




































 
 

 

47 
© 2019 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 
 

Asian Review of Environmental and Earth Sciences 
Vol. 6, No. 1, 47-69, 2019 

ISSN(E) 2313-8173/ ISSN(P) 2518-0134 
DOI: 10.20448/journal.506.2019.61.47.69 

© 2019 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 

   
 

 
 
 
Surface and Ground Water Pollution in Bangladesh: A Review 

 
Akash Mamon Sarkar1   

A. K. M. Lutfor Rahman2    

Abdus Samad3    

Arjun Chandra Bhowmick4   

Jahida Binte Islam5   

 

 
( Corresponding Author) 

1Pulp and Paper Research Division, Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Bangladesh. 

 
2,3Department of Chemistry, Jagannath University, Bangladesh. 

 
4Department of Chemistry, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, United States. 

 
5Department of Chemistry for Materials, Mie University, Japan. 

 

 
Abstract 

Environmental analysis does not become properly meaningful unless follow the standard 
procedure in sampling, preserving and also in analysis. This study investigates different studies 
on surface and groundwater pollution and discusses their findings along with impacts on 
environment, human health and aquatic ecosystem demolition. Fresh water is a vital need for 
drinking, household, agricultural and industrial use. Fresh water availability is shrinking 
worldwide due to imprudent use. Abound availability of fresh water in Bangladesh is now 
polluting due to unwise dumping of industrial, household, agricultural and municipal wastes. 
Water body in urban arena is severely polluted rather than rural part. The over concentration of 
DO, BOD, COD, EC, TDS, Cr, Cd, Pb was observed in Dhaka region. The highest arsenic 
concentration was found in the ground water of Lakshimpur. The main sources of pollution in 
industrial cities are anthropogenic sources like untreated industrial effluent and municipal wastes 
whereas in rural part the main sources of pollution are agricultural and naturogenic. 
Transboundary impact also intensifies some river water pollution. Government approved the 
policies, ordinance, acts and laws however, due to lack of proper implementation and monitoring 
water pollution problem increasing day by day. 

 
Keywords: Effluent, Heavy metal, Pesticides, Ecosystem, Pharmaceuticals, Environmental policy. 

 
Citation | Akash Mamon Sarkar; A. K. M. Lutfor Rahman; Abdus 
Samad; Arjun Chandra Bhowmick; Jahida Binte Islam (2019). 
Surface and Ground Water Pollution in Bangladesh: A Review. 
Asian Review of Environmental and Earth Sciences, 6(1): 47-69. 
History:  
Received: 13 August 2019 
Revised: 17 September 2019 
Accepted: 23 October 2019 
Published: 9 December 2019 
Licensed: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons 

Attribution 3.0 License  
Publisher:  Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 
 

Acknowledgement: Author wants to acknowledge library of BCSIR and the 
library of the University of South Dakota for information access.   
Funding: This study received no specific financial support. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of 
interests. 
Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, 
accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital 
features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the 
study as planned have been explained. 
Ethical: This study follows all ethical practices during writing.   

 

 

Contents 
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 48 
2. Water Pollution ............................................................................................................................................................................... 50 
3. Handicap in Sampling and Analysis ............................................................................................................................................. 63 
4. Environmental Policies in Bangladesh ........................................................................................................................................ 63 
5. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 64 
References .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 64 
 

 

 

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Contribution of this paper to the literature 
This study contributes to the existing literature by investigating different studies on surface 
and groundwater pollution and discusses their findings along with impacts on environment, 
human health and aquatic ecosystem demolition. 

 
1. Introduction 

Bangladesh after forty four yours of achieving independence entered into the list of lower middle income 
country in 2016 according to the World Bank. Industrial development policy was upheld by the government in 
first five year plane after liberation in 1973 [1]. This industrial development policy has been carried out by all the 
following government unless some alterations even till now. Therefore, agriculture based economy of Bangladesh 
is gradually shifting into the industry based economy. That industrial journey was significantly started through the 
establishment of garments and textile industries in the last two decades of previous century. Contribution of 
agriculture to the GDP in 1981 was 30 %  [2] whereas in 2016 that was 14.8 % [3, 4]. Agricultural constant price 
GDP growth rate in 2016 was 11.1 % and by industries was 32.4 % [3]. However, the contribution of 
manufacturing sector to the GDP in 1981 was 13 % [2] where as in 2016 that was 29.3 % [3, 4]. Bangladesh is 
now a middle income country and the Government already has divulged their target to enter in the list of 
developed country by 2041. To reach that goal, government emphasized the industrial development by local and 
foreign investment. Eight export processing zones (EPZ) have already been established in response of foreign 
investment and technology transfer for creating employment opportunities. Recently, an economic zone is going to 
establish in cox’sbazar area. To support the industrial development, port and power facilities is trying to improve 
on priority basis. Therefore, construction of the Paira sea port is running fast with special care. The coal based 
power plants in Rampal and atomic energy based power plants in Ruppur are under consideration.   

In accordance with industrial development policy, the government has not divulged the environmental 
protection policies. Already, the surface water quality of different rivers around Dhaka and Chittagong region has 
been demolished. A strong protest has already been raised among the national and international environmental 
scientist, environmental protection organization and concerning people about the establishment of Rampal coal 
based power plants in Sundorban arena. This concern has been raised because of the different environmental issues 
like hot water will increase the temperature of surrounding river, particulate matter emitted from the kiln will may 
affect the local and far away environment [5, 6] the pH may be declined by sinking of coal carrying cargos etc. All 
of these concerning incidents might be the reasons for destroying the ecosystem of world heritage Surdarban 
forest. Environment is one of the prime concerns all over the world for sustainable development nevertheless the 
government has taken of consideration about environment in development program.  

 
 

 
 



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Figure-1. Main rivers in Bangladesh. 

      Source: Banglapedia, 2005. 
 

Bangladesh is a large delta and 230 rivers have been flown over this country Figure 1. Most of the industries 
have been established on the bank of the river and are dumping their wastes into the nearby river without proper 
pretreatment subsequently damaging the aquatic environment [7]. As a consequence the river water quality in 
industrial region is deteriorating day by day. The rivers in the urban area are mainly polluted by industrial effluent, 
municipal wastes, hospital wastes and the sources of river pollution in the rural area are mainly land run off 
(fertilizer, pesticides), human wastes and naturogenic. The portion of Buriganga river near the southern edge of 
Dhaka city is almost biologically dead [8] as well as the Turag, Shitallakhya and Balu river water quality is 
unfavorable for aquatic life [9-11]. The color of the Buriganga, Turag, Shitalakkhya, balu and some other river 
water during dry season becomes dark [8, 10, 12, 13] which is not suitable for sunlight penetration. Therefore, the 
photosynthesis becomes hindered in the water body which affects the hydrochemistry and ecosystem. The surface 
water of the rivers in the rural district far from the industrial region is till suitable for aquatic biota [14, 15] 
whereas in the urban or industrial districts are polluted by organic as well as inorganic sources and are exposing 
adverse effects for aquatic ecosystem [16-18]. All over the world, water borne diseases are prime concern among 
people. A wide range of mortality and morbidity occurs by dint of water related diseases especially in developing 
countries through ingesting pathogenic bacteria, viruses, penetration through human skin by infective forms [19].  
The common sources of pollution and its effects are summarized in Figure 2.     
 

 
Figure-2. Water pollution and its effects. 

          Source: Prensa Latina; FakeSick; IWA, India Celebrating.  
 



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This review has an aim to discuss some handicap in polluted water analysis, the sources of water pollution, 
adverse effects of pollution on hydrochemistry and ecosystem and environmental policies in Bangladesh. The 
concentration of major pollutants aggregation in surface and groundwater and their health risks have been 
discussed. Some statistical analysis and the inter-correlation of pollution causing parameters have also been 
embodied in this review.  
 

2. Water Pollution 
In recent past decades, Bangladesh had been faced the dangerous arsenic pollution problem which is attributed 

to tremendous public health problem. Beside this, the ecological condition mortification of some rivers in the 
industrial zone has been drawn the concern. Severe water pollution may be caused by organic (indicated by COD, 
BOD, DO, grease, oil, volatile organic carbon etc.), inorganic (indicated by Temperature, acid, base, TSS, salinity, 
metals etc.), ions (e.g. anion, cation) and pathogenic (e.g. bacteria, virous, protozoa etc.) sources from industrial, 
municipal, hospital wastes as well as naturogenic sources.  
 

2.1. Organic Pollution  
Organic pollution of water occur by the bio-degradable wastes from industrial and domestic sources which 

stimulates the growth of micro-organism in the water body [8]. As a consequence of microbial decomposition, the 
oxygen in the water body is consumed and the quality balance is disturbed. Water pollution mostly occurred in 
developing countries as a result of miss management of industrial, municipal, hospital wastes and dumping into the 
water body [20-22]. Dissolve Oxygen (DO) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) are commonly used for the 
determination of organic pollution level of water body [8, 10]. According to the WHO, the permissible limit of DO 
and COD in industrial wastewater and drinking water is 4.5-6.5 mg/l and 10 mg/l, respectively [23]. 

