http://amaejournal.utsa.edu ISSN: 2377-9187 Volume 11 Issue 3 2017 AMAE Invited Special Issue Answering the Call: Hispanic-Serving Institutions as Leaders in the Quest for Access, Excellence, and Equity in American Higher Education Guest Editors Tracy Arámbula Ballysingh Caroline S. Turner University of Vermont California State University, Sacramento Desiree D. Zerquera Victor B. Sáenz University of San Francisco The University of Texas at Austin Editors Patricia Sánchez The University of Texas at San Antonio Antonio J. Camacho AMAE, Inc. Associate Editors Julie L. Figueroa Sacramento State Lucila D. Ek The University of Texas at San Antonio Association of Mexican American Educators Journal A peer-reviewed, open access journal http://amaejournal.utsa.edu/ Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 251 Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators1 on Improving Latina/Latino/Latinx/Hispanic2 Teacher Pipelines: Critical Junctures along Career Pathways Caroline S. Turner, Pedro X. Cosmé, Laura Dinehart, Raquel Martí, David McDonald, Martin Ramirez, Lester Sandres Rápalo, and Juana Zamora3 Abstract This article emerges from the collaborative work of Hispanic-Serving Institution (HSI) scholars and administrators. From their perspectives as acting HSI leaders, the authors examine research/programs/practices [relevant to their institutions] pertaining to attracting, preparing, employing, and retaining Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers. Research and programs noted here identify challenges, facilitators, and recommendations for improving Latina/o/x/Hispanic 1 The U.S. Department of Education’s Office of the Under Secretary, the Hispanic Serving Institution Division, and the White House Initiative on Educational Excellence for Hispanics hosted a 2016 convenings of education deans from Hispanic-serving institutions across the country to brainstorm ideas for getting more Latinos into the teaching profession. Addressing this topic, a committee of HSI administrators authored “White Paper: Improving Diverse and Inclusive Teacher Pipelines with a Focus on Latinas/Latinos/Hispanics” (Turner et al., 2017). We appreciated the opportunity to work with one another and support efforts to promote future such convening. This article emerges from that work and presents co-author perspectives only. 2 This article uses the terms Latina/Latino/Latinx/Hispanic. Latina/o encompasses both female and male individuals; Latinx is a gender inclusive term. Writing in 1991, Nieves-Squires (1991) used the designator “Hispanic” to refer to people of Cuban, Mexican, Mexican American, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish ancestry or descent. Hispanic is also the term used in several datasets referred to in this article. Terminology used by researchers is not changed. Niemann (2002) notes that “like the term Hispanic, the label Latina/o is inclusive of all persons of Spanish-speaking descent” (p. xii). González and Gándara (2005) write that many call themselves Latinas to “acknowledge their non-European heritage while affirming their dignity and expressing confidence in their growing political importance” (p. 398). Niemann (2002) reminds us, however, that “a label does not define a woman or her ideology and that labels are fluid and, for many women, interchangeable” (p. xii). 3 Co-author names and affiliations: Caroline S. Turner, Professor & Former Interim Dean, College of Education, California State University, Sacramento Pedro X. Cosmé, Associate Professor of Psychology-Sociology, Union County College, Member of MENSA Elizabeth Campus, Elizabeth, NJ Laura Dinehart, Executive Director School of Education and Human Development, Professor College of Arts, Sciences & Education, Florida International University, Miami, FL Raquel Martí, Director, Title V Cooperative Project, Office of Development, UPR-Carolina David McDonald, Associate Vice President for Public Affairs and Strategic Initiatives, Western Oregon University, Monmouth OR Martin Ramirez, HSI-STEM, SESI Project Director, Sacramento City College & Former Assistant Principal, Rosa Parks K-8 School, Sacramento City Unified School District, Sacramento, CA Lester Sandres Rápalo, Dean of Social Sciences, Business & History, Interim Dean of American Honors, Union County College, Cranford, NJ Juana Zamora, Director, California Mini-Corps, Butte County Office of Education, Sacramento, CA DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24974/amae.11.3.369 Turner et al. Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 252 educational outcomes and for increasing the number of Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers. Increasing the number of Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers involves processes that are circular and iterative; encompassing their educational pathways from early schooling experiences to the more advanced stage of the teaching workplace. Introduction While the representation of Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers has increased in recent years to nearly 8% of the teacher workforce, this growth has not kept pace with corresponding student demographic shifts. Currently, 82% of public school teachers identify as White, and primarily are women. Meanwhile, approximately 25% of students in U.S. public schools identified as Hispanic (National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), 2011-2012; U.S. Department of Education, 2016, p. 1). In 2011, 23.9% of pre-K–12 students in U.S. public schools were Latina/o/x/Hispanic (Fry & Lopez, 2012). To further sound the alarm, retention rates are lower among Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers compared with retention rates for White teachers (U.S. Department of Education, 2016, p. 4). Educational leadership, i.e., K-12 principals and superintendents, is also predominantly White. In 2011-12, 20% of public school principals were people of color (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). Furthermore, according to Sleeter (2016), the lack of faculty diversity in teacher preparation programs creates contexts that permit trends to continue with little, if any, change on the horizon. HSIs with teacher preparation programs can play an integral role in improving this situation. Núñez et al. (2015) note that HSIs graduate 40% of Latina/Latino baccalaureates in the U.S. and, despite challenges they face, these institutions “have great potential to ultimately reduce the gaps in U.S. educational and economic inequality” (p. 5). Despite