




































 
 

 

68 
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Asian Review of Environmental and Earth Sciences 
Vol. 8, No. 1, 68-76, 2021 

ISSN(E) 2313-8173 / ISSN(P) 2518-0134 
DOI: 10.20448/journal.506.2021.81.68.76 

© 2021 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 

 
 

 
 
 
Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons Contamination of the Surface Water and Sediments 
of Orashi River, Engenni, Ahoada West, Rivers State, Nigeria 

 
Edori, E. S1 

Edori, O. S2   
Bekee, D3 

  
( Corresponding Author) 

 
1,2Department of Chemistry, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, 
Nigeria. 
2Email: onisogen.edori@yahoo.com  
3Department of Chemistry, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. 

 
Abstract 

The level of contamination of Orashi River by total petroleum hydrocarbons were investigated 
through the collection of surface water samples and sediment samples from four locations along 
the river. Determination of the level of contamination was done with the use of gas 
chromatography-flame ionization detector after following laid down clean-up procedures. The 
results obtained showed that total petroleum hydrocarbons in the surface water were 
10.913±2.2022mg/L, 7.645±2.683mg/L, 9.074±2.1654mg/L and 12.212±3.3034mg/L for 
stations 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively with a mean value of 9.961±2.5885mg/L, while in the sediment 
samples concentration values recorded were 22.3925±5.2104mg/Kg, 35.1071±9.9652mg/Kg, 
50.4431±15.9916mg/Kg and 29.3869±8.0410mg/Kg for stations 1, 2 3 and 4 respectively with a 
mean value of 34.3324±9.8021mg/Kg. The partition coefficient calculations revealed that the 
sediment phase is more stable for total petroleum hydrocarbons as compared to the water phase. 
The analysis of the randomly collected samples revealed that total petroleum hydrocarbons have 
contaminated the river and therefore adequate steps should be taken to remedy the present 
condition of the Orashi River in order to mitigate any probable rise in the quantity of total 
petroleum hydrocarbons in the river above allowable limit. 

 
Keywords: Contamination, Gas chromatography-flame ionization detector, Orashi River, Sediments, Surface water, Total petroleum 
hydrocarbons. 

 
Citation | Edori, E. S; Edori, O. S; Bekee, D (2021). Total 
Petroleum Hydrocarbons Contamination of the Surface Water and 
Sediments of Orashi River, Engenni, Ahoada West, Rivers State, 
Nigeria. Asian Review of Environmental and Earth Sciences, 8(1): 
68-76. 
History:  
Received: 6 October 2021 
Revised: 29 October 2021 
Accepted: 22 November 2021 
Published: 13 December 2021 
Licensed: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons 

Attribution 3.0 License  
Publisher:  Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 
 

Acknowledgement: All authors contributed to the conception and design of 
the study. 
Funding: This study received no specific financial support. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of 
interests. 
Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, 
accurate, and transparent account of the study was reported; that no vital 
features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the 
study as planned have been explained. 
Ethical: This study follows all ethical practices during writing.   

 

 

Contents 
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 69 
2. Materials and Methods ................................................................................................................................................................... 70 
3. Results and Discussions .................................................................................................................................................................. 71 
4. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 74 
References .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 74 
 

 
 

 

 

 

mailto:onisogen.edori@yahoo.com
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
https://www.doi.org/10.20448/journal.506.2021.81.68.76
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3613-8576
https://www.doi.org/10.20448/journal.506.2021.81.68.76
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3613-8576
https://www.doi.org/10.20448/journal.506.2021.81.68.76
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3613-8576


Asian Review of Environmental and Earth Sciences, 2021, 8(1): 68-76 

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Contribution of this paper to the literature 
This study contributes to existing literature by unveiling the concentrations of total petroleum 
hydrocarbons in water and sediment matrixes of the Orashi River in Engenni, Rivers State. The study 
further confirmed that the sediment is a repository or sink of pollutants in aquatic medium by holding 
more of total petroleum hydrocarbon components than the surface water.   

