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Asian Review of Environmental and Earth Sciences 
Vol. 8, No. 1, 48-61, 2021 

ISSN(E) 2313-8173 / ISSN(P) 2518-0134 
DOI: 10.20448/journal.506.2021.81.48.61 

© 2021 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 

 

 
 

 
 
 
Mineralization Characterization of Psammitic Rocks in Efon-Alaaye and Environs 
using Remote Sensing and Field Studies 

 
Ayodele Olusiji Samuel1   

AsubiojoFola Emmanuel2   

 
 

( Corresponding Author)  
1,2Department of Applied Geology, The Federal University of Technology, Akure,  Nigeria. 
1Email: samuelayodeleolusiji@yahoo.com Tel: +2349060414142 
2Email: asubiojofe@futa.edu.ng Tel: +2347069107182 

 
Abstract 

This paper analyses remotely sensed data over a part of the Psammitic Rocks in Efon-Alaaye and Environs 
to elucidate its geology and structural framework as well as delineate the potential zones of mineralization. 
The study area belongs to the Precambrian Basement Complex terrain of Southwestern Nigeria and lies 
within the eastern unit of the Ilesha schist belt. The lithologic units comprise schistose quartzites, quartz 
schists, quartz-mica-schists, and granitic gneisses. Landsat 8 satellite imagery and Shuttle Radar 
Topography Mission imagery (SRTM), both of path 190 and row 055, were used for the purpose of this 
study.  A total of 138 lineaments of total length of 147.948 Km, were automatically extracted from both 
data. Rose diagram showed that the lineaments are bi-directional, with major lineaments trending NE-SW, 
E-W and the subsidiary ones in the NW-SE direction. These lineaments are mostly mapped on the 
schistose quartzites. Also, N-S trending faults were mapped from the Digital Elevation Model map 
generated from the SRTM data which was confirmed to be reverse fault based on field studies. The mineral 
alteration map generated revealed signatures of gold, iron oxides and silica minerals, while the 
mineralization potential map was done with reference to established geological settings of the area in 
conjunction with the structural elements such as folds, faults, joints and fractures mapped and measured on 
the field. These structures are typical of gold mineralization and associated metallic minerals in the Ilesha 
schist belt. This study also confirmed that mineralization in the study area is structurally controlled and 
type of mineralization is epigenetic in nature as a result of favorable ground preparation. 

 
Keywords: Efon-Alaaye, Lithologic units, Mineralization, Lineament, Structures, Signature, Imagery. 

  
Citation | Ayodele Olusiji Samuel; AsubiojoFola Emmanuel (2021). 
Mineralization Characterization of Psammitic Rocks in Efon-Alaaye 
and Environs using Remote Sensing and Field Studies. Asian 
Review of Environmental and Earth Sciences, 8(1): 48-61. 
History:  
Received: 3 September 2021 
Revised: 1 October 2021 
Accepted: 28 October 2021 
Published: 26 November 2021 
Licensed: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons 

Attribution 3.0 License  
Publisher:  Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 
 

Acknowledgement: Both author really appreciates the effort and support of 
Dr. O. S. Ayodele (Associate Professor, Department of Applied Geology, 
Federal University of Technology, Akure). Their sincere thanks to the editor 
and the anonymous reviewer for providing constructive comments on the 
original manuscript, which significantly enhanced the quality of this work. 
Funding: This study received no specific financial support. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of 
interests. 
Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, 
accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital 
features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the 
study as planned have been explained. 
Ethical: This study follows all ethical practices during writing.   

 

 

Contents 
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 49 
2. Geological Setting ........................................................................................................................................................................... 50 
3. Materials and Methodology ........................................................................................................................................................... 50 
4. Result and Discussion ..................................................................................................................................................................... 55 
5. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 60 
References .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 60 
 

 
 

 

mailto:samuelayodeleolusiji@yahoo.com
mailto:asubiojofe@futa.edu.ng
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
https://www.doi.org/10.20448/journal.506.2021.81.48.61
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2065-5947
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2178-189X


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Contribution of this paper to the literature:  
This paper unravels the geology and structure as well as the mineralization potentials of the 
psammites in Efon-Alaaye and Environs which is known as the “Efon  Psammite Formation”. 
This formation is a combination of several meta-sedimentary sequences of rocks units in the 
study area by using multi-spectral remote sensing techniques and detailed geo-structural 
mapping. 