Pollution of surface and groundwater in different regions of Bangladesh from organic sources has been 
summarized in Table 1. The main rivers around Dhaka city have been polluting drastically due to the untreated 
industrial and municipal wastes from the last couple of decades. Buriganga is one of the main rivers in Dhaka city 
which has lower level of DO (0.9-2.8 mg/l) [24] and higher level of COD (140-800 mg/l) value [8]. Similar 
condition has been observed in case of Turag rive which flows beside the Dhaka city [9, 25]. The water quality of 
Shitalakkha river is also unfavorable for aquatic biota due to organic pollution [10, 26, 27]. As a consequence of 
high level of organic pollution aquatic ecosystem in the surrounding rivers of Dhaka City is almost ruined [8, 12, 
28]. Beside the peripheral river of Dhaka city, Dhanmondi lake, Gulsan lake, Rampura lake, Ramna lake are 
polluted by volatile organic carbon (VOC) [29]. Burignaga river is also polluted by VOC [30]. However, the 
rivers far from the industrial region are not such highly polluted. The DO, COD and BOD levels of Jamuna, 
Meghna, Podma, Mahuri, Surma, Ganges river are in the permissible level [31-34]. The permissible level of DO, 
COD and BOD indicates that the lower dumping of organic wastes and lower aerobic bacterial decomposition has 
been occurred in those rivers. A very recent study showed that COD level (20.84-114.6) in the Meghna river is 
higher than permissible level [15]. This is may be occurred due to the transboundary water flow from polluted 
Buriganga and Shitalakkhya river into the Meghna river. 

DO is a conventional parameter for assessing the water quality which indicates the availability of life in water 
body [10]. DO provides essential direct and indirect information about water body such as, bacterial activity, 
photosynthesis, availability of nutrients, stratification and so on Premlata [19]. At the lower level of DO value, fish 
and other aquatic organisms may not survive [40]. The rivers Buriganga, Turag, Shitalakkhya, Dhaleshwari, 
Bongshi, Surma Table 1 are polluted by organic pollutant as those have lower DO value according to DoE [41] 
and WHO (World Health Organization) [42].  

COD is another essential parameter for assessing the soundness of water body. Higher value of COD indicates 
more organic pollution. COD value is enhanced by the urban runoff with household wastes and wastes from streets 
and sidewalks, fertilizers, leaves, grass clippings and paper from residential areas [43]. The enhanced level of COD 
value makes the water dark in color which hindered the penetration of sunlight. As a consequence, the 
photosynthesis of aquatic weeds affected drastically. Therefore, the hydrochemistry and aquatic ecosystem 
disturbed badly. Beside this, higher level of COD value makes the water nuisance in smell. Fish, aquatic biota feels 
suffocating with higher level of COD in a water body. COD enriched water is another source of pathogenic bacteria 
and virus. The use of COD enriched water is not suitable for drinking, washing and other household uses. The use 
of this water may highly risk for sore on skin. The river Buriganga [8] Turag [9, 25] Shitallakhya [10, 26] and 
Meghna [15] are highly polluted which is indicated by higher level of COD value. 

BOD represents the amount of oxygen required by the living organisms in water body which are associated 
with utilization and ultimate destruction or stabilization of organic matter [44]. BOD is an indicator of water 
pollution. It may represents, how much oxygen is necessary for oxidizing a given quantity of organic matter by 
microbes [45]. BOD value is lower in clean water which reveals more oxygen is present in water body and 
ultimate more nutrients is available for high forms of life in water body. The reason of higher BOD value is same as 
lower DO value. At higher BOD value the aquatic biota are stressed, suffocated and in some cases died. The 
consequence of higher value of BOD is leaves and woody derbis, dead plants and animals, animal manure, effluents 
from different industries and urban storm water runoff [46]. Most of the rivers in industrial arena show BOD 
value above the permissible level however, the rivers in rural zone that show in the permissible level Table 1. 

VOCs are concerning environmental pollutant as a consequence of their toxicity exerted to the environment 
and widespread occurrence. VOC comes from solvent and important raw materials used in different industries, oil 
from water vehicles and oil spilling from tanker, ship scraps, paints, adhesives, deodorants and refrigerants [47]. 
Some VOCs are used in agricultural practices and as fumigants, as herbicides and as solvent for pesticides [48]. 
Oceans, marine algae, phytoplankton and forest soil consist remarkable sources of biogenic VOCs [49] Water 
sample from 5 to 25 m depth is used for VOC detection.  



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Table-1. Organic contamination of various surface and groundwater samples in Bangladesh. 

 
Sampling location 

No. of observation Polluting parameters References 

Total Polluted DO mg/l COD mg/l BOD mg/l VOC (µg/ml) 

Benzene Toluene Xylene 

Surface water 
Buriganga river 10 - - - - 0.35-0.37 0.16-0.23 0.12-0.14 [30]c 
Buriganga river 5 5 1.8-6.5 - 17.3-41.9 - - - [20]b 
Buriganga river 4 4 1.1-4.1 140-800 - - - - [8]a 
Buriganga river - - 0.9-2.8 17.2-60.1 2.5-34.5 - - - [24] 

Gulsan lake - - - - - - 33.09-52.12 2.11-2.29 [29] 
Turag River 3 3 2.1-6.8 21-220 10-180 - - - [25] 
Turag River 4 4 0.6-3.6 220-1550 - - - - [9] 
Bangshi River 1 1 3.2-6.3 0.02-2.1 15.23-96.12 - - - [35]d 
DMD embankment 12 12 0.0-2.57 400-2004 150-977 - - - [27] 
Dhaleshwari river 5 0 6.37-6.63 - -(4.1-1.46) - - - [36]b 
Surma river 5 0 3.5-7.6 0.9-2.6 0.6-1.8 - - - [31]b 
Surma river 167 - 1.40-7.60 0.16-2.60 0.10 -1.80    [37]b 
Meghna river   6.23 8.54 6.38 - - - [32] 

Meghna river 11  4.66-8.35 20.84-114.6 1.2-10.1 - - - [15] 
Ganges river 1 - 10.7-6.4 10.3-15.75 4.55-1.1 - - - [33]e 
Brahmaputra river 1 - 9.85-6.7 75-16 4.6-0.66 - - - [33]e 
Padma river - - 6.21-9.61 - 3.9-5.1 - - - [34]d 
Dhanmondi lake - - - - -  16.98-23.78 2.68-2.92 [29] 
Rupnagar lake - - - - - - 19.33-24.02 2.08-2.15 [29] 
Ramna lake - - - - - - 13.78-16.87 2.74-2.99 [29] 
Shitalakkhya river 3 3 1.2-3.12 89.72-118.1 25.12-35.12 - - - [26]e 
Shitalakkhya river 5 5 0.5-3.3 80-480  - - - [10] 
Jamuna river - - 6.8 - 3.2 - - - [38] 

Padma river - - 6.1 - 1.9 - - - [38] 
Dakatia river - - 5.06 3.09 2.41 - - - [32] 
Muhuri river - - 4.88 2.87 2.61 - - - [32] 
Vahirab irver - - 1.22-5.51 3.80-10.80 0.22-5.79 - - - [39] 

Groundwater 
Feni - - 1.25-3.34 - - - - - [32] 

aObserved every two month over the year; bObserved in wet and dry seasons; cObserved in 0 cm and 15 cm depth, in C18 column; dObserved at every month over the year, eObserved in monsoon, premonson and 
postmonson. 



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Fondekar and Gupta found higher values of hydrocarbon in the 10 m depth of an oil tanker route in Northern 
Indian Ocean [50]. It was observed that mentionable amount of Benzene, Toluene and Xylene has been found in 
the Burigana river, Gulsan lake, Dhanmondi lake, Raman lake and Rampura lake Table 1. Among them Gulsan 
lake is more polluted by Toluene by amounting 33.09-52.12 µg/ml [29]. The sources of this high concentration of 
Toluene are may be the industrial and municipal wastes and insecticides used by the municipality. At a very low 
concentration of VOCs exerts severe health risk as many of these materials are toxic, carcinogenic or mutagenic 
[51].  

Oil pollution depletes the water quality by dropping down the level of DO and increasing the COD, BOD, TSS 

and TH value of water body [52]. According to APA, ≥ 10 ppm concentration of oil in water body can cause lethal 
for aquatic habitant [53].  In December 2014, Chowdhury and Akter found 295-1650 ppm and 6.68-11.3 ppm oil at 
the contaminated and uncontaminated region of shela river, respectively due oil tanker slammed in eastern part of 
Sundarbans mangrove forests [54]. Islam and Hossain also found high concentration of oil (9280-10800 ppm) at 
ship scrapping area in Chittagong [55]. Another oil tanker slammed in the Karnafui river on October 24, 2019. 
Beside these, the oil pollution in Buriganga river is a common scenario from ship terminal and shipyard due to pore 
management. The natural decomposition of oil is highly slow and may endure for decades [56]. Oil spill affects the 
fisheries breeding place. The high concentration of oil restricts the sunlight penetration underneath of oil layer in 
water body. Lack of light intensity suppresses the photosynthesis of phytoplankton which impairs the oxygen and 
carbon dioxide balance across the air-water interface [55] substantially depletes the water ecosystem. It also 
inhibits the swimming and flying capacity of wetland birds due to over-weight [57]. 
 
