50% (world bank, 2018). samruk-kazyna, an soe, created the damu entrepreneurship development fund in 1997 to finance the development of smes (oecd, 2014a). the fund is designed to support smes by providing credit, interest rate rebates, and training. it provides direct loans to smes to address the limited access to credit, which was identified as a main constraint for sme development (adb, 2020). the damu fund has also financed the business road map 2020, launched in 2010, which aims to encourage sme growth, especially in relatively poor regions (oecd, 2020b). additionally, in 2002, a collaborative initiative between the united nations development programme and tengizchvroil successfully implemented a business incubator program providing interest-free loans to smes in the oilfield services market (atakhanova, 2018). meanwhile, commercial banks have shown marked reluctance to lend to smes due to weak growth and a high risk of insolvency (world bank, 2021). also, due to relatively low productivity, small sizes, and high engagement in subsistence entrepreneurship, smes in kazakhstan have not been so successful in contributing to the development of the national economy (oecd, 2017c). 3.4. promotion of science, technology, and innovation (sti) at the dawn of independence, kazakhstan inherited a well-developed science and education system. as research had been almost exclusively done by public authorities, the substantial decrease in funding during the 1990s led to a sharp decline in kazakhstan’s research capacity and education levels. unlike the science and education system, kazakhstan had inherited a poor information and communication technology (ict) infrastructure from the soviet union. recognizing the difficulties arising from this poor ict infrastructure, the government prioritized improvements, resulting in rapid enhancements (oecd, 2017c). the national sti policy aims to improve integration with global value chains and enterprises to increase the production of high-value-added products and to establish favorable conditions for r&d and entrepreneurship (shevchenko, 2020). throughout the years, plans like spaiid 2010-2014 and spiid 2015-2019 assisted in the diversification of the economy through high-value-added goods and entrepreneurial support (julian & taniguchi, 2018; oecd, 2017c). an appropriate sti policy can contribute to the development and production of such highvalue-added goods. the state plans emphasize infrastructure development, entrepreneurship, and r&d (shevchenko, 2020). efforts to bolster innovation have yielded some success. for example, innovation-based companies increased nearly fourfold from 2008 to 2012, and the percentage of companies involved in innovation exceeded the government goal of 6.8%, reaching 7.2% in 2012. technology parks such as the national industrial petrochemical park in atryrau city and the information technology park in alatau were built to provide an environment for innovative businesses and accelerate the commercialization of scientific research (oecd, 2017b). meanwhile, kazakhstan's r&d expenditure as a percentage of gdp is steadily declining. table 3 illustrates that, as of 2020, kazakhstan spent a mere 0.13% of its gdp on research and development(r&d), much lower than the world average of 2.63%. even compared to the other countries in central asia, kazakhstan’s r&d expenditure is deficient. table 3. r&d expenditure of kazakhstan, the world, europe, and central asia (unit: percentage of gdp). 1997 2000 2010 2020 kazakhstan world 0.29 0.18 0.15 0.13 europe and central asia 2 1.96 2.05 2.01 2.63 (excluding high-income countries) 0.85 0.72 0.90 0.9 source: unesco institute for statistics (uis) (2022). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 32-40 36 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group skills needed for innovative activities are notably deficient in kazakhstan, urging prompt governmental action to elevate the low educational levels (oecd, 2017b). kazakhstan’s innovation capability ranks low at 95 out of 141 countries (world economic forum, 2019). the share of innovative products in the gdp equalled 1.6%in 2005, with only a slight increase to 1.7% in 2021 (agency for strategic planning and reforms of the republic of kazakhstan bureau of national statistics, 2023). this implies that kazakhstan’s advancements in the innovation sector significantly underscored that of its overall economic growth since the early 2000s. 3.5. education the state programme of education development covering 2011-2025 aims to improve education to support the innovative development of the economy. the government has also implemented the state programme for the development of vocational and professional education in kazakhstan and the know about business initiative to manage technical education better and promote entrepreneurship education (european commission (ec) and organization for economic co-operation and development (oecd), 2023; oecd, 2014c). table 4 shows that the number of students studying in technical and vocational post-secondary education organizations more than tripled during 2000 – 2010 but has since declined. this trend suggests that the manufacturing sector did not generate jobs appropriate for semi-skilled workers in the 2000s. discouraged by the lack of demand for such semi-skilled or skilled workers, young students may have switched to general education, thereby indicating that the human capital potential is still underdeveloped and underutilized (world bank, 2022). for example, elementary school student performance in reading, mathematics, and science falls below the oecd average (oecd, 2017c). on the bright side, the gross enrolment rate in higher education, including doctoral students, rose from 37.8% in 2000 to 64.2% in 2020, a rate that is exceptionally high compared to kazakhstan’s per capita gdp. the number of doctoral students began to rise in the second half of the 2000s and tripled between 2015 and 2020. table 4. education statistics. 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 the number of students studying 168.189 397.631 604.244 498.965 477.539 in the organization of technical and vocational, post-secondary education (persons) 37.8 57.2 49.5 48.4 64.2 in higher education (percent) number of doctoral students (persons) 245 303 960 2.219 6.914 source: agency for strategic planning and reforms of the republic of kazakhstan bureau of national statistics (2023). 3.6. attracting fdi fdi inflows have been of great importance to kazakhstan’s economy. in the early years of independence, the government quickly began to welcome fdi (asian development bank, 2018). kazakhstan was seen as very attractive to foreign investors right after independence, as it had underexploited energy and mineral resources coupled with quickly progressing privatization. the government mainly focused on privatizing the power, energy, and telecommunication sectors, which are of great interest to foreign investors. the oil and gas sector was the primary attractor of fdi, representing 46% of fdi inflow during 1993-1997. this inflow doubled from us$.6 billion in 1994 to us$1.2 billion in 1997 (national bank of kazakhstan, 2023; oecd, 1998). since the early 1990s, kazakhstan has received more than half of the fdi into central asia, with only a few exceptional years, as shown in table 5. in 2021, kazakhstan attracted us$3.2 billion in fdi. oil and gas have been the main drivers of fdi inflows. the kazakhstani government’s future plan hinges on securing increased and further diversified foreign investment across various sectors. despite aspirations, kazakhstan’s non-energy sectors have only managed to attract limited investment. three main challenges hinder the flow of fdi into kazakhstan: frequent changes in legislation, the lack of enforcement of arbitration decisions, and the regulatory framework (vanderhill, joireman, & tulepbayeva, 2019). table 5. fdi inflows of the world, central asia, and kazakhstan (unit: us$ billion). year world central asia kazakhstan 1995 345.1 1.3 1.0 2000 1,356.7 1.5 1.3 2005 953.2 2.6 2.0 2010 1,391.1 2.6 1.6 2015 2,063.6 9.9 4.1 2020 963.1 6.3 3.7 2021 1,582.3 7.0 3.2 source: unctad (2022). as of the mid-2010s, geological exploration and prospecting activities accounted for 53% of inward fdi stock. the share of cross-border mergers & acquisitions(m&a) in the oil and gas sector has been on the decline from 74% in 1996-2001 to 50% in 2008-2015, although it is still crucial in attracting fdi (oecd, 2017a). as fdi inflows were mainly concentrated in the oil and gas sector, the government aimed to attract investment in non-energy sectors, although this was minor compared to the energy sector. table 6 shows that, in 2022, gross fdi into the manufacturing sector amounted to us$4.9 billion, whereas the mining and quarrying sector was responsible for us$10.1 billion. according to table 6 despite governmental efforts, the fdi share directed to quarrying and mining (mostly oil and gas) rose from about a quarter of the total fdi during 2005-2015 to almost half in the early 2020s. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 32-40 37 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 6. fdi inflows by sector (unit: us$ million). sector year 2005 2010 2015 2020 2022 agriculture, forestry, and fishing 1 6 72 14 24 mining and quarrying 1.930 5.982 3.455 8.204 10.084 manufacturing 347 2.244 2.589 3.170 4.911 wholesale and retail trade etc. 387 1.522 1.550 2.629 3.776 information and communication 30 357 41 212 269 financial and insurance activities 110 608 470 1.030 871 others 5.111 11.527 7.191 1.907 2.130 total 7.916 22.246 15.368 17.166 22.065 source: national bank of kazakhstan (2023). 3.7. trade promotion kazakhstan has a relatively liberal trade policy compared to the rest of central asia (petrick et al., 2018). with the country's accession to the world trade organisation (wto) in 2015 and an fta signed between the eurasian economic union (eaeu) and serbia, the government expected an increase in agricultural exports (oecd, 2022; pomfret, 2016). under the business road map 2020, the ministry of industry and new technologies reimbursed 50% of firms’ eligible export promotion expenses to promote exports. this reimbursement is restricted to indirect measures of export promotion, such as marketing research, advertising costs, training, participating in foreign exhibitions, and registering products and trademarks abroad (world trade organisation (wto), 2013). such indirect measures of export promotion are allowed within wto regulations. kazakhexport provides export insurance services to exporters, also allowed within the current wto system (international credit insurance and surety association, 2023). 4. measures of industrial policy: regulations and incentives 4.1. regulations kazakhstan prudently managed its extractive sectors through waves of nationalization and privatization of corporations. in 1992, the government established a state-holding company, kazastanmunaigas, to better manage energy enterprises (orazgaliyev, 2019). the government took measures to restructure the sector in the 1990s, which included privatization, the liberalization of crude oil prices, and corporatization under the sector's holding groups (oecd, 1998). in 2002, this entity was transformed into kazmunaigaz, a fully integrated national oil company, to strengthen its intervention and nurture the strategically important energy sector. to optimize the management of soes, the government transferred its share of kazmunaigaz and shares in other sectors and formed samruk-kazyna, a joint stock company (orazgaliyev, 2019). furthermore, the government created regulatory policies that bound foreign oil companies to form strategic partnerships, enhancing local oversight and integration (orazgaliyev, 2019). throughout the twenty-first century, the government undertook revisions to energy sector legislation. this included amendments to the tax code aimed at rebalancing oil wealth benefits and further strengthening its grip on the sector (international monetary fund (imf), 2011). this state-driven development of the oil and gas sector has led to the dominance of the public sector (united nations conference on trade and development (unctad), 2020). 4.2. fiscal incentives kazakhstan’s first tax code was adopted in 1995, and the 2008 tax code was characterized by significant changes (oecd, 2017a). kazakhstan’s tax code has been maintained to diversify away from the extractive sector and to attract fdi. it involves many exemptions, especially in value-added tax (vat) and corporate income tax. the government identified priority investment projects, including metallurgy, chemical, petrochemical, mechanical engineering, food, and construction material production. these priority investment projects are subject to targeted incentives such as tax incentives, tax holidays for ten years, and land and property tax exemptions for eight to ten years. a special tax regime for the agricultural sector provides producers of agricultural products with a 70% reduction in income tax, vat, social tax, property tax, and vehicle tax (oecd, 2017a). to promote the automotive industry, the government has implemented preferential import duties (i.e., reducing import tariffs to 0 to 5%) concerning the components used in automobile assembly (world trade organisation (wto), 2013). while the government expected increased tax revenue from its oil and gas sector with the 2009 amendment that abolished many of the sector’s tax privileges, it had minimal effect, thus failing to improve tax revenue from this sector (oecd, 2014b). in 2017, the government made further changes to its fiscal policy, introducing more favorable treatment of exploration expenses (international monetary fund, 2018). managing the assets from oil revenue has become critical for kazakhstan’s development (international monetary fund, 2017; oecd, 2016). the national fund of the republic of kazakhstan (nfrk) was established in 2000 to soften the impact of oil price volatility and distribute oil rents across generations (anderson et al., 2018; oecd, 2016). the nfrk makes transfers to the government budget, which have been used to support the banking sector's recovery, provide credit lending for smes, and support state programs (oecd, 2016) such as nurly zhol, launched in 2014 (adb, 2021). the program helped build infrastructure, provided subsidized credit to smes, and offset budget cuts made in 2015 (madani & sarsenov, 2015). 4.3. financial incentives the kazakhstan government provides financial incentives to support certain non-primary priority sectors. during the 2010s, as part of the business road map 2020, the ministry of economy and budget planning partially guaranteed bank loans. under this program, the government provided subsidies for enterprises implementing investment projects in the government-approved priority sectors, including agriculture, mining, light industry, furniture production, construction materials, metallurgy, machinery building, transport, warehousing, and tourism asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 32-40 38 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group services. guarantee exposure was capped at 50% of the loan amount, with a maximum loan amount of 4.5 billion tenges (about us$30 million) for each borrower (world trade organisation (wto), 2013). as there is a certain limit to the guarantee amount, this program promotes both non-primary sectors and smes. kazakhstan still face challenges regarding low inclusivity in its loan programs. only 1.5% of the population has experience in borrowing to start, operate, or expand a farm or business. such statistics suggest possible credit access barriers for microentrepreneurs or smes. kazakhstan’s subsidy system of providing credit and inputs mainly applies to soes and deters sme development (world bank, 2018). 4.4. investment regulations and incentives kazakhstan’s investment policy objective has been directed towards creating favorable conditions for investors investing in new technology, expanding and renovating existing production facilities, training, and protecting the environment. national legislation facilitates channelling investments into various priority sectors (world trade organisation (wto), 2013). kazakhstan enacted the foreign investment law in 1994, which provided several guarantees to foreign investors, including safeguards against expropriation and framework for international business dispute settlement. it also allowed foreign involvement in privatization, joint ventures, management, and concessions (oecd, 1998). the law on investments was introduced in 2003, with additional amendments made in 2014, offering guarantees for investors’ income and legal protection and customs duty exemption for up to five years when importing manufacturing equipment. moreover, an investment subsidy of up to 30% of actual expenses is provided for investors realizing a priority investment project (unctad, 2023b). kazakhstan has made significant improvements in its investment environment, as made evident in its ranking in the world bank’s ease of doing business ranking, moving from 68th in 2010 to 25th in 2020 (world bank, 2010, 2020). although kazakhstan has maintained a relatively open statutory regime for foreign investors, its fdi regulatory restrictiveness score is still above the average oecd levels, specifically due to certain service sectors that set limits for foreign investors and discriminatory regulations in agricultural and forestry land usage (oecd, 2017a). kazakhstan’s stringent foreign labor policy has also been an obstacle for foreign investors. to hire foreign workers, employers must acquire work permits. difficulties in hiring foreign workers have been one of the top complaints from foreign investors. to address this problem, the government has given some work permit exemptions to individuals with priority sector investment contracts and exempted employers in special economic zones (sezs) from regulations on hiring foreign workers (oecd, 2017a). the government also imposes local content requirements, especially in the oil and gas sector, to induce investors to use kazakhstan’s resources (oecd, 2017a). 