 
1. Introduction 

The study area belongs to the basement complex terrain of Southwestern Nigeria, and lies within the eastern 
unit of the Ilesha Schist Belt Figure 1. This unit comprises of the metasedimentary assemblages which includes; 
quartzite, schists, amphibolites, quartz schist, mica schist. Also the unit comprises of migmatite--quartzite complex 
which includes; granitic gneiss, banded gneiss, migmatite, quartzo-feldspathic granulite with gneiss [1]. The 
metasedimentary assemblages has been hitherto referred to as The EffonPsammite Formation [2]. 

The Northern flanks of the study area Okemesi Figure 1, have been widely investigated by several workers 
such as [1];[3];[4]. They studied the area using remote sensing methods, in terms of its geology, structures, and 
mineralization potentials. However, there seems to be paucity of information as regard the nature, geology, 
structures, and mineralization potentials of the psammites in Efon area.  
 

 
Figure-1.Geology of Ilesha Schist Belt, also showing the study area. [1, 5]. 



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Remote sensing has been a versatile tool in geology for the understanding of regional mapping, structural 
interpretation and to aid prospecting of mineral deposits [6]. Understanding the geology and structure of a terrain 
plays an important role in mineral resource estimation, evaluation and exploration [7-9]. Structural mapping is the 
identification and characterization of structural expression and these structures includes faults, folds, joints and 
fractures. Various types of remotely sensed data have been used for geologic mapping such as aerial photographs 
and satellite derived multispectral images for morphological and lineament mapping [10-12].  In this case, 
multispectral reflectance data (Landsat 8 Satelite imagery) and shuttle radar topographic mission (SRTM) data 
were used for the purpose of this research work. Wright, et al. [13] suggested that mineralization in the Ilesha 
Schist Belt occurs in the form of veins, lenses, stringers, reefs and as quartz-feldspar-tourmaline rocks. While 
Akande, et al. [14] and Ajayi and Ogedengbe [15] have suggested that gold mineralization occurs in the form of 
primary and alluvial deposits in the study area. These structures therefore allow the application of the remote 
sensing method in delineating them in terms of trend, densities and aerial extent [7]. This study is therefore aimed 
at establishing the geology and delineating geological structures that could host mineralization in the area using 
remote sensing method. 

 
2. Geological Setting 

The study area Figure 2 is situated in Efon Local Government Area of Ekiti State and part of Osun State 
South-West Nigeria, with an approximated area of 100 km2, it can be located within longitudes 4º52' 0'' E and 4º57'' 
0"E, latitudes 7º35' 0"N and 7º 41' 0"N. It is dominated by prominent north-south trending ridges, separated by 
relatively lowland Figure 3. This is an indication of an active area of orogeny and other geological processes [16], 
hence the ridges are structural markers that delineate folds and lineaments. The study area also belongs to the 
Basement Complex terrain of Southwestern Nigeria and lies within the eastern unit of the Ilesha Schist Belt. The 
lithologic units comprises schistose quartzite, quartz schist, mica-quartz-schist with subordinate granitic gneiss 
Figure 4 [16-18]. However, the schistose quartzites in the study area are pelitic because they are metamorphosed 
from sandstone and tend to form good topographic features [16]. The schistose quartzite occupies about 50% of 
the entire study area occupying the central part Figure 5. The texture of the rocks range from medium-fine grained 
and the colors vary from purple, brown, yellow to milky. They also display joints of different magnitudes and 
orientations and several joint sets trending NE-SW, E-W and NW-SE [17, 19]. The quartz schists which is 
formed at the base of the schistose quartzite ridge occur as low-lying outcrops. It exhibits strong foliation with its 
strike orientating generally to the north and steeply dipping to the east and west. The quartz-mica-schist is 
generally low-lying and steeply dipping to the west. The granitic gneiss which is a highly resistive rock in the area 
has mineralogical banding of felsic minerals such as quartz and feldspar with streaks of biotite. It has a medium to 
coarse-grained texture and possessing moderate to strong foliation [18]. Generally, the rock of the study area has 
been subjected to at least two deformational episodes [18, 20]. The early deformation includes regional 
metamorphism in the area, causing the rocks to trend N-S, and also the formation of mega folds (synform-
antiformassymetrical and overturned fold) Figure 4. The recent deformation episode gave rise to fracturing and 
faulting of the rocks [1, 16, 21, 22]. 