2.2. Inorganic Pollution 

Inorganic pollutants (especially acids, salts and metals) are not biodegradable. They form homogeneous or 
heterogeneous mixture and persist in the water body. Over the permissible limit, they exert toxicity and adverse 
effect for aquatic ecosystem, diversity of aquatic life and human health. Inorganic pollutants are in active pollutants 
group. The sources of inorganic pollution are the industrial untreated wastes, municipal wastes, hospital wastes, 
road wash, agricultural wastes and in some cases naturogenic. Bangladesh is an emerging industrial country with 
its unplanned industries. Most of the industries dump their wastes without proper treatment into the nearest water 
body. Textile manufacturing and garments industries are the main contributing industries in Bangladesh and 
prime surface water pollution causing industries with their untreated effluent [58, 59]. Inorganic pollutions have 
been treated major pollution causing components in Bangladesh from last couple of decades because of the 
deficiency of wastes treatment facilities. Many studies mentioned highly inorganic pollution in surface and 
groundwater in the different parts of country is summarized in Table 2 which is directed by the higher level of EC 
and hardness. Surface water is seriously polluted by discharging of agricultural effluent [8, 20] industrial effluents, 
random throwing of household, clinical, pathological and commercial wastes, fuel and sewage wastes [60]. 
Groundwater pollution may be due to the naturogenic sources [61] and the leaching of industrial waste water. 

pH is an important water quality assessing parameter which determines the corrosive characteristic of water 
[10]. Intuitively, pH significantly affects the biological activities and efficiency of toxic substances present in the 
aquatic environment [9]. Photosynthesis of water body is greatly affected by the pH level of water. If 
photosynthesis rate is decreased then carbon dioxide and bicarbonates inclusion are increased subsequently pH of 
the water body is increased [72]. The pH level is affected by the reaction of carbon dioxide, organic and inorganic 
solutes present in water [34]. The buffer (pH level) protection of water body is one of the major parameters. The 
pH maintained by a well-buffered is attributed by the fact of normally running water and is influenced by the 
nature of the deposits over which the water flows [73]. A slight change from the certain pH level of water for an 
organism can be abolishing cause for that organism [74]. In summer, water show alkaline nature may be due to 
the increase of photosynthesis of the algal blooms resulting into the precipitation of carbonates of calcium and 
magnesium from bicarbonates, whereas in winter pH level decreased due to the decrease of photosynthesis [34]. 
pH value of the surface and groundwater samples recommended by WHO is 6.5-8.5 [23]. According to EQS the 
pH levels in industrial water, fishing water and drinking water are 6.0-9.5, 6.5-8.5 and 6.5-8.5, respectively [75]. 
In all the studies the pH level was in the permissible limit recommended by EQS except karnaphuli river which 
shows higher level of (pH = 9.86) alkalinity [61]. The higher value of pH in the karnaphuli river may be due to the 
untreated karnaphuli paper mill effluent discharged into the river. Beside this some other industries situated on the 
bank of the karnaphuli river are discharging their effluent without any treatment. pH value in surface water is 
slightly higher than the groundwater could be due to the increased photosynthetic assimilation of dissolved 
inorganic carbon by plankton [70].  

Electrical conductivity (EC) demonstrates the total ionic species in the water. Higher value of EC depicts that 
larger quantity of mineral salts are present in the water [76]. High content of mineral salt affects the irrigation 
scheme. EC is strongly related with total solid [60]. According to the WHO the maximum permissible limit of EC 
is 1500 µS/cm [77]. EC found well below than the WHO recommended limit in surface water however, the EC 
concentration in groundwater of Feni, Noakhali, Lakshmipur, Khulna and Comilla region was found in dangerous 
limit Table 2. Higher level of EC in these regions is may be attributed to the proximity of Bay of Bengal where 
saline water flow comes with tidal force. Higher level of conductivity as well as dissolved solids may have certain 
physiological effects on desirable food plants as well as habitat-forming plant species, give mineral testes in 
drinking water and create problem in irrigation [78].  

 
 



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Table-2. Inorganic contamination of various surface and groundwater samples in Bangladesh. 

Sampling location No. of observation pH EC µS/cm TDS mg/l TSS mg/l Salinity mg/l Alkalinity mg/l Hardness mg/l References 

Total Polluted 

Surface water 
Panguchi river - - 7.23-8.09 201.96-465.87 228-284 - - 42.66-71.16 56.68-74.79 [60]a 
Buriganga river - - 6.92-7.82 622.2-1093.47 544-789 - - 67.43-159.42 91.94-163.1 [60]a 
Buriganga river - - 6.7-7.7 146-1309 98-871 - 71-642 - - [8] 
Turag river - - 8.23-9.45 985-1362 684-898 - 436-612 - - [12] 
Padma river - - 6.8-8.66 - 43-112 20.4-237.4 80-240 - 60-120 [34]b 

Surma river 4 - - - 51.5-301.6 - - 30.67-115.67 61.67-175.17 [62] 
Bongshi river - - - 545-605 384-429 - 261-305 - - [43] 
Karnatoli river 2 2 - - 90.7-1148.0 78.35-1282.4 0.0-1.03 - - [63]a 
Dhaleshwari river 5 0 5.0-7.65 136-540 69-299 - - 126-640 16-68 [40]a 
Mouri river 6 - 7.3-8.3 164-275 255-305 74.5-123.3 - 354-570 34.45-280 [64] 
Muhuri river - - - 65.90 32.70 - - 66.82 40 [32] 
Shitalakhya river - - 6.6-8.0 135-4768 - - - 49-355 - [65] 
Shitalakhya river - - 6.9-8.0 121-1167 80-754 - 57-582 - - [10] 
Dakatia river - - 6.78 179.15 89.85 80.00  56.02 107.00 [61] 

Dakatia river - - - 112.40 56.25 - - 52.71 58.0 [32] 
Meghna river - - 7.04 414.95 207.40 70.0 - 50.75 90.0 [61] 
Meghna river - - - 1193.5 598.5 - - 50.75 340.0 [32] 
Rajakhali canal - - 6.5-8.8 - 334-951 - 0.0002-0.001 78-270 36.3-88.9 [66] 
Sunamganj - -  117.51-503.61 - - - - 215-48250 [67] 
Halda river - - 7.03-8.60 72.00-414.00 30.0-200.0 20.0-653.0 - 2.12-35.36 9.0-380.0 [68] 
Karnafuli river - - 6.36-9.86 90.0-45600.0 45.0-20000.0 14.4-5100.0 - 1.60-52.25 10.0-4500.0 [68] 

Groundwater 
Feni - - 6.08-8.86 172.2-2528.0 85.3-262.0 - - 75.48-258.0 26-554 [32] 
Noakhali - - 6.57-7.91 483.0-9520.0 241.0-4800.0 - - 148.24-760.32 148-1530 [32] 

Lakshmipur - - 6.83-7.52 52.2-3800.0 129.3-1920.0 - - 108.6-1017.72 134-630 [32] 
Northwest region - - 5.4-5.6 160-460 95-287 - - - 100-300 [69] 
Mohanpur - - 6.9-7.1 701-987 490.7-990.9 - - 373.8-495.8 301.6-400.0 [70] 
Khulna 26 25 - 962-9370 480-4640 - - - - [71] 
Comilla - - 5.8-7.58 73.20-1797.0 36.50-749.0 - - 21.33-1046.69 26.0-684.0 [61] 

                      aObservation was made three times over the year; bObservation was made by monthly. 



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Total dissolved solid (TDS) in water mainly consists of ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, alkalis, some acids, 
sulphates, metallic ions and so on [27]. TDS is not generally treated as a primary contaminant (as it is not directly 
associated with health effect) but used as an indicator of aesthetic characteristics of drinking water and as an 
aggregate indicator of the presence of a broad array of chemical contaminants [34]. Excess amount of TDS makes 
the water more turbid and increase its electrical conductivity [79, 80]. Higher quantity of TDS in effluents can 
increase the density of water, influence osmoregulation of fresh water organisms, reduce solubility of gases (like 
oxygen) and impair the utility of water for drinking, irrigation and industrial purpose [27]. TDS indicates the 
saline behavior of water. The high concentration of TDS means higher concentration of salinity in the water. 
Salinity could also be a major limiting factor for crop yield in poorly drained soils [81]. According to the WHO 
guide line the maximum permissible value of TDS in drinking water is 500 mg/l and in irrigable water is 1500 
mg/l [77]. Both surface and groundwater in and around industrial area shows higher level of TDS vales for 
drinking water than the WHO’s guideline value Table 2. However, the rivers in the rural area show TDS value 
well fit into the permissible level.  

Total suspended solids (TSS) depict the suspended impurities present in the water which are responsible to 
transport pollutant in the aquatic environment [27]. Suspended solids may be appear in the form of course, 
floating, fine or colloidal particles as a floating film which cause ecological imbalance in the aquatic ecosystem by 
mechanical abrasive action [34]. Untreated or partially treated industrial, municipal, hospital and agricultural 
wastes intensify the TSS value in water body [12]. TSS is highly pH susceptible. Therefore, with pH change the 
dissolved matter can be aggregated and precipitated [82]. The permissible limit of TSS in drinking water is 5 
mg/l [83] and in industrial waste water is 150 mg/l [84]. The Karnafuli, Halda and Bongshi rivers contain the 
exceed limit of TSS value for industrial effluent Table 2. These rivers are situated in the industrial belt of the 
country. Most of the industries have no well-organized effluent treatment plant and they are dumping their 
effluent into the nearest river. Therefore, higher value of TSS has been experienced in the river of industrial region. 

Salinity means the saltiness or dissolved salt content in the water such as sodium chloride, magnesium and 
calcium sulfates and bicarbonates [34]. The elevated saline content in water affects the soil construction, 
permeability and aeration which affect the growth of seedlings [85]. Ecologically salinity is an important factor for 
influencing the types of organisms that live in the water body [34]. Various species of fresh water fish cannot get 
suitable environment for reproduction in high content of saline water [8].  Highly concentrated saline water 
declines the fish diversity at an alarming rate which effects on biodiversity subsequently correlates with ecosystem 
as well as human food chain [8, 86]. The ultimate effect of high saline content in drinking water is detrimental on 
blood pressure, kidney as well as menstrual process of women [8]. Dietary salt intake guideline has been 
established by WHO, but guideline for safe salinity has never been published except the sodium contents > 200 
mg/L in drinking water [87]. Higher rate of preeclampsia and gestational hypertension in pregnant women living 
in the southwestern coastal region of Bangladesh has been noticed compared with noncoastal pregnant women 
which may be caused by saline contamination in drinking water [88]. In surface water highest level of salinity was 
recorded in Buriganga river (642 mg/l) and Turag river (612 mg/l) [8, 12]. The dominant sources of salinity are 
tidal force, irrigation and industrial effluents.  

