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Asian Review of Environmental and Earth Sciences 
Vol. 10, No. 1, 28-39, 2023 

ISSN(E) 2313-8173 / ISSN(P) 2518-0134 
DOI: 10.20448/arees.v10i1.4440 

© 2023 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 

 
 

 
 
 
An assessment of water quality and the locals' perception of coastal lagoon pollution 
in ghana: A case study of chemu lagoon in tema 

 
Kofi Adu-Boahen1   
Isaac Boateng2   
Emmanuel Yeboah Okyere3   
Sender Kyeremeh4   

 

 
( Corresponding Author) 

 
1,3,4Department of Geography Education, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana. 
1Email: kadu-boahen@uew.edu.gh  
3Email: eyokyere@uew.edu.gh   
4Email: k.sender.11@gmail.com 
2Department Construction and Wood Technology, Akenten Appiah Menkah University of Skills Training and 
Entrepreneurial Development, Ghana. 
2Email: isaac.boateng@uew.edu.gh   

 
Abstract 

The Chemu lagoon is not immune to pollution through chemical waste contamination, refuse 
disposals, and untreated household sewage, and hence has been chosen as a case study. This paper 
aims to assess the lagoon's level of pollution. Chemical analysis of water samples, field observations, 
and a structured survey questionnaire was used to assess the state of the lagoon. The study revealed 
that the Chemu lagoon has inferior water quality as most of the parameters evaluated were above 
the acceptable standards of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 
Significant differences in concentrations of water quality parameters were established between 
seasons. The study found that respondents were aware of the lagoon’s polluted state and attributed 
pollution to siltation and waste dumping. This leads to offensive odour, livelihood losses 
emphasising a reduction in fishing activities, and outbreaks of diseases in the area. Conclusively, 
stakeholders have not prioritised mitigating pollution of the lagoon. The study recommends that 
the Environmental Health and Waste Management Departments of the Tema Metropolitan 
Assembly intensify house-to-house hygiene education and sanitary inspection in the area. There 
should be education and sensitisation on proper waste management practices in the area. 

 
Keywords: Chemu lagoon, Citizen science, Lagoon, Pollution, Waste management, Water quality. 

 
Citation | Adu-Boahen, K., Boateng, I., Okyere, E. Y., & Kyeremeh, 
S. (2023). An assessment of water quality and the locals’ perception of 
coastal lagoon pollution in ghana: A case study of chemu lagoon in 
tema. Asian Review of Environmental and Earth Sciences, 10(1), 28–39. 
10.20448/arees.v10i1.4440 
History:  
Received: 15 November 2022 
Revised: 23 December 2022 
Accepted: 10 January 2023 
Published: 30 January 2023 
Licensed: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons 

Attribution 4.0 License  
Publisher:  Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 
 

Funding: This study received no specific financial support. 
Authors’ Contributions: All authors contributed equally to the conception and 
design of the study. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of 
interest. 
Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, 
and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have 
been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been 
explained. 
Ethical: This study followed all ethical practices during writing. 

 

 

Contents 
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 29 
2. Water Pollution in Ghana .............................................................................................................................................................. 30 
3. Materials and Methods ................................................................................................................................................................... 30 
4. Results ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 31 
5. Discussions ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 37 
6. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 38 
References .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 38 
 

 
 
 

mailto:kadu-boahen@uew.edu.gh
mailto:eyokyere@uew.edu.gh
mailto:k.sender.11@gmail.com
mailto:isaac.boateng@uew.edu.gh
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://www.doi.org/10.20448/arees.v10i1.4440


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Contribution of this paper to the literature  
Relevant studies on lagoons primarily focus on reporting the state of pollution and water quality 
and, in some instances, identifies impacts on lagoons’ biodiversity by collecting water samples 
and specimen to investigate in laboratories. This study focuses on lagoon pollution but diversifies 
to study the case from a citizen science perspective to understand the respondents' perception.  

 
1. Introduction 

Lagoons are shallow coastal water bodies, entirely or partly separated from a larger body of water by a barrier, 
reef or other depositional features [1, 2]. Lagoons deliver services, including fisheries, flood control, fresh water, and 
preservation of an array of species. They also serve as critical roosting, breeding grounds, food sources, and habitats 
for several bird species, especially migratory ones [3, 4]. On the other hand, lagoons are extraordinarily fragile and 
vulnerable to natural and human-based factors [4, 5]. Natural processes and pollution from nearby urban and 
industrial development can easily disturb coastal lagoons [3]. The United Nations World Water Assessment 
Programme reiterates that river, pond, dam, ocean, and lagoon pollution is a primary global concern [6, 7]. Pollution 
of a water body is observed whenever a body of water is harmed as a consequence of man's addition of a substantial 
quantity of hazardous materials. These actions cause adverse effects such as harm to living resources and marine life, 
dangerous situations to public health, an impediment to coastal and maritime activities, and poor quality use of the 
water body (United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea; UNCLOS). There are numerous sources of 
contamination, which can be classified into two categories: primary and secondary causation. Primary causes 
encompass effluent from homes, factories, refineries, and sewage treatment plants that discharge fluids of differing 
quality directly into the waterways. Contaminants that enter water bodies from soils and groundwater structures, as 
well as from the surrounding air of acid rain, are considered secondary sources [8]. 