 
3. Materials and Methodology 

Landsat 8 satellite imagery Figure 5 and SRTM imagery Figure 6. Both of path 190 and row 055, were 
downloaded from USGS website (www. usgs.gov), for the purpose of this study. The automatic lineament 
extraction process was carried out with LINE module of PCI Geomatica 2015 software, based on automatic 
detection algorithms (canny algorithms). The ArcGIS 10.3 software was used to digitize the lineaments, produce 
the density map, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) map, and mineral alteration map. While RockWorks 17 software 
was used to produce the lineament rose diagram. Firstly the Landsat 8 data was uploaded to the ArcGIS 10.3 
software and Principal Component Analyses (PCA) was carried out to get the best imagery suitable for the 
extraction of lineaments. This imagery and the SRTM imagery were then exported to PCI Geomatica 2015 
software, where the lineaments were automatically extracted. The lineaments extracted were exported as shapefile 
into the ArcGIS 10.3 for the production of the lineament density. The lineament density of the area was computed 
using the Line Density tool within ArcGIS 10.3. It is expressed in Km2. Rose diagram of the lineaments was 
generated using the Rockworks 17 software. This was done after the lineaments extracted was exported into the 
ArcGIS 10.3 environment where it was prepared by creating X_start, X_end, Y_start, Y_end, X-mid and Y_mid 
coordinate using the Calculate Geometry tool and exported in CAD format. The rose diagram was finally 
generated in Rockworks 17 software and exported as a jpeg image. Proper band combinations for minerals were 
factored in using ArcGIS 10.3 software to produce the mineral alteration map of the  study area It was discovered 
that band 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are the most suitable for the minerals present within the study area. The Digital 
Elevation Model map was generated from the processing of the SRTM imagery over the study area in the ArcGis 
environment. 
 

http://www.earthexplorer.usgs.gov/


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Figure-2. Map of the study area located within Ekiti and Osun States inset: Map of Nigeria showing the study area. 

 



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Figure-3. Topographic map of the Study area [23]. 

 



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Figure-4. Structural Geological Map and cross section of the Study area. 

 

 

QUARTZ-MICA SCHIST

QUARTZ SCHIST

!
!

! ! ! !

!
!

!!!!!

SCHISTOSE QUARTZITE

!
!

! ! ! !

!
!

!!!!!

GRANITIC GNEISS

Fractures

Oke- IIa Orisi 

Efon-Alaaye 

 

 

Erinmo Iwaji 

Erinmo 
Ipole 



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Figure-5. Landsat 8 imagery of the Study area (www. usgs.gov). 

 

http://www.earthexplorer.usgs.gov/


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Figure-6. SRTM imagery of the Study area (www. usgs.gov). 

 

4. Result and Discussion 
4.1. Lineament Map 

The lineament map superimposed on the geological map of the study area is presented in Figure 7. The major 
trends of the lineaments are in the NE-SW, E-W directions, with   the subsidiary ones trending NW-SE direction. 
Schistose quartzite are the most and highly fractured rock in the study area with the fracture mostly trending NE-
SW direction, followed by the quartz schist. The granitic gneiss and the quartz-mica-schist show little fracturing 
because of their ductile behaviour. The highly fractured nature of the schistose quartzite is because the rock is very 
brittle in nature, highly brittle than the quartz schist, granitic gneiss and the quartz-mica-schist. The response of 
these rocks to deformation is dependent on their mineral compositions, temperature, pressure and depth. 
 

http://www.earthexplorer.usgs.gov/


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Figure-7. Lineament map of the Study area. 