Alkalinity is the capability of water to neutralize a strong acid into a designated pH [60]. In natural water 
most of the alkalinity is attributed to the dissolution of CO2 into water [70] and in industrial region most of the 
surface water turned alkaline due to the untreated effluent. Surface water of the Buriganga, Dhalashari, Mouri 
rivers and ground water of southeast region (Feni, Noakhali, Laxmipur, Comilla) consists higher level of alkalinity 
Table 2. 

According to the WHO, acceptable limit of total hardness is 200 mg/l for drinking water which can be 
extended up to 600 mg/l in case of non-availability of fresh water source [77]. Hard water does not exert any 
known health impact but it forms foams which creates heat insulating scales in the boilers and reducing the 
efficiency [80]. Karnafuli river showed the highest range of hardness like 10-4500.0 mg/l [68] which is attributed 
to the industrial effluent. Groundwater in Comilla and Noakhali regions experienced hardness over the WHO 
guided limit for drinking water [32, 68]. This higher value may be due to the naturogenic as the industrial source 
in those regions is limited. Hard water exerts unpleasant test in drinking water.  

 
2.2.1. Trace Metals 

Water from natural sources contain impurities of trace metals as it dissolves these metals while flowing 
downward through hydrological cycle [102]. Beside the natural pollution, some human activities like large scale 
use of chemicals in agricultural field, unauthorized disposal of industrial, hospital, mining and research wastes are 
attributed to pollute surface and groundwater. Some trace metals are essential for human health whereas 
overloading these metals cause health problems in living organism especially human. Trace metals are 
immobilizing in aquatic system as well as non-biodegradable and can accumulate onto sediment and in plant tissue 
[12, 103]. Trace metals are accumulated as a consequence of coagulation, ion exchange with dissolved and 
suspended species in water, incorporation into the mineral lattice structure and precipitation due to the formation 
of insoluble species [104-106]. Trace metals are remained in the form of oxides, hydroxides, sulphides, shlphates, 
phosphates, silicates, organic bindings forming complexes with humid compounds and complex sugars [107]. 
Surface water is a vital source of irrigation in Bangladesh. Therefore, by irrigation as well as wreath of clouds, 
trace metals can enter into the food chain [12]. Trace metals may contaminate sediment significantly at some 
concentrations which may be toxic to aquatic ecosystem [105, 108]. However, the concentration of trace metals 
cannot provide enough information to evaluate the effect on sediment due to trace metal contamination is deposited 
in different chemical forms which determine their mobility, toxicity and bioavailability [108, 109]. The results 
from various studies of metal pollution in Bangladesh are summarized in Table 3.  



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Table-3. Metal contamination of various surface and groundwater samples in Bangladesh. 

Sampling location Cr Cd Hg As Zn Cu Fe Co Pb Ni Mn References 

Surface water (mg/l) 
Khiru river - 0.054-0.175 - - 0.005-0.008 0.004-0.005 - - 0.012-0.033 - 0.082-0.324 [89] 
Dhaleshwari river 0.13 0.001 - - - BDL - - 0.20 - - [90] 
Turag river - BDL-0.004 - - 0.12-0.16 0.06-0.08 1.4-2.44 - 0.02-0.08 - - [14]a 
Meghna river - 0.006-0.009 - 0.001-0.003 0.019-0.022 0.003-0.009 - - 0.0005-0.0022 - 0.01-0.04 [91] 
Meghna river 0.006-0.074 0.001-0.007 - - 0.01-011 - 0.47-1.6 - BDL BDL 0.0003-0.025 [15] 
Balu river - 0.01-0.016 - 0.001-0.002 0.021-0.028 0.006-0.01 - - 0.0002-0.001 - 0.044-0.049 [91] 

Balu river <0.004-8.44 <0.003-3.30 - - - - - <0.004-
0.054 

<0.0179-0.0282 0.0106-0.0191 - [92] 

Shitalakshiya river - 0.004-0.02  0.001-0.003 0.017-0.029 0.001-0.009 - - 0.0005-0.002 - 0.045-0.056 [91] 
Karatoa river 0.033-0.126 0.0009-0.022 - 0.01-0.092 - 0.023-0.119 - - 0.008-.064 0.0093-0.071 - [93]a 
Karatoa 0.002-0.009 - - Trace - Trace Trace-0.89  Trace 0.001-0.012 Trace-0.32 [94] 
Dhaleswari river 0.379-0.501 0.005-0.008 - - - 0.0984-0.188 - - 0.038-0.063 0.00547-

0.00974 
- [95]b 

Buriganga river 0.557-0.0645 0.007-0.0123 - - - 0.107-0.201 - - 0.058-0.072 0.00715-0.0103 - [96]b 
Surma river 0.036-0.040 - - - 0.00259-1.443 0.0042 0.00028-

0.0032 
- 0.013 - - [31]a 

Turag river 0.011-0.0127 0.0116-0.0195 0.0009-
0.0151 

0.001-0.0055 0.186-0.45 0.1203-0.380 2.012-3.461 - 0.0078-0.029 0.1282-0.1333 0.4381-0.978 [12]a 

DEPZ 0.0037-
0.0175 

0.0022-0.0039 0.0025-
0.0059 

0.002-0.007 0.0146-0.0818 0.0015-0.0092 0.05-2.014 0.0037-
0.0175 

0.0160.033 0.0051-0.022 0.0049-0.0479 [97] 

Hazaribagh canal 0.0-20.20 <0.01-0.28 - 0.01-1.10 0.01-2.50 <0.005-1.50 0.01-15.50 <0.005-
1.10 

0.01-2.5 0.0-1.10 0.0-1.22 [98] 

Vahirab river 0.001-0.006 0.0002-0.0094 - 0.001-.004 - - 0.1-2.6  0.004-0.025 - - [39] 
      -       

Groundwater (mg/l) 
Feni BDL-0.005 BDL-0.011 - 0.1-0.5 BDL-0.015 BDL-0.01 0.1-8.46 BDL-

0.008 
0.02-0.07 BDL-0.02 BDL-3.47 [32] 

Noakhali BDL-0.006 BDL-0.013 - 0.1-0.5 BDL-0.017 BDL-0.012 0.15-3.08 BDL-
0.005 

0.01-0.08 BDL-0.024 BDL-1.49 [32] 

Lakshmipur BDL-0.007 BDL-0.009 - 0.1-3.0 BDL-0.019 BDL-0.015 0.08-8.10 BDL-
0.009 

0.05-0.07 BDL-0.018 0.01-2.39 [32] 

Kustia <0.002 <0.001  0.114-1.16 0.012-0.021 0.004-0.009 6.77-7.19 <0.002 <0.004-0.005 <0.002 0.69-0.74 [99] 
Western region <0.0002-

0.0031 
- - 0.0002-1.955 0.012-0.073 0.0002-0.0008 - - ND-0.0001 Trace-0.001 - [100] 

Mohanpur - 0.0036-0.019 - 0.00208-
0.00316 

- - - - 0.0136-0.0159 - 0.0072-0.0037 [70] 

Dhaka city <0.01 <0.001 - 0.0023-
0.0033 

<0.025-0.102 <0.001-0.003 <0.025 <0.001 <0.001-0.0014 0.0025-
<0.025- 

0.0063-<0.056 [101] 

aObserved in wet and dry seasons; bObserved in monsoon, premonson and postmonson, DEPZ-Dhaka Export Processing Zone. 



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Chromium (Cr) is one of the most health and environmental concerning metals found in earth crust and water. 
Chromium becomes hazardous for public health if the daily intake is exceeded by WHO recommended value (0.05 
mg/l) but the deficiency of Cr can cause the disturbance of glucose, protein and lipid metabolism [110]. Chromium 
is generally present in trivalent oxidation state (Cr3+), tetravalent oxidation state (Cr4+) as well as hexavalent 
oxidation state (Cr6+). Among those three states Cr3+ is least toxic. Hexavalent state of Cr is highly toxic and is 
mainly responsible for different types of skin irritation like ulcerations, dermatitis, allergic skin reactions [111]. In 
different studies, higher concentration of Cr has been documented in the surface water from last two decades Table 
3. Chromium concentration in the water of Dhaleshwary river [90, 95] Balu river [92] (higher limit 8.44 mg/l), 
Karatoa river [93] (higher limit 0.126 mg/l), Buriganga river [96] Hazaribagh canal [35] was higher than the 
WHO (World Health Organization) [42] and DoE [41] recommended (0.05 mg/l) limit for drinking water. 
Chromium concentrations in groundwater of Noakhali [32] excided the DoE recommended [41] value for 
drinking water. The main source of Cr concentration in surface water has been attributed to the industrial wastes 
especially tannery effluent [12, 112]. However, in all cases summarized in Table 3, Cr concentration in 
groundwater is lower than the surface water as well as belongs to permissible limit. 