Anthropogenic impacts contaminate a large portion of the world's water sources. Around 2 million tons of 
sewage, industrial, and agricultural waste are estimated to be released into the nation's bodies of water as of 2002 
United Nations World Water Assessment Programme [UN WWAP] [6]; Kwadzo, et al. [9]. In Kwadzo, et al. [9], 
it is reported that plastic and domestic wastes are the major lagoon pollutants identified by the respondents in work 
conducted on the Fosu Lagoon in Ghana. These negatively influence the environment and the lifestyle of individuals 
who use polluted water bodies [8]. In Ghana and other less economically developed countries where population 
growth is mainly faster than economic development, waste treatment facilities are almost non-existent. Many people 
die yearly from water-borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid and from pollutants such as lead, cyanide and other 
metals that cause cancer and death [10]. According to United Nations Children's Fund [11] and the World Health 
Organization [12], one of the most effective forms of water pollution is poor sanitary conditions, which pollute water 
bodies globally. They believe that around 2.5 billion people worldwide cannot access enhanced hygiene. Over nine 
million hectares of mangroves are located around coastal lagoons, tidal estuaries and deltas along the coastal 
wetlands of West Africa [13]. 

Notwithstanding their international importance as conservation areas for global biodiversity and production 
efficiency, these lagoons and marshes are primarily unrestricted. Research has found over 40 coastal lagoons along 
Ghana's 540-kilometre shoreline, which is part of the Coast of West Africa [3]. These lagoons and their wetlands 
provide a unique environment and habitat for humans and numerous species of animals in Ghana [3]. Economic 
development and population growth have increased the pollution of these water bodies tremendously, and most often, 
the pollutants are chemical waste, refuse disposals, and untreated sewage from houses.  

The vulnerability of coastal lagoons to pollution is counter-productive to environmental development. It is 
graphically illustrated in the Niger Delta, where mangroves and associated wetlands have been subjected to 
progressive degradation from the plethora of oil and gas mining activities in the Niger Delta and the near-shore 
environment [14]. The collapse of the fishing industry of the Aby Lagoon in Cote d'Ivoire in 1981 due to chemical 
pollution is another example [10]. Chemu lagoon is one of Ghana's worst-polluted lagoons [15]. According to Anny 
[16], Chemu Lagoon, which once had the prospect of being a source of sustenance, is almost depleted and is on the 
brink of total 'death' as a consequence of indiscriminate disposal of solid, liquid, and hazardous wastes. Chemu 
Lagoon, which once had the potential to be a suitable habitat for fish and serve as a valuable ecosystem and destination 
for migratory birds, has nearly dried up and is on the verge of 'death' due to pollution and overcrowding in its 
watersheds. The lagoon is presumed to be Tema's most highly contaminated body of water. For years, city officials 
have been conscious of the lagoons' poor condition; however, no well-defined implementation plan has been executed 
to save the lagoons from extermination. The Chemu lagoon in Tema New town is exposed to vehicle smoke. It is 
also close to the Tema oil refinery, which continuously emits smoke into the environment. Corporate Social 
Responsibility Movement (CSRM), a local environmental NGO, filed a writ against Tema Oil Refinery (TOR) in the 
Tema High Court in 2007 for purportedly contaminating the lagoon with oil and industrial wastewater from their 
plant [17]. 

Previous studies of  lagoon pollution in Ghana primarily focus on Polycyclic Aromatic hydrocarbon pollution 
[18] and urban waste pollution Owusu Boadi and Kuitunen [19]. Biney [15] conducted water quality studies of  
some rivers and lagoons in Ghana, including the Chemu lagoon. Though his investigations identified Chemu lagoon 
as polluted, they did not consider the relevance of  citizen science, what the locals perceived of  the pollution and its 
impacts on their life. Apart from this, it is worth conducting a water quality assessment of  the lagoon in recent times 
to mark monitoring lenses on the trends in the lagoon's pollution levels. The research will assist in deciphering why 
the unregulated disposal and dumping of  garbage into the lagoon is exacerbating a decline in the biodiversity 
population in the area being studied. The research will also function as a position paper for the authorities and other 
intergovernmental organisations on concerns about monitoring the lagoon. The study positions that if  the 
management policies and recommendations are followed, they will aid in the restoration of  the ecosystem to a better 
state. The locals' income will recover if  livelihood is eventually recovered in the lagoon and its watershed. Ultimately, 
the research will add to the existing knowledge on biodiversity protection. This paper assesses the water quality 
concentration of  the Chemu lagoon, investigates how the local people perceive the pollution of  the lagoon, and 
analyses the effects of  the pollution on the people.  



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2. Water Pollution in Ghana 
Water contamination challenges in Ghana are inextricably linked to the country's social, economic, and urban 

growth programs since independence in 1957. Following independence, most industry segments were founded 
throughout the country to promote the natural environment. While leveraging mineral deposits and agricultural 
operations in industrialisation programs, residents did not take adequate precautions to protect against the 
environmental cost of  these programs and resource depletion [20]. Consequently, many ecological concerns are 
currently faced, including varying air, water, and soil pollution. The mining, mineral exploitation and processing, 
textile, food processing, and petroleum refining and processing factories substantially contributed to the nation's 
pollution. Most of  Ghana's industrial establishments are concentrated in the Accra and Tema metropolitan areas, 
which account for less than 1% of  the country's total land area. The accumulation of  these industrial sectors has also 
resulted in increased sound, fumes, and carbon monoxide emissions, as well as urban and industrial effluents [21]. 

Most liquid waste from manufacturing sectors is expelled into bodies of water unmanaged. As a result, the 
surroundings have been devastated. The country's manufacturers also induce different types of municipal solid waste. 
Food processing industries, for example, produce organic solid waste; building and construction industries have 
metal scraps, dust particles, and asbestos tailings; textile and garment industries produce wax, cotton fluff, feints 
offcuts, and floor wastes. Paper cuttings, trimmings, and exposed photo and video films are produced by the paper 
and printing industries. Metal and metallurgical factories produce ferrous, non-ferrous metal, and other wastes [21]. 

The Ghanaian government, environmental regulatory bodies, and social organisations are all collaborating to 
address the country's ecological problem. Among the initiatives that are currently being implemented are: 

• The formation of the Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development, and environment to provide policy 
recommendations [21]. 

• In 1974, the Environmental Protection Council, known as the Environmental Protection Agency, was 
established as the primary body to guide and regulate environmental standards. 