 
1. Introduction 

The quality of water is very important in the life of aquatic organisms. The quality of water has been under 
great attack due to oil exploration and exploitation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Poor water quality and 
pollution arose as a result of the rise in industrial and agricultural activities, population growth and urbanization 
[1]. Organisms or certain species may be eliminated at certain level of pollution due to their inability to withstand 
stress [2]. Water bodies need special attention to prevent and protect it from excessive devastation and 
degradation that resulted from industrial, agricultural and other forms of environmental deterioration [3, 4].  

Water as an essential aspect of human life is obtained from natural sources such as ground water (well and 
borehole), also known as geological water and water bodies such as lakes, streams, rivers, lagoons, seas and oceans 
(also known as surface water) [5-7]. Even though water is very essential and of immense benefits, there is 
difficulty in its accessibility due to its high rate of degradation from contamination and pollution. As a result of 
anthropogenic activities, technological advancement, increased human population, industrialization, oil production 
activities, etc, a wide range of contaminants are introduced daily into the water bodies and the aquatic 
environment, which have contributed negatively to the poor water qualities of rivers of Niger Delta [8-10]. 

A major challenge in the area designated as Niger Delta in Nigeria, is the issue of water quality. The 
contamination, degradation and pollution of water in this region is as a result of the increase in the production of 
petroleum hydrocarbons [11-13]. This has contributed greatly to the environment being degraded and polluted 
[14]. Due to the activities of man, such as the drive for the use of crude oil-based products like diesel, petrol 
(gasoline), lube oil, asphalt, etc, the contamination of the water body has greatly increased. Petroleum 
hydrocarbons find its way into the rivers through marine transportation, aerial depositions from gas flaring, 
runoffs from polluted land due to rain, dumping directly into the river, refinery effluents, industrial and municipal 
waste [15-17]. The increased activities of oil exploitation and exploration by multinationals, illegal refining of oil 
and bunkering, transportation and storage of petroleum products has caused unquantifiable pollution along the 
creeks, rivers, estuaries and other coastline in the Niger Delta area. This has led to the depletion of the sources of 
livelihood of the people of the region [18, 19]. 

Despite the huge resources that petroleum hydrocarbons have contributed to the globe, its contamination due 
to the exploration and production operations has caused widespread environmental pollution, poor human health, 
socio-economic challenges and even conflicts among host communities and even nations [20]. The discharge of 
crude oil (petroleum hydrocarbons) has caused or contributed greatly to severe environmental pollution, bringing 
about environmental degradation and deterioration, loosing of cultural heritage and also creating socio-economic 
problems over the past years in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria [21-24].  

The contamination and deterioration of the river causes some serious consequences on the ecosystem, which 
result in adverse effect on the marine ecosystem by impacting on wild life, fishing, tourism, transportation and 
other associated businesses within that area [25, 26]. Crude oil or petroleum hydrocarbons may find its way into 
the environment through oil spill, which may occur due to equipment failure, damage of pipeline through willful 
act, operational mistakes or errors, sabotage, corrosion of pipes and storage tanks [27, 28]. 

Environmental reports have shown that high level of organic (including petroleum hydrocarbons) and 
inorganic chemicals have impacted on the environment, due to the activities of these industries. Their effects have 
been adverse and have exceeded both international and national acceptable limits in different environments [29-
32]. The activities of petroleum industries have severe environmental impacts and consequences on the inhabitants 
or the particular environment where the activity took place. As a result of oil prospecting activities, there is great 
possibility of environmental degradation which may arise as a result of oil spill [33]. 

As a result of the toxic nature of crude oil and its products, there is widespread destruction of farmland in 
addition to other socio-economic consequences to the host communities of the trans national oil companies. When 
there is oil spill at sea due to illegal oil bunkering activities, pipeline explosion, the effect is as dangerous and 
drastic as on the land, posing a threat to the sea organisms [33-35]. Aquatic organisms which survive through 
oxygen metabolism may die due to oil film blocking the oxygen being dissolved in the water. The process of oil 
spill also renders the water quality low and unfit for drinking, tourism, agriculture and other related activities [36, 
37]. 

Health deterioration of man and other organisms is also another effect of total hydrocarbon content. It poses 
serious health threat due to gases associated with it. Total hydrocarbon content can affect the central nervous 
system, lungs and blood cells of man and animals. Other effects are asphyxiation of water organisms, which comes 
as a result of oil coating the water surface. This may result in death of water organisms, causing impairment in 
growth and development of marine organisms, mutagenic and carcinogenic effects are produced in man. There is 
also the problem of marketability of marine fishes, crustaceans, molluscs and other sea animals due to objectionable 
flavour which reduces their acceptability. Total petroleum hydrocarbons may also lead to death of both water flora 
(plants) and fauna (animals), [19, 38-40]. 