Cadmium (Cd) is rarely found in surface water however, in industrial arena it can be found over the danger 
level. Cadmium is an eco-toxic metal exposes highly adverse effects on the soil overrate, biological activity of soil, 
plant metabolism and human and animal health [113]. A very mild concentration of Cd intake can cause anemia, 
anosmia, cardiovascular diseases, renal problems and hypertension [114]. Cadmium is used in battery, pigment and 
paint, plastic, ceramics and glass manufacturing industries and causes pollution when the untreated wastes of those 
industries are dumped into the water body. It is a health hazardous element over the concentration of 0.005 mg/l in 
drinking water [42]. The observed concentrations of Cd are above the danger level in Khiru river [89]; Balu river 
(0.003-3.30 mg/l) [92] Meghna river [91] Buriganga river [96] Turag river [12] as well as in groundwater from 
Noakhali [32] and Mohammadpur [70]. Intense mortality rate of red tilapia has been observed due to the higher 
intake of Cd and it also has an effect on the decreasing of sperm number [115]. The intake of Cd over the 
permissible level through water or food causes acute and chronic illness for human and also treats as a carcinogenic 
agent [116]. 

Mercury (Hg) a natural occurring trace element exerts its hazardous impact on public health even a very dilute 
concentration. In aquatic environment, Hg combines with methyl ion and forms methyl mercury which exerts its 
highest toxic effects [117]. As a potential toxic element, Hg interferes on the production of neurotransmitter and 
also reduces the production of different important hormones including thyroid and testosterone [117]. The 
sources of Hg are anthropogenic and naturogenic. The anthropogenic sources are metal processing, chemical 
industries, mining, sewage, fungicides etc. [118]. A study [42] reported that in absence of Hg emitting source, an 
area can be polluted by Hg due to the global Hg cycle through the air and water. The concentration of Hg in the 
Turag river is in the range of 0.009-0.0151 mg/l [12] and that of in the DEPZ area is 0.0025-0.0059 mg/l [97] 
both are over the safe level 0.005 mg/l [119]. 

Last decades of previous century, arsenic (As) in drinking water was a tremendous public health threat in 
Bangladesh. Groundwater As concentration in northern and southern district of Bangladesh has been found over 
the permissible level of safe drinking water. A plethora of arsenicosis patients have been identified over the past 
two decades. Uptake of As over a period causes melanosis, leuko-melanosis, hyperkeratosis, cardiovascular diseases, 
neuropathy and cancer [120]. Nowadays, the arsenicosis problem has been changed due to awareness program and 
safe water treatment plant conducted by WHO, government and different NGOs, howbeit, owing to over exposure 
of ground water still arsenic problem in ground water is an alarming problem in Bangladesh. Arsenic problem is 
also faced by some other Asian countries like India, Pakistan, China, Mayanmar. In surface water the 
concentrations of As lie in the limit of DoE [41] and WHO [119] except Korotoa river [93] and Hazaribag canal 
[98]. However, the concentration of As in groundwater of Noakhali, Feni, Lakshmipur, Kustia, Western region is 
highly above of the DoE and WHO recommended drinking water standard Table 3. The DoE recommended [41] 
value of As in drinking water is 0.05 mg/l and that of by WHO is 0.01 mg/l [119]. In Bangladesh, the main source 
of As is the naturogenic. This can be rationalized by the fact that the over irrigation and decreasing the ground 
water level owing to the lower availability of water in dry season, As get readily mixed from earth crust to the 
groundwater. Arsenic contamination in body may decrease the production of white and red blood cells, can cause 
gastrointestinal irritation, weaken the heart beat and red spots on hand and feet [121].    

Zinc (Zn) is an essential element in enzyme and protein [122]. It has a protective effect against Pb and Cd 
toxicity [123]. However, the over exposure to Zn can have adverse effect in aquatic life [12] ecosystem and public 
health. Higher accumulation of Zn in body exerts toxic and carcinogenic effects and subsequently neurologic, 
hematological complications, hypertension, kidney and liver function disorder [124]. WHO recommended 
acceptable value of Zn for drinking water is 3.0 mg/l [119]. In both surface and groundwater Zn lies in well below 
of permissible level Table 3. The source of Zn is naturogenic, industrial effluent and agricultural runoff. Zinc is 
highly mobile element. At alkaline condition, Zn lead to precipitate as ZnCO3 [116] and settle down on sediment 
and on plant tissue. Radial oxyzen loss rate of V. serpyllifolia wetland plant can significantly decrease the mobility of 
Zn as an essential element of plant in metal contaminated soil under flooded condition where iron plaque is formed 
on the root surface which hinders the mobilization of  Zn through the plant tissue [125]. 

Copper (Cu) is a biogenic element in hemoglobin which is necessary for the metabolism of all organisms [126]. 
However, the over dose of Cu may cause parkinson’s disease [127]. WHO recommended value of Cu in safe 
drinking water is 1.5 mg/l [119]. The concentration of Cu in surface and groundwater lies below enough the 
permissible limit for drinking water except Hazaribagh canal [98]. In Hazaribagh arena more than 250 tannery 
industries had been operated and they used copper salts for tanning purpose. Therefore, may be the concentration 
of Cu (0.005-1.50 mg/l) was higher in Hazaribagh canal. Recently, tannery industries have been shifted from the 
Hazaribagh area to a well-organized industrial area in Savar and we are expecting this situation will be changed in 
near future.   

As an important element of earth, Iron (Fe) is found on earth crust. It is an important element in the 
physiology of living organisms [128]. The concentration of Fe in surface and groundwater is very high than the 



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WHO prescribed (0.3 mg/l) value [119] for drinking water Table 3. In groundwater of Fenni, Laxmipur and 
Kustia the concentration of Fe in some samples is more than 8 mg/l. The source of Fe in ground water is the 
naturogenic. In some cases Fe may be mixed from industrial sources. Higher concentration of Fe makes the water 
bad tested and addled color. Gorell, et al. [127] found the highest relation of Parkinson’s diseases with the elevated 
dose of iron for over 1-20 years. The over exposure to Fe causes cancer [129] diabetes [130] liver and heart 
diseases [131]. In contrast to the over dose, the deficiency of iron causes improper physiological metabolism of 
living organisms especially for women.   

Cobalt (Co) is as an essential element of vitamin B12 [132]. The concentration of Co in both surface and 
groundwater is very low except Hazaribagh industrial region (1.1 mg/l) [133]. In surface water the source of Co is 
mainly the industrial wastes. Mass population can consume Co from beverage and food. Co poisoning of human 
body may be linked with allergic dermatitis, rhinitis, asthma and lung cancer [132].  

Lead (Pb) is a toxic heavy metal which has no known biological function [134]. Pb shows very high mobility 
and associates with clay minerals like manganese oxide, aluminum and iron hydroxide and organic materials 
[135]. Both surface and groundwater are contaminated by Pb compared to the permissible level of drinking water 
Table 3. The permissible level of Pb in drinking water fixed by WHO is 0.01 mg/l [119] and by DoE is 0.05 mg/l 
[41]. Despite the lacking of heavy industrial zone, the concentration of lead in the groundwater of the southeast 
part of the country (Feni, Noakhali, Laxmipur) shows raised value than the permissible level [130]. The source of 
Pb in the groundwater of southeast part may be the naturogenic. The other sources of Pb in surface and 
groundwater are household paint, vehicle exhausts and industrial wastes [136] lead gasoline, municipal runoffs, 
atmospheric deposition [137, 138] battery industries [12] scrap batteries, thermal power plants and iron 
industries. Higher intake of Pb over time may exert bad effect on nervous, digestive, haematopoietic, 
cardiovascular, reproductive and immunological system and kidneys [139, 140]. 

Nickel (Ni) exerts its toxicity on human health due to over consumption through food or drinking water. 
Permissible level of Ni in drinking water is 0.07 mg/l [119] and in Bangladesh that is 0.10 mg/l [41]. All the 
surface and groundwater sample satisfy the permissible level except Turag river wherein the concentration of Ni is 
0.128-0.133 mg/l [12]. The sources of Ni are attributed to the alloy, battery and pigment industries wastes. 
Consumption of Ni through food chain or with drinking water have connection with heart and liver damage can 
decrease the body weight and cause skin irritation [141] dermatitis, lung fibrosis, cardiovascular diseases, cancer 
in the respiratory tract [142, 143] rhinitis, nasal sinusitis and nasal mucosal injury [17]. 

Manganese (Mn) forms 0.1 % of earth crust [144]. It is an essential element for animal and plant for their 
physiological functions and deficiency of Mn may cause brutal skeletal and reproductive abnormalities for animal 
[126]. The WHO recommended value of Mn in drinking water is 0.5 mg/l [119]. In different observations the 
concentration of Mn in surface water is in the WHO prescribed value except Turag river Table 3. However, in 
groundwater the concentration of Mn in the southeast part (Feni, Noakhali, Laxmipur) and southwest part (Kustia) 
of Bangladesh is surprisingly above the WHO suggested value for drinking water Table 3. The source of Mn in 
groundwater may be naturogenic. The ingestion of higher dose with drinking water affect adversely in nervous 
system [145]. 

Most of the metals are in the permissible level recommended for drinking water. Heavy metals concentration is 
slightly higher in the industrial region. Most of the authors described that the higher concentration of metals are 
attributed to the untreated industrial effluent, municipal wastes, and agricultural runoff. However, the ground 
water as concentration in the southeast and northern region is over permissible limit for drinking water. This is 
due to the consequence of naturogenic activity.   

 

2.2.2. Ions 
Some ions are essential for plants however; overdoses of those may cause adverse effect. Some major ions those 

are reported from surface and groundwater have been tabulated in Table 4. 
Main source of Na+ in the river water and in sediment may be the untreated or partially treated industrial 

effluent which is dumped into the river. Different types of sodium salt are used by industries (mainly tannery, 
dying) for their production purpose. The excess amount of sodium salt in effluent potentially pollutes water body 
unless proper treatment accounted. If sodium concentration is higher as combined with chlorine and sulfate then 
the water would not be suitable for irrigational use [128]. Sodium polluted irrigated water makes the soil puddling 
and therefore, decreases the water intake capability and becomes hard which makes seed germination difficulties 
[149]. Higher concentration of sodium may impose osmotic stress on the aquatic biota [149]. Therefore, the 
population of biota may be decreased which makes a poor aquatic ecosystem.  