• Development and implementation of the National Environmental Policy (NEP) and the National 
Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) [21]. 

All these measures, policies and strategies are perfect on paper, but they have failed to make significant progress 
in reducing the menace. Most of them are either poorly implemented or not enforced due to inadequate resources, 
corruption and lack of commitment to achieve a sustainable environment. 

 

3. Materials and Methods 
3.1. Study Area 

Chemu Lagoon is situated to the East of  Tema Community 1, as depicted in Figure 1. The lagoon is 
geographically marked within latitudes 5°38'59.09"N and 5°38'38.26"N and longitudes 0°0'45.95"E and 0°1'19.09"E. 
Tema is a coastal city located 25 kilometres east of  Ghana's capital, Accra and has an area of  approximately 26 km2. 
It is differentiated by myriad small streams that connect a mainstream. Tema is not only Ghana's economic hub but 
also the location of  the state's major main port and one of  the most efficient shipping locations on Africa's west 
Coast. "Over 250 factories in the lagoon catchment, engaged in eight major areas: chemicals, textiles, food processing, 
engineering, paint, fish cold stores, printing and wood works" [22]. This notwithstanding, the livelihoods of  many 
of  the people in the area still revolve around agriculture. Like other coastal towns, fishing is the predominant 
agricultural activity around. However, few people are involved in crop farming activities, including exotic vegetables 
and fruits [22]. 
 

 
Figure 1. Map showing the study area in the regional context. 

Source:  Fieldwork, (2021). 
 
3.2. Sampling, Data Collection, and Analysis 

A two-pronged approach was applied in this study. Firstly, concentration analysis of  sample water collected from 
five diverse lagoon points Figure 2 was used to assess the lagoon's composition and level of  contamination. Secondly, 
the paper employed a descriptive survey design (comprising a structured questionnaire) to evaluate the opinion of  
the local people on the effects of  pollution. 



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Water samples were collected from the lagoon to assess the level of  contamination of  the Chemu Lagoon. Five 
sampling points were determined after [23]. The samples were collected and stored in a high-density polyethene 
bottle. All plastic bottles for sampling were immersed in a 10% HNO3 solution for 48 hours and were thoroughly 
rinsed with double-distilled water before use. The bottles were also washed with water to be sampled at each sampling 
point to limit contaminants. All water samples were taken at the subsurface to avoid the superficial colloidal layer, 
which might influence the concentration of  specific parameters. Samples were put in ice chests with ice cubes to slow 
biological and chemical reactions and were transported to the Water Research Institute's (WRI) laboratory for 
analysis. Water samples from the Chemu lagoon were analysed using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. 
 

 
Figure 2. Water sample sites along the course of  Chemu lagoon. 

Source:  Fieldwork, (2021). 
 
Moreover, a descriptive survey design was used because the study sought to observe, describe, and record 

elements of events that take place inevitably or as a consequence of human intervention. According to Fraenkel and 
Wallen [24] descriptive research is gathering evidence to address research questions about the current state of a 
subject of investigation. Gay [25] further defined the phenomenological method as appropriate for environmental 
concerns exploration, appraisal or examination of behaviours, viewpoints, sociodemographic characteristics, 
constraints, and processes. In light of this, the descriptive survey was selected as the study's design. The estimated 
population of the age bracket  20 to 60 at Tema community one is 18,483, according to the Ghana Statistical Service 
[26] report, at a growth rate of 2.6% per annum. The sample size was determined following [27], who proposed 
that a sample size of 377 is ideal for a population of about 20000 persons. The study sampled 377 persons chosen 
purposively and was in the position to provide relevant information for the analysis. The study thus sampled adults 
between the ages of 20 years and 60 years old who had lived in the area for at least ten years. This sample was 
considered appropriate and representative of the current study.   

The study's instruments featured a structured questionnaire, an interview guide, and an observation schedule. 
The data were processed and analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23. Descriptive 
statistics and inferential statistics were employed to present the data. The authors used descriptive statistics 
employing means of  concentrations to show the research results. Inferential statistics employed paired sample t-tests 
to establish seasonal differences. The chemical analysis outcomes contrasted the standards for water bodies outlined 
by the USEPA. Although it may appear arbitrary to compare facts and social rules independently of  date and 
utilisation, this was done by using the concentrations for studied parameters as the basis for comparison to establish 
the extent of  pollution that the Chemu Lagoon has been experiencing for many years. 

 

4. Results 
4.1. Respondent's Sociodemographic Characteristics  

The socio-economic characteristics of the surveyed residents are presented in Table 1. The distribution by gender 
was 64% males and 36% females. With marital status, 66% of the respondents were married, 28% were single, and 
6% were divorced. Results on educational attainment found that respondents with no formal education constituted 
90 (24%), and formal education in the form of Basic, Middle, Senior High School and Tertiary represented 287(76%). 
This shows that most of the respondents at least have tasted formal education and could have more profound 
knowledge and appreciation of water pollution issues in the area studied. It is believed that the level of education 
usually affects the littering behaviour of people. The reported age category of the respondents followed the dimension 
21-30 age bracket representing 25%, 31-30 were 33%, 41-50 were 22%, with the least designated age category being 
those between over 60 years who made 5% of the total respondents. 

Regarding years of stay in the catchment area, the results indicated that 13% of respondents had stayed there for 
between 1-5 years. Another 6 -10 years recorded 18.5%, with 11-15 years recording 21% of the respondents, whilst 
those who had lived in the area for over twenty years constituted 26%. The data presented in Table 1 showed that 
most respondents have stayed for a long time and are privy to the environmental injustices that have been at play in 
and around the lagoon. The study found that 43% of the residents earn up to 500 Cedis per month. Earnings between 
501 and 1000 Cedis are for about 98 (26%), with another 117 (31%) making over 1000 Cedis on average per month. 
To understand the incidence of waste generation from the household level, the researchers analysed data on the 
household size of the respondents. The data revealed that households with 2-5 persons comprised 55% of the 



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respondents, and households with more than 10 constituted 11.5%—persons living alone in a family consisting of 
23% of the resident respondents.  