4.5. developing clusters and sezs since 2010, with the introduction of strategy 2020, kazakhstan has pursued a diversification policy and established regional growth centers. kazakhstan’s clusters were established in 2014 (oecd, 2017b, 2020b). these clusters comprise six narrowly specialized territorial and three national clusters. they include a flour cluster, tourist cluster, construction cluster, furniture cluster, milk processing cluster, and pharmaceutical cluster. kazakhstan’s cluster policy emphasizes human resource development and strives to attract fdi. it emphasizes active cooperation with international partners to help realize kazakhstan’s production potential and transition from industrial clusters to innovation clusters (chkoniya & meshkov, 2019). while some clusters reflect the government’s industrial policy, i.e., the promotion of agriculture and manufacturing, regional growth was still concentrated in oil-rich regions as of 2020. kazakhstan’s regional development policies have faced challenges, particularly due to its top-down approach, leaving little room for stakeholder participation (oecd, 2020b). the world economic forum (2019) ranked kazakhstan 122nd out of 141 countries with respect to the state of cluster development, indicating that kazakhstan’s cluster development policy has not been successful. sezs began to be established in 1996 to attract investment (oecd, 1998). the government uses sezs as a favored means of promoting investment and diversification (agaidarov & rahardja, 2012). table 7 shows 13 sezs existing as of early 2023, indicating the government’s intention of promoting certain sectors. for example, most sezs target attracting investment in chemistry and petrochemistry, metallurgy, it, and r&d. that is, considering the industries targeted by sezs, the government appears to emphasize the development of more value-added industries such as heavy and chemical industries and technology-intensive sectors. sezs attract investment and promote exports by exempting investors from three codes: tax, labor, and customs, aimed to ease exceptions business conduct within the zones (asian development bank, 2018). sezs enjoy many tax privileges, including preferential treatment such as 100% exemption on corporate income, land, and property tax not exceeding ten years (oecd, 2020a; world trade organisation (wto), 2013). table 7. sezs in kazakhstan. sezs sectoral orientation asthana-technopolis mixed asthana-new city mixed nipt chemistry and petrochemistry seaport aktau logistics and oil equipment ontustik textile and petrochemistry chemical park taraz chemistry qyzyliar mixed pavlodar chemistry, petrochemistry, and metallurgy saryarka metallurgy and heavy engineering pit ict and r&d khorgos-east gate mixed icbc “khorogos” mixed source: kazakh invest (2023). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(2): 32-40 39 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 5. conclusions and policy implications kazakhstan’s economy is highly dependent on the extractive sector. the economy’s growth can be attributed to the oil and gas sector, attracting a substantial amount of fdi and providing kazakhstan with the funds to develop the economy. the government realized the risks of its over-dependence on the extractive sector in the 1990s and has since strived to diversify its economy. this paper explains the industrial policy pursued by kazakhstan’s government and evaluates its long-term performance in the economic development process. it also derives policy implications for kazakhstan’s future economic development and for developing countries whose economies rely heavily on natural resources. the government established the national fund to manage the revenue from oil and gas. this fund has contributed to the risk management arising from the volatility of oil and gas export prices. establishing and appropriately managing such a national fund would benefit the economy, which relies heavily on producing and exporting natural resources such as oil and gas. although the government has tried to diversify from a heavy reliance on the oil and gas sector to the agricultural and manufacturing sectors using various policy measures, the diversification strategy has been unsuccessful overall. this indicates that the oil and gas sector has directed the limited available human resources away from the non-extractive sector. despite the importance of r&d and innovation in economic development based on more value-added industries, the share of r&d expenditure in kazakhstan’s gdp has declined, unlike in most other countries. the innovative capability of kazakhstan appears not to have improved significantly since the 2000s. therefore, kazakhstan’s government must pay more attention to improving human capital and nurturing innovative capabilities through raising r&d expenditure. kazakhstan has successfully attracted fdi since independence, although fdi inflows have been heavily concentrated in the oil and gas sector. despite the government’s effort to attract fdi into non-energy sectors, the oil and gas sector still absorbed nearly half of the total fdi in the early 2020s. this is due to the high regulatory measures persisting in some sectors, deterring investment. active government policy is needed to diversify fdi inflows by sector to prepare for the future when oil and gas are depleted. the government has tried to promote smes through financial incentives, although smes’ performance is still unsatisfactory. the government of kazakhstan must clarify the objective of sme promotion and design appropriate tax and financial incentives. similarly, developing countries wishing to promote smes should also clarify objectives explicitly. for example, they should designate objectives such as income distribution, innovation, employment generation, etc., and design financial and fiscal incentives together with strengthening the infrastructure to achieve these objectives. various industrial policy measures exist in kazakhstan. for example, tax incentives are provided for firms located in sezs and investors in priority sectors. the government provides funds to support infrastructure and leading sectors; however, those financing opportunities do not appear to be appropriately provided to smes. therefore, such fiscal incentives must be finely targeted, considering industrial policy objectives. the government established clusters to support regional development. however, performance has been largely concentrated in oil-related regions, indicating that the cluster policy has been unsuccessful. to support the effectiveness of the cluster development policy, clusters must be closely related to the overall direction of the industrial policy. the government established sezs to attract fdi and promote exports. by sector, sezs appear to be focused on value-added industries. although the sectoral target appears plausible, the effectiveness of sezs on fdi attraction and diversification has been questionable (oecd, 2017a). the dominance of the mining sector increased in the early 2020s. besides sezs, the government must establish other infrastructure that may attract foreign investors to value-added, technology-intensive industries. education is critical in economic development by supplying human resources with advanced technologies to industries. kazakhstan has implemented several ambitious programs to increase education levels. kazakhstan’s gross enrolment ratio in higher education and the number of doctoral students jumped over the past few decades, which may indicate a bright future for the development of value-added industries needing well-educated human resources. meanwhile, the educational environment has much room for improvement, such as increased pay for teachers and better quality of education (oecd, 2013). r&d expenditure and improving tertiary science and engineering education are important for economic development. kazakhstan shows unsatisfactory performance in science and mathematics, which may deter the development of the high-value-added manufacturing sector. for kazakhstan to enter the next stage of economic development, focusing on innovation, improving education, and increasing r&d expenditures is critical. references adb. 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(2019). enhancing export diversification in resource-rich economies–policies and evidence from kazakhstan. in shs web of conferences, 71, 01002. asian online journal publishing group is not responsible or answerable for any loss, damage or liability, etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. any queries should be directed to the corresponding author of the article. https://stip.oecd.org/stip/interactive-dashboards/countries/kazakhstan https://www.imf.org/en/publications/cr/issues/2017/05/09/republic-of-kazakhstan-2017-article-iv-consultation-press-release-and-staff-report-44884 https://www.imf.org/en/publications/cr/issues/2017/05/09/republic-of-kazakhstan-2017-article-iv-consultation-press-release-and-staff-report-44884 https://www.imf.org/en/publications/cr/issues/2018/09/14/republic-of-kazakhstan-2018-article-iv-consultation-press-release-and-staff-report-46243 https://www.imf.org/en/publications/cr/issues/2018/09/14/republic-of-kazakhstan-2018-article-iv-consultation-press-release-and-staff-report-46243 https://invest.gov.kz/doing-business-here/fez-and/the-list-of-sez-and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105285 https://www.nationalbank.kz/ https://doi.org/10.1177/0974910116634491 https://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/investment-laws/laws/98/kazakhstan-investment-law https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/investment-laws/laws/98/kazakhstan-investment-law https://apiportal.uis.unesco.org/bdds https://doi.org/10.1080/09668136.2019.1597019 107 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group asian journal of social sciences and management studies vol. 11, no. 4, 107-132, 2024 issn(e) 2313-7401/ issn(p) 2518-0096 doi: 10.20448/ajssms.v11i4.6181 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group factors that influence the attitude of young people to participate in crowdfunding campaigns hussin jose hejase1 bassam hamdar2 ale jose hejase3 hadi raad4 karim kobeissi5 ( corresponding author) 1basic and applied sciences research center, al maaref university, beirut, lebanon. email: hussin.hejase@mu.edu.lb 2faculty of business administration, economics department, al maaref university, beirut, lebanon. email: bassam.hamdar@mu.edu.lb 3adnan kassar school of business, lebanese american university, beirut, lebanon. email: ale.hejase@lau.edu.lb 4faculty of business administration, al maaref university, beirut, lebanon. email: 10218010@mu.edu.lb 5faculty of business, arts, sciences, and technology university in lebanon, beirut, lebanon. email: karimkobeissi45@gmail.com abstract this paper highlights the factors that influence young people’s attitude to participate in crowdfunding campaigns, and to what extent such factors impact their investment intentions. a quantitative approach is employed using a survey to gather information from al maaref university students about the determinants influencing their intentions to invest in crowdfunding and to explain how such factors affect their attitudes towards crowdfunding decisions. this study found that emotions and attitudes as well as attitudes and pbc are statistically and positively related. moreover, personality types ‘agreeableness (a) and neuroticism (n)’ have a positive impact on pbc (with p ˂ 10%), and subjective norms (sn) have a direct influence on engagement intention (ei) (p ˂ 5%). pbc has a positive impact on ei (p ˂ 5%), and risk preferences have a positive impact on ei (with p ˂ 10%). in addition, results show that personality types do not have a positive impact on sn, and personality types extraversion (e), conscientiousness (c), and openness (o), do not have a positive impact on pbc. subjective norms do not have a positive impact on attitudes (p ˃ 5%). moreover, pbc does not have a direct influence on sn or behavior, risk preferences do not have a positive impact on ei (p ˃ 5%), and demographic factors do not have a positive impact on ei. the findings of the study shall promote the comprehension of the influences that motivate young entrepreneurs to participate in crowdfunding campaigns. this paper’s findings benefit investors, fintech decision-makers, and policymakers. keywords: attitude, crowdfunding, lebanon, personality, young entrepreneurs. citation | hejase, h. j., hamdar, b., hejase, a. j., raad, h., & kobeissi, k. (2024). factors that influence the attitude of young people to participate in crowdfunding campaigns. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 11(4), 107–132. 10.20448/ajssms.v11i4.6181 history: received: 24 september 2024 revised: 29 october 2024 accepted: 13 november 2024 published: 2 december 2024 licensed: this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 license publisher: asian online journal publishing group funding: this study received no specific financial support. institutional review board statement: not applicable. transparency: the authors confirm that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been clarified. this study followed all writing ethics. competing interests: the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions: all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. contents 1. introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................... 108 2. literature review .......................................................................................................................................................................... 109 3. research methodology ................................................................................................................................................................. 118 4. data analysis methods ................................................................................................................................................................. 120 5. results and findings ..................................................................................................................................................................... 121 6. conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 127 7. limitations ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 127 references ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 128 mailto:hussin.hejase@mu.edu.lb mailto:bassam.hamdar@mu.edu.lb mailto:ale.hejase@lau.edu.lb mailto:10218010@mu.edu.lb mailto:karimkobeissi45@gmail.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://www.doi.org/10.20448/ajssms.v11i4.6181 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4062-3144 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9704-6790 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 108 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group contribution of this paper to the literature no other similar research was carried out in lebanon, this study has an additional advantage in that it exposes the findings within the lebanese cultural context. therefore, adding to the corpus of information regarding the theory and applications of crowdfunding in general and the research platform in lebanon. 