Magnesium is the key component of chlorophylla, plays an important role in ecosystem. Higher concentration 
of Mg2+ makes hard water which creates difficulties in household washing. Like Mg2+, Ca2+ also creates problem in 
household washing. Long time ingestion of excess calcium may cause hypercalcmia, urinary tract calculi, 
calcification in soft tissues like kidneys and in arterial walls and suppression of bone remodeling [150]. 

The source of fluoride is naturogenic character. Beside this pesticide, fertilized, industrial wastes and 
agricultural runoff, cosmetics enhance the concentration of fluoride in wetland. It consists in the environment by 
combining with other elements and minerals as fluorite and fluorapatite [151]. Fluoride is an essential element for 
human, plays an important role for teeth and bones structure. However, more than 1.5 mg/l intake of fluoride 
causes dental and skeletal fluorosis [152]. It also causes non-skeletal fluorosis when affected the soft tissues in the 
organs such as endocrine glands, thyroid, liver, kidney and other systems of the body [151]. 

Like fluoride ion, chloride ion presents in different rocks. It has a high affinity towards metals. Therefore, it has 
a high concentration in ground water, hard water and metal polluted water. The other sources of chloride in 
surface and groundwater might be chlorinated pesticides and wastes from industries.  

 
 

 
 



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Table-4. Contamination by ions of various surface and groundwater samples in Bangladesh. 

Sampling points Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Cl- F- CO3
2- NO3

- SO4
2- PO4

3- References 

Surface water (mg/l) 
Buriganga river 9.4-39.3 4.2-10.6 17.2-34.0 6.4-22.7 39.6-98.3 - - 12.9-34.5 2.0-9.8 1.7-6.1 [146] 
Turag river 13.2-32.3 7.6-20.4 11.2-25.5 2.0-5.7 80.7-147.4 0.03-

0.6 
- 1.0-4.9 101.2-148.9 9.9-26.1 [147] 

Dhaka District - - - - 21.38-214.0 - - 2.10-13.50 22.09-151.0 1.21-7.58 [98] 
Karatoa river 0.0125-0.025 0.0085-

0.0215 
0.024-0.071 0.0039-

0.0301 
- - Trace - 3.08-25.92 1.13-2.56 [94] 

DEPZ - - - - - - - - - 0.27-0.66 [97] 
Northwest region - - - - - - - 0.01-1.65 0.007-0.096 0.004-0.275 [69] 

Hazaribagh Canal 2211.76 44.49 244.1 48.47 2465.0 - - 44.80 546.0 - [101] 
Hazaribagh Canal - - - - 108-6840 - - 0.1-194.00 5-1163 0.07-52.1 [98] 

Groundwater (mg/l) 
Sylhet City 0.10-48.30 0.02-26.52 0.69-96.6 0.27-64.02 1.45-142.0 - - - - - [148] 
Northwest region 0.36-1.13 0.17-0.48 0.64-2.32 1.05-3.81 - - - - - - [69] 
Kustia - - - - 3.27 0.268 - 0.98 0.424 0.23 [99] 
Mohanpur - - - - 13.1-151.2 - - 0.08-2.8 - - [70] 
Pabna District 0.43-1.59 0.02-2.95 0.67-6.29 0.23-1.23 1.13-7.75 - ND - - - [99] 

Dhaka city 28.37-42.96 1.67-2.27 30.75-50.14 9.04-14.82 9.44-64.09 - - 0.40-5.57 0.18-9.21 - [101] 
Khulna 3.91-73.08 0.01-0.78 0.70-8.28 0.69-8.00 0.82-84.62 - - 0.00-0.11 0.00-0.57 0.00-0.48 [71] 

                  *ND=Not detected.  



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Phosphate ion is sparingly soluble in water and adsorbs with clay particles and precipitates as Fe, Al and Ca 
compounds. The sources of PO4

3- in the surface water may be fertilizer and industrial wastes. Concentration of 
PO4

3- in surface water of Dhaka region [98, 146] shows slightly higher than the other part of country which 
indicates mainly industrial effluent is the main source of PO4

3- pollution. Safe limit of phosphate in drinking water 
has been prescribed by WHO is 5.0 mg/l [23]. Soft drinks contain almost about 170 mg/l phosphorus which is a 
potential threat for public health.   

The possible sources of nitrogenous ions are fertilizer, industrial effluent and human excreta [153] and 
agriculture runoff. Excessive nitrate content in drinking water causes infant methemoglobinemia (blue baby) 
[154]. Nitrate is not itself carcinogenic but it form N-nitroso compound in stomach which is carcinogen [155]. 
 
2.3. Pesticides  

The residue of pesticides from agricultural and non-agricultural sector increases from last few decades due to 
the enormous use for higher agricultural farming. Surface water is more vulnerable to accept the residual pesticides 
due to rain and flood. Nowadays, the contamination of pesticides residue is more common concern worldwide as 
they expose their toxicity to human animal and living organism by penetrating into food cycle and water cycle. 
Some common pesticides which are reported in different articles are illustrated in Table 5. 
 

Table-5. Level of pesticides in surface water. 

Sampling location No of observation Detected 
pesticides 

Concentration 
(µg/l) 

Mean 
recovery (%) 

References 

Total Polluted 

Buriganga river 3 
3 

- 
0 

Chlorpyrifos 
Diazinon 

484.0 
19.0 

- 
- 

[156] 

Lakes in Rangpur 5 
5 
5 

5 
5 
1 

Chlorpyrifos 
Carbofuran 

Carbaryl 

0.544-0.895 
0.949-1.671 
ND-0.195 

86.25 
90.13 
92.65 

[157] 

Savar and Dhamrai 5 1 Malathion ND-105.2 81.25 [158] 
5 1 Diazinon ND-0.90 96.38 
5 2 Carbaryl ND-18.1 93.75 
5 2 Carbofuran ND-198.7 85.00 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Savar 

12 0 Methoxychlor ND 89.3  
 
 
 
 
 

[156] 

12 0 DDT ND 91.45 
12 0 Chlorpyrifos ND-9.31 94.54 
12 1 Diazinon ND-7.86 88.32 
12 0 Ethion ND 93.12 
12 0 Fenthion ND-56.3 85.98 
12 3 Fenitrothion ND-33.41 89.25 
12 0 Malathion ND-59.9 91.62 
12 0 Parathion ND-6.23 90.41 
12 2 Carbaryl ND-6.3 92.51 
12 1 Carbofuran ND-43.2 93.41 

12 3 Cypermethrin ND-80.5 87.32 
Dhanmondi Lake 3 - Diazinon 28.0   

 
 
 

[156] 

3 - Chlorpyrifos 629.0  
Kollanpur Lake 3 - Diazinon 19.0  

3 - Chlorpyrifos 982.0  
Ramna Lake 3 - Diazinon ND  

3 - Chlorpyrifos 177.0  
Ponds in Dhaka City 30 - Diazinon ND-33.0  

30 - Chlorpyrifos ND-108.0  
Feni  - - DDT 4.16   

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

[159] 

  Heptachlor ND  
Nawabganj - - DDT 3.01  

  Heptachlor ND  
Rajshahi - - DDT 0.133  

  Heptachlor ND  
Nator - - DDT ND  

  Heptachlor 5.24  
Comilla - - DDT 8.29  

  Heptachlor ND  
  DDE 4.06  

Sunamganj - - DDT 5.60  
  Heptachlor 5.04  

Madaripur - - DDT ND  
  Heptachlor 5.14  

Bandarban - - DDT ND  
  Heptachlor 5.08  

Pagla, Narayanganj 8 3 Diazinon ND-2.144  [160] 
8 3 Carbofuran ND-2.181  

Savar - - Heptachlor 1.4795  [36] 
  * Bold concentrations are unsafe for human. 

  
Chlorpyrifos is an organophosphate pesticide used to kill insecticides and worms. The concentration of 

chlorpyrifos is very high (484.0 μg/l) in Buriganga river [156]. Sumon and coauthors [161] reported that the 
chlorpyrifos is moderate to high chronic to fish in the spray spot and about its 10.0 m periphery. During dry 



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season, the Burignga river water turn into dark color and according to the fisherman there is no fish in the 
metropolitan region [8]. This high concentration of chlorpyrifos gives evidence in favor of biological death of the 
Buriganga river. Chlorpyrifos level reported in the lake of Ramna, Kollanpur, Dhanmondi is also high Table 5. 
Diazinon is also an organothiophosphate pesticide used as pest control especially for cockroach, fleas and ant. The 
level of diazinon in the Buriganga river, Dhanmondi lake and Kollanpur lake is higher than the Australian 

permissible limit (3 μg/l) for health [162]. 
However, in rural area of Bangladesh the concentration of DDT, heptachlor is much higher than chlorpyrifos 

Table 5. DDT is an organochlorine pesticide used in farming and household insecticidal killing.  Authors did not 
find detectable DDT level in the water samples collected from Bandarban, Nator, madaripur. This may be due to 
the prohibition of marketing and use of chlorinated pesticide according to the Bangladesh Environment 
Conservation Act 1995. Organophosphate pesticides are nowadays, mostly using in Bangladesh although some 
unethical organochlorine pesticides are still available. Therefore some authors detected higher DDT level in the 
Feni, Nawabjong and Comilla region [159]. 