 
Table 1. Socio-demographics characteristics of  respondents. 

Variable Item Frequency Percentage 

Gender  Male 241 64 
Female 136 36 

Marital status Single 106 28 
Married 249 66 
Divorced 23 6 

Age 21 - 30 Years 94 25 
31 - 40 Years 124 33 
41 - 50 Years 83 22 
51 - 60 Years 57 15 

Above 60 years 19 5 
Level of education No formal education 90 24 

Formal education 287 76 
Years of residence 1 - 5 Years 49 13 

6 -10 Years 70 18.5 
11 - 15 Years 79 21 
16 - 20 Years 81 21.5 
Over 20 Years 98 26 

Mean monthly income Up to 500 cedis 162 43 
501 – 1000 98 26 

Over 1000 Cedis 117 31 
Household size 1 Person 87 23 

2 -5 Persons 207 55 
6 - 10 Persons 40 10.5 

More than 10 persons 43 11.5 
Total 377 100 

Note: 
Source: 

1 Cedis is equivalent to the average of 5.74 dollars in 2021. 
Fieldwork, (2021). 

 

4.2. Seasonal Concentrations of Parameters 
As shown in Table 2, the chemical analysis results express the status of  Physico-chemical and heavy metals 

concentration of  the increasingly degrading Chemu lagoon. The table shows the concentrations (mg/L) of  the 
Physico-chemical and heavy metals parameters in water samples during the wet and dry seasons by their mean 
concentrations and standard deviations. The table also compares the averages for concentrations with the USEPA 
permissible limits for the water body. Table 2 shows the concentration of  the parameters analysed during both the 
wet and dry seasons. As shown, the mean pH for the dry season exceeds the permissible limit according to the USEPA 
standards, while that for the wet season was found to be acceptable. The study also identifies that the mean 
concentrations or levels of  turbidity, temperature, sulphate, phosphates, faecal coliforms, biological oxygen demand, 
zinc, manganese, lead, and cadmium exceed the USEPA limit for water bodies during either season. This expresses 
that the Chemu lagoon is polluted to the extent of  the concentrations identified and presented in Table 2. The 
parameters that were below the acceptable level include ammonia and dissolved solids. In the case of  ammonia, the 
acceptable level is 10 mg/L, but the values for the five sites were below the acceptable level; 1.82, 6.21, 2.11, 3.14 and 
1.81 mg/L, respectively. According to De Lacerda [28], findings identify input pathways, including river-fed 
pollution, the atmosphere, and direct effluents, which are all at play in the Chemu lagoon's catchment. 

There is a significant distinction between what should be considered the optimal range and the precise thresholds 
based on the comparisons made between the samples collected and pre-established permissible limits for the quality 
of  water bodies laid down by the Environmental Protection Agency of  the United States. It is a clear indication that 
the lagoon is polluted. Activities of  the local people and the activities of  the industries surrounding the lagoon 
attribute the higher pollution levels of  the lagoon. 

 
4.3. Seasonal Differences in the Concentrations of Parameters 

Paired-sample t-test was conducted to explore the differences between the concentrations for parameters for the 
wet and dry seasons. The results of  the paired-sample t-test have been presented in Table 3. As shown in the table, 
the study has established that no statistically significant differences exist between the wet and the dry seasons' 
concentrations or levels of  salinity, conductivity, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), sulphates, phosphates, 
potassium, BOD, total cyanide, lead, total cadmium, and mercury. For the pH, the study found a significant increase 
(t (4) = -3.434; p = 0.026) in the level of  the measure of  acidity or alkalinity from the wet season (mean concentration 
[M] = 8.9; standard deviation [SD] = 0.48) to the dry season (M = 9.46; SD = 0.46). A significant effect size 
expressed by an eta-squared statistic of  0.75 is established for the seasonal differences in pH in the Chemu lagoon. 

The results for turbidity found that the passage of  time underscores differences in seasons' turbidity observations 
between the wet and dry seasons. Where a significant seasonal variation (t (4) = -3.062; p = 0.038) marked with an 
eta squared statistic of  0.7, signifying a large effect size between the wet season (M = 47.4; SD = 18.32) and the dry 
season (M = 61.4, SD = 9.84). The paired-sample difference in the ammonia concentration found a t (4) = -3.048; p 
= 0.038 with an eta squared of  0.7, connoting a large effect size. For faecal coliforms, the study has found a statistically 
significant increase (t (4) = -2.834; p = 0.047) in concentrations with the change from wet (M = 1905.2; SD = 645.23) 
to the dry (M = 2545.6; SD = 779.4) seasons. 

 
 
 

 



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Table 2. Means of  seasonal concentrations of  parameters. 

Parameter Wet season 
mean 

SD Dry season 
mean 

SD USEPA limit 

pH 8.9 0.48 9.46* 0.46 6.5 to 9 
Salinity 1.7 1.29 0.95 1.27  
Conductivity 5.28 3.87 7.52 12.7  
Turbidity 47.4* 18.3 61.4* 9.84 < 0.2  Nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) 

Temperature 32.7* 3.37 33.0* 1.24 < 25OC 
TDS 382 153 342 114 500mg/L (500ppm). 
Ammonia 3 1.87 4.74 2.32 50 mg/L 
Sulphates 897* 317 838* 355 250 mg/L 
Phosphates 2.22* 1.28 2.37* 1.40 0.05 mg/L 
Faecal coliforms 1905* 645 2545* 779 200 Colony forming unit (CFU) per 100 mL 