 

4.2. Rose Diagram  
The rose diagram generated for the lineaments is presented in Figure 8. A total of 138 lineaments were 

mapped from the remote sensing data. The total length of the lineaments are 147.948.08 Km. The rose diagram 
shows that the linear structures in the study area are bi-directional, which indicated major fractures are in the NE-
SW, E-W, and the subsidiary ones in NW-SE directions. 
 

 
Figure-8. Rose diagram generated from the lineament map. 

 

4.3. Lineament Density Map 
The lineament density map of the study area is presented in Figure 9. The map revealed that higher fracture 

densities occur mostly on the schistose quartzite. This can be attributed to the brittle and shearing nature of the 
rock caused by the thermos-tectonic influence of the Ifewara mega shear, while there is paucity of fractures on the 



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granite gneiss. Ramesh, et al. [7] established that mineralization are usually associated with areas of high density 
fractures; hence the schistose quartzite units in the Efon area are likely to host mineralization. 
 

 
Figure-9. Lineament density map of the Study Area. 

 

4.4. Mineral Alteration Map 
The mineral alteration map is presented in Figure 10. Band rationing method was used to map out area that 

shows signatures of gold, iron oxides, base metals and silica minerals in the study area. From the mineral alteration 
map, signature of gold, iron oxides and silica mineral are widespread and majorly seen on the highly fractured 
schistose quartzite rock; the gold signature becomes more evident around the schistose quartzite located within the 
Efon town, while the signatures of Iron oxide are evident on the quartz schist, granitic gneiss and quartz-mica-
schist. This is an indication of gemstone mineralization. The base metals signatures are scarcely distributed 
throughout the entire study area. 
 



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Figure-10. Mineral Alteration map of the study area. 

 
4.5. Digital Elevation Map 

The Digital Elevation Map (DEM) of the study area is presented in Figure 11. This map shows that the 
schistose quartzite are generally high in elevation and ranges from 445m to 728m, while the quartz schist and the 
quartz-mica-schist are generally low-lying ranging from 295m to 444m, while the granitic gneiss appears to have 
moderate elevation ranging 379m to 616m. A likely fault was detected from the DEM map of the study area Figure 
11 and also from visual inspection of the Landsat 8 imagery Figure 5. The sharp contrast between the lowest 
elevation of the quartz schist and highest elevation of the schistose quartzite is suspected to be a reverse fault.  This 
is similar to faults established by Odeyemi [1] and Anifowose, et al. [22] in the Ilesha schist belt, they reported 
that these faults are associated with the Ifewara Fault and are indicative of possible subduction zone in an oceanic 
basin. Also from the DEM interpretation, it can be observed that there is a possibility that the rocks of the entire 
study area has been folded and refolded. 



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Figure-11. Digital elevation map (DEM) map of the study area. 

 
4.6. Mineralization Potential Map 

Figure 12 shows the mineralization potential map of Efon area of the Ilesha schist belt from the lineament map, 
lineament density map, mineral alteration map, and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) map. Areas, where the 
delineated structures on the lineament map coincide with structures on the DEM map and mineral signatures on 
the mineral alteration map are typical of mineralized zones. The mineralization map also reveals potential zones 
where ore deposits can be assessed such as around Efon-Alaaye, Erinmo and Ipole Figure 12. The structural 
pattern revealed that considerable mineralisation within the area lies predominantly along NE-SW direction and 
rarely along W-E trending structures and along the N-S trending fault. The overlay of the mineralisation map 
with the geologic map of area suggests that mineralisation is associated more with the schistose quartzite and 
contact between rocks. 
 



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Figure-12. Mineralization potential map superimposed on geology 

 

5. Conclusions 
The study area is underlain by schistose quartzites, quartz schists, quartz-mica-schists and granitic gneisses. 

This study revealed that the schistose quartzites rocks are the most fractured rock, it has more lineaments densities 
and the lineaments are trending NE-SW, E-W and NW-SE. These lineaments are similar to structures that are 
associated to the Pan-African deformation to host mineralization in the Ilesha schist. Mineralization is observed to 
be distributed mainly on schistose quartzite unit. Signatures of gold, iron oxide, silica mineral are wide spread on 
the schistose quartzite; this is an indication of metallic and gemstone mineralization. Generally the area has been 
faulted and folded resulting from two deformational episodes. 
 

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