Carbofuran is a toxic carbamate pesticide used in farming especially potato cultivation. In Savar and Dhamrai 

region [158] carbofuran has been detected very higher level (198.7 μg/l) than prescribed by the Austrlian 

guideline (5 μg/l) [162]. 
An article [163] reported higher concentration of cypermethrin in the sample collected from savar which is 

used in agricultural field and by rain and flood gets mixed in water body. Cypermethrin is a hydrophobic chemical 
and thus precipitate on sediment. As a consequence cypermethrin exposes long term toxicity to the water cycle 
[164].  
 
2.4. Pathogenic Pollution 

Pathogenic pollution is one of the concerning diseases causing sources in developing and developed countries 
which is mainly spread through water and foods. The subsequent effect of pathogenic pollution is different types of 
diseases including diarrhea, vomiting, dysentery, typhoid, hepatitis etc. In Bangladesh pathogens are attributed to 
the 80 % of all diseases [16]. According to GOB-UNICEF, about 0.3 million children under five die every year of 
which one third in city slums and quarter settlement [165]. Microbial waterborne diseases also acute in developed 
countries. In USA, every year 0.56 million people affected by severe waterborne diseases and 7.1 million suffer from 
mild to moderate infection [166]. Some pathogenic bacterial count observed by different authors in different 
regions of Bangladesh is presented in Table 6.  
 

Table-6. Pathogenic bacterial count in surface and groundwater. 

Sampling 
location 

Vibrio 
Cholerae 

Pseudomonas 
spp 

Heterotrophic 
Bacteria 

E. coli 
cfu/100ml 

Total 
coliform 

cfu/100 ml 

Fecal 
Coliform 

cfu/100 ml 

References 

Dhaka District - - - - 1.1× 103-
8.7× 106 

225-6.8×105 [98] 

Turag river - - - 75-7500 25-2.0×104 -  
 

[167] 
Buriganga 
River 

- - - 10-55000 125-8.0×104 - 

Dhaleswari 
River 

- - - 4-4.0×103 50-6.5×103 - 

Khulna Area 
Pond 

37 4-37 220-1.35×104 <1-4.0×103 - 12-5.0104 [168] 

Buriganga 
River 

- - 1.0 ×  108 – 3.0 
× 1011 

- 1.1× 103 - 
>2.4 ×105* 

1.1× 103 - >2.4 
×105* 

[169] 

Mirpur 0-7.5×104 

 
0-4.6 ×104 1×1010-9.4×109 - - - [170] 

Satkhira - - - 2.74×102-
3.32×102 

1.55×103-
1.95×104 

9.50×102-
1.73×103 

[171] 

Ponds in 
Dhaka 

- - - - - <1-
9.05×104 

[172] 

Turag river - - - <18000 - - [12] 

Souther part of 
Bandladesh 

- - - - - 0.0-448 [173] 

Rajshahi - - - - - 184 [174] 
Groundwater 

Matlab - - - 1-2000* - - [175] 

Rajshahi - - - - - 5 [174] 

Potenga - - - - 6.5×103 - [176] 

Bhatiari - - - - 2.0×104-
1.2×105 

- [176] 

Kumira - - - - 1.7×104-
3.0×104 

- [176] 

         *Unit is MPN/100ml (Most Probable Number). 
 
Total coliform and fecal coliform are shown highest count in all of the samples which indicate the samples are 

polluted by sewage and human as well as animal feces. E. coli is a subgroup of fecal coliform its concentration is 
also high in all of the samples. E. coli 0157:H7 strains in drinking water can cause abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea 
and hemolytic uremic syndrome [177]. The presence of coliform bacteria in the surface and groundwater samples 
indicates the presence of disease causing agent in the water. 

Heterotrophic bacteria count has been used for counting all aerobic and anaerobic bacteria shows higher 
bacterial count in a pond of Khulna [168] and Dhaka region [98]. They are not prone to pathogenic but some of 
them like Pseudomons are causing infectious to skin and lung and other type like Aeromonas cause gastroenteritis 
[178]. Heterotrophic bacteria are considered as an indication for measuring the coliform in water [179].    
 



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Table-7. Pharmaceuticals concentration in surface water of the old Brahamaputra river [185]. 

Pharmaceuticals Uses [186, 187] Concentration 
ng/L 

N

N

NH2NH2

OCH 3

OCH3

OCH3

Trimethoprim  

Antibiotic, antibacterial, primarily 
used for urinary tract infections 

<LOD-17.20 

N

N

CH3

OH

O2N

Metronidazole 

Antibiotic, antiprotozoal, 
nitromidazole 

0.05-13.51 

N

O NH2

Carbamazepine  

Anti-epileptic, Neuropathic pain 
reliever, anti-psychotic 

<LOD-8.80 

O

O

OH
OH

OH

O

O
O

O
OH

OCH3

N
CH3

CH3

OH

O

Erythromycine  

Antibiotic, Macrolide, Human and 
veterinary application 

<LOD-6.46 

S
NH N

N
O

O

NH2

CH3

CH3

Sulfamethazine  

Antibiotic, sulfadrug, broad spectrum 
antibacterial, human and veterinary 

application 

<LOD-4.19 

S
NH

O

O

NH2

N O

CH3

Sulfamethoxazole 

Antibiotic, sulfa drug, broad spectrum 
antibacterial, human and veterinary 

applications 

<LOD-7.24 

S
NH N

N
O

O

NH2

Sulfadiazine 

Antibacterial, primarily used for 
urinary tract infections 

<LOD-0.58 

S
NH

O

O

NH2

N
N

Sulfamethizole 

Antibiotic, antibacterial, primarily 
used for urinary tract infections, 
intestinal infections, pneumonia 

<LOD-11.35 

        *LOD = Limit of detection. 

 
2.5. Pharmaceuticals Pollution 
     Undoubtedly, pharmaceuticals are revolutionary for easy and safe life. However, their occurrence in surface 
water can exert negative impacts for animals and ecosystem. Unlike developed countries due to insufficient health 
services and lack of awareness, people buy pharmaceuticals from drug store without physician’s prescription, 



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substantially, misuse the dose and real need of drugs. Total doses of pharmaceuticals after administration are not 
always completely undergoing metabolic transformation by gut microbes or host enzymes [180] and used up by 
our immune system and find their way into natural water bodies. The hospital and clinic waste treatment process 
in Bangladesh is very limited and most cases absent in rural area and consequently accumulated in surface and 
ground water. In Bangladesh formulated feeds and in some cases poultry droppings are used for aquaculture and 
those are enriched with pharmaceuticals [181] and accumulating in the water bodies. Huerta-Fontela [182] and 
coauthors found 55 commonly prescribed pharmaceuticals and hormones in raw water used for drinking water 
supply and 5 of them were unable to remove up to a reasonable limit via standard water treatment procedures. The 
essential and frequently used pharmaceuticals in Bangladesh are sulfamethoxazole, sulfamethazine, trimethoprim, 
erythromycin, penicillin, metronidazole and carbamazepine. A group reported that approximate 13 % of consumed 
carbamazepine is discharged from the body through excreta and urine without any substantial structural 
modification [183].  There are only few articles have been reported the pharmaceuticals (Table 7) in surface water 
in Bangladesh [181, 184].   

Metronidazole is one of the frequently used pharmaceuticals in Bangladesh and detected in all of the sampling 
points in Brahamaputra river [181]. The possible sources of metronidazole in surface water are human excreta, 
veterinary and fish farming [188]. Among the sulfonamides drugs, the concentration of sulfamethizole was 
observed in higher concentration in Brahamaputra river (11.35 ng/L) [181] and Rajshahi (10.81 ng/L) [184]. 
Sulfonamides show quite persistent characteristic in aquatic system owing to their hydrophilic nature and can be 
transported far from their point of origin [189, 190]. The occurrence of pharmaceuticals in water bodies cans 
bioaccumulate on nontargeted organism e.g. mollusks, fishes and aquatic biota even at very low 
concentrations [191, 192] and affect the aquatic ecosystem. The increasing use of antibiotics is concerning issue 
worldwide and intensify to create the bacterial resistant strains (known as superbug) for human and animal 
health [193, 194]. 

 
2.6. Naturogenic Pollution 

In conjugation with anthropogenic sources, water has been polluting from the naturogenic actions. Arsenic is a 
natural element in earth crust can mix with underground water [195] and causes health risk. Nitrogen also mixed 
with water during thunderstorm. Rain and flood washed away waste materials and drained into river which may 
pollute water body. River is also polluted by bank erosion. Volcanic eruption emits different metals which get 
mixed into water and makes the water polluted. Waste materials from different ore mine pollute nearby water 
system by adulteration of different ore. The chemical interaction of water-rock in aquifers contributes to pollution 
of ground water [196]. Pyrite and marcasite are common components in coal mine. Pyrites when exposed to the 
environment get hydrolysis and produce sulfuric acid and acidify the water body [197]. Organic matter and 
nutrients leaching from soil surface to ground aquatic level may change the physical and chemical composition of 
water through biological process [196]. Rain and drought can change the water quality by diluting and 
concentrating water.   
 
2.7. Statistical Study 

Statistical studies allow us to discuss and rationalize the analytical data and their interrelation, coexistence as 
well as distribution of pollutants in study area. It becomes noteworthy for understanding the impact of pollution on 
ecosystem and puts forward important and significant information about calculating ecological risk.  