Potassium 7.30 2.29 7.76 2.45 - - 
Chromium 2.41 1.05 0.14 0.09 0.1 mg/L 
Bilogical oxygen demand (BOD) 576* 448 602* 457 50 – 200 mg/L 
Nickel 8.38 0.42 9.57 0.46 0.1 mg/L 
Zinc 17.4* 0.66 23.3* 1.66 5 mg/L 
Iron 22.9 0.95 26.6 1.75 0.3 mg/L 
Benzene 36.4 11.0 46.8 13.5 0.2 mg/L 
Manganese 0.72* 0.23 1.3* 0.1 0.5 mg/L 
Total cyanide 1.08 0.93 1.06 0.54 0.2 mg/L 
Total Arsenic 0.88 0.7 1.14 0.91 0.01 mg/L 
Lead 0.48* 0.34 0.65* 0.17 0.05 mg/L 
Total cadmium 0.05* 0.02 0.32* 0.23 0.003 mg/L 
Mercury 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.002 mg/L 

 Note: *Exceed permissible limit. 
 Source: Fieldwork, (2021). 

 
Table 3. Paired-sample differences in parameters' concentrations. 

Pair (Wet season – dry season) Mean difference T Sig. Eta squared 

pH -0.56 -3.43 0.03* 0.75 
Salinity 0.75 1.29 0.26 0.29 
Conductivity -2.24 -0.55 0.61 0.07 
Turbidity -14.0 -3.06 0.03* 0.70 
Temperature -0.32 -0.23 0.83 0.01 
TDS 39.6 1.56 0.19 0.38 
Ammonia -1.79 -3.05 0.03* 0.70 
Sulphates 58.4 1.21 0.29 0.27 
Phosphates -0.15 -0.74 0.50 0.12 

Faecal coliforms -640.4 -2.83 0.04* 0.67 
Potassium -0.46 -1.12 0.32 0.24 
Chromium 2.27 4.78 0.00* 0.85 
BOD -26.0 -0.59 0.58 0.08 
Nickel -1.18 -4.34 0.01* 0.83 
Zinc -5.92 -10.6 0.00* 0.97 
Iron -3.69 -5.49 0.00* 0.88 
Benzene -10.4 -2.97 0.04* 0.69 
Manganese -0.58 -4.96 0.00* 0.86 
Total cyanide 0.02 0.09 0.93 0.00 
Total Arsenic -0.26 -2.15 0.09* 0.54 
Lead -0.17 -1.94 0.12 0.48 
Total cadmium -0.27 -2.54 0.06 0.62 
Mercury -0.005 -0.58 0.59 0.08 
Note: * Connotes a p-value is less than 0.05, which expresses a statistically significant difference in the respective parameter. 
Source:  Fieldwork: (2021). 

 
An eta stared statistic of  0.67, expressing a large effect size, has been established for the seasonal differences in 

faecal coliforms. The only parameter to observe a decrease in concentrations as a response to seasonal change from 
the wet (M = 2.41; SD = 1.05) to the dry (M = 0.14; SD = 0.09) seasons. Chromium concentrations for either season 
are significantly varied (t (4) = 4.779; p = 0.009), with a large effect size (eta squared statistic = 0.85). For nickel, 
zinc, iron, benzene and manganese, the study established increases in their concentrations, which are also not 
confirmed by chance. Finding the most significant effect size (eta = 0.97) among all the differences shown, the case 
for zinc expresses a mean difference of  -5.92 for a t (4) = -10.592; p = 0.000). The wet season concentration for nickel 
(M = 8.38; SD = 0.42) significantly increased following the passage of  time, where a mean zinc concentration of  9.51 
and a standard deviation of  0.46 was found for the dry season. The cases for iron, benzene, and manganese found t-
values of  t (4) = -5.49, p = 0.005; t (4) = -2.97, p = 0.041; and t (4) = -4.961, p = 0.008, with eta squared statistics of  
0.88, 0.69, and 0.86, which all indicate large effect sizes respectively for the seasonal differences in iron, benzene, and 
manganese. Total Arsenic, the study also found a large effect size (eta square = 0.54) for the seasonal difference in 
the concentrations. This effect size is the least identified among the studied parameters. Despite this, a mean 
difference of  -0.26 has been found for a t (4) = -2.152, p = 0.098 to express seasonal increase in total arsenic 
concentrations.   

 

4.4. Residents' Perception of  the Status of  the Chemu Lagoon 
The results from the study indicate that the residents are much aware of  the pollution of  the water body. About 



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92% said the lagoon is polluted, while only 8% believed it is not contaminated Table 4. The level of  perception of  
the residents may go a long way to finding a lasting solution to the problems confronting them since they are aware 
of  the extent of  the problem and may advocate for alleviating the pain. 

 
Table 4. Rating of perception by residents. 

Lagoon status indicator 
N 

Statistic 
Mean 

Statistic 
SD 

Statistic 

Skewness Kurtosis 

Statistic S. E Statistic S. E 

Low fish catch 200 4.76 0.43 -1.23 0.17 -0.50 0.34 
Odour in the community 200 4.71 0.61 -1.95 0.17 2.49 0.34 
Poor water quality 200 4.61 0.62 -1.34 0.17 0.70 0.34 
Extinction of fish 200 4.76 0.43 -1.23 0.17 -0.50 0.34 
Extinction of native vegetation 200 4.56 0.64 -1.16 0.17 0.22 0.34 
Depth of lagoon 200 4.65 0.66 -1.65 0.17 1.33 0.34 
Colour of lagoon water 200 4.65 0.50 -0.90 0.17 -0.60 0.34 
Waste deposition by industries 200 4.86 0.35 -2.09 0.17 2.40 0.34 
Note: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Don't know, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly disagree. 
Source:  Fieldwork: (2021). 