Due to oil prospecting and exploitation activities, pollutants such as petroleum hydrocarbons which are toxic 
and persistent in the environment are always discharged [41]. There is also great absence of portable water due to 
these activities, which has resulted in the unfitness of most river water for consumption and thus a threat to aquatic 
life, which man depends on for food. This has led to the search for alternative sources of water for both domestic 
and industrial uses, which also are not altogether safe from hydrocarbons and other pollutants [42]. Studies have 
shown that aquatic organism accumulate hydrocarbons in their tissues at varying degrees [43], which at very high 
concentrations can both be risk to them and their consumers.  



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The research work determined the extent of contamination/pollution resulting from total petroleum 
hydrocarbons in surface water and sediments of the Orashi River. The concentration of the total petroleum 
hydrocarbons was determined using chromatographic methods with the equipment model Agilent 5890 gas 
chromatograph – flame ionization detector (GC- FID). 
 

2. Materials and Methods 
2.1. Study Area and Location  

The study area covers the Orashi River in Engenni, Ahoada West Local Government Area of Rivers State, in 
the Niger Delta area of South South Nigeria. The Orashi River is a tributary of River Niger and runs from Imo 
State through Ogba Egbema Ndoni Local Government Area to Engenni in Ahoada West Local Government Area 
of Rivers State. The sample location points in the Engenni axis of the Orashi River were within the geographic 
positions 4o107.3’N, 6o30’6.6”E and 4o59’10.1”N, 6o27’2.5”E . The inhabitants of Engenni are mainly fishermen and 
farmers. There are numbers of activities that take place within the Engenni Axis of the river which includes, oil 
exploration and production, illegal oil bunkering, transportation, etc. Oil production facilities that belongs to multi-
national oil companies includes flow station, oil fields, gas plants, which has constantly led to the contamination of 
the river. The environmental impact and pollution due to oil exploitation and production over the years in this 
region have been a source of worry for the inhabitants. Other activities that are predominant in the river apart from 
oil production includes fishing, sand mining recreational activities (such as swimming and canoeing).  
  

2.2. Collection of Water Sample 
Water sample was collected from four different stations in Orashi River using glass bottles. The glass bottles 

were previously washed with dichloromethare to ensure no contamination with the water sample.  Three different 
points were collected in each station at a depth of 40cm and mixed together to form a representative sample. 
Preservation of the water sample was done by adding 2ml of 0.2m H2SO4 to bring the pH to about 2. In other to 
prevent any harm or contamination, the bottles are covered with sterile pieces of aluminum foil, after which the 
bottles were tightly covered with plastic screw. The bottles were then kept in an ice packed cooler to keep it at 4oC 
then transported to the laboratory for sample pre-treatment and analysis [44]. 
 

2.3. Collection of Sediment Sample 
Sediment samples were collected at the four different stations in Orashi River from the top few centimeters 

deep. Bulk representative samples were formed by mixing three points sediments together. The samples were 
collected using a hand held, van veen grab and transferred to glass bottles then transported to the laboratory. The 
collected sediment samples are treated as in the case of water samples.  
 

2.4. Water Samples Extraction for Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Determination 
Water samples were filtered and then subjected to extraction procedures through the use of separatory funnel. 

Water samples of different volume were collected from different stations, and extracted into a two liters’ (2L) glass 
separatory funnel and filtered with a glass stopper 30ml dichloromethane as solvent for extraction. The separatory 
funnel was shaken for at least 5 minutes. This allows the organic layer to clearly separate itself from the aqueous 
layer. 5g of anhydrous sodium sulphate was mixed with the extract (lower layer) in order to remove water. The 
sample was then collected into a beaker with the aid of filter paper. The filtrate is allowed to evaporate at room 
temperature in a fume cupboard. The filtrate was allowed to be concentrated to 3ml. the process of extraction was 
repeated three times for each sample collected [45].  
 