this, the majority of extant research focuses on the educational pathways of minoritized teachers generally rather than specifically on Latinas/os/xs/Hispanics within HSIs. Much more research must to be done to examine HSIs and their teacher preparation programs. Findings from the literature presented here have implications for the Latina/o/x/Hispanic teaching career pathway. Ocasio (2014) and Gándara et al. (2013) note that Latinas/os/xs/Hispanics progress through critical junctures in the teacher pipeline: pre-school experiences, high school graduation, college access and persistence, attaining a teaching https://sites.ed.gov/hispanic-initiative/files/2015/04/FINAL_Hispanic-Teacher-Recruitment-Factsheet_04272015.pdf Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 253 credential, and securing a job as a classroom teacher. This article presents aspects of the nation’s teaching workforce throughout the K-12 system focusing on the research and practice literature related to attracting, preparing, employing and retaining Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers. Many of the example programs and practices referenced in this article were provided by the co-authors who are working as scholars and administrators within HSIs. Increasing Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers involves processes that are circular and iterative, and they encompass early schooling experiences and those in the teaching workplace. Highlighted are facilitating factors, challenges, and recommendations to diversify the teaching workforce. This article addresses the following topics: 1) The importance of representation in the classroom; 2) Attracting Latinas/os/xs/Hispanics to the teaching profession; 3) Critical junctures along the Latina/o/x/Hispanic teacher pipeline, including preparation, attaining a position, and persistence; and 4) Recommendations to address critical issues of Latina/o/x/Hispanic teacher representation. The Importance of Representation in the Classroom Irizarry and Donaldson (2012) underscore that while there are non-Hispanic teachers who effectively teach Hispanic youth, studies provide evidence that suggest 1) academic, psychological, and social benefits are cultivated when students of color are taught by teachers of color; 2) teachers of color are more likely to value the knowledge and cultural frames of reference students ‘‘bring to school’’; 3) teachers of color tend to hold higher expectations for minoritized students; 4) teachers’ perceptions influence student aspirations and likely achievement; and 5) teachers of color typically enter the profession with a heightened awareness of the sociopolitical contexts in which students of color are educated (p. 156). For Latina/o/x/Hispanic student success, students need teachers peppered throughout their educational experience who know and value their community’s inherent assets, who understand and can communicate with parents, and who serve as role models. Other research suggests the racial diversity of teachers can provide significant benefits to students. Cherng and Halpin (2016) conclude that “students, particularly minority students, perceive minority teachers more favorably than White teachers” (p. 407). These perceptions motivate youth to strive for academic excellence (p. 408). Their article also presents previous studies indicating that “race matching between teachers and students is also linked to other Turner et al. Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 254 academic and social outcomes, such as…lower rates of student absenteeism and suspension” (Cherng & Halpin, 2016, p. 408). “Minority teachers are said to be able to relate more easily with minority youth…by drawing from their own experiences navigating society as nondominant persons” (Cherng & Halpin, 2016, p. 412). Cherng and Halprin (2016) state the importance of having a diverse teaching force to help “close longstanding racial achievement gaps,” “to form strong ties with students,” and “to empower youth of all racial/ethnic identities” (p. 417). In their extensive review of the literature, Villegas and Irvine (2010) provide empirical studies supporting the assertion that “students of color accrue academic benefits when taught by a same-race teacher or when exposed to a teaching force…that is racially/ethnically representative of the student population” (p. 180). They further assert that “teachers of color use their insider knowledge about language, culture, and life experiences of students of color to improve their academic outcomes and school experiences” (Villegas & Irvne, 2010, p. 185). On the other hand, Villegas, Strom, and Lucas (2012) warn their readers that a focus on increasing the presence of minority teachers must not “place the full responsibility for successfully educating students of color on teachers of color. Efforts to diversify the teaching force should be seen as only one component…in a broad and comprehensive policy designed to ensure that children who historically have been marginalized in schools receive the high quality of education they deserve” (p. 298). All involved in education must take on this responsibility. The authors of this article discussed what might attract Latinas/os/xs/Hispanics to consider the teaching profession. In the process, they also shared what attracted them to become teachers and educators. Attracting Latinas/Latinos/Latinxs/Hispanics to the Teaching Profession Teachers as Change Agents Weisman and Hansen (2008) found that many Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers feel that they are change agents within their community. They often choose to teach in largely Latino- dominated schools and are able to relate to students and families in ways that non-Latino teachers cannot. This connection to students and families, as well as a desire to serve as role models, are important narratives within their roles as classroom teachers (Ocascio, 2014, p. Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 255 143). According to Fullan (1993), teaching at its core is a moral profession. Teachers play key roles in realizing successful changes in education. At the University of Toronto (Fullan, 1993), an examination of why people enter the teaching profession reported that the most frequent answer was “to make a difference in the lives of students.” Opportunities to do the following were found to promote an interest in teaching: 1. Working with all students in an equitable, effective, and caring manner by respecting diversity in relation to ethnicity, race, gender, and special needs of each learner; 2. Being active learners who continuously seek, assess, apply, and communicate knowledge as reflective practitioners throughout their careers; 3. Developing and applying knowledge of curriculum, instruction, principles of learning, and evaluation needed to implement and monitor effective and evolving programs for all learners; 4. Initiating, valuing, and practicing collaboration and partnerships with students, colleagues, parents, community, government, social and business agencies; 5. Appreciating and practicing the principles, ethics, and legal responsibilities of teaching as a profession; 6. Developing a personal philosophy of teaching informed by and contributing to the organizational, community, societal, and global context of education Teachers as Cultural Workers The teaching profession provides an opportunity for future Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers to become cultural workers who can inform students about historical injustices and current challenges that may not be emphasized in their school curriculum (Friere, 2005). Teachers can use justice-oriented critical pedagogies to engage students and use statistical data tools to make students aware of the status for Latinas/os/xs/Hispanics within K-12 and higher education. This knowledge can empower youth to become responsible for their learning. Teaching provides a great opportunity for future Latina/o/x/Hispanic educators to promote systemic transformation. For example, as Tillet (2015) underscores in her work, “The attempt to bring black girlhood to the forefront of public consciousness at a time when organizing, theorizing, and imagining black girlhood are still invisible to the vast majority of policymakers, academics, and activists is my form of cultural work” (p. 482). Turner et al. Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 256 To be successful in the classroom and within their communities, educators aim to instill hope for change. Duncan-Andrade (2009) explains that this must be critical hope encompassing many characteristics including: teaching that connects students to networks, teaching that supports the development of courage, and educator willingness to self-sacrifice. It is important to underscore here that if Latina/o/x/Hispanic students have a positive school experience, they are more likely to consider a career in teaching. In “Making Education Work for Latinas in the U.S.,” Gándara et al. (2013) provide an analysis which demonstrates that Latinas are more likely to go to college if they have Latino teachers. Unfortunately, due to biases and stereotypes, many Latina/o/x/Hispanic students do not experience a positive education during their early schooling years. As a result, they are not frequently inspired to pursue higher education. For example, Sáenz and Ponjuan (2009) note the effect on Latino boys: “The disconsonant learning styles between boys and girls in the early schooling years have other consequences that may serve to redirect boys away from traditional educational pathways” (p. 60). Teachers Touch Eternity Tom Barone’s Touching Eternity: The Enduring Outcomes of Teaching (2001) explores how teachers can make a long-term impact on the lives of their students. Examples of how teachers can inspire and promote passions (that can touch eternity) for Latina/o/x/Hispanic students can be shared with potential Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers. Irizarry and Donaldson (2012) report that many Latinas/os enter teaching wanting to give back to their community, ideally in their home communities, by serving students of color and low-income students. They also express a desire to transform schools and create more positive learning environments for students like themselves (p. 183). Teachers are Role Models Several articles detail the importance of Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers as role models across institutions including at the elementary, secondary, and community college levels (post- secondary). Laura Dinehart, one of the article co-authors, noted how important it was not only for Latinos/Hispanics to have Latino/Hispanic teachers but also for others to interact with Latino/Hispanic teachers. The question was posed: What can others who are not Latino/Hispanic learn from a Latino/Hispanic teacher? She stressed the need for Latino/Hispanic Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 257 teachers to remain in their communities and to go outside of the community as well. Frankenberg (2009) contends that teachers of color “bring knowledge, insights, and perspectives to schools that otherwise would not be there, including raising issues of structural inequality present in schools and society” (p. 4). One recommendation for this representation to be realized was through exchange programs. How people can be attracted to teaching at different phases of one’s life was also discussed. For example, Latinas/os/xs/Hispanics in other professions or who are retired may wish to change their career paths and, if interested, could be recruited to a teacher preparation program. Litow (2008) addresses the lack of Latinas/os in STEM as teachers and in other professions; a reality that could compromise the future of the U.S. economy. He recommends second-career Latina/o teachers be recruited from the ranks of current math and science professionals, urging the collaboration of private and public sectors to develop financial incentives for tuition, in-service professional development, and competitive salaries. Critical Junctures along the Latina/Latino/Latinx/Hispanic Teacher Pipeline: Preparation, Attaining a Position, and Persistence As noted earlier, publications address how Latinas/os/xs/Hispanics progress through critical junctures in the teacher pipeline: high school graduation, college access and persistence, obtaining a teaching degree, and securing a job as a classroom teacher. These publications provide insight regarding the challenges and opportunities they face as they pursue teaching careers. Findings suggest that the Latina/o/x/Hispanic teacher pipeline is unique and often nontraditional. The critical junctures along this pathway that are particularly challenging for students are explored and opportunities for growth are noted. Most of these articles do not examine the HSI context and are not specific to the Latina/o/x/Hispanic teacher pipeline, but they are instructive and have implications for HSI teacher preparation. Recruiting Potential Latina/Latino/Latinx/Hispanic Teacher Candidates Gándara et al. (2013) provide evidence that Latina recruitment to the teaching profession, which could also be relevant for the recruitment of Latinos, must focus on elements contributing to their success from pre-school experiences through the attainment of a teaching credential. To that end, scholars note several points in time for improving Latina educational Turner et al. Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 258 outcomes, emphasizing the creation of a sense of belonging throughout their educational pathways. Related to the identification of potential candidate pools, Gándara (2016), reports that twenty-two states, including California and Washington, D.C. offer the Seal of Biliteracy.4 In California alone, there are more than 125,000 high school graduates who have received the Seal of Biliteracy and they are overwhelmingly Spanish speakers. Gándara (2016) recommends that if a pathway to become teachers is created and incentivized for them, this may be an ideal candidate pool. Gándara (2016) states that “one important distinction with Latino teachers is that they are more likely to speak the language of the students and their parents, a critically important asset that many of these teachers have.” Challenges to a strong teacher candidate pool include the passage of laws such as Proposition 227 in California, and similar laws in Arizona and Massachusetts. Such laws require all children to be taught in English and have prompted precipitous drops in bilingual teacher production. In 2016, California passed Proposition 58, which allowed the development of multilingual programs and a pathway for the increased production of bilingual teachers (Kong, 2016; Ulloa, 2016). An additional challenge to increasing Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers is the introduction of new exams for certification and teaching entry (Ingersoll & May, 2011; Mader, 2016). Passing the exam and the additional time and money these exams require may present barriers for minoritized teacher candidates. Additionally, Diverse Issues in Higher Education (2016) publishes lists of the top 100 producers of degrees awarded to underrepresented students. Not surprisingly, most of the colleges and universities listed are HSIs. For example, the 2016 Hispanic Heritage Month issue listed the top producers of Hispanics graduating with bachelor’s and master’s degrees in Education. The same data can also be found for Hispanics graduating from Business Administration, Engineering, and the Social Sciences. 4 The Seal of Biliteracy is an award given by a school, district, or state in recognition of students who have studied and attained proficiency in two or more languages by high school graduation. http://sealofbiliteracy.org/ Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 259 Persistence of Latina/Latino/Latinx/Hispanic Teachers in Teacher Preparation Programs Latinas/os who successfully progressed through the teacher pipeline found ways to counteract barriers with support systems and thereby cope with negative factors and challenges (Ocascio, 2014, p. x). Potential negative factors included: racial discrimination, financial barriers, multiple life roles (issue of time), and a lack of support and resources (Ocascio, 2014, p. 144). This ability to persevere can inform those aspiring to become teachers coming up behind them. As noted above, Latina/o/x/Hispanic students who have positive school experiences are more likely to consider a career in teaching. Upon entering teacher preparation programs, mentors and role models further inspire them to persist. Latinas/os/xs/Hispanics thrive in programs which include a culturally-relevant curriculum and cultural role models who can support and encourage Latina/o/x/Hispanic career aspirations and connect them with resources such as the funding opportunities necessary to navigate the pipeline (Ocascio, 2014, p.141). Offering classes and programming outside of the traditional 9 to 5 weekday timeframe is important to meet the needs of this population of educators (Ocascio, 2014, p.147). One pathway, or “bridge” to teaching for Latinas/os interviewed by Ocascio (2014) was the “Master’s degree + teacher certification” route to teaching (p. 143). Further exploration and development of “grow your own” programs, alternative certification, and other models of teacher preparation within colleges and universities will offer more opportunities for Latinas/os/xs/Hispanics to become teachers. Examples of “grow your own” programs are provided in the recommendations section of this article. Persistence of Latina/Latino/Latinx/Hispanic Teachers in the Classroom As previously noted, most of the extant literature is focused on minoritized students/ teachers as a monolithic group. Relatively few studies focus specifically on Latinas/os/xs/ Hispanics. Ingersoll and May (2011) found that while efforts to recruit new minority teachers have been successful, retaining them has not. Teacher retention rates are higher among Whites than Black and Hispanic teachers (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). Studies examining the persistence of minoritized teachers (Ingersoll & May, 2011; Mader, 2016) point to the need to improve workplace conditions. Mader (2016) notes that the “number of Hispanic, Black, Asian Turner et al. Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 260 and Native American teachers has more than doubled…minority teachers are more likely than their non-minority colleagues to work in hard-to-staff schools, and to leave these schools or the teaching field overall” (p. 1). However, Mader (2016) contends that minority teachers placed in schools serving disadvantaged students do not leave for this reason. Rather, they leave due to undesirable workplace environments. According to Ingersoll and May (2011), minoritized teacher turnover is strongly associated with lack of teacher classroom autonomy and few opportunities to contribute to school wide decision-making. Improving teacher working conditions by providing more autonomy in the classroom, providing more supplies and resources, and giving teachers more of a say in school-wide decisions could contribute to the retention of minoritized teachers (Mader, 2016). Such findings underscore the importance of school organization, management, and leadership to address these issues. Flores (2011) examined the workplace experiences of Latina elementary school teachers in two contexts. The first was a Latina dominant school (Kindred) with