 
To further interrogated the respondents on their perceptions of  the Chemu lagoon. A Likert scale was developed 

to solicit their views on some variables. Table 4 presents the views expressed by the respondents. The first variable 
was waste deposition by nearby industries into the lagoon. Waste deposition by nearby enterprises was considered 
the most dominant variable affecting the lagoon, with mean = 4.86 (SD = 0.35), which attests to the respondents' 
strong agreement with the position that waste deposition by industries induces pollution of  the lagoon. To establish 
that there has been a change in the quality of  the Chemu lagoon, the study sought to evaluate the respondents' 
perception of  the lagoon's odour. The study found a mean of  4.71, with a standard deviation of  0.61, indicating that 
respondents strongly agree that the lagoon brings forth offensive odour around the local communities. In analysing 
the ability of  the lagoon to support aquatic life, the study found that some fish species in the lagoon have gone extinct. 
The study found a mean of  4.76 with a standard deviation of  0.43 to establish the case. To the same degree, this 
translates into an expression that there has been a decline in the fish catch and, consequently, lower economic returns. 
This backs up [29] claim that a wide range of  substances such as oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning 
detergents, and solvents can endanger public health and fish and other aquatic organisms. The study also has 
established that the Chemu lagoon has assumed shallowness as the results express a mean of  4.65 and a standard 
deviation of  0.65, suggesting that the refuse deposition into the lagoon has resulted in sedimentation, leading to its 
shallow nature. Boateng, et al. [5], as an indication of  high eutrophication, also reported the shallowness of  lagoons 
in Ghana, predisposing the lagoons to other events such as flooding and an increase in temperature. Following the 
establishment of  refuse deposition into the lagoon, the study investigated means of  waste disposal in the study area. 
The survey showed that 62% of  respondents either dispose of  household waste into refuse containers or have agreed 
with a waste management entity to collect them whenever their bins are full. The remaining 38 per cent either cast 
their destruction at the shores of  the lagoon or empty them into the drains, which as well have the potential to end 
up in the immediate lagoon environment. As shown in Figure 3, 45%, 34%, 4%, and 17% of  residents explicitly 
expressed that they manage waste by disposing of  it in refuse containers, on the lagoon's shores, into drains, and 
collecting by waste contractors, respectively. Restudy positions that it is not automatic that the case expressed here 
is the reflection of  reality since the researchers acknowledge the room for false information shared by respondents 
concerning their means of  waste disposal. Other things being equal, though the study's goal was presented to the 
respondents, some respondents would still share false information for fear of  being arrested for disposing of  waste 
in an environmentally unfriendly manner. Respondents, however, reported that many people defecate on the lagoon's 
shores; the faeces eventually end up in the lagoon, and consequently, the higher accumulation of  faecal coliforms, 
especially the higher level in the wet season, and the higher concentration in the dry season.  
 

 
Figure 3. Disposal of  solid waste in the area. 

Source:  Fieldwork, (2021). 
 
Again, to further explore the level of  awareness, the residents were asked why some of  them fly-tip the domestic 

waste. Eighty-six per cent (86%) of  the respondents believed that there were inadequate refuse collection points in 



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the area, with 14.0% saying that refuse collection points in their place were adequate Table 5. These results further 
explain why some residents chose to dispose-off  refuse indiscriminately in the study area. Figure 4 shows the 
unsanitary conditions at Abonkor, one of  the four communities selected for the study. Refuse was found at the 
doorsteps of  residents.  

 

 
Figure 4. Insanitary conditions in a squatter settlement at Abonkor. 

Source: Ghana Business News [30]. 
 

4.5. Contribution of  Socio-Economic Activities to Pollution of  the Chemu Lagoon 
Human activities around the lagoon impinged the environment, affecting flora and fauna. The Chemu lagoon, 

which was once a nesting place for birds and provided boating facilities for tourists, is now polluted and almost empty. 
According to the study results shown in Table 5, 82% of  the respondents believed that tourist operations had a 
detrimental effect on the lagoon. Around 18% of  those polled were of  the opposing opinion. The respondents 
espoused that the activities of  the visitors contribute to waste generation. Most visitors deposed items, including 
polythene bags, empty cans, food items and other waste products along the lagoon, which in the long run, ended up 
in the lagoon—the result above shows that waste disposal facilities were not adequate. The results attest to the 
observation by Molina and Molina [31] that dense concentrations of  the population, such as those found in large 
cities, or are brought together by warfare and trade, tourism, etc., are usually necessary for water-borne diseases to 
attain epidemic proportions through the accumulation of  waste. It is also consistent with the findings of  the 
Environmental Protection Agency [EPA] [32], which observed poor domestic sanitary conditions and illegal 
dumping of  metropolitan solid and liquid materials as the primary prevalent challenges facing coastal regions. 
 

 
Figure 5. Fishing activities in the polluted Chemu Lagoon. 

Source: Fieldwork, (2021). 

 
Results from the study, Table 5, indicate that the respondents were very much aware of  the pollution of  the 

lagoon. Ninety-two per cent (92%) of  the inhabitants were aware of  the lagoon being polluted, while only eight per 
cent (8%) were not of  pollution in the lagoon's environment. The results imply that the inhabitants know about the 
various environmental problems in the area. This supports the view expressed by Thorne-Miller [33], who posits 
that people are most of  the time aware that, accidentally or deliberately, the substances and materials they release 
into water bodies act in and on the environment. Figure 5 illustrates fishing activities ongoing in the polluted lagoon, 
though respondents are aware of  the lagoon's status as polluted.  

 



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Figure 6. Satellite image of  urban growth towards the floodplains of  the Chemu Lagoon. 

Source:  Google Earth (2022). 