1. introduction the financial services sector is undergoing fast transformations due to the increasing speed of technology-driven advancements (zavolokina, dolata, & schwabe, 2016). fintech innovations are transforming how individuals globally engage with financial services, enabling quicker payments, enhanced security in transactions, user-friendly interfaces, and reduced expenses (smart dev, 2023). haddad and hornuf (2019) categorize fintech startups into nine different types such as financing, payment, asset management, loyalty, insurance, risk management, programs, exchanges, regulatory technology, and other business activities. crowdfunding is a form of financial technology that utilizes creative digital solutions to meet fundraising requirements (agrawal, catalini, & goldfarb, 2016). paul belleflamme, lambert, and schwienbacher (2014) stated that “crowdfunding enables many people to pool funds, rather than just a few wealthy investors making larger contributions” (p. 585). crowdfunding platforms utilize online technologies to facilitate transactions between funders and creators, with the help of existing internet-based payment systems such as kicktraq.com (light & briggs, 2017). new community-facilitated finance channels were established for a diverse range of projects by implementing crowdsourcing concepts into fundraising processes. therefore, schwienbacher and larralde (2012) state that "such projects encompass commercial, cultural, humanitarian, social, political, environmental, and technological projects, among others." lambert and schwienbacher (2010) and hemer (2011). argue that crowdfunding is a commonly used and uncomplicated tactic by startup and technology-focused companies to create new products and grow their operations. dorfleitner, utz, and wimmer (2018) posit that “through an internet platform, crowdfunding acts as a link between those fund seekers and a group of funders.” researchers like klöhn and hornuf (2012); mollick (2014) and short, ketchen jr, mckenny, allison, and ireland (2017) clarify that “disintermediation, i.e., not depending any more on conventional financial intermediaries and agents, allowed the platform to perform the same task simpler, more efficiently, transparently, and effectively.” zhao, chen, wang, and chen (2017) add that “the notion of peer-to-peer lending was a relatively new and exciting phenomenon that assisted individual enterprises and small entrepreneurs in locating new sources of capital.” therefore, as stressed by stefanelli, ferilli, and boscia (2022) “crowdfunding or peer-to-peer lending has emerged as an alternative solution for small and mid-size enterprises (smes) seeking to raise capital for their business.” in addition, baber (2020) postulates that “crowdfunding is a great way for people and organizations with little financial resources to seek funds from a large crowd without much bureaucracy.” moreover, baber (2020) stresses that “a contributor or funder is anyone who is persuaded by the information offered on the platform and wishes to donate. the amount of the contribution does not require the contributors to be experienced investors; nonetheless, the platform must properly serve the needs of both contributors and fundraisers.” furthermore, aveni and jenik (2017) and jenik and lauer (2017) pose that “crowdfunding has become an alternative way of financing start-ups, commercial ideas, or social causes due to the development of fintech.” 1.1. motivation for this study lack of funding to start projects is one of the biggest problems faced by entrepreneurs and early-stage businesses. because of this, they mostly depend on bank loans to cover their initial investment, cash flow, and capital needs. however, banks pose difficulties for business owners and might not be the best choice in the beginning of a company's existence. faster capital (2023) contends that “due to their perceived high risk, traditional banks and financial institutions frequently hesitate to lend to small firms.” in addition to the problems that any startup faces, the economic and financial conditions of the country in which it operates may eliminate any possibility of obtaining funds, even from venture and angel investors. lebanon has been crippled according to rkein, hejase, rkein, hejase, and fayyadkazan (2022) and rkein, hejase, rkein, fayyad-kazan, and hejase (2022) “for the past five years by a prolonged economic downturn, financial crisis, collapsing infrastructure, and political deadlock.” lebanon has long taken pride in its thriving banking sector, which attracted foreign depositors partly because of its high interest rates and permitted financial secrecy. (mantach, 2014) posits that “in lebanon, the banking industry is well known for being one of the most robust. it maintained a strong reputation and helped the economy by functioning as a shock absorber while withstanding numerous financial and economic crises” (p. 1). however, since 2019, lebanon's socio-economic, political, and financial circumstances have been the worst among many crisis-ridden countries in the world, according to hubbard (2021) and khalife, yammine, and el bazi (2022). hubbard (2021) posits that “the lebanese pound has lost 90% of its value since autumn 2019, and annual inflation in 2020 is 84.9%. according to government statistics from june 2021, consumer goods prices have nearly doubled in the last two years. the big explosion that occurred in beirut’s port in 2020, leaving a wide portion of the city in ruins and over 200 dead, added to the sorrow” (para 6). consequently, bank clients become confused, mistrustful, disoriented, and desperate as a result of the above. the choice of the current study was thus influenced by uncertainties regarding the clients' disclosed financial information and their conduct toward banks. as a result, saoud (2021) posits that “a crisis of this magnitude may have made customers second-guess their choice to keep making bank investments.” people's main concern was as asserted by barbuscia (2021) "how should i deal with my money in the bank" as “the current corruption in lebanon worsened” (nassar & hejase, 2021). these declining indicators hurt all sectors of the economy, particularly the startup ecosystem, according to kas (2022) “resulting in an alarming exodus of talent and dwindling funding on the innovation scene.” the capacity of businesses to get funding has also been significantly impacted by the crises, which has become a top worry for startups. according to the konrad adenauer stiftung (kas) report (kas, 2022) “the biggest obstacles for a company is a lack of investment and cash and transferring money and pay internationally” (pp. 22, 28). moreover, the lebanese asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 109 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group startup entrepreneurs’ priority, as kas report asserts is that “securing capital and liquidity was the area of a business that they focused most in response to the crisis” (kas, 2022). finally, the kas report showed that “41.3% of startups reported that interested investors turned away because of crisis, 23.9% of committed investors have not made their payments, 13% of interested investors discussed new conditions, 6.5% of investors became more committed to their business, and 39.1% of investors had no impact” (p. 31). however, despite lebanon's grim situation, there are still opportunities for start-ups to succeed. to enable startups to take advantage of these opportunities, it is imperative to highlight their access to finance businesses with the modern methods of crowdfunding. 1.2. problem definition because traditional sources of finance for entrepreneurial ideas and enterprises are insufficient owing to the deteriorating state of the financial sector indicators in lebanon (rkein et al., 2022); rkein et al. (2022) crowdfunding is advocated as an alternative funding mechanism in the country. needless to say, because funders are the ones sought after, it is critical to address their attitudes toward funding participation. cholakova and clarysse (2015) postulate that “funders who decide to participate in crowdfunding activities are motivated by a desire to receive rewards.” according to rodriguez-ricardo, sicilia, and lópez (2018) “knowing the elements to grow participants' intentions is necessary for all entrepreneurs who consider the platform as a means of subsidizing their venture.” according to belleflamme et al. (2014) “funders aim to support entrepreneurs in the early phases of an endeavor by acting as active investors, consumers, or a mix of the two.” it is essential to comprehend the motivations behind investors' initial participation in crowdfunding to help businesses create the "right" community. gerber and hui (2013) concur that the main motivation for participating in crowdfunding is the wish to be part of a community with common values and interests, along with the goal of earning money and helping others. motivations are also highlighted by ryu and kim (2016) who assert that “whereas young investors expect higher returns by investing in profitable projects like art and gaming, older people with high levels of agreeableness—a measure of compassion and interpersonal orientation—are more likely to be driven by altruistic motives” (ryu & kim, 2016). as per the findings of bretschneider and leimeister (2017) “investors seek recognition from others for their participation in crowdsourcing. as they form personal preferences and invest just because they like the firm, they also indicate that investors are motivated by prosocial goals.” this study attempts to identify the variables that affect young people's willingness to engage in crowdfunding campaigns and the degree to which those variables affect their desire to invest. this paper is divided into five parts. the first part offered a detailed introduction and background. part two delves into the literature review followed by the research methodology discussed in part three. part four illustrates the results, the findings, and the discussion and ends with part five with a conclusion, limitations, and recommendations. 1.3. research question what are the factors that influence the attitude of young people to participate in crowdfunding campaigns? 2. literature review 2.1. crowdfunding a comprehensive definition of crowdfunding is hard to find (jovanović, 2019). despite that, many varied and overlapping definitions exist because of multiple authors, standpoints, and characteristics including operation, resources used in it, benefits and purpose, and the actors engaged. ordanini (2009) posits that “one definition of crowdfunding is an individual's use of small to medium-sized resources to support multiple people's new ventures.” mollick (2014) asserts that “crowdfunding is a process of funding through the internet that is based on a large crowd for small donations, without geographical boundaries.” as for the forms of funding, kuppuswamy and bayus (2015) enumerate “debt, donation, or equity.” by including several individuals for funding (ordanini, miceli, pizzetti, & parasuraman, 2011) where depending on a large crowd to fund, “crowdfunding democratized access to capital and shortened the role of biased mediators” (mollick & robb, 2016). in addition, brown, boon, and pitt (2017) contend that “crowdfunding is a less time and easy procedure for raising funds, in comparison with conventional sources.” moreover, kleemann, voß, and rieder (2008) and belleflamme, lambert, and schwienbacher (2010) assert that “key elements of crowdfunding, such as open appeals for rewards or voting rights made via the internet, were outlined and the process itself was established.” belleflamme et al. (2014) clarified further about key characteristics of crowdfunding including the terms “reward or future product”, as crowdfunding rewards are always future-oriented. belleflamme et al. (2010) assumed that “crowdfunding facilitates direct crowdsourcing of capital without the need for middlemen, omitting crowdfunding's role that compromises its mechanism.” furthermore, mollick (2014) included all types of projects, key actors, and forms of contribution.” while pointing out that there are no conventional financial mediators, mollick discussed the function of service platforms as mediators in the crowdfunding process. funding goals have been set by the ideas that have been launched on the crowdfunding platforms. kromidha and robson (2016) assert that “these ideas are transmitted and shared through videos or pictures to reach the most accessible people by electronic word of mouth (ewom) using different ways of communication such as twitter, facebook, and e-mail.” howe (2008) adds, “if the backers meet the financing target, they provide funding for the project, and the campaign is deemed successful. instead of depending on opinions, collective wisdom, or inventiveness, crowdfunding seeks to draw in more investment.” according to brown et al. (2017) “there are certain marketing benefits related to crowdfunding other than raising funds.” crowdfunding is used to build and validate product concepts, generate and extend market demand, make grids/form connections, and build brand awareness in addition to facilitating direct sales (brown et al., 2017; debbabi & kaplan, 2022). in addition, it assists ventures for not continuing in case initiators are aware that there are no benefits from the venture at an early stage where money and time are priceless (mollick, 2014). as a result, crowdfunding may be viewed as an inexpensive method of conducting marketing research for new businesses. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 110 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 2.1.1. engagement in crowdfunding economic and social resources that human beings had, were integrated and exchanged for common benefits, where it is not considered in general a conventional buyer-seller relationship (vargo & lusch, 2004). according to vargo, maglio, and akaka (2008) “humans work as economic and/or social agents who collaborate to pool their resources for value creation. this approach is known in marketing literature as service-dominant (s-d) logic.” crowdfunding involves human and organizational actors combining their resources to create a co-creation value based on shared advantages; this is a "win-win" situation for all involved (rotem shneor, zhao, & flåten, 2020). crowdfunding is defined as "the interaction of social and/or economic actors with their surroundings" (lehner & harrer, 2019; ordanini et al., 2011). this interaction might take the form of actors engaging in the crowdfunding process. 2.1.2. engagements levels in crowdfunding according to archad (2021) “backers can be identified at four different levels during this voyage. interpersonal involvement at the meso level, industry engagement at the macro level, individual engagement at the micro level, and engagement with various projects at the meta level.” giving input to other backers is an example of an interpersonal level activity (meso), whereas reviewing the enterprise and making funding decisions is done at a personal level (micro). additionally, on a larger scale (macro), engaging in several campaigns is considered at this level, and they have additional responsibilities in addition to crowdfunding (meta). 2.2. crowdfunding models and activity the interactivity between the group of entrepreneurs in need of funding and the group of contributors interested in financing them is facilitated by crowdfunding which is mediated by online platforms. crowdfunding is about models with some features that can differ from one to another. tillberg (2019) introduces two categorizations which consist of four crowdfunding models: reward-based, donation-based, lending-based, and equity-based, aligning with previous studies (ferreira & pereira, 2018; méric, maque, & brabet, 2016; mollick, 2014). there are five models in the second category. researchers categorize these models as either "nonfinancial return" or "financial return." the non-financial return form consists of two models: the reward-based model and the donation-based model. the financial return form includes three types of crowdfunding: royalty-based, equity-based, and lending-based. the "non-financial return form" and "financial return form" are two higher-level categories that differ because the former does not provide financial benefits, while the latter gives the crowd-funder a return on the investment (candelise, 2015; massolution, 2015; wilson & testoni, 2014). table 1 presents a summary of the aforementioned crowdfunding categories. table 1. crowdfunding categories. crowdfunding category remarks reward example non-financial category donation-based funders contribute money (donation) with no expectation of receiving anything in return (sponsoring). usually, they use the money they raise to support independent projects or efforts that attract people with similar interests. autograph, thank-you note marketing to the sponsor kickstarter, experiment, donorschoose sponsorise.me hemer (2011) reward-based funders provide support to entrepreneurs in return for gifts, early access to items (purchases), or a heightened sense of selfworth. product or service kickstarter financial type lending-based (loan) a. microfinancing b. peer-to-peer lenders provide capital in exchange for a principal payback in the future, either with or without interest (peer-to-peer and microfinancing). pay back loan kiva, seed out equity-based (capital/investment) funders make investments and are rewarded with shares that are either equity or equity-like. share is profit/loss artistshare, sellaband royaltybased (investment) funders make investments in and are rewarded with a portion of the profits. percentage of sales sellaband, sellanapp, appsfunder the most common are as follows: (1) the reward-based model that does not require a financial contract (mollick, 2014) where the entrepreneur is predicted to give a small token of appreciation, a non-monetary reward as gratitude, or a product in return (e.g., thankfulness note, eat out with the initiator, or an invitation to a movie premiere). this model applies to campaigns that either have a financial objective (a minimum capital requirement is set to bring the project to life) or a presale objective (to start the production process, a product is presented for which a minimum presale is needed by the entrepreneur). reward-based platforms charge a commission rate (~ 5%) that is applied to the amounts collected by successful campaigns; (2) the equity-based model requires a financial contract (vulkan, åstebro, & sierra, 2016). projects pitched on an equity-based platform offer equity shares directly from the business. in this latter, the platform acts as the legal shareholder representing investors where they are the beneficial owners of the shares unlike the reward-based, where investors are the legal shareholders of the business. equity-based platforms charge a fee (around 6%) to entrepreneurs on the amount they successfully raise. also, according to hemer (2011) “the contributors get a share of future profits or royalties, equity, dividends, and/or voting rights. platforms like artistshare, wefunder, and sellaband provide this type of crowdfunding”; and, (3) the lending-based model that is commonly referred to as peer-to-peer (p2p) lending permits entrepreneurs to raise debt directly from lenders. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 111 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group mediation happens in an online marketplace though the product is a simple term loan (morse, 2015). the lendingbased crowdfunding has evolved from p2p lending into “marketplace lending”. for an entrepreneur to get a loan, he/she should make a loan proposition by publishing a list that consists of the amount and aim of the loan in addition to providing other application information to the platform. these platforms study loan proposals using scalable algorithms to measure their riskiness and set an interest rate for these loans (vallee & zeng, 2019). for example, different platforms, such as kiva or seed out, provide microfinancing to people from low-income countries to alleviate poverty. furthermore, gordon burtch, anindya ghose, and sunil wattal (2014) and paravisini, rappoport, and ravina (2017) posit that “in peer-to-peer lending, contributors offer small loans to initiators on platforms like zopa or prosper.” table 2. worldwide crowdfunding activity. region reward-based equity-based lending-based 2108 2019 2020 2108 2019 2020 2108 2019 2020 asia-pacific 0.28 0.36 0.59 0.50 0.45 0.74 5.34 8.73 7.59 china 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 215.37 84.34 1.15 europe 0.24 0.33 0.58 0.88 0.97 1.13 6.60 10.94 8.23 latin america & the caribbean 0.04 0.11 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.04 1.70 4.68 5.17 middle east 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.75 0.73 0.57 sub-saharan africa 0.01 0.06 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.18 1.03 1.15 united kingdom 0.08 2.12 5.84 0.87 0.62 0.66 9.31 8.27 6.15 united states & canada 0.86 0.76 1.26 2.59 1.90 1.83 58.38 49.21 70.84 total 1.53 3.76 8.41 4.96 4.02 4.41 297.63 167.93 100.85 total (excluding china) 1.52 3.76 8.40 4.94 4.02 4.41 82.26 83.59 99.70 source: ziegler and shneor (2020) and ziegler et al. (2021). 2.2.1. market overview one may observe the results in table 2 and assert that the reward-based activity in the us and canada in 2018 was $0.86b then it increased to reach $1.26b in 2020 and in which equity-based and lending-based have experienced a decline in 2019 then started to rise again in 2020. however, one important point to shed light on is activity in the middle east where the reward-based, equity-based, and lending-based have the lowest numbers among all other countries in common with sub-saharan africa (ssa). moreover, by taking a look at the total, one observes that lending-based activity has the highest numbers among the three (3) activities which means the world counts on lending-based activity. 2.3. crowdfunding actors the efficiency of crowdfunding and its implications for funders and businesses are not well known because of its recentness. regarding the reasons behind crowdsourcing engagement, the purpose of platforms, and the actual role funders play in crowdfunding campaigns, there are still a lot of unsolved questions. the foundation of crowdfunding practice is the assumption of a "win-win" game, as shown in figure 1, in which all parties gain from their participation in the process. shneor et al. (2020) identify three key players in crowdfunding models: fundraisers, backers, and platforms (see figure 1 & 2, and table 3). figure 1. win-win crowdfunding dynamics. source: shneor et al. (2020). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 112 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 3. crowdfunding stakeholders. stakeholders definition different names & sources fundraiser anyone making a public call to finance a project for specific aims fundraiser: wang, liu, kang, and zheng (2018) creator: ryu and kim (2018) campaigners: hobbs, grigore, and molesworth (2016) backer anyone providing finance in answer to a public call for a project backer: shneor and munim (2019) supporter: gerber and hui (2013) donor: carvajal, garcía-avilés, and gonzález (2012) sponsor: ryu and kim (2016) investor: dorfleitner et al. (2018) lender: chemin and de laat (2013) platform an internet application serving as a link between fundraiser(s) and backer(s) based on an exchange according to specific conditions shneor and flaten (2015) note: table created by the authors. information extracted from shneor et al. (2020). figure 2. crowdfunding and its actors. figure 2 shows three principal actors in crowdfunding, i.e., entrepreneurs, crowd, and platform. 2.3.1. entrepreneurs the crowdfunding process polarizes them for two reasons: i. access to outside capital. ii. information acquisition. (i) accessing outside capital: outside capital can be reached by different investors, including angels, banks, friends and family members, and venture capitalists. through crowdfunding, they choose to raise capital since under specific conditions, they can obtain capital at a lower cost. entrepreneurs face difficulties in obtaining funds from venture capitalists and early-stage investors. this can be done by finding and reaching the appropriate investors, convincing them, discussing an investment price, and working with lawyers on contractual terms (da rin & hellmann, 2020). in addition, crowdfunding overcomes some geographic frictions correlated with offline sources of financing. (ii) acquiring information: entrepreneurs should show a lot of information for potential contributors (product, business plan, about their innovation) that represents a possible risk in terms of competitiveness. strausz (2017) developed a model that suggested an important informational advantage: investors and banks can use information from the campaign that is produced by crowdfunding. he confirmed that crowdfunding and other conventional sources of funding are highly complementary. consumer demand unreliability is mitigated by crowdfunding, while entrepreneurial moral hazard is controlled by venture capitalists. 2.3.2. the crowd there are two reasons why contributors engage in crowdfunding: i. expand economic opportunities. ii. enjoy community benefits. a) backers: contributors support art-related or product-oriented projects in the reward-based model. in other words, contributors are backers and their contribution is rather small. they are either part of the entrepreneur’s social network or individuals not connected to the entrepreneur. contributors enjoy community benefits linked to their experience as consumers (belleflamme et al., 2014). they adhere to capital asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 113 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group also to adopt early a new product or have a direct and privileged interaction with the consumer community and the entrepreneur (stanko & henard, 2017). b) investors: they are mainly retail investors who are attracted by the equity-based model. early-stage investors engage in equity-based crowdfunding and invest huge amounts (wang, mahmood, sismeiro, & vulkan, 2019). the relationship between the entrepreneur and professional investors is formalized by such platforms as “syndicate-room” through facilitating syndicates like crowdfunding (frydrych & bock, 2018). specialized investors get restitution by syndication for bringing in their expertise and knowledge (agrawal et al., 2016). one of the benefits for both specialized and retail investors linked with equity-based crowdfunding is the availability of a much wider deal flow than what they reach offline in which they make investment decisions based on their expectations about the business’ profitability (cholakova & clarysse, 2015). c) lenders: contributors who are lenders in the lending-based model, are either institutional investors such as specialized lenders and banks or individuals lending small amounts in which institutional lenders lend for the whole loan amount on the platform. lending-based crowdfunding introduces the asset class of business and consumer loans to lenders, who seek a riskier fixed income rather than corporate bond funds or savings notes. non-borrowing members may assign a group on some platforms and become group leaders enhancing the “community environment” within the group (freedman & jin, 2017; hildebrand, puri, & rocholl, 2017). 2.3.3. platforms the role of these platforms is essential as they create value by correlating the demand of the entrepreneurs and the contributor groups. moreover, these platforms facilitate that correlation more efficiently than bilateral relations between the members of the group do. 2.4. advantages and disadvantages of crowdfunding hazam, karimova, and olsson (2017) list a number of advantages of crowdfunding, including the following: “(1) engagement creation—allowing social enterprises to reach a wider audience; (2) viable funding—that is, crowdfunding is a viable option for social enterprises that recognize that they are having trouble finding traditional investors to fund their projects. additionally, the framework of bank financing may be rigid, whereas a crowdfunding platform offers a more "hands-on" approach; (3) assessing market viability, i.e., investing through crowdsourcing entails offering a chance to receive market validation. a prosperous crowdsourcing effort provides "a seal of approval; (4) increased firm valuation: compared to what traditional investors would have offered, crowdfunding may lead to a higher valuation; (5) access to impact-minded investors: crowdfunding makes it possible to reach out to private investors who are concerned with a company's mission and goals. on the other side, social entrepreneurs that use crowdsourcing to acquire capital come into contact with investors who are driven primarily by the desire to see good ideas realized” (pp. 27-33). nonetheless, several obstacles might exist, as stated by hazam et al. (2017): "(1) inexperienced investors: pose a risk as their lack of awareness of the risks associated with the investment could result in resentment toward the management team of the company, should the venture fail; (2) public exposure: a crowdsourcing effort results in the company's public exposure, which may cause the management group some stress; (3) a big number of investors: social enterprises may not benefit from this. this may prevent business owners from using equity crowdfunding. venture capitalists that wish to invest at a later stage and would rather not have a "complicated cap table" may find this concerning; (4) concerns about efficiency: as a result of a finance structure that relies heavily on investors. this makes it more difficult to communicate, seek potential investors, and market the idea; (5) higher cost: if the interest required to entice crowd investors is higher than what a bank, for instance, would need, lending crowdfunding may be more expensive” (pp. 34-38). 2.5. theoretical and empirical background 2.5.1. investment intention in crowdfunding campaign ajzen (1991) suggests that intentions are defined by capturing motivational factors that impact behavior. as per sashikala and chitramani (2018) investment intentions encompass both short-term and long-term asset investments, the associated risks of investment returns, and the investment's liquidity. furthermore, sashikala and chitramani claim that “short-term assets consist of debentures, cash, and shares typically held for less than a year. long-term assets consist of cash, real estate, bonds, and stocks, typically held for over a year.” (p. 185). short et al. (2017) argue that research on crowdfunding has centered on studying factors that impact the success and failure of campaigns, whereas macht and weatherston (2015) suggest that other studies have explored the viewpoint of individuals who back crowdfunding projects. nevertheless, some researchers (burtch, ghose, & wattal, 2014; gerber & hui, 2013; ordanini et al., 2011; ryu & kim, 2016) argue that there has been insufficient research on backers' perspectives separate from the outcome of the campaign (whether successful or unsuccessful). supporters in non-investment crowdfunding models are driven by various reasons, such as wanting to receive rewards, assist others, back causes, and enhance their communities. ajzen (1991) posits that “capturing motivational factors that influence a behavior is what intentions are defined by.” according to sashikala and chitramani (2018) “investment intentions refer to any short-term or long-term asset investment, the risk attached to the investment returns from the investment, and the liquidity of the investment.” in addition, sashikala and chitramani assert that “some of the short-term assets include debentures, cash, and shares that are usually held for a shorter period, less than a year. long-term assets include cash, real estate, bonds, and stocks, usually for more than a year” (p. 185). short et al. (2017) contend that “crowdfunding research has focused on analyzing factors influencing campaign success and failure”, while macht and weatherston (2015) posit that “some other research tried to examine the perspective of those who support the conduct of crowdfunding contributions.” however, several researchers (gordon burtch et al., 2014; gerber & hui, 2013; ordanini et al., 2011; ryu & kim, 2016) assert that “limited research has addressed backers' views independently of campaign results (success or failure). backers in non-investment asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 114 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group crowdfunding models are motivated by many factors, including a desire to collect rewards, help others, support causes, and improve their communities.” according to belleflamme et al. (2014) “factors other than financial returns are more important when investing through the specific tool of equity crowdfunding”; this finding has implications in several fields, ranging from analyzing an (irrational) investment decision-making process to a new regulatory perspective in consumer protection. investors in investment crowdfunding models are driven by a desire to help entrepreneurs, as well as by the possibility of financial rewards, the chance to improve their reputations, the chance to support causes that address their needs, and the chance to network with businesses in similar fields (bretschneider & leimeister, 2017; ordanini et al., 2011). in addition, zhang and liu (2012) and hornuf and schwienbacher (2015) find “evidence of herding behavior in peer-to-peer lending and crowd-investing”. bretschneider and leimeister (2017) believe that “herd behavior has a strong moderating effect on backers' incentive motivation, according to recent research on equity crowdfunding backers.” in a study that considered both investment-based and non-investment crowdfunding models, cholakova and clarysse (2015) discovered that “financial incentives were the main driving force behind people's decisions to pledge, with non-financial motives simply playing a supporting role.” lukkarinen, wallenius, and seppälä (2017) add that “according to their motive to support equity crowdfunding campaigns in finland, three investor clusters were found in a separate study that was undertaken in the investing context of crowdfunding.” lukkarinen et al. (2017) define supporters as “donation-oriented, who are primarily driven by the chance to get involved and contribute; returnoriented, who are driven by both financial gains and the chance to get involved and contribute, and pure investors, who are driven primarily by financial gain.” several studies, based on the cognitive foundation of the trust approach (chen, dai, yao, & li, 2019; zhao et al., 2017) looked at the elements influencing intentionality in the setting of crowdfunding make up another area of investigation. kang, gao, wang, and zheng (2016) investigated the investors' desire to invest in two chinese stock platforms. they found “that math trust and relationship trust have a direct impact on readiness to invest.” in a recent study, daskalakis and yue (2017) examined how varying risk perceptions impact individuals' willingness to invest in equity and lending crowdfunding in spain, germany, and poland. worries about deceitful borrowers impact investment confidence in germany, with similar repercussions for concerns about deceptive platforms in spain and poland, as well as worries about inadequate campaign information in poland. 