over 70% of teachers with a Latino background. The second was a predominantly White school (Citrine) where over 80% of the teachers were White women. Both schools serve low-income Latino families. In these diverse school sites, Latina teachers described vastly different experiences with their work. Latina teachers in a predominantly White context encountered subtle forms of racism where they felt the need to minimize the expression of their culture and were burdened by heavier workloads. They described experiencing feelings of disadvantage and disempowerment. In the predominantly Latina school, teachers described positive relationships with co-workers, freedom to express their culture through their dress and use of Spanish, and through celebrations of cultural holidays. Even if anti-immigrant sentiments were expressed in the school or in society, Latinas described an overall environment that was supportive and cohesive in the predominantly Latina school (Flores, 2011, p. 331). In these examples, it seems that informed and supportive leadership could shape environments to be more inclusive and welcoming. Doing so would contribute to the creation of a sense of belonging for Latina teachers (Gándara et al., 2013). Flores’ (2011) work focused on Latina teachers in elementary schools. Recent work is emerging on recruiting Black and Hispanic/Latino men to the teaching profession (Networked Improvement Community (NIC) sponsored by AACTE, 2015) and examines the experiences of Latinos once they attain a teaching position (Lara & Franquiz, 2015). Lara and Franquiz (2015) Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 261 note that Latino and Black men teachers are approximately two percent of the total teaching population. They also state that in a highly feminized profession, Latino men may be viewed with suspicion and/or be used to curb student misconduct. Their study concludes that Latino men must be positioned as belonging in classrooms. In their unpublished paper, Sandres-Rápalo and Cosmé echo the experience of Latino men and point to the importance of mentorship and addressing implicit biases described as “often subconscious stereotypes that guide our expectations and interactions with people” (Turner, 2016) along the educational pathway for all minorities (see also Egalite, Kisida, & Winters, 2015; Grissom & Redding, 2016). Sandres-Rápalo and Cosmé also emphasize the diversity within the Hispanic population, which is important when considering policy. They report that the Hispanic population, as categorized in the U.S. Census, is comprised of individuals of Mexican, Central and South American, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, and of other Hispanic origins. Ahmad and Boser (2014) report that teachers of color leave the profession, in part, due to low salaries and difficult working conditions. These authors also present a set of policy recommendations to increase the pool of effective teachers of color. At the federal government level, creation of a national public-private partnership teacher corps and congressional authorization of grants to teacher preparation programs at minority serving institutions is proposed. At the state and district level, they propose providing pathways from 2- and 4-year colleges, providing scholarships, changing compensation packages, and promoting statewide initiatives that attract Hispanics to teaching (Ahmad & Boser, 2014, p. 18-20). They conclude their article by describing the circular nature of the teacher of color pipeline, stating that “when we have more teachers of color in the classroom, they will encourage students of color to aspire to be educators and help them to realize that they too can become teachers of color” (Ahmad & Boser, 2014, p. 21). Bireda and Chait (2011) underscore this conclusion: “Teachers of color provide real-life examples to minority students of future career paths…increasing the number of current teachers of color may be instrumental to increasing the number of future teachers of color...there are effective teachers of many races, teachers of color have demonstrated success in increasing academic achievement by engaging students of similar backgrounds” (Bireda & Chait, 2011, p. 1-2). Turner et al. Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 262 Recommendations to Address Critical Issues of Latina/Latino/Latinx/Hispanic Teacher Representation Recruitment and retention of Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers are critical issues to address. Ocascio (2014) states that, “This conversation needs to take place alongside the discussion of what high-quality, culturally-responsive Latino teachers look like. This will ensure that the future teacher workforce is equipped with high quality, culturally-responsive Latino teachers who can serve as mentors and role models for future generations of Latino (and non-Latino) youth” (p. 153). Such concerns are also addressed by Valenzuela (2016) in her edited book, Growing Critically Conscious Teachers. Nieto (2016) describes this book as “for Latino/a and non- Latino/a teachers alike, and for the university faculty and school and community-based facilitators who help prepare them” (p. ix). Below are policy and research recommendations that have emerged from the literature presented above and from discussions among HSI educators. Following this section is a list of references and, in the appendix, a partial listing of HSI best practices currently implemented toward building a Latina/o/x/Hispanic teacher pipeline. Recommendations: Improving Latina/Latino/Latinx/Hispanic Teacher Pipelines The recommendations below may be relevant for Latina/o/x/Hispanic teacher education pathways from early schooling experiences to the more advanced stage of the teaching workplace. Most examples provided are located within the context of postsecondary HSIs. Continued investment in Latina/o/x/Hispanic teacher preparation efforts at HSIs. Because HSIs graduate 40% of Latina/o/x/Hispanic baccalaureates in the U.S., federal, state, and institutional investment in HSI teacher preparation programs would do much to support the recruitment and development of future Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers. For example, in 2017, three HSIs in the California State University System (CSUS) were awarded more than $8 million in grants from the U.S. Department of Education. The grants were granted to support the development of the Latina/o/x/Hispanic teacher pipeline within CSU Sacramento, Sonoma, and Long Beach. A Sacramento