 
Table 5 shows that (96 per cent) of  participants believe that the development of  squatter settlements has 

contributed significantly to the contamination of  the lagoon. The other 4% disagreed. Personal observations by the 
researchers indicated that in some areas, the growth of  slums had led to the discharge of  untreated wastes and, 
consequently, led to the gradual pollution of  the wetlands surrounding the lagoon where aquatic life would thrive. 
An observation of  the lagoon shown in the satellite image in Figure 6 shows urban growth enclosing the Chemu 
lagoon. Surface run-off  from point source pollution, such as residential and commercial sewers, can carry harmful 
emissions like soil particles, pesticides, and fertilisers into coastal wetlands. According to the Environmental 
Protection Agency [EPA] [32], the Korle, Osu Klottey, and Kpeshie Lagoons in Accra and the Fosu Lagoon in Cape 
Coast are all in multiple states of  degeneration and environmental damage as a result of  the effects of  poor 
residential sanitation. 

 

4.6. Health and Socio-Economic Effects of  the Lagoon Pollution 
Results from Table 5 indicate that 84% of  the respondents believe that people fall sick frequently due to the 

polluted environment, while 16% shared the opposite view. Poor domestic sanitation was the most pervasive of  all 
of  the problems found around the lagoon. This environmental problem facilitates the locals' poor health, the lagoon's 
polluted ecological status, and the unappealing situations that impede economic and social development, such as 
tourism. Mulamoottil [34] stated that unsanitary environments directly or indirectly cause up to 40% of  diseases 
reported at hospitals nearby. 

 
Table 5. Residents' perception of  the status of  the Chemu lagoon. 

Item Response Frequency Percentage 

Awareness of  the Chemu Lagoon pollution Yes 347 92 
No 30 8 

Adequacy of  refuse collection points in the area Yes 53 14 
No 324 86 

Pollution of  Chemu Lagoon by visitors Yes 309 82 
No 68 18 

Waste disposal facilities near the lagoon Yes 53 14 
No 324 86 

Slums created around the lagoon Yes 362 96 

No 15 4 
Effects of  pollution on human health Yes 317 84 

No 60 16 
Authorities organising meeting on Chemu Lagoon Yes 79 21 

No 298 79 

 
 

Figure 7 shows the respondents who attributed the various diseases reported in the study area to pollution. Most 
(64%) respondents attributed the malaria outbreak to pollution. Again 25% of  them viewed that pollution caused 
typhoid fever in the area. Six and five per cent (6%, & 5%) said pollution caused cholera and abdominal pains in the 
studied communities. The diseases mentioned above are primarily endemic in polluted and dirty environments where 
people defecate and dispose of  waste indiscriminately. The study confirms the findings of  Owusu Boadi and Kuitunen 
[19] from their survey of  the Korle Lagoon that the presence of  water does not always make communities healthier. 
Water carries harmful organisms or germs that cause cholera, typhoid, and diarrhoea. 

 

Source: Fieldwork, (2021). 



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Figure 7. Health effects of  pollution of  the Chemu lagoon. 

Source: Fieldwork, (2021). 
 

4.7. Efforts Made by Stakeholders to Combat Pollution of  the Chemu Lagoon 
Though several legislations exist on coastal protection and sustainable management, there was the need to 

determine whether the community members had taken it upon themselves to protect the lagoon from pollution and 
extinction. Table 6 presents the residents' views on the attendance of the meeting to discuss the lagoon's pollution 
issue. From Table 6, 79% of the respondents said they had not heard about any form of meeting concerning lagoon 
management. About 21% said they had heard about some meetings. The findings corroborate the Environmental 
Protection Agency [EPA] [21] position that the authorities should enforce environmental stewardship laws in the 
catchment. The Ministry of Environment and Science and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is projected 
to investigate the ecological consequences of sanitary development initiatives. 

 
Table 6. Institutions that call meetings. 

Agencies Frequency Percentage 

Assemblyman 21 5.5 
Chief 15 4.0 
NGO’s 43 11.5 
TMA 298 79.0 
Total 377 100 

Source: Fieldwork, (2021). 

 
When asked if  there were institutions that organised meetings on the lagoon's pollution, 79% of  the respondents 

said the Tema Metropolitan Authority (TMA) organises such conferences. Others (about 12%) said that some non-
governmental organisations (NGOs) do that, while 21 respondents mentioned that the Assembly members of  the 
study areas do that, as presented in Table 6. These results indicate that the lagoon's mandate on protection and 
sustainability is virtually in the hands of  TMA and the NGOs. Consequently, the TMA must embark on serious 
health education in the communities. The data reinforce the Environmental Protection Agency [EPA] [32] assertion 
that Ghana has a diverse range of  non-governmental organisations and neighbourhood entities dedicated to 
environmental preservation and enhancement. 

The chiefs and assembly members of  the selected communities are responsible for protecting and regulating the 
residents' activities. Still, their efforts (to preserve the lagoon) often meet challenges, including opposition from the 
community members who depended on the lagoon for their livelihoods. When the respondents were asked if  the 
authorities act to protect the lagoon from pollution, 67% said that the leaders were helping in discussions to address 
the pollution problems and to stop the indiscriminate disposal of  waste. In comparison, 33% said no authority helped. 
 