2.5.2. theories of crowdfunding contribution intention crowdfunding contribution intention research is still relatively new and eclectic. in this section, several studies are reviewed based on the specific theory utilized by the researchers. ahlers, cumming, günther, and schweizer (2015) studied the efficacy of signals utilized by entrepreneurs to encourage (small) investors to invest financial resources in an equity crowdfunding situation, using signaling theory. an examination is conducted to explore the correlation between the quality of ventures and their success in fundraising. ahlers et al. (2015) discovered that maintaining ownership and offering in-depth risk details can serve as powerful indicators, affecting the probability of successful financial support. contrarily, funding success is not significantly influenced by social and intellectual capital. in a study conducted by rotem shneor and munim (2019) in finland, they found that intentions to make financial contributions were positively associated with attitudes, self-efficacy, and subjective norms, as suggested by the theory of planned behavior (ajzen, 1991). different findings suggest an unexpected connection between intentions and perceived behavior control, possibly due to these factors being viewed as the capacity to withstand influence from others to participate. in their research, chen et al. (2019) aimed to achieve theoretical integration by combining aspects of the theory of planned behavior (ajzen, 1991) norm activation theory (onwezen, antonides, & bartels, 2013) and social presence theory (cyert, feigenbaum, & march, 2007). chen et al. found that attitude and perceived control were linked to donation intentions in crowdfunding, but subjective norms were not. moreover, these intentions were linked in a positive way with trust, personal norms, and social presence. in their research on taiwanese users of a reward crowdfunding platform, zhao et al. (2017) found that according to social exchange theory (homans, 1958) the most significant predictor of funding intentions was backer commitment. nonetheless, chen et al. (2019) discovered two surprising outcomes: a lack of significant connection between trust and funding intention, and a favorable correlation between risk perception and funding intention. the first was clarified by the conflicting impacts of two regulatory perspectives with opposing attitudes towards risk's influence on intention: a preventive orientation had a strong adverse impact on risk, whereas a promotional orientation had a favorable impact. the reason for this discovery was that trust influenced funding intention through commitment and risk perceptions. rodriguez-ricardo et al. (2018) carried out research in spain utilizing social identity theory (tajfel, 1974) and discovered that the level of backers' social identification with the crowdfunding community was positively linked to their intentions to engage in crowdfunding. this identification also played a role in mediating the impacts of interpersonal connectivity and attitudes toward helping others on these intentions. moreover, they found that the creativity of the funders had a positive correlation with these intentions. zhang and chen (2019) carried out research in the usa utilizing self-determination theory (deci & ryan, 1985) and found that "self-orientation had a positive correlation with intention to provide funding, while other orientations did not. despite this, when taking gender into account, both orientations had a significant association with funding intentions. self-focus is more closely linked to males, while other focuses are only significant for female supporters and not male supporters. zhang and chen (2019) research in the united states utilized self-determination theory (deci & ryan, 1985) and found that self-orientation correlated positively with funding intention, while other orientations did not show a similar association. however, once gender was taken into account, both orientations showed a significant correlation with funding intentions. self-orientation is more strongly linked to males, while other orientations are only significant for female supporters and not male supporters. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 115 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group wang and yang (2019) applied the elaboration likelihood model (elm) (petty & cacioppo, 1986) to explore the funding intentions of backers in reward crowdfunding, a model commonly utilized to understand attitude changes. their research shows that funding intentions of backers are positively influenced by both central (product innovativeness, perceived product quality, and creator ability) and peripheral (webpage visual design) factors. the research found that having knowledge about the product has a positive impact on all three main ways of thinking, but a negative impact on one less important way. in his 2021 study, baber examined how islamic banking customers' intention to utilize crowdfunding can be further understood by expanding the technology acceptance model (tam). baber's research reveals that any crowdfunding platform aiming to attract this market segment must adhere to islamic shariah laws. the ease of use of crowdfunding impacts how useful it is and, in turn, affects one's perception of it. having a positive outlook on crowdfunding will lead to a willingness to utilize it while adhering to shariah principles. 2.5.3. the theory of planned behavior (tpb) the current study is theoretically based on the theory of planned behavior. the authors (of this study) adopted rotem shneor and munim (2019) suggestion that “crowdfunding contribution intention and the roles played by its antecedents, to be planned behaviors” (p. 56). for this study, the assumption is that, given the relative novelty of crowdfunding's digital manifestations and the financial implications for participants, individuals are unlikely to contribute to crowdfunding campaigns without some preliminary thought. tpb has been extensively used to assess how prospective consumers intend to utilize several internet-based services and marketplaces in different contexts; adoption of e-banking (shih & fang, 2004) adoption of e-commerce (grandón, nasco, & mykytyn jr, 2011) online social networking (baker & white, 2010) spreading of e-wom (fu, ju, & hsu, 2015) and co-creating in social media (cheung & to, 2016). therefore, the authors of this study, based on the aforementioned solid evidence showing that tpb can be used to explain user behavior in various digitally mediated marketplaces and networking sites, the theory of planned behavior in the context of contributor behavior in crowdfunding is used. ajzen (1991) originally created tpb and later updated it in 2002. ajzen (1991) suggests that the intention behind an individual's behavior is where that behavior originates. the factors that influence intentions are attitudes towards behavior, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms. additionally, as stated by ajzen and fishbein (2005a) and ajzen (2012) individuals' actions are influenced by their beliefs on the expected outcomes of their behavior, how they assess these outcomes, the expectations of significant others, the motivation to meet these expectations, and the availability and perceived impact of facilitating or hindering factors on behavior. numerous researchers have conducted empirical tests and confirmed the tpb's validity since it was first introduced. krueger jr, reilly, and carsrud (2000) as well as (liñán, urbano, & guerrero, 2011) concentrated on the desire to begin a business. steinmetz, knappstein, ajzen, schmidt, and kabst (2016) acknowledged that tpb is valuable for creating interventions and evaluating their effectiveness in altering beliefs that influence behavior efficacy. ajzen (2005) depicted "the three theoretically separate influencers of intentions in the tpb" in a diagram presented in figure 3. figure 3. tpb model. source: ajzen (2005). 2.5.3.1. attitude toward the behavior according to ajzen and fishbein (2005b) and ajzen and cote (2008) “attitude toward the behavior imputes the degree to which an individual has an advantageous or disadvantageous assessment or valuation of the behavior in question.” also, ajzen and cote (2008) contend that “the beliefs people hold about the consequences of doing the behavior are pivotal in shaping their attitudes. therefore, attitudes towards a behavior are the result of a person’s appraisal of the results associated with that behavior and the strength of the associations with these appraisements.” thus, it is concluded from the above that people’s attitude towards crowdfunding derives from their expectations and beliefs about the personal effects of outcomes resulting from the behavior. 2.5.3.2. subjective norms figure 3 shows that subjective norms are the second component that influences behavior. ajzen (2005) posits that “subjective norms are the social pressures that an individual experiences to engage in or refrain from engaging in a behavior. the theory refers to this aspect as subjective norms because social pressure is a perceived one.” ajzen asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 116 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group and fishbein (2005b) assert that “subjective norms originate from individuals’ beliefs that important social referents or groups agree or disagree with executing a given behavior.” socially important referents consist of parents, husband/wife, close friends, colleagues, and experts in the behavior of interest. 2.5.3.3. perceived behavioral control ajzen and cote (2008) contend that “a person's feeling of self-efficiency or ability to carry out the behavior is implied by perceived behavioral control.” according to ajzen, brown, and carvajal (2004) and ajzen and cote (2008) “perceived behavioral control consists of assessments of individuals’ capacity to perform a specific action and the degree to which they possess the necessary tools and convictions to overcome any obstacles they may encounter. as a result, this is seen as a reflection of their experience as well as the presence of elements that either facilitate or hinder the behavior's performance.” moreover, ajzen and fishbein (2005b) claim that “people should feel more in control of their actions the more opportunities and resources they seize and the fewer obstacles or roadblocks they anticipate.” furthermore, internal (information, skills, capabilities, sentiments, and coercions) and external factors impact a person’s control over the behavior and can affect the successful performance of an intended action. on the contrary, ajzen and fishbein (2005b) note that “people who are overborne by emotions or do the behavior under stress cannot be held accountable for results. external factors such as opportunities and dependence on others may ease or hinder the behavior’s performance.” perceived behavioral control can directly impact behavior through intentions and it can on the other hand, “it can estimate behavior directly by acting as a proxy for actual control” (ajzen & cote, 2008). 2.6. the research conceptual model this study will extend tpb to capture the main precedents for the behavior of the backers in crowdfunding. figure 4 illustrates the intended conceptual model with the suggested factors that will affect the intention to invest and make a decision. figure 4. research conceptual model. 2.6.1. emotions li (2011) argues that emotion and mood are not the same. it has a lasting effect and is not as strong; it is not intended for behavior, object, or target. specific emotions lead to specific reactions in response to specific occurrences. coleman, williams, morales, and white (2017) suggested that consumer choice is impacted by fear that occurs randomly. people who aim to earn money are more content and willing to take risks. loewenstein, weber, hsee, and welch (2001) argue that including emotions and personal mood in decision-making is important. in ekman and friesen (1986) identified six fundamental emotions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust. furthermore, aren and akgüneş (2018) discovered four basic emotions fear, sadness, anger, and hope in their two studies on financial decisions and emotions. the four emotions mentioned earlier were used in this research. consequently, additional information is included to enhance clarity and comprehension. (1) fear: according to aren and akgüneş (2018) “this is an individual’s reaction when sensing danger, emotional, physical, and complex past experiences. reimann, nenkov, macinnis, and morrin (2014) add, “fear is the opposite of hope. it is a negative feeling that the coveted goal cannot be achieved.” (2) sadness: dijk (2017) relates “sadness with overestimating the prospect of negative results and underestimating the prospect of positive results, with clearer information about losses.” (3) anger: selim aren and hamamci (2020) contend that “anger is a negative feeling for an individual who misbehaves by choice. an event must precede anger to occur. moreover, anger is related to certainty.” while li (2011) states that “anger is related to losing control and is considered an undesired feeling.” note: the asterisk symbol [*] represents the relationship between subjective norms (where it starts) and attitude (where it ends). instead of drawing a line through the diagram. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 117 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group (4) hope: according to aren and akgüneş (2018) “hope is a feeling that brings desire and belief for a future outcome that wants to occur. “ (hayenhjelm, 2006) stated that “only the best result creates a sense of hope.” in addition, reimann et al. (2014) claim that “fear and hope cannot occur at the same time.” 2.6.2. personality barańczuk (2019) explains personality as “differences between people’s emotions, thoughts, and action patterns.” moreover, roberts and mroczek (2008) assert that “a trait of individual personality refers to feelings and behavior patterns that one person from another can be differentiated.” researchers like durand, newby, peggs, and siekierka (2013); brown and taylor (2014) and kourtidis, šević, and chatzoglou (2016) contend that “several variables that are cognitive and emotional affect individual investors’ investment decisions and risk reluctance.” therefore, according to aren and hamamci (2020) “personality traits have been the focal point of many research studies and are considered an important factor.” five personality traits are discussed next, including (1) agreeableness (a), defined by mccrae and costa jr (1997) as “warmth, friendliness, and the capacity for cooperation in social situations are all associated with the agreeableness trait.” agreeable people take risks and value other people's perspectives. moreover, dhiman and raheja (2018) posit that “those who possess this feature are more risk-tolerant.” (2) extraversion (e), expressed by several researchers (brown & taylor, 2014; pinjisakikool, 2018) as, “one of the personality traits that are social, energetic, assertive, seeking innovation, and engaged in the external world.” becker, deckers, dohmen, falk, and kosse (2012) and pinjisakikool (2018) state that "extraversion requires greater risk," while conscientiousness (c) is characterized by being cautious, responsible, goal-driven, disciplined, and competent according to becker et al. (2012); pinjisakikool (2018) and tauni, fang, mirza, memon, and jebran (2017). furthermore, according to tauni et al. (2017) individuals characterized by neuroticism are able to obtain more precise and trustworthy information regarding qualifications, leading to a likelihood of taking additional steps. as per becker et al. (2012) and tauni et al. (2017) an individual characterized by neuroticism trait encounters adverse feelings like anxiety, pessimism, vulnerability, and absence of self-regulation. becker et al. (2012) emphasize that individuals with this personality characteristic tend to shy away from taking risks. in contrast, pinjisakikool (2018) claims that individuals with neuroticism personality traits tend to make risky investment decisions. many researchers (akhtar & batool, 2012; durand, newby, & sanghani, 2008; pinjisakikool, 2018; tauni et al., 2017) argue that “individuals with openness traits are open-minded, creative, intellectual, and receptive to innovation and knowledge.” hunter and kemp (2004) state, "people who possess traits of openness have a greater ability to engage in risky behavior." furthermore, mayfield, perdue, and wooten (2008) discovered that “individuals possessing characteristics of openness excel in financial situations by embracing risk and opting for long-term investments.” 