2.5. Extraction of Sediment Sample for Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Determination  
An analytical weighing balance was used to weigh 10g of sediment sample and was transferred into an amber 

bottle. Then 5g of anhydrous sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) was measured and put into the amber glass bottle that 
contains the sediment sample, and then the sediment sample is shaken vigorously for effective mixing of particles. 
The purpose of adding anhydrous sodium sulphate is to reduce moisture from the sediment sample. After through 
mixing of the sample, 30ml dichloromethane was added to the sediment sample as the extracting solvent. After the 
addition of dichloromethane, the amber bottle was then very tightly closed and then transferred to a mechanical 
shaker and was agitated at room temperature and the sample allowed to settle for 1hr interval. Then using a 
110mm filter paper the sediment sample was filtered into a clean beaker that has board, the filtrate of the sediment 
sample was allowed to concentrate to 1ml by evaporation [45]. 
 

2.6. Sample Clean Up 
Column preparation was performed through the introduction of glass-wool into an already washed 

chromatographic column. Then into an already clean beaker silica gel was introduced. Addition slurry was made 
into chromatographic column. An Anhydrous sodium sulphate was added into the column then the addition of 
pentane thereafter. In a previously cleaned beaker, the concentrated sample was mixed with cyclohexane and then 
introduced into the column already prepared. The sample was eluted with pentane and then collected into the 
beaker below the column. Furthermore, the elution of sample was carried out by the introduction of more pentane, 
after which the column was then rinsed with dichloromethane. The sample was allowed to stand in a fume 
cupboard after elution at room temperature for evaporation to take place [45]. 
 

2.7. Sample Separation and Detection 
Agilent 5890N gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) was used for the detection of total 

petroleum hydrocarbons in sediment and water samples at the different stations of the area under study [46]. 3ml 
of concentrated sample was injected into the gas chromatography vial for cleaning of syringe, the blank 
dichloromethane was injected into micro-syringe of gas chromatography. Before the analysis of the sample, the 



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cleaning of the syringe was done thrice. The micro-syringe was rinsed later with the sample after which the sample 
was then injected into the gas chromatography for the total separation of the different components of the sample. 
After separation of components in the sample, the amount of total petroleum hydrocarbon content resolved at a 
particular chromatogram was then measured in mg/Kg for the sediment sample and ml/L for water sample. 
 

2.8. Partition Coefficient 
Total petroleum hydrocarbon bio availability in sediment of the rivers solely depends on its distribution 

between the sediment and the surface water. It lies on the level of total petroleum hydrocarbon in the sediment 
phase and surface water phase. The spread of the distribution is measured by partition coefficient. The partition 
coefficient is mathematically represented as  

   
                                

                             
    

This is done to ascertain which of the phases that total petroleum hydrocarbon prefers. 
 

2.9. Statistical Analysis 
Data obtained were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to test if there exist a significant 

difference between mean values obtained from the different station. Where differences existed, Duncan multiple 
range test (DMRT) was used to separate the means.  
 

3. Results and Discussions 
The degree of contamination and pollution of the surface water and sediments by total petroleum hydrocarbons 

in the Orashi River in sampled stations are shown in Table 1 and 2. The extent to which the river was polluted was 
a factor of the amount of total petroleum hydrocarbons present per litre of water or per kilogram of sediment. The 
tables revealed the levels of the different fractional components of total petroleum hydrocarbons present in surface 
water and sediments of the various samples collected from the river. The mean concentrations of total petroleum 
hydrocarbons in the surface water and sediments of the river are discussed below.  

The level of contamination due to total petroleum hydrocarbons in the surface water of Orashi River in the 
various stations are shown in Table 1. The concentration/contamination degree of total petroleum hydrocarbons 
for the stations are; Station 1; 10.913±2.2022ml/L, Station 2; 7.645±2.683ml/L, Station 3; 9.074±2.1654ml/L and 
Station 4; 12.212±3.3034ml/L. The various concentration levels showed that Station 4 > 1 > 3 > 2. The mean 
concentration level of total petroleum hydrocarbons for the stations is 9.961±2.5885ml/L. 

The average level of concentration of total petroleum hydrocarbons recorded in this research work in the 
Orashi Rivers, in the stations were slightly above or below the national acceptable limit of 10.00mg/L in surface 
and groundwater set by DPR and FEPA [47, 48]. However, it is lower than EUEPA acceptable limit of 300µg/L 
in river water [49].  