5. Discussions  
The pollution issue of  Ghana's coastal lagoons was identified decades ago [6]. Admittedly, nothing has changed 

to this day. According to the IPCC [35]; IPCC [36], releasing untreated sewage, manufacturing, and agricultural 
residues contaminates most coastal lagoons in West Africa, including Ghana. Urbanisation, industrialisation, 
population pressures and poor waste management systems commonly cause pollution. The pollution has adversely 
affected the ecosystem services of  the lagoons, particularly fisheries resources and migratory birds from Europe [3, 
37]. The results from the water quality analysis of  the Chemu lagoon showed that turbidity, temperature, sulphate, 
phosphates, faecal coliforms, biological oxygen demand, zinc, manganese, lead, and cadmium exceeds the USEPA's 
permissible limits. This finding is in line with Adu-Boahen and Boateng [23] studies on the Fosu lagoon in Ghana 
that revealed higher concentrations of  like parameters. Similar results were recorded by Biney [15] in the Chemu 
Lagoon. Biney [15] found that the surface water temperature of  the lagoon ranged between 22OC and 36OC and 
attributed higher water temperature to the thermal pollution originating from industrial sources. The implication is 



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that knowledge about pollution was known to the residents, but no significant improvement has been achieved over 
the years. The results stand with the position of  Koledoye, et al. [38], who found in their study on the Lekki lagoon 
that anthropogenic activities have latent health and environmental impacts that have prognosticated grave concern 
if  not urgently mitigated. In another study [39] on the Muni Pomadze and its catchment, it was revealed that most 
of  the Physico-chemical properties studied, temperature, TDS, conductivity, pH, salinity, and dissolved oxygen (DO) 
were within the acceptable limit of  USEPA for freshwater resources.   

According to Molina and Molina [31] the Head of  the EPA in Tema, Mr Lambert Faabeluon, told the Daily 
Graphic that the institution and other interested parties had held a total of  12 symposiums and consultations since 
1999 to probe strategies for preventing further harmful discharges into the Chemu lagoon, and to mobilise resources 
for the resuscitating the lagoon. Notwithstanding, hardly anything significant had come from the countless seminars 
and meetings held by relevant parties since 1999. The failure to progress on recovery and the lagoon's continued 
contamination is due to an absence of  dedication by crucial parties to adopt measures and initiatives that will cease 
environmental damage and re-establish the lagoon. 

Despite citizen science identifying that the residents are not naïve to the deteriorating quality of the lagoon, the 
people who, for that matter, would be interested in the welfare of the lagoon are culprits themselves, as they also 
contribute to the pollution of the lagoon. About 34% Figure 3 indicated that they dispose of the refuse in the lagoon 
and its environs. This put the residents in a compromising situation to demand changes. The local authority 
contributes to the problem by not providing adequate waste deposal facilities Table 5, thus forcing the residents to 
contribute to the pollution so that they cannot demand change because they are offenders. 

This explains the reason the majority of the residents were aware of the extent of the pollution and its effects on 
health and socio-economic activities Table 5. Yet, they have failed to be the champions of change regarding the 
lagoon's pollution. The survey results from Table 6 indicate that the effort by the residents to restore the lagoon is 
about 10%. It is TMA and NGOs that have made the most effort. The most action should have come from the 
residents since they suffer from the immense pollution of the lagoon. 

Because the former administration by TMA and NGOs did not produce the desired results, it is required to 
empower residents to direct the campaign for the rehabilitation of the Chemu Lagoon. There is a need to bring all 
stakeholders on board in a participatory manner under the residents' leadership to develop the Chemu lagoon 
restoration plan. Such a plan will not be viewed as the traditional top-down government policy; all the participating 
stakeholders will own it. Such ownership by the stakeholders will facilitate the successful implementation of the plan.  

Regardless of the apparent connection between contamination and the development of fishery ecosystems (types 
of fish) and other economic interests from the Chemu Lagoon, there were insufficient patterns and attitudes on the 
degree of the environmental damage as well as the clear implications on local people's well-being and socio-economic 
existence. This paper has provided the baseline information required for action on developing a management strategy 
and committing to applying the existing environmental laws and policies in Ghana. The environment cannot be 
limited by national territorial boundaries [40]. Migratory birds that feed on the lagoon habitat could extend the 
impact of the pollution beyond Tema and its environs. Therefore, national, regional and international environmental 
pressure groups must join the call to restore Chemu and other polluted lagoons in Ghana. 

The following recommendations are made in light of the findings: 

• The Environmental Health Department and the Waste Management Department of the Tema Metropolitan 
Assembly are advised to intensify their house-to-house hygiene education and inspections in the catchment 
area on proper waste disposal to prevent indiscriminate defecation and flying tipping.  

• The effective use of the limited facilities located along the stretch of the lagoon should be addressed. The 
Assembly should increase the number of waste and sanitary facilities in the catchment area. 

• The Sanitation Task Force of the Tema Metropolitan Assembly should check the activities of the local people 
which pollute the lagoon. 

• Offenders found of indiscriminate defecation and dumping of refuse should be arrested and prosecuted to serve 
as a deterrent. 

• The Assembly should stop further slum creations and demolish the existing ones in the catchment area. 

• Residents, the Tema Metropolitan Assembly, the Tema Traditional Council, local industries, and the Central 
Government should work together to replenish the lagoon to its natural form. The collaborative efforts would 
strengthen the socio-economic status functions of the residents. The Assembly should prioritise the area's 
development into parks and gardens to assist in restoring the polluted ecosystems. 

 

6. Conclusions    
The outcomes of water quality analyses using water samples from Chemu lagoons were significantly higher than 

the USEPA-recommended thresholds. This could be related to the lagoons being used as dumping grounds by most 
residents and the release of industrial emissions into the lagoons. Almost all the water quality parameters measured 
had higher values in the dry season than in the wet season. These results could be due to the evaporation of water 
from the lagoons' interface during the dry season, which resulted in higher concentrations in the lagoons. The level 
of siltation and the dumping of refuse into the lagoon hampers the free flow of water and hence encourage mosquito 
breeding of mosquitoes and the incidence of high malaria outbreak and other related diseases affecting the health and 
socio-economic lives of the people. The study concludes for informed resuscitation of  the lagoon and the preservation 
of  its ecological services, the data from this study, combined with future data, may help to monitor the Chemu lagoon. 
The various stakeholders are not doing enough to help combat the pollution problems in the area. It is worth noting 
that most respondents are unaware of any environmental law on the dumping of waste or the activities of groups 
forming slums along the lagoon and their further pollution. Insufficient sanitary facilities have led to indiscriminate 
solid waste disposal and defecation at the lagoon's banks. 

 

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