2.6.3. risk avoidance, intention, and preference for a risky investment per aren and hamamci (2020) risk aversion refers to how much risk individuals are unwilling to take. faff, mulino, and chai (2008) argue that there are three primary approaches for assessing financial risk tolerance: conducting surveys, studying investor behavior in controlled settings, and analyzing actual investment decisions. "assessing risk attitudes is accomplished through risk attitude surveys, which are valuable and dependable instruments" (lönnqvist, verkasalo, walkowitz, & wichardt, 2015). aren and hamamci (2020) highlight that “emotions can also be attributed to individual variations in risk aversion and risky investment behavior. in ordinary circumstances, individuals who steer clear of risks often find themselves wanting to take more risks due to their emotions such as anger, fear, joy, sorrow, or hope” (p. 2658). weber, blais, and betz (2002) claim that individuals' willingness to invest in a risky market or asset is referred to as risky investment intention. tull (2023) suggests that the level of risk-taking might differ depending on the circumstances. therefore, aren and hamamci (2020) suggest that investment preference is distinct from both risk aversion and intentions for risky investments. 2.6.4. demographic factors aren and hamamci (2020) performed an in-depth review of the “effect demographic factors have on risk behavior” (p. 2660). several studies (dawson, 2023; harris & jenkins, 2006; pinjisakikool, 2018) propose that “men take more risks than women.” likewise, evidence (aydemir & aren, 2017; hariharan, chapman, & domian, 2000) has been provided that “men have riskier investment intentions than women,” however, durand et al. (2008) posit that “psychological sex is more important in explaining risky behavior than physiological sex.” as for the age factor, researchers like dulebohn (2002); pinjisakikool (2018) and aren and hamamci (2020) assert that “young people are taking more risks than the elderly” whereas other studies (brooks, sangiorgi, hillenbrand, & money, 2018; wang & hanna, 1997) show that “elderly people are taking more risks.” 2.7. formulation of research hypotheses based on the literature review and the research conceptual model, the following hypotheses are formulated and to be tested. h1: emotions have a positive effect on attitude. h2: personality types have a positive effect on subjective norms. h3: personality types have a positive influence on perceived behavioral control. h4: attitudes have a positive impact on engagement (crowdfunding contribution) intention. h5: subjective norms have a positive influence on engagement intention. h6: perceived behavioral control has a positive impact on engagement intention. h7: subjective norms have a positive impact on attitudes. h8: perceived behavioral control has a positive influence on attitudes. h9: perceived behavioral control has a positive impact on subjective norms. h10: perceived behavioral control has a positive impact on behavior. h11: risk preferences have a positive effect on engagement intention. h12: demographic factors have a positive influence on engagement intention. h13: engagement intention has a positive influence on behavior. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 118 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3. research methodology 3.1. research philosophy and approach empirical social science research is frequently supported by an ontological assumption about the underlying nature of reality and an epistemological expectation about how knowledge of reality becomes ratified (blaikie, 2000). because knowledge and reality are both objective, the würzburg school tradition of critical rationalism supports this empirical study. critical rationalism maintains that every scientific and empirical investigation should be questioned and that claims about the nature of objective knowledge should be normatively assessed (popper, 2002). this study, therefore, employs critical rationalism's philosophical foundations and deductive reasoning to carry out the empirical inquiry. critical rationalism emphasizes that preliminary scientific ideas should be challenged through hypothesis testing and data comparison. consequently, the set of research hypotheses that support the proposed research tpb model is statistically tested and validated. 3.2. research strategy a survey approach is the foundation for the necessary quantitative-deductive analysis (hejase & hejase, 2013). one advantage of employing a quantitative approach is the ability to explanatorily and descriptively pinpoint particular areas of interest, such as crowdfunding. to examine behavioral content related to attitudes and beliefs, the present research uses a cross-sectional design survey. data are systematically collected from a sample population for a specified goal and within a limited time frame. 3.3. data collection methods an online, controlled social attitude survey (standardized psychometric questionnaire) was administered for primary data collection. typically, these components are evaluated directly using standard scaling techniques (ajzen, 2006). as a result, the current tpb questionnaire was created with intermediate response categories each utilizing a 7-point likert scale format to provide dichotomous descriptions (such as "disagree/agree"). this will be used to evaluate each participant's metric answers, which will be used to create an aggregate scale of each tpb variable in a manner like armitage and conner (1999). this enables the methodical gathering of primary data, which is then coded and included in a structured dataset. 3.4. sampling procedures the sampling was based at al maaref university, a new university founded in 2015, situated in the capital beirut, lebanon. the total student population in its business faculty is about 700 students, and this study’s sample size included 74 students. by deriving approximation reliability error values from hardwick (2022) the researchers utilized the methods of other works by chehimi and hejase (2024); rammal, hejase, and hazimeh (2024); masoudi and hejase (2023); hejase, fayyad-kazan, hejase, moukadem, and danach (2023) and el takach, nassour, and hejase (2022). table 4 indicates that for a population size of 500–1000 (at α = 5%) and an acceptable reliability error of 10%±0.7%, the sample size would be 74. therefore, the 74-person sample size (at the 95% confidence level) in this study corresponds to a reliability error of about ± 10.7%. that indicates that in 89.3 out of 100 survey repetitions, the findings will not differ by more than 10.7%. such reliability is adequate for this exploratory study. table 4. statistical reliability versus sample size. [50/50% proportion characteristics] population sample size 500 1000 5000 10000 30 ±17.1% ±17.3% ±17.6% ±17.7% 50 ±13.1% ±13.5% ±13.8% ±13.9% 75 ±10.4% ±10.9% ±11.3% ±11.4% 100 ±8.8% ±9.3% ±9.7% ±9.8% note: at a 95% confidence level (standard error is 5%). source: modified from hardwick (2022). 3.5. questionnaire design blaikie (2003) contends that when "all variables are measured at the same time," it benefits the use of a crosssectional design to manage the sampling process. the guidelines offered by agresti and finlay (2009) have been integrated into the survey psychometric questionnaire design to reduce the potential for non-response bias when disseminating the survey. the survey questionnaire has been designed using additional formats, besides the 7-level likert scale questions, including “completely true/false”. in addition, the tpb model will consist of extensions that include: emotions, personality, risk avoidance, intention for risky investment, preference for risky investment, and demographic factors. 3.5.1. measures the tpb model was deconstructed into composite elements (attitudes, subjective norms, pbc, etc.). each measure was then compared to those created by armitage and conner (1999) evaluation study of tpb's efficacy in crowdfunding participation and those developed in rotem shneor and munim (2019) work, which evaluates tpb's usefulness while participating in crowdfunding campaigns. this was done to test how successful (ajzen, 2006) psychometric metrics are for generating predictions in various empirical contexts. as an outcome, the following scale measures were created and included in the psychometric questionnaire used in this study. worth noting that the different measures are assessed using a seven-point likert scale (1 to 7). 3.5.1.1. attitude [att] a direct measurement of attitude was taken using four items. participants were asked to respond to six pairs of mono adjectives (table 5). it is noted that items att 1-4 were adopted and modified from hsu and lin (2008) and items att 2-3 were adapted and modified from hsu, yen, chiu, and chang (2006). asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 119 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 5. measure of attitude. no. construct item 1. att1 i would like to participate in crowdfunding campaigns. 2. att2 i have a positive point of view about engaging in crowdfunding campaigns. 3. att3 i believe that participating in crowdfunding campaigns is profitable for me. 4. att4 i will probably feel good about donating to a crowdfunding campaign. 3.5.1.2. subjective norms [sn] a measure of subjective norms was recorded from four items (see table 6). items {1-2} with an injunctive quality are to be included when developing a measure consistent with subjective norms. however, to alleviate positivity or ‘leniency bias’ (ajzen, 2006) posits that “others are generally perceived to approve of desirable behaviors and disapprove of undesirable behaviors.” it is also recommended to include items {items 3-4} with a descriptive quality as (ajzen, 2006) contends “whether important others themselves perform the behavior in question.” it is to be noted that items sn 1-2 were adapted and modified from hsu, kang, and lam (2006) work. items sn 3-4 were adapted and modified from (ajzen, 2006) paper. table 6. measure of sn. no. construct item 1. sn1 most people who are important to me think that i should engage in crowdfunding campaigns 2. sn2 people in my life whose opinions i respect would encourage my participation. 3. sn3 many people like me engage in crowdfunding campaigns. 4. sn4 i feel under social pressure to participate in crowdfunding campaigns. 3.5.1.3. perceived behavioral control (pbc) a direct measure of pbc was developed using four scale items to assess whether participants felt they were capable of performing the behavior under investigation: in this empirical context, contributing through participating in crowdfunding campaigns (table 7). pbc should be divided into two components as suggested by ajzen (2006) based “on whether respondents perceive themselves as capable of performing the behavior and whether they believe they have control over the behavior.” pbc’s sub-components were re-coded as capability (items 1-2) and controllability (items 3–4). it is worth noting that items pbc 1-2 were adapted and modified from casaló, flavián, and guinalíu (2010) paper and items pbc 3-4 were adapted and modified from hsu et al. (2006) study. table 7. measure of pbc. no. construct item 1. pbc1 my engagement in contributing to crowdfunding campaigns is within my control. 2. pbc2 the decision to contribute to crowdfunding campaigns is entirely mine. 3. pbc3 whether or not i contribute to crowdfunding campaigns is entirely up to me. 4. pbc4 i feel that whether i contribute or don't to crowdfunding campaigns is beyond my control 3.5.1.4. intention [represented by engagement intention or ei] table 8 assessed the intention to contribute to a crowdfunding campaign. the response categories used by armitage and conner (1999) study were adopted due to their high internal reliability scores. it is noted that items int 1-3 were adapted and modified from armitage and conner (1999) study. table 8. measure of intention. no. construct item 1. ei1 i intend to participate in crowdfunding campaigns 2. ei2 i plan to engage in crowdfunding campaigns 3. ei3 i want to be part of crowdfunding campaigns 3.5.1.5. behavior [represented by financially contributing to crowdfunding initiatives or finc] table 9 shows the measure of behavior and its statements. financially contributing to crowdfunding initiatives items are coded finc. finc 1-2 were adapted and modified from “ewom participation” in yoo, sanders, and moon (2013). table 9. measure of behavior. no. construct item 1. finc1 i spend much effort in financially contributing to crowdfunding initiatives. 2. finc2 i frequently contribute financially to crowdfunding initiatives. 3.5.1.6. model extensions 3.5.1.6.1. emotions (emo) as mentioned earlier, an extension of the tbp model has been modified by adding the factors: emotions, personality, risk, and demographic factors. table 10 shows the measures of emotions (four of them) and their statements. worth noting that items emo 1-3 were adapted and modified from (harms, 2007) study, and item emo 4 was adapted and modified from (moysidou & spaeth, 2016) research. table 10. measure of emotions. no. construct item 1. emo1 supporting the initiatives would be positive for me. 2. emo2 these are initiatives that i would enjoy supporting. 3. emo3 i would appreciate the actual process of supporting these initiatives. 4. emo4 i would invest in crowdfunding initiatives purely for the enjoyment of doing them. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 120 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group 3.5.1.6.2. personality table 11 demonstrates that the sample of respondents possess agreeableness as the highest representation with a mean = 28.50 and std. dev. of 4.124 followed by openness with a mean = 28 and std. dev. of 3.240, conscientiousness (mean=27; std. dev.=4.111), neuroticism (mean=25.50, std. dev.=6.34440, and least is extroversion (mean=25, std. dev.=5.424). personality traits help understand why a participant acts the way he/she does to engage in crowdfunding campaigns and how the personality is structured, where these items consist of sets of sub-categories measured on a 5-level likert scale style (coded 1 for strongly disagree up to 5 for strongly agree). this section is sourced, adapted, and modified from https://openpsychometrics.org/ table 11. distribution of personality types. central tendency measures personality trait 1: extroversion personality trait 2: agreeableness personality trait 3: conscientiousness personality trait 4: neuroticism personality trait5: openness to experience mean 19.88 27.81 26.95 23.58 27.09 median 20.00 28.50 27.00 25.50 28.00 mode 22 28 29 26 28 std. deviation 5.424 4.124 4.111 6.344 3.240 source: this study’s results. 3.5.1.6.3. measure of risk understanding one’s attitude toward investing risk is critical when making financial decisions. this study’s questionnaire is intended to assess the participant’s emotional reaction to changes in his/her investment values (i.e., investment risk tolerance). table 12 demonstrates a set of ten items measured with a 7-level likert scale. the set of statements will help the participant understand his/her attitude toward investment risk. it is to be noted that this set of questions was adapted and modified (from a 5-level to a 7-level likert scale) from “oxford risk rating questionnaire” by standard life aberdeen (2020): https://www.abrdn.com/library/oxford-risk-questionnaire.pdf the questionnaire ends with a demographic set of questions including age, sex, affiliation, marital status, and income group. table 12. measure of risk. no. construct item 1. r1 i have been extremely risky in the past with financial investments. 2. r2 even if i could get high returns, i would prefer not to invest my money in something that might decline in value. 3. r3 being financially cautious is important to me. 4. r4 i would never make a high-risk investment. 5. r5 my objective is to maximize the value of long-term investments, and i am ready to accept substantial short-term declines in value to do so. 6. r6 my friends would say that i am cautious. 7. r7 i prefer my money to be safe from risk. 8. r8 i would invest my money in a risky venture. 9. r9 i would experience a considerable gain from a risky investment. 