The recorded mean concentration of contamination of total petroleum hydrocarbons in this work was found to 
be lower than that recorded by Ogeleka, et al. [35] in the Odidi and Egwa riverine areas of Warri Delta State 
which was 97592±46 and 91590±51mg/L. The present result obtained is also lower than that reported by Alinnor 
and Nwachukwu [50], the concentration obtained ranged within 23.6±4.3mg/L, while investigating the level of 
total petroleum hydrocarbons. In the work of Howard, et al. [51], the mean concentration of hydrocarbon was 
found to be 33076.00µg/L, which is higher than the level obtained in this study. Daniel and Nna [7], which 
recorded between 9.6820±0.233-24.85462±8.058mg/L and that of Inyang, et al. [3], which recorded a range of 
63.52 to 183µg/L were all above what was obtained in this work.  

However, the observed mean concentration value of total petroleum hydrocarbons recorded in this work were 
found to be above that recorded by Edori and Kpee [52], on a work carried out in the Taylor Creek, which 
recorded as low as 2.461±2.687 to 10.009±4.145ml/L in the stations. The investigation by Ikpe, et al. [44], of 
total petroleum hydrocarbons in Ethiope River, Oghara Community revealed that mean concentration was as low 
as 0,004±0.003 and 0,008±0.008mg/L and in Isibor and Freeman [53], total petroleum hydrocarbons 
concentration recorded was between range of not detected to 3.69±0.19mg/L, in a work conducted in Egboko 
River, which were far lower than that obtained from this work.  

In other parts of the world, total petroleum hydrocarbons concentration in surface water have been reported, 
such include the work of Suratman [54], in the Johor Peninsular, Malaysia which reported a level of 25-2795µg/L, 
also the work of Sammarco, et al. [55] on the Deepwater Horizon Gulf of Mexico which recorded a range of 
60,000-260,000µg/L of total petroleum hydrocarbons, and petroleum hydrocarbons pollution level recorded by 
Sari and Trihadiningrum [56], in Wonocolo oil field was 211,025.73µg/L were all higher than that obtained from 
this work. 

The presence of total petroleum hydrocarbons in Orashi River was not uniform, there were clear variation from 
station to station. This is a clear indication that the source of pollution was anthropogenic [7, 52]. The flow of the 
rivers and the pattern of wind direction prevalent in the river must have occasioned the non-availability of the 
lower fractions of total petroleum hydrocarbons. The lower hydrocarbon components of total petroleum 
hydrocarbons evaporate with ease from the water surface as a result of high temperature and strong wind and 
thereby not readily available in the water surface/column to be accounted for Daniel and Nna [7]; Ashiru and 
Ogundare [57]; Edori and Kpee [52]. There is a noticeable absence or near absence of the higher components of 
total petroleum hydrocarbons in the surface water which may be that since they are heavier, they might have 
dropped to the sediments or that the crude oil produced in this area contains little measure of the higher 
components [52].  

 
 
 

 



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Table-1. Mean (X ± SD) concentrations (mg/L) of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Surface Water of Orashi River from 
different Stations. 

Carbon Length Stations 

1 2 3 4 

C8 0.238±0.016 - 0.789±0.053 - 
C9 0.045±0.005 - 0.040±0.002 - 
C10 0.048±0.005 - 0.017±0.006 - 
C11 0.918±0.084 - 0.055±0.002 - 
C12 0.641±0.068 - 0.234±0.051 - 
C13 0.426±0.007 - 0.197±0.012 - 
C14 0.216±0.006 - 0.070±0.001 3.237±1.290 
C15 0.616±0.065 - - 0.479±0.019 
C16 0.642±0.072 - - 0.789±0.028 
C17 1.020±0.610 - 0.493±0.020 3.124±1.080 
C18 0.456±0.026 1.635±0.640 0.387±0.010 0.078±0.005 
C19 0.545±0.029 3.110±1.280 2.292±0.710 0.526±0.020 
C20 1.755±0.580 0.671±0.830 0.962±0.060 0.153±0.009 
C21 - - - - 
C22 0.113±0.003 - 0.655±0.056 2.478±0.790 
C23 - - - - 
C24 0.344±0.006 - 1.213±0.600 0.295±0.018 
C25 - - - - 