 

2.7.1. Pearson’s Correlation  
The degree of interdependency of one parameter to another is illustrated by Pearson’s correlation tool [198] 

and it explains the deep root of mutual interaction of parameters in the study area. Understanding of pollutant 
source types typically becomes refulgent through correlation study.  The result of correlation study in a specific 
area may be inconsistent with the result of other study where different environment may exist. In the Buriganga 
river water COD shows significant positive correlation (p < 0.01) with pH, salinity, TDS and EC and significant 
negative correlation with DO as well as the metal Cr demonstrates significant positive correlation with Cd, Zn and 
Cu [8]. The results obtained from the shitalakkhya rive reflected that TDS has positive correlation with salinity, 
EC and COD [10]. In Karnaphuli river, Pb is insignificantly and negatively correlated with As and positively 
correlated with Cr and Cd [199]. Correlation matrix of BOD, TDS, TSS, PO4

3- in tannery and textile effluent and 
adjacent river where the effluent has been dumped demonstrates strong positive correlation [63]. Alkali reflects 
strong correlation (p < 0.05) with COD and Cl- which reveals that they are originated from similar sources [35]. 
The correlation of DO and pH in the Halda river is significant (r = 0.663) and that of in the Karnofuli river during 
the same season is positive but insignificant. In ground water of that region DO is negatively correlated with pH 
(r= -0.04) [68] which indicates that the correlation is completely depends on surrounding environment and 
sources. A correlation study of the Mouri river visualized that temperature, pH, hardness, TA, DO, free CO2 and 
sulphate were in positive correlation [64].  

 

2.7.2. Principal Component Analysis 
Principal component analysis (PAC) is a useful tool used to sort out patterns in a data set and to eliminate 

redundancy in univariate analysis from a large set of data [200].  Traditionally, PAC reduces dimensionality of 
data by linear combination of original data through creating the uncorrelated set of variables from the original 
variables. The eleven variables of twenty sampling site in the Mohonpur subdistrict under Rajshahi District 
ascribed that the two principle components cover most (almost 72.53 %, considered eigenvalues ≥ 1) of the 
variables [70]. Bhuiyan and coauthors studied the surface water quality near Dhaka district through 10 sampling 
sites and for 16 variables. They executed varimax method with Kaiser Normalization for studding PC and found 
that five PC cover almost 88 % of variables [35].  

 
 



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2.7.3. Cluster Analysis 
Cluster analysis (CA) studies allow us to find out the groups according to their similarities [201] like their 

sources, distribution and chemical behavior. The outcome of CA is expressed through dandrogram. Most generally, 
Hierarchical cluster analysis and Ward’s linkage method used to classify the samples. CA performs a series of 
multivariate methods to determine the appropriate groups of data [202]. Hierarchical cluster analysis has been 
done for eleven samples from Mohonpur under Rajshahi District and the output shown in dendrogram falls into 
two main clusters like Cuslter A and B [70]. Cluster A showed a close association of As, Mn, Cd, Total hardness, 
Pb, TDS and EC and cluster B formed by Total alkalinity, NO3

-, Cl- and pH. Molla and coauthors also applied CA 
among ten sampling sites and find two major clusters. This study put forward a message that, only two sampling 
points are suitable enough for understanding the environment of Mohonpur area. Ten sampling points around 
Dhaka district has been grouped by CA and found into two main clusters [35]. Cluster 1 possesses three sampling 
sites those are more polluted and rest of the sampling sites are less polluted and comprise in cluster 2. Bhuiyan also 
implied CA for sixteen variables and grouped into two clusters. TDS, turbidity, DO, Cl-, temperature, COD and 
SO4

2- lie in cluster 1 and TSS, EC, alkalinity, pH, PO4
3-, BOD, fecal coliform, and total coliform lie in cluster 2. 

Incorporation of coliforms and BOD in similar cluster means that the growth of bacteria enhances the raising BOD 
level.  
 

3. Handicap in Sampling and Analysis 
Surface water analysis does not carry any worthy value if the sampling, storing procedures and analysis do not 

follow appropriate method. Ascertaining the quality of surface water depends on the sampling site selection. A 
sample site is usually an infinitesimally small part of water body. Therefore, the chemical composition and quality 
of surface water is greatly influenced by the selection of sampling sites. The sample selection site should be 
representative of the water body being investigated. Sampling sites selection of Mouri river [64] did not explain 
well enough by providing information whereas the sampling sites selection in Buriganga river [20] industrial zone 
of Dhaka [97] were explained along with sufficient information. The study period for environmental research 
conveys a significant essence to evaluate the pollution status of water body. However, the surface and ground water 
evaluation study of Chittagonj region did not mention the time period [68]. Grab and integrated sampling 
methods are applied for representative sampling for surface water [203]. Depth of sampling is accounted in both of 
the aforementioned sampling processes to understand the hydrochemistry. Most of the surface and ground water 
evaluation studies did not disclose the sampling methods and sampling depth. This is one of the significant 
handicaps of water quality analysis. The geology is different in the different part of Bangladesh for example in 
northern part we have a flat land but in the east and northeast we have hill track area. The water level would differ 
from region to region. Consequently to realize the true facts authors should disclose the sampling depth. Sampling 
in nontransparent polyethylene bottle has been recommended by WHO and the collected sample must be stored at 
4 oC [204]. A proper preservation process was followed by Islam and coauthors but they said the sampling bottles 
was washed by detergent solution whereas they did not mention the type of detergent [10]. The detergent which 
is used for washing purpose shold be nonionic [203]. Collected samples should be carried to the laboratory by 
using ice carrier and for microbial analysis the time interval of sample collection and analysis must not exceed 24 
hours [204]. Microbial analysis was performed for the Burigang river [16] Turag river [12] but the authors did 
not mention about the analysis time as well as any standard procedure however, such study performed for Dhaka 
municipal water followed a standard procedure  [170]. Some parameters must be measured in the spot whenever 
samples are collected for example, DO, pH, turbidity etc. but in some article authors did not mentioned about their 
analysis strategies [20, 39, 205]. Flowing water generally possesses unique character and demands special care in 
sampling. Obtaining consistent results and make them rationalize flowing stream water should be collected by 
isokinetic, depth-integrated or nonisokinetic process [206]. 

 
4. Environmental Policies in Bangladesh 

The law for conserving environment in Bangladesh was first adopted in 1995 although achieved the 
independence in 1971. This delay does not really mean that there was no concern about environment in 
Bangladesh. The environment protection was reflected in national development policy [207] and Five year policy 
1973-78 [1]. National Environment Policy 1992 was the first draft for conserving the environment and thereafter 
became law in 1995 under the name Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act 1995 [208] which is operated 
under Department of Environment (DoE).  Permissible standard for 26 health hazardous substance in drinking 
water was fixed in March 1997 and another 27 substance was fixed as water quality monitoring parameters. The 
quality standard for industrial waste water has been also mentioned under the Environmental Quality Standard 
1997 [209]. In 2003 the standard value for total zinc in drinking water has been established and other three 
substances added into the monitoring parameters. Environmental court Act 2000 was established to support the 
BECA 1995 and for the trial against offences regarding environmental pollution. In National Water Policy (NWP) 
1999 have 50 clauses to augment the protection, restoration and preservation of natural habitats in wetlands, 
mangroves and other forests. All the policies, ordinances and acts are reviewed time to time for ensuring the safe 
and sound environment. However, inappropriate implementation and lack of observation due to administrative 
complexity, inadequate manpower and insufficient budget, above all lack of awareness, skill and seriousness the 
efficiency has questioned tremendously. As a result, the surface and ground water in industrial cities has polluted 
extremely.  

Bangladesh is a low laying country beside Bay of Bengal. Most of the river generated from the upper riparian 
neighboring countries India and Nepal. To protect the water security, the Government of Bangladesh maintains 
the treaty and agreement with India, Nepal and Bhutan. During dry season (January-May) the water flow in 
Hardinge Bridge (a bridge on Padma river in Pabna, western part of Bangladesh) region decline tremendously after 
construction of Farakka barrage on Ganges river in India. The ecosystem of Padma river and the lifestyle of the 
people on the Padma catchment area affected extremely especially who are depended on fishing due to lack of 



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certain water level. Also the agriculture has been hindered due to the decline of ground water level. An agreement 
on Ganges river water was signed between Bangladesh and India to preserve the navigation and a certain water 
flow during dry season (January-May) in 1996 [210]. Tista is the fourth transboundary rive between Bangladesh 
and India [211]. India have planned to construct at least 30 hydropower project by a series of cascade damn which 
will greatly decline the flow of Tista water [211]. Already India control the water flow by Tista barrage in 
Gazaldoba point and providing water in the northern part of West Bengal [212]. Government of Bangladesh 
diplomatically tried to make an agreement from 2000 to get sufficient water flow in Tista river.     
 

5. Conclusion 
Industries are the main culprit for both surface and groundwater pollution in Bangladesh. Groundwater arsenic 

pollution in northern and southeastern part of the country is due to the naturogenic reason. Although sufficient 
data is not available, the pharmaceutical and hormone pollution in surface water due to the increasing use of drugs 
for human, animal and aquaculture project is concerning and prone to creating bacterial resistant strain for human 
and animals. Surface water in industrial zone videlicet Dhaka and Chittagong are mostly polluted however, in 
remaining rural districts is till now pretty fresh. The peripheral rivers of Dhaka District are polluted by COD, 
BOD, dye and heavy metals (most commonly Cr, Cu and Zn) according to DoE and WHO. People are not aware 
enough to protect the hydrological balance. Although, every year people are suffering from water borne diseases 
but adequate data are not available. Government should raise the awareness throughout the country including 
rural part about the worthiness of fresh water in our daily life and at the same time should imply strictly the 
policies and law to protect the water for future generation.  
 

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