10. r10 i would take a significant financial risk. source: https://www.abrdn.com/library/oxford-risk-questionnaire.pdf. 4. data analysis methods the acquired data will be analyzed using the “statistical product and service solutions” (hejase & hejase, 2013) ibm spss 27.0 version. the different statistical analysis techniques used in this study include 'univariate descriptive analysis' using descriptive statistics to indicate the dispersion of the frequency of each scale. this will be performed by utilizing a one-sample t-test “to compute a measure of central tendency and dispersion: the mean and standard deviation (sd)” (hejase & hejase, 2013). then, bivariate analysis will be the second, and lastly, inferential analysis to study variable relationships. multiple regression analysis will be very useful in determining the model fit efficacy by creating behavioral models using a multivariate method. testing is based on ‘statistical significance’ (p < standard α of 5%). 4.1. reliability, validity, and ethical considerations 4.1.1. internal reliability the cronbach alpha recorded adequate values (number of items = 29, table 13) with an overall value of 0.860. in addition, cronbach's alpha, if an item is deleted, varies between 0.844 and 0.875, which according to chehimi, hejase, and hejase (2019) is “considered to be very good, statistically significant, and reliable” (p. 46). moreover, the aforementioned indicates according to chehimi et al. (2019) "a very good strength of association and supports the suitability and selection of the questions for the questionnaire purpose" (p. 1915). in addition, the overall questionnaire with 29 statements is divided into seven statement partitions. the subjective norm and the risk partitions (marked with ***) resulted in smaller cronbach’s alpha values of 0.602 and 0.635, which may raise concern since it indicates a moderate strength of association of the questionnaire’s questions leading to unsuitable selection of the questions. however, further investigation found that taber (2018) showed low concern. taber quoted griethuijsen et al. (2015) justification for using an overall cronbach’s alpha of 0.446, i.e., “slightly increasing the number of items would lead to acceptable values for cronbach’s alpha” griethuijsen et al. (2015). therefore griethuijsen et al. (2015) low value of cronbach alpha (0.446) is lower than this research’s alpha values of 0.602 and 0.635. in addition, hejase and hejase (2013) consider “these values to be moderate and, therefore, adequate within the questionnaire.” moreover, it is worth noting, that when considering the twenty-nine items, a very good value of cronbach’s alpha of 0.860 is obtained. https://openpsychometrics.org/ https://www.abrdn.com/library/oxford-risk-questionnaire.pdf https://www.abrdn.com/library/oxford-risk-questionnaire.pdf https://www.abrdn.com/library/oxford-risk-questionnaire.pdf asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 121 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 13. internal reliability test. factor no. of items cronbach’s alpha range if item deleted overall 29* 0.860 0.844 ˂ α ˂ 0.875 attitude 4 0.871 0.810 ˂ α ˂ 0.850 subjective norm 4 0.602*** 0.373 ˂ α ˂ 0.673 pcb 3** 0.895 0.804 ˂ α ˂ 0.906 intention 3 0.788 0.582 ˂ α ˂ 0.851 behavior 2 0.855 emotions 4 0.745 0.652˂ α ˂ 0.703 risk 9** 0.635*** 0.504 ˂ α ˂ 0.730 note: * two items were eliminated due to their negative impact on the total group of items (out of a total of 31 items). ** one item was eliminated due to its negative impact on the group of items in pcb (one from the original 4 items of pcb and the other from the original 10 items of risk). *** refer to small values of cronbach’s alpha. 4.2. validity the design of this paper was performed without compromising its validity. this design increases external validity, allows for more authentic participants’ reactions, and allows the generated data to support the findings. a group of three experts validated the content of the evaluation. the primary statements are clearly stated, devoid of any opportunity for an answer, and compliant with research regulations. since the questionnaire was built based on published instruments, as shown earlier, their validity is guaranteed. however, certain corrections were suggested and upon running the survey on ten students, who do not form part of the sample, the final form and state of the survey was defined. construct validity will be evaluated to see how well the results obtained by this study agree with the results resulting from similar tpb studies. throughout the hypothesis testing method, this measure of validity will be very valuable for this study. this is because the study hypotheses were formulated using the tpb model. if additional research findings are found to be consistent with this study’s outcomes, it will confirm that the tpb model is suitable and functional when applied to the empirical study of crowdfunding behavior, making it easier to generalize findings to the rest of the population. in addition, construct validity is assessed by the adjusted r squared value. this will help to determine the model fit efficacy of the proposed behavioral model. 4.3. ethical considerations respondents were adequately informed about this study’s subject. the researchers informed them that their participation is voluntary, their identities are kept undeclared, and they have the "right to withdraw" with no questions asked. also, participants were kept assured that the confidentiality of the participant's information captured and the anonymity of there are respected (e.g., name and ip address) and that results will be only used for academic research. to avoid any instances of ethical impeachment, participants were made aware of these standards in the preparatory survey instructions. 5. results and findings 5.1. demographics results show that males constituted 44.6% of the respondents, while females formed 55.4% of the sample. respondents’ age has three (3) ranges. 36.5% of them were older than 24 years of age, 32.4% were 18 to 20, and 31.1% were 21 to 23. also, 52.7% of the respondents were in the faculty of business, 10.8% in the faculty of communication and arts, 4.1% in the faculty of sciences, 1.4% in the religions and humanities faculty, and 31.1% did not declare their faculty affiliation. moreover, 64.9% of the sample were single and 35.1% were married. furthermore, the respondents' employment status showed that 50% were unemployed students, 24.3% were part-time employees, and 25.7% were full-time employees. in terms of the respondents’ income, results show that 20.3% of them have an income range between $100 and $150, 17.6% have less than $100, 23% have an income greater than $300, 21.6% have an income in the range of $150.01 to $210, 14.9% have an income range between $210.01 and $300, and 2.6% did not declare their earning range. 5.2. psychometric analysis the 7-level likert scale results (tables 14 to 16) were condensed around the indifference base by grouping the three highest levels of agreement (i.e., somehow agree, agree, and strongly agree) into an agreement level and by grouping the lowest three disagreement levels (i.e., somehow disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree) into a disagreement level for the sake of simplifying the analysis of results. table 14. five sections of statement results. construct a i d mean standard deviation att1 79.7 13.5 6.8 5.46 1.295 att2 78.4 9.5 12.1 5.38 1.372 att3 68.9 16.2 14.9 5.01 1.429 att4 82.5 12.1 5.4 5.47 1.137 sn1 25.7 27.0 47.3 3.50 1.407 sn2 70.3 20.3 9.4 4.85 1.069 sn3 32.5 37.8 29.7 4.00 1.293 sn4 10.8 10.8 78.4 2.50 1.455 pbc1 83.8 4.1 12.1 5.64 1.558 pbc2 81.1 8.1 10.8 5.78 1.519 pbc3 83.8 4.0 12.2 5.80 1.414 pbc4 23.0 5.4 71.6 2.78 1.946 ei1 41.9 40.5 17.6 4.32 1.304 ei2 71.6 20.3 8.1 5.07 1.275 asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 122 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group construct a i d mean standard deviation ei3 73.0 18.9 8.1 5.11 1.340 finc1 21.6 6.8 71.6 3.00 1.655 finc2 13.5 10.8 75.7 2.64 1.477 to start with, the first four factors from table 14, related to “personal attitude: att1-4”, scored an agreement of 79.7%. 78.4%, 68.9%, and 82.5%, respectively, with means higher than 5.0 and standard deviations varying from 1.137 to 1.429 which keep the level of attitude at a positive agree zone. the second four statements related to the subjective norm (sn1-4), demonstrate that the respondents are not influenced by social pressure (sn4: 78.4% disagree with mean=2.50 and std. dev. of 1.455) nor by externally forced invitation to participate in crowdfunding (sn1: 47.3% disagree and third statement 32.5% agree), while the second statement “sn2: people in my life whose opinions i respect would encourage my participation” got a 70.3% agreement. results show that respondents could be influenced externally by experts, professionals, and people trusted. the third factor is perceived behavioral control (pbc1-4) which constitutes four statements. results in this case support the respondents’ voluntary and self-controlled decision (first three statements; with 83.8%, 81.1%, and 83.8% agreement level) and the rejection of the external influence (pbc4 with 78.4% disagreement level). this dimension showed that respondents are conscientious about their decision to engage in crowdfunding campaigns as long as the decision is self-controlled. the fourth factor which is “crowdfunding contribution intention or engagement intention ei” demonstrated more wishful thinking to the intention as supported by the results of the first three statements. a fourth statement disqualifies the respondents’ serious efforts to participate in crowdfunding initiatives leading to its removal from the next stage of analysis. therefore, the overall intention reflected by the respondents is kept at the level of no action taken. the fifth factor which is “behavior” was divided into two statements. results show high disagreement levels regarding putting much effort into financially contributing to crowdfunding initiatives (finc1: 71.6%) and contributing financially to crowdfunding initiatives (finc2: 75.7%). the behavior in this case is a result of not having a serious intention to contribute to crowdfunding initiatives as shown above. table 15. emotions statements results. construct statement a i d mean std. dev. emo1 supporting the initiatives would be positive for me. 81.1 13.5 5.4 5.69 1.238 emo 2 these are initiatives that i would enjoy supporting. 77.0 10.8 12.2 5.53 1.464 emo 3 i would appreciate the actual process of supporting these initiatives. 70.3 16.2 13.5 5.30 1.459 emo 4 i would invest in crowdfunding initiatives purely for the enjoyment of doing them. 78.4 16.2 5.4 5.70 1.202 table 15 strongly demonstrates the positive emotions toward supporting crowdfunding initiatives evidenced by the high agreement levels of the four statements describing the enjoyment of the exercise (81.1%, 77.0%, 70.3%, and 78.4% agreement values). table 16. risk statements results. construct a i d mean standard deviation r2 66.2 14.9 18.9 4.93 1.743 r3 83.8 10.8 5.4 5.90 1.260 r4 50.0 29.7 20.3 4.53 1.334 r5 76.7 15.1 8.2 5.25 1.289 r6 75.6 12.2 12.2 5.37 1.467 r7 78.3 14.9 6.8 5.34 1.204 r8 14.9 21.6 63.5 3.01 1.429 r9 64.8 17.6 17.6 4.51 1.335 r10 27.0 31.1 41.9 3.66 1.511 note: r1 was eliminated due to experts’ suggestions (validity exercise). this section describes the respondents’ attitudes toward risk-taking in investment decisions and actions. the overall average of 4.72 (std. dev. = 1.397) indicates a cautious stance towards risk and a desire for safe investments (table 16). 5.3. factor analysis initially, principal component analysis (pca) was used as a first test followed by rotation. seven factors with a total cumulative variance of 73.104% resulted from the analysis of the 31-construct questionnaire and the elimination of two demographic variables. 5.4. pca with promax rotation the resulting correlation matrix was examined, suggesting that the matrix of components could be simplified. the chi-square test of sphericity (bartlett's test: χ2 = 1671.885, df = 465, sig. = 0.000) is deemed significant, while the kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sample adequacy at 0.773 is considered highly adequate. furthermore, analysis of the 'anti-image correlation matrix' revealed that, as stated by coakes (2013) “all measures of sampling adequacy (msa) exceed the acceptable level of 0.50” (p.133). the range of communalities observed in factor analysis was between 0.563 to 0.839. according to burns and burns (2008) “communalities represent the proportion of variance in each variable that can be explained by each factor extracted” (p. 455). an example is the statement "i desire to join crowdfunding campaigns," explaining 83.9% of the variability. among other instances, the phrase 'these are projects asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 123 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group that i would be happy to back' explained 56.3% of the variability. table 17 shows the cumulative percentages and the total amount of explained variation. seven variables showing eigenvalues higher than one were identified through the eigenvalue analysis presented in figure 5. seven factors would explain it, representing 73.104% of the variation. in accordance with burns and burns (2008) the seven components are maintained following kaiser's rule. figure 5 demonstrates and displays the scree plot. the current statistical findings require us to analyze additional data to examine possible correlations among the variables. therefore, rotation is essential. hejase et al. (2014) stated that “rotation decreases complex variables and enhances interpretation” (p. 1573). the researchers employed direct oblimin following rotation with varimax (specifics not provided due to space constraints), and then used promax with kaiser normalization to achieve favorable results with proper weighting of the seven criteria. therefore, the final valid elements of the seven factors were identified. therefore, it is possible to retrieve the weights associated with each element. these weights are then used to modify the variables and perform a regression analysis, which will be used to assess our research hypotheses. worth noting that ‘variable transformations via spss’ are required to produce weighted variables that represent the independent (explanatory) variables in the suggested research framework. each variable is made up of a collection of statements. when transforming data using spss version 27.0, the independent (explanatory) variables are represented more precisely and better than when grouping statements based on average means. table 17. total variance explained. component initial eigenvalues extraction sums of squared loadings rotation sums of squared loadingsa total % of variance cumulative % total % of variance cumulative % total 1 9.009 29.060 29.060 9.009 29.060 29.060 8.062 2 5.549 17.901 46.961 5.549 17.901 46.961 4.481 3 2.557 8.247 55.209 2.557 8.247 55.209 5.165 4 1.805 5.823 61.032 1.805 5.823 61.032 6.038 5 1.348 4.348 65.379 1.348 4.348 65.379 6.088 6 1.281 4.133 69.513 1.281 4.133 69.513 2.758 7 1.113 3.591 73.104 1.113 3.591 73.104 2.408 note: extraction method: principal component analysis. a. when components are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance. figure 5. scree plot. table 18 depicts the transformational equations using factor analysis weights, extracted from the structure matrix, to create the regression explanatory variables. table 18. variables transformation. compute att=sum (attitude1*0.904, attitude2*0.770, attitude3*0.781, attitude4*0.817). execute. compute sn=sum (subjnorm1*0.777, subj norm2*0.756, subjnorm3*0.665, subj norm4*0.608). execute. compute pbc=sum (percbehavctrl1*0.853, perc behav ctrl2*0.854, perc behav ctrl3*0.749). execute. compute ei=sum (crdfundctrbintn1*0.626, crdfund ctrbintn2*0.763, crdfund ctrbintn3*0.885). execute. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 124 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group compute finc=sum (behfincontrib1*0.823, beh fin contrib2*0.737). execute. compute emo=sum (emotions1*0.881, emotions2*0.649, emotions3*0.669, emotions4*0.835). execute. compute risk=sum (risk2*0.754, risk3*0.851, risk4*0.724, risk5*0.805, risk6*0.821, risk7*0.771, risk8* 0.733, risk 9*0.623, risk10*0.747). execute. 