C26 1.222±0.540 2.229±0.680 1.067±0.530 0.183±0.013 
C27 - - - - 
C28 0.577±0.030 - - 0.620±0.021 
C29 - - - - 
C30 0.535±0.028 - 0.603±0.052 0.170±0.009 
C31 - - - - 
C32 0.103±0.003 - - 0.034±0.001 
C33 - - - - 
C34 0.453±0.020 - - 0.046±0.001 
C35 ± - - - 
C36 ± - - - 
C37 ± - - - 
C38 ± - - - 
C39 ± - - - 
C40 ± - - - 

  Note: Total           10.913±2.202           7.645±2.683              9.074±2.165         12.212±3.303 
 
The level at which total petroleum hydrocarbons were found in the sediments of Orashi River in the stations 

were recorded in Table 2. In Table 2, the level at which total petroleum hydrocarbons have contaminated the 
sediments in the various stations revealed that Station 1;22.3925±5,2104ml/Kg, Station 2; 35.1071±9.9652ml/Kg, 
Station 3; 50.4431±15.9916ml/Kg and Station 4; 29.3869±8.041ml/Kg. The degree of contamination in the 
various stations showed that Station 3> Station 2 > Station 1. The average concentration level for the stations is 
34.3324±9.8021ml/Kg.  

The mean value obtained for total petroleum hydrocarbons in the Orashi River for the stations were above the 
acceptable range given by the Federal Ministry of Environment of 30mg/Kg in water [58] and below the 
Directorate of petroleum Resources acceptable limit of 50mg/Kg and far below the 5000mg/Kg intervention limit 
set by DPR [59].  

The mean concentration of total petroleum hydrocarbons recorded in this work were below or lower than that 
obtained in the work of Ogeleka, et al. [35], in Egwa (215700±77mg/Kg) and Odidi (215730±81mg/Kg). The 
work of Etchie, et al. [60], the result obtained for total petroleum hydrocarbons in sediment and soil ranged 
between 600 to 2300mg/Kg, and in Adewuyi, et al. [39], the mean concentration level of total petroleum 
hydrocarbon recorded was 1602.4±115.3mg/Kg in the Ubeji River, Warri, Delta State, Nigeria, were all above that 
recorded in this study. Total petroleum hydrocarbon recorded in the sediment of Qua-Iboe River by Inyang, et al. 
[3], had a mean value of 606.83±229.48mg/Kg, and in Ezekwe and Utong [61], the total hydrocarbon recorded in 
the Oturuba Creek ranged between 1546 to 3997.9mg/Kg in the dry season and between 1727.5 to 5118.5 mg/Kg 
in the wet season and in Adeniji, et al. [62], from sediment samples in the Bufalo River Estuary, Cape Province, 
South Africa was of the range of 1259 to11,000mg/Kg, were all higher than the result from this work. 

However, in the work of Edori. and Marcus [63], in the sediments of Taylor Creek recorded an average value 
of 18.034 to 23.64 mg/Kg in the months of study were lower than this work. Also, in Ashiru and Ogundare [57], 
the concentration of the total petroleum hydrocarbon on the sediments of Ugbo water way recorded as low as 
0.131mg/Kg, which is far lower than that recorded in this work. Other cases found to be lower than this work 
occur in the Northwest of the Persian Gulf with a total mean value of total petroleum hydrocarbons of 45.94µg/g, 
and that of Adeniji, et al. [64] in the sediments of Algoa Bay, South Africa with a range of 0.72 to 27.03mg/Kg.  

The pollution level of total petroleum hydrocarbons in the sediments of rivers can be classified into four levels 
as in Massoud, et al. [65] and Ritchie, et al. [66]. The four levels are (10-15 mg/Kg) as unpolluted, (15-50 
mg/Kg) as slightly polluted, (50-200 mg/Kg) as moderately polluted and (> 200 mg/Kg) as heavily polluted. 
Although the level of contamination in this work averagely sum up within 15-50 mg/Kg, it shows that activities 
such as crude refining, for self-sustenance prevalent in the area and the inability of the Nigerian government to 
make room for adequate clean-up has given rise to such pollution as experienced. 