State Newsletter stated that the “Developing Hispanic-Serving Institutions Program funding will help empower Hispanic and bilingual students pursuing a teaching credential with the tools they need to succeed and graduate” (http://www.csus.edu/news/articles/2017/10/11/grant-helps-recruit-more-latino-teachers.shtml) Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 263 In 2015, in commemoration of the White House Initiative on Educational Excellence for Hispanics 25th anniversary, the initiative released a national call for Commitments to Action, encouraging public, private, and nonprofit investments in the creation and/or expansion of quality education programming throughout the nation serving Hispanics (Gross, 2017). Several of these high impact, long-term Commitments to Action focused on Latina/o/x/Hispanic teacher recruitment at HSIs. For example, Felician College in Lodi, NJ, committed a minimum of one- half million dollars to improve the academic success, persistence, and graduation rates of their Hispanic students by 5% each year. This will be accomplished through initiatives ameliorating challenges faced by the students, scholarships for Teacher Education Bachelor's Degree Completion, and Experiential Learning Internships linking fields of study with future careers for our Hispanic students over the next 5 years. Institutional partners included: Washington Elementary School, Statewide Hispanic Chamber of Commerce of New Jersey, Latinas in STEM Foundation, and Volunteer Center of Bergen County, Inc. The focus of this initiative is on postsecondary completion and Latino Teacher Recruitment (http://www.ewa.org/blog-latino- ed-beat/whats-next-white-house-initiative-educational-excellence-hispanics). While the above initiatives are not deemed as “grow your own” programs, two of the article co-authors describe their programs as such and recommended that states and institutions create more such programs. Implement more “grow your own” partnership programs. David McDonald (2016) describes below the Western Oregon University Bilingual Teacher Scholars Program, a successful “grow your own” initiative on his campus: Latinas/os comprise nearly one-quarter of Oregon’s students, but only four percent of licensed teachers. Within this context, the Western Oregon University Bilingual Teacher Scholars Program offers an innovative partnership. Western Oregon University (WOU), two of Oregon’s largest school districts, two local smaller districts, Oregon’s most diverse school district, and a community college have created a partnership that will seek to address the chronic and growing disparities between the number of K-12 Latino students and the number of Latino and Spanish speaking teachers. The Bilingual Teacher Scholars Program provides students with three foundational pillars (academic, financial, and co-curricular) needed for college success and effective preparation for a teaching career. The fourth pillar—student motivation—is identified by working with high school-based future teacher tracks and the pre-education program with the community college. Turner et al. Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 264 Academic work includes completion of the rigorous WOU teacher education curriculum, including the courses required to receive the Bilingual Teacher Endorsement. Spanish language requirements of the program recognize the distinctions between heritage speakers and those who learned Spanish as a second language. Content courses in US History and teaching pedagogy are taught in Spanish to model effective instruction in Spanish. Scholars receive a generous financial support package that is built upon federal and state aid. The university provides at least $4,000 per-year in scholarship support and partner school districts hire students each summer to work as tutors or classroom assistants. The cohorts meet monthly for professional development and social activities designed to maintain student progress towards degree completion and the commencement of a successful teaching career. Every scholar is placed into one of three existing WOU support programs to help students create additional pieces of their university networks. The lack of additional scholarship funding prevents this program from scaling up to serve more school districts (http://www.wou.edu/teachered/bilingual-teacher-scholars/). Juana Zamora, Director of California Mini-Corps, describes her award-winning program funded by the California Department of Education in the following paragraphs: The California Mini-Corps Program is an example of a successful teacher pipeline model that has been in existence since 1967. The program is federally funded through the California Department of Education, under the auspices of the Butte County Office of Education (California Mini-Corps, 2016). In August 2016, Mini-Corps was recognized through its two satellite programs at California State University, Fresno as a “Bright Spot in Education” by the White House (Ceja, 2016; Salazar, 2015). It currently has over 400 bilingual culturally proficient tutors working in K-12 settings in California. The California Mini-Corps’ mission is to develop bilingual teachers and to increase the academic achievement of migrant students. The program hires college tutors who are mostly Latinos/as and data show that 80% of the tutors go on to obtain a teaching credential or some type of teaching permit (California Mini-Corps, 2016, p. 5; Gonzalez, 2012). By the time Mini-Corps tutors enter a credentialing program and step into their first classroom as teachers, they already have an impressive record of working in the classroom with students. Tutors also receive ongoing supervision, coaching, and mentoring by a program coordinator who observes them bi-weekly in the classroom Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 265 and provides verbal and written feedback during debriefing sessions. The coordinator is a certificated teacher who provides six hours per-month of professional development in core content areas and shares best teaching practices to their cohort of 18-20 tutors. The tutors are full-time college students and part-time tutors. Their compensation for tutorial work supports them financially while enabling them to focus on their career goal of becoming a teacher (Gonzalez, 2012). Program coordinators monitor tutors' grades, and program data suggest that tutors' average GPA is 3.0 or greater (California Mini- Corps, 2016). Mini-Corps uses the aforementioned "grow our own" approach: the program graduates