5.5. regression analysis results tables 19 to 21 demonstrate nine multivariable regression models. all of them are appropriate for fitting the data with a moderate to good pearson’s coefficient of correlation (r) and acceptable coefficients of determination (adj. r2), respectively; the models are qualitatively suitable with significant probabilities of p < 0.001 (p < α = 0.05). table 5.29's anova test reveals f-values of 52.359 with a significance level of probabilities below the standard error α of 5%, indicating the regression equations predict better than random chance. as for the standardized beta coefficients of the regression equations’ explanatory variables, most of the beta values ranging from small to moderate (o,2 to 0.5) are statistically significant since its sig. p values are smaller than the standard error of 5%. those sig. p values that are larger than 5% correspond to explanatory variables that are eliminated from the multivariable regression equations. the durbin-watson statistics falling within the range of 0 to 4. a value close to 2.0 indicates absence of autocorrelation in the sample according to al sayed, hejase, hamdar, hatoum, and hejase (2022). additionally, table 21 shows that multicollinearity is not a problem since the variance inflation factors (vifs) are under 4. this indicates that the explanatory variable is appropriate for identifying a cause-and-effect connection using regression analysis (chehimi et al., 2019; hashem, sfeir, hejase, & hejase, 2022; hejase et al., 2024; hejase et al., 2023; younis, hejase, abdallah, haddad, & hejase, 2021). table 19. summary of regression analysis. model dependent variable independent variables r r square adjusted r square durbinwatson sig. 1 (1 cycle) (ei) (pbc); (sn); (att) 0.752 0.565 0.547 1.943 0.000 2 (1 cycle) (ei) (pbc); (sn); (att); sex; risk 0.762 0.581 0.550 2.053 0.000 3 (4 cycles) (ei) (pbc); (sn); (att); ‘i would experience a considerable gain from a risky investment’ 0.775 0.601 0.578 2.138 0.015 4 (1 cycle) (finc) behavior (pbc), (ei), ‘i feel that whether i contribute or don’t to crowdfunding campaigns is beyond my control’ 0.639 0.408 0.383 1.691 ˂0.001 5 (1 cycle) (att) (emo), (sn), (pbc) 0.906 0.820 0.812 1.831 0.000 6 (1 cycle) (sn) extroversion, agreeableness), conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience) 0.566 0.320 0.270 1.717 ˂0.001 7 (1 cycle) (pbc) agreeableness neuroticism openness to experience 0.681 0.464 0.441 2.013 0.000 8 (1 cycle) (pbc) (sn), (att) 0.643 0.414 0.397 2.380 ˂0.001 9 (1 cycle) (sn) (pbc), (att) 0.430 0.185 0.162 1.823 ˂0.001 table 20. anova results. model dependent variable independent variables f sig. 1 (1 cycle) ei (pbc); (sn); (att) 30.324 0.000 2 (1 cycle) ei (pbc); (sn); (att); sex; risk 18.857 0.000 3 (4 cycles) ei (pbc); (sn); (att); ‘i would experience a considerable gain from a risky investment’ 25.614 0.000 4 (1 cycle) (finc) behavior (pbc); (ei), ‘i feel that whether i contribute or don’t to crowdfunding campaigns is beyond my control’ 16.076 ˂0.001 5 (1 cycle) att (emo), (sn), pbc) 106.418 0.000 6 (1 cycle) sn extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience 6.405 ˂0.001 7 (1 cycle) (pbc) agreeableness neuroticism openness to experience 20.194 0.000 8 (1 cycle) (pbc) (sn), (att) 25.054 ˂0.001 9 (1 cycle) (sn) (pbc), (att) 8.064 ˂0.001 note: each equation in table 18 represents the sum of weighted elements whereby each element is multiplied by its unique loading or weight extracted from factor analysis. the symbol [*] represents a multiplication sign. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 125 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group table 21. coefficients. model dependent variable independent variables standardized beta t sig. tolerance vif 1 (1 cycle) (ei) (pbc), 0.365 3.620 0.001 0.609 1.641 (sn), 0.213 2.443 0.017 0.815 1.227 (att) 0.472 4.588 0.000 0.586 1.706 2 (1 cycle) (ei) (pbc), 0.313 2.963 0.004 0.551 1.815 (sn), 0.254 2.796 0.007 0.747 1.339 (att) 0.425 3.877 0.000 0.513 1.95 sex, 0.167 1.603 0.113 0.568 1.762 risk 0.036 0.426 0.672 0.871 1.148 3 (4 cycles) (ei) (pbc); 0.373 3.617 0.001 0.551 1.814 (sn) 0.214 2.497 0.015 0.801 1.249 (att) 0.303 3.028 0.003 0.585 1.708 ‘i would experience a considerable gain from a risky investment’ 0.274 3.143 0.002 0.771 1.297 4 (1 cycle) (finc) behavior (pbc) -0.242 -1.839 0.070 0.487 2.055 (ei) 0.413 3.494 ˂0.001 0.607 1.648 ‘i feel that whether i contribute or don’t to crowdfunding campaigns is beyond my control’ 0.520 4.915 ˂0.001 0.754 1.326 5 (1 cycle) (att) (pbc) 0.172 2.740 0.008 0.649 1.541 (sn) 0.109 1.989 0.051 0.859 1.164 (emo) 0.793 12.932 0.000 0.682 1.466 6 (1 cycle) (sn) extroversion 0.172 1.64 0.106 0.912 1.097 agreeableness 0.101 0.89 0.376 0.777 1.286 conscientiousness -0.124 -0.939 0.351 0.578 1.73 neuroticism -0.527 -4.41 0.000 0.700 1.429 openness to experience 0.093 0.813 0.419 0.762 1.312 7 (1 cycle) (pbc) agreeableness 0.245 2.513 0.014 0.805 1.243 neuroticism 0.483 5.23 0.000 0.897 1.115 openness to experience 0.171 1.779 0.080 0.830 1.205 8 (1 cycle) (pbc) (sn) -0.344 -3.736 ˂0.001 0.975 1.026 (att) 0.601 6.527 ˂0.001 0.975 1.026 9 (1 cycle) (sn) (pbc), -0.419 -3.736 ˂0.001 0.702 1.425 (att) 0.478 3.275 0.002 0.702 1.425 5.6. hypotheses testing based on the aforementioned tables 19 to 21, and capitalizing on a 95% confidence and statistical significance with α= 5%, table 22 demonstrates the status of the research hypotheses. table 22. hypotheses tests findings. hi hypotheses statements βi t sig. decision h1 emotions (emo) have a positive impact on attitude (att). 0.793 12.932 0.000 accept h2 personality types have a positive impact on subjective norms (sn): neuroticism 0.527 4.410 0.000 reject. accept alternative hypothesis with a negative relationship with only one personality trait h3 personality types have a positive impact on (pbc) agreeableness neuroticism openness to experience 0.245 0.483 0.171 2.513 5.230 1.779 0.014 0.000 0.000 accept. but with 3 out of 5 personality types h4 attitudes have a positive impact on (ei) 0.303 3.028 0.003 accept h5 (sn) have a positive impact on (ei) 0.214 2.497 0.015 accept h6 (pbc) has a positive impact on (ei) 0.373 3.617 0.001 accept h7 (sn) have a positive impact on (att) 0.109 1.989 0.051 reject at 5% statistical significance h8 (pbc) has a positive impact on (att) 0.172 2.740 0.008 accept h9 (pbc) has a positive impact on (sn) 0.419 3.736 ˂0.001 reject. asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 126 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group hi hypotheses statements βi t sig. decision accept alternative hypothesis with a negative relationship h10 (pbc) has a positive impact on (finc) behavior 0.242 1.839 0.07 reject. accept alternative hypothesis with a negative relationship h11 risk preferences (risk) have a positive impact on (ei) 0.274 3.141 0.002 partial acceptance. only one risk preference out of nine statements: i would experience a considerable gain from a risky investment h12 demographic factors have a positive impact on (ei): sex 0.167 1.603 0.113 reject (all other demographic variables failed the test) h13 (ei) has a positive impact on (finc) behavior 0.413 3.494 ˂0.001 accept table 22 shows that hypothesis 11 is partially accepted (with one risk factor out of 9 being statistically significant at 5%), where 64.8% (mean = 4.51, s. d. = 1.335) of the respondents agreed they would experience a considerable gain from a risky investment which asserts their crowdfunding contribution intention. crowdfunding contribution intention will increase by 27.4% of a standard deviation if such risk increases by one-unit standard deviation. also, hypothesis 12 is statistically insignificant (p = 0.113˃0.05) supporting no impact of demographic variables (including sex) on crowdfunding contribution intention. the next finding shows that hypotheses 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 13 are statistically significant at 95% confidence. hypothesis 1 was accepted supporting that emotions have a positive relationship with attitude. the result demonstrates that respondents’ attitudes towards crowdfunding increase by 79.3% of a standard deviation when emotions positively increase by one standard deviation. coleman et al. (2017) stated that “individuals who hope to make money are happier and have the intention to take risks.” therefore, as posited by loewenstein et al. (2001) “emotions and individual moods are added to the decision process as input to the decision-making process.” hypothesis 4, 5, and 6 are supported statistically confirming the positive relationships between attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and crowdfunding contribution intentions (ei). results show that there are increases of 30.3%, 21.4%, and 37.3% of a standard deviation when each variable increases by one unit standard deviation, respectively. such results are supported by the theory of planned behavior (tpb). ajzen and cote (2008) justified that “the attitudes towards the contribution intention are the result of the participants’ appraisement of the crowdfunding.” in addition, ajzen and fishbein (2005b) justified “the positive relationship between subjective norms and the crowdfunding contribution intention (ei) to the respondents’ beliefs that important social referents or groups agree with executing contribution intention.” finally, the positive perceived behavioral control and its direct relationship with intention, according to ajzen and fishbein (2005b) is “supported by the controlling faith in the availability of opportunities and resources.” hypothesis 8 that there is a positive relationship between perceived behavioral control and attitudes is statistically valid, is supported by ajzen and cote (2008) who claim “that a person's feeling of self-efficiency or ability to carry out the behavior is implied by perceived behavioral control.” the aforementioned relationship is supported by de vries, dijkstra, and kuhlman (1988) who posit that “self-efficacy highly reflects the actual control and that self-efficacy expectations will significantly increase the prediction of behavioral intentions.” this last justification supports hypothesis 13 that crowdfunding contribution intention has a positive impact on behavior, in this case, the financial contribution to crowdfunding initiatives. next, table 22 shows that hypothesis 3 is partially valid since results support only three personality types to positively influence pbc. when there is an increase in one unit of standard deviation, agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness to experience contribute 24.5%, 48.3%, and 17.1% of a standard deviation to pbc. according to dhiman and raheja (2018) “agreeable persons are more risk-tolerant.” while becker et al. (2012) stress that “people with neuroticism traits would avoid more risk.” on the other hand, pinjisakikool (2018) stated that “people with neuroticism personality traits have risky investment choices.” moreover, hunter and kemp (2004) assert that “individuals with openness traits are more capable of taking risks.” in addition, mayfield et al. (2008) contend that “individuals with openness traits are successful in financial matters where they do not avoid risk and turn to longterm investments.” hypothesis 2 was rejected as findings indicate that personality traits do not positively impact subjective norms. instead, the alternative hypothesis was supported, demonstrating a negative association with only one personality trait, neuroticism. becker et al. (2012) suggest that “individuals with this personality trait tend to steer clear of taking excessive risks.” meanwhile, according to pinjisakikool (2018) “individuals with neurotic personality characteristics tend to make risky investment decisions.” ajzen and fishbein (2005a) explained that “subjective norms come from what individuals believe about whether important social groups agree or disagree with performing a specific behavior, like making risky investments.” however, the respondents of this research have shown a cautious stance against risk (see table 17), demonstrating the justification that this hypothesis supports the inverse relationship, that is, the more respondents show neuroticism (risky choices), the less respondents’ attraction towards risk is. also, this research’s hypothesis h7 that states ‘subjective norms have a positive impact on attitudes’ is rejected at a 5% statistical significance. in addition, the results of hypothesis h9, ‘perceived behavioral control has a positive impact on subjective norms’ and hypothesis h10, ‘perceived behavioral control has a positive impact on behavior’ are both rejected and their alternative hypotheses are accepted, that is, perceived behavioral control has statistically significant negative relationships with subjective norm and behavior. the first relationship justifies that the more the respondents are influenced by external referent individuals’ advice the less the respondents’ controlling faith in the asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 127 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group availability of opportunities and resources. the second relationship demonstrates that perceived behavioral control alone without strong intentions does not lead to contributing financially to crowdfunding initiatives. finally, hypothesis h12 is rejected which demonstrates that the demographic variables do not have any effect on crowdfunding contribution intention. as a summary, the statistically tested proposed framework for the current research is depicted in figure 6. figure 6. tested research framework. note: figure 6 illustrates the final outcomes of regression analysis used to test the hypotheses. the figure shows the standardized beta values that explain the strength of the relationship between each pair of variables. these beta values were extracted from table 22 after being analyzed for statistical significance. 6. conclusion this study aimed to identify the variables that affect young people's attitudes on taking part in crowdfunding projects. finding new variables outside of the original model that can affect these attitudes was one of the study's other goals. the quick expansion of crowdfunding provides more platforms for entrepreneurs to introduce their innovative ideas to the public. further dynamic research on crowdsourcing is needed to assist its progress. to aid in the creation of a crowdfunding system, this study attempted to expand on previously conducted research on the subject. this work presents preliminary findings about the variables affecting participants' attitudes. using the "theory of planned behavior" to understand the reasons behind participants' intentions to participate in crowdfunding campaigns is one of the study's more important conclusions. a survey was created to learn more about the factors influencing al maaref university students' decisions to invest through crowdsourcing. this study of investment intentions discovered that only one out of nine risk preferences had a positive impact on engagement intention ei at a 5% significance level, subjective norms had a positive impact on ei, emotions had a positive impact on attitude, and pbc had a positive impact on attitudes. personality types (a, n, and o) also had a positive impact on pbc at a 5% significance level. however, subjective norms do not have a statistically significant positive impact on attitudes, pbc does not have a positive impact on subjective norms, pbc does not directly positively impact behavior, risk preferences do not have a positive impact on ei at a 5% significance level, and demographic factors do not have a statistically significant positive impact on ei. in contrast, neuroticism does not positively impact subjective norms, and subjective norms do positively impact engagement intention ei at a 5% significance level. by confirming previous findings, we were able to support the use of tpb in understanding intentionality in crowdfunding, as suggested by shneor and munim (2019). 7. limitations this research’s limitation lies in the collection of data required to study the factors for a minimum number of participants, so we ended up collecting less than the required rate of participants due to not responding to all the samples. even though this research tested only 74 respondents, with a reliability error of approximately ± 10.7%, results provide a positive insight into the outcomes. the findings may not be generalized but do act as a motivator for hrm specialists, researchers, and decision-makers to build up further on the findings by carrying out future research. 7.1. suggestions for future investigation the association between variables and the tpb hypothesis has been shown by this research. since a lot of earlier research on crowdfunding concentrated on donors' intentions using planned behavior theory, this study makes a significant contribution by offering a fresh angle on these variables. crowdfunding is expanding quickly, with a huge number of projects being published worldwide. further research on crowdfunding is advised in the future, as it is still in its early stages of development. future studies must increase the number of participants to collect more data both within and between institutions, to address the issue addressed in the preceding section. furthermore, further research is required to asian journal of social sciences and management studies, 2024, 11(4): 107-132 128 © 2024 by the authors; licensee asian online journal publishing group evaluate a comprehensive set of statements that similarly characterize taking risks using a personality rubric that included fifty 5-level likert scale statements developed by previous researchers (https://ipip.ori.org/new_ipip-50item-scale.htm) and whose reliability has been thoroughly examined. because no other research of a similar nature was done, this study has an additional advantage in that it exposes the findings within the lebanese cultural context. therefore, adding to the corpus of information regarding the theory and applications of crowdfunding in general and the research platform in lebanon specifically. references agrawal, a., catalini, c., & goldfarb, a. 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