Sediment acts as natural sink to absorb the contaminants in the water ecological systems. When significant 
level of pollution due to contamination of the sediments occur, there is the possibility of loss of species and the 
biodiversity of the ecological frame are completely affected [67]. This situation affects the food chain of the lower 



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(bottom) and upper levels of the ecosystem [68]. The impact of the contamination might have direct toxic effect on 
the bottom dwelling animals and can also negatively affect humans through consumption of fishes or water from 
such contaminated rivers. Therefore, there is need for proper sediment quality analysis in order to monitor the 
river ecological systems [69]. 

Petroleum hydrocarbons manifest toxic effects even at low concentration range of 10-2-1—5 mg/dm3 and 
affects aquatic creatures in their developmental stages [70]. The presence of total petroleum hydrocarbons in 
sediment bring about changes in the pattern of the naturally ecosystem, by altering the metabolic processes and 
reducing the species present and in general create instability in the ecosystem [71]. Petroleum hydrocarbons when 
present in the sediment can hinder and reduce the growth of phytoplanktons. Hydrocarbons when carried into the 
river, may take a long period before being flushed out of the system. The process involved include, dissolution, 
evaporation, dispersion, emulsification, biodegradation and sedimentation which finally deposits at the bottom of 
the river. This give severe impact on the aquatic life, as total petroleum hydrocarbons may be buried in the 
sediment for years without changes in the level of concentration [72, 73].   

 
Table-2. Mean (X ± SD) concentrations (ml/Kg) of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Sediments of Orashi River from 
different Stations. 

Carbon Length Stations 

1 2 3 4 

C8 - 1.7032±0.191 2.7356±0.920 1.9455±0.210 
C9 - 2.9561±0.980 0.0400±0.001 1.7869±0.193 
C10 1.0795±0.152 0.6757±0.059 0.0166±0.000 4.9589±2.010 

C11 2.3325±0.510 1.5760±0.113 5.0552±2.210 3.7422±1.500 
C12 0.3750±0.053 3.4437±1.361 0.2337±0.007 3.3006±1.350 
C13 2.1475±0.500 0.8432±0.691 0.1973±0.004 2.5837±0.810 
C14 0.5455±0.021 3.2802±1.260 0.9138±0.087 1.7578±0.190 
C15 1.4411±0.170 0.0001±0.000 4.6373±2.001 0.0609±0.001 
C16 0.3565±0.010 - 5.3259±2.250 - 
C17 8.7569±3.310 2.1646±0.821 1.3141±0.100 1.5516±0.112 
C18 0.1246±0.005 0.0957±0.001 1.4704±0.112 1.8201±0.195 
C19 0.6142±0.051 1.4701±0.110 0.9364±0.093 3.1738±1.320 
C20 0.2129±0.005 5.0101±2.100 1.3730±0.110 0.7020±0.061 
C21 - 0.2382±0.005 - - 
C22 0.1055±0.005 0.5597±0.022 8.3667±3.291 0.1506±0.005 
C23 - 1.1883±0.210 - - 
C24 0.4722±0.063 0.6925±0.056 0.5272±0.053 0.0695±0.001 
C25 - 1.3067±0.191 - - 
C26 0.0164±0.000 2.1947±0.834 1.8723±0.196 0.2165±0.005 
C27 - 0.5790±0.026 - - 
C28 0.0742±0.001 1.5143±0.120 10.5481±4.010 0.2233±0.006 
C29 - 0.3011±0.007 - - 

C30 0.9719±0.071 0.3011±0.007 0.7920±0.071 0.6370±0.056 
C31 - 2.1275±0.731 - - 
C32 1.7219±0.182 0.8226±0.065 1.1392±0.200 0.2158±0.005 
C33 - - - - 
C34 1.0442±0.101 0.0248±0.001 1.9929±0.213 0.4902±0.010 
C35 - 0.0263±0.001 - - 
C36 - 0.0247±0.001 0.7754±0.063 - 
C37 - 0.0283±0.001 - - 
C38 - - - - 
C39 - 0.0477±0.002 - - 
C40 - - - - 

 Note:  Total          22.3925±5.2104        35.1071±9,9652      50.4431±15.9916     29.3869±8.041 
 