migrant high school students who are recruited to work as college tutors. As evidence of the effectiveness of this “grow your own” model, numerous California Mini-Corps alumni hold positions as district and county superintendents, college presidents, professors, principals, teachers and central office administrators (Association of California School Administrators, 2016). The California Mini-Corps program has received three resolutions for exemplary performance by members of the California Legislature. As part of the "grow our own" model, Mini-Corps incorporates collaboration with 22 higher education institutions, some of which are HSIs, approximately 50% are community colleges, and the rest are universities. This network supports the transfer of tutors from community colleges to 4-year institutions and the recruitment of tutors into the credential programs. While in college, Mini-Corps tutors work in 161 school districts throughout the state and within the 20 migrant regions (California Mini- Corps, 2016). Since tutors are collegians with roots in the migrant community, they demonstrate a greater understanding of the challenges migrant students face as well as their remarkable potential (Gonzalez, 2012; Sepúlveda, 2011).5 Increase Financial Support to Latina/o/x/Hispanic Students. There are several ways this might be accomplished, including strengthening federal financial aid support, by offering scholarships and programming for low-income Latina/o/x/Hispanic students entering the teaching field. In addition, statewide initiatives might be created to fund teacher preparation programs aimed at low-income and Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers. Reducing the cost of becoming a teacher could be more feasible by creating additional avenues to enter the field and 5 https://bcoe.org/cms/one.aspx?portalId=757608&pageId=1011618 Turner et al. Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 266 by increasing the number of qualified credentialing organizations. Current populations could be incentivized as part of a teacher recruitment strategy. These populations might include second- career teachers and those high school graduates who earned a Seal of Biliteracy. Second-career teachers could be recruited from the ranks of current math and science professionals and could be supported through collaboration between private and public sectors. This might include offering financial incentives for tuition, in-service professional development, and competitive salaries (Litow, 2008). Most of the students who earn the Seal of Biliteracy are Spanish speakers and could be a rich potential teacher pool. Creating pathways and financial infrastructure for this group would contribute to the production of future Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers (Gándara, 2016). Emphasize the importance of leadership. As they create inclusive and welcoming learning environments, the significance of school and college/university leadership cannot be overstated. In addition to promoting contexts supportive of Latina/o/x/Hispanic student achievement, on-site leadership can also promote the satisfaction of Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers and address workplace difficulties as they arise. For example, district/school leadership can provide teacher support, include teachers in decision making, promote teacher classroom autonomy, create on-site networks to counter feelings of isolation, and advocate for higher salaries. Furthermore, based upon research presented here and the observations of the authors of this article, educational leaders have opportunities to: 1) affirm that “students of all backgrounds deserve teachers of all backgrounds” (Boser, 2011, p. 11); 2) highlight the value Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers and “their potential for improving the quality of education for Latina/o/x/Hispanic…youth” (Irizarry & Donaldson, 2012, p. 184); 3) include in their institutional mission that “the diversity of the teacher force …[is a] central component of any policy initiative intended to provide a high quality education to all students, not just some” (Villegas & Irvine, 2010, p. 188); and 4) hire teachers who understand the power of teacher expectations to influence Latina/o/x/Hispanic student success (Gershenson & Papageorge, 2017). Educational leaders can also work with other policy makers to create expanded networks to attract and retain Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers. Finally, they can work together toward reducing teacher bias, diversifying the teaching workforce, and retaining current Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers. This is a circular process: the more Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 267 retained, the more Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers will be attracted to the profession and to the schools/colleges that successfully retain them. Challenge implicit bias and stereotyping. Research articles referenced here and discussions held by the co-authors of this article point to the need to recognize and challenge implicit bias and stereotyping along the entire educational pathway for Latina/o/x/Hispanic students and teachers. Negative interactions from early schooling and in teacher workplaces create a continuous cycle of distancing Latinas/os/xs/Hispanics from the field of education. Implicit bias, which creates unsafe learning environments for students and teachers, can be combated in a number of ways. These might include: 1) workshops on unconscious bias and microaggressions inside and outside the classroom; 2) professional development for teachers and classified staff regarding equity and cultural sensitivity; 3) student and teacher empowerment via culturally relevant curriculum such as Chicano/a Studies and Ethnic Studies6; 4) culturally relevant/welcoming environments that promote community, belonging, and positive climate; 5) development of restorative justice7 disciplinary practices in place of traditional zero tolerance policies which fuel the school to prison pipeline for students of color; 6) workshops focused on growing the capacity of Latina/o/x/Hispanic students around club advising that helps to build their social and cultural capital. Club activities might include: guest professionals/motivation speakers, networking opportunities, academic conferences, community organizing, and college preparation opportunities; and 7) after-school program mentoring opportunities for Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers to lead. Special projects might include: culturally relevant mural projects, STEM classes, robotics, debate, and math-athletes. Further research examining HSI Latina/o/x/Hispanic teacher preparation. In addition to the recommendations from the literature and practice discussed above, one critical finding from this work is that few research articles focus on the study of the Latina/o/x/Hispanic 6 For example, in Los Angeles Unified, home to nearly 470,000 Latino students, ethnic studies is now a graduation requirement. All LAUSD students, Latino or otherwise, receive a high school diploma only after gaining a foundational understanding of the experiences of Latino and other people of color. Districts that do not yet have an ethnic studies curriculum can look towards the model curriculum that the state’s Instructional Quality Commission is currently developing. The state can go the next step by supporting districts in adoption of this curriculum through training and incentives (https://west.edtrust.org/resource/the-majority-report/, p.13). 7 One example is Richmond High School in Contra Costa County instituted a restorative justice program. The school partners with Catholic Charities of the East Bay, which received funding from the city of Richmond to provide training on restorative justice for Richmond High teachers. The program has included a conflict resolution circle and a “youth court” system, and was expanded to nine additional schools in the district (https://west.edtrust.org/resource/the-majority-report/, p.11). Turner et al. Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 268 teacher pathways, especially within the HSI context. The authors recommend analyses of HSI student outcomes as well as the creation of program assessments and evaluations to understand the impact of interventions on student outcomes. Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research approaches should be used to capture parent, family, and community perspectives in addition to HSI student and educator perspectives for a more complete understanding of the barriers and facilitators along the Latina/o/x/Hispanic teacher pathway. Conclusion The Education Trust-West, based in Oakland, CA, recently released a report entitled “The Majority Report: Supporting the Educational Success of Latino Students in California.” This publication sums up the educational challenges Latinos in California continue to face. Based upon discussions with practitioners and the review of literature presented here, these conditions are likely common amongst Latinas/os/xs/Hispanics across the country: Across the state, hundreds of thousands of Latino students are still denied the education they need to succeed in college, career, and beyond…Numerous hurdles stand in their way, including insufficient access to early childhood education, low expectations in school, teacher and staff biases, less access to rigorous coursework, and lack of engaging and welcoming school environments. Students with additional needs, such as English learner, migrant, and undocumented students, face an additional set of obstacles (p. 9). The report also indicates: Our state cannot afford to fail Latino students. With an increased sense of urgency for the changes our students deserve, our educational system can prepare the future scientists, artists, economists, academics, and business and government leaders that will change the world (p. 2). We agree, and hasten to add, that the preparation of Latina/o/x/Hispanic teachers is a critical part of the solution to address the hurdles faced by Latina/o/x/Hispanic students across the country. As documented by the report quoted above, in the literature highlighted here, and through discussions amongst HSI educators, many hurdles must be overcome to increase Latina/o/x/Hispanic representation in the teaching profession. Furthermore, HSIs are well poised to play a significant role in providing leadership and remedies. Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 269 References American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE). (2015). 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Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 273 Appendix Partial Listing of HSI Best Practices in Building a More Diverse and Inclusive Teacher Pipeline prepared by David McDonald, Western Oregon University (Note: Based on power points presented at the Hispanic Serving Institution Teacher Diversity Convening on September 22-23, 2016 at The White House Eisenhower Executive Office Building, Washington, D.C.) 1. Academic Preparation and Alignment Dual Credit to align high school and postsecondary curriculum. Dual credit programs between high schools and colleges and universities accomplish two significant outcomes— increased high school graduation rates and improved matriculation rates to college. Examples: • Exitos Cooperative and Title V Puentes Grant –San Antonio College, Patricia Medina • Willamette Promise—Western Oregon University, David McDonald • University of the Incarnate World, Arthur Hernandez 2. Grow your Own Systemic programs designed to identify, nurture and graduate future teachers by creating structured academic and professional pathways from K-12 through college. Examples: • California State University, Dominguez Hills, John Kennedy Davis • Bilingual Teacher Scholars Program, Western Oregon University, David McDonald • California Mini-Corps Program, Butte County Office of Education, Juana Zamora 3. Create a compelling, accurate and continuous conversation that increases student interest in teaching through demystifying the negative stereotypes connected to teaching careers. Early outreach including teacher academies with local high schools that enroll significant numbers of diverse students (Florida International); high school advisory courses, summer camps, focused marketing (Eastern New Mexico University); use culturally relevant messaging in a marketing campaign that uses traditional and social media to reach potential teachers, hold regional and statewide conferences for future teachers (Sacramento United Turner et al. Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 274 School District); align local efforts with national initiatives such as TRIO, GEAR UP, and Troops to Education (Lehman College, CUNY) • Florida International University, Laura H. Dinehart • Eastern New Mexico University, Bianca Belmonte-Sapien • Sacramento Unified School District, Martin M. Ramirez • Lehman College, City University of New York, Deborah