Table 3 showed the partition coefficient of the Orashi River. The partition coefficient is used to explain the 

preferred stable phase of petroleum hydrocarbon fractions in a river. Results from Table 3 showed that sediment 
phase is preferred above the surface water phase, which may be as a result of the hydrophobic nature of water. 
From Table 3, values that are greater than one indicates preference for sediments while values which are less than 
one shows that the fraction is water loving. The results indicated that the C12 fraction had values less than one, it 
therefore means that it prefers the water phase, while other fractions were greater than one showing that they are 
sediment loving. The C16, C18, C22, C28, C30, C32 hydrocarbon components were either more in the water phase or 
sediment phase. This may be due the pattern of river flow at the sampling station or disturbances occasioned by the 
operators of illegal oil bunkering and associated businesses within the stations or the possibility of fresh discharge 
into the river during the sampling period.   

The higher contamination experienced in the sediment as compared to the surface water may be due to the 
hydrophobic nature of total petroleum hydrocarbons. Sediments acts as sink to hydrophobic compounds and this 
leads to accumulation. The rate at which these compounds decomposes will increase the concentration of the 
various compounds [74, 75]. The total petroleum hydrocarbons components due to their hydrophobic nature have 
affinity for solid particles instead of water [76, 77]. This removes the fractions from the water phase, thereby 
enhancing the higher concentration of total petroleum hydrocarbons on the sediment phase. 

The tendency for total petroleum hydrocarbons to have higher concentration in the sediments as compared to 
the surface water also comes from the fact that complex fractions /components of the hydrocarbon residue are 
more in the sediment because they sink and settle down to become part of the sediments [77]. This also assert and 
confirm to the fact that heavier fractions of crude oil (residue) are solids, and hence they prefer the bottom 
sediments of the river. Wakeman and Themelis [78], agreed that contaminants that are introduced from land base 



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runoffs into surface water are quickly attached by suspended particles and thereby rapidly making the contaminant 
to settle to the bottom of the river which then increases the concentration. This further proves how the sediment is 
significant in the role of being a natural sink for the marine environment [33]. 

 
Table-3. Partition Coefficient of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon between Sediment and Water Phases in Orashi 
River. 

Carbon Length Stations 

1 2 3 4 

C8 - - 3.4672 - 
C9 - - 1.0000 - 

C10 23.9889 - 0.9765 - 
C11 2.5408 - 91.9127 - 
C12 0.5850 - 0.9987 - 
C13 5.0411 - 1.0015 - 
C14 2.5255 - 13.0543 0.5430 
C15 2.3394 - - 0.1271 
C16 0.5553 - - - 
C17 8.5852 - 2.6655 0.4967 
C18 0.2732 0.0585 3.7995 23.3346 
C19 1.1270 0.4727 0.4086 6.0338 
C20 0.1213 7.4666 1.4272 4.5882 
C21 - - - - 

C22 0.9336 - 12.7736 0.0608 
C23 - - - - 
C24 1.3727 - 0.4346 0.2356 
C25 - - - - 
C26 0.0134 0.9846 1.7547 1.1831 
C27 - - - - 
C28 0.1286 - - 0.3602 
C29 - - - - 
C30 1.8166 - 1.3134 3.7471 
C31 - - - - 
C32 1.8166 - - 6.3471 
C33 - - - - 
C34 2.3051 - - 10.6565 
C35 - - - - 
C36 - - - - 
C37 - - - - 
C38 - - - - 
C39 - - - - 

C40 - - - - 

 

4. Conclusion 
The study indicated that the surface water samples and the sediment samples collected and analyzed from the 

different stations of Orashi River were affected by total petroleum hydrocarbons contamination due to the activities 
carried out by man in the area that was under investigation. The results obtained from the stations investigated 
were slightly above or below the 10mg/L approved by DPR in water and below the 50mg/Kg allowed by the same 
body in sediments. The contamination of petroleum hydrocarbons has affected the inhabitants in terms of fishing 
and farming since it has interfered with their mode of living. The proper estimation and ecological risk assessment 
should be carried out in the area to ascertain the contamination level of total petroleum hydrocarbons in the river 
and the possible effect occasioned by the pollution on the inhabitants and possible solutions given in order to 
mitigate and forestall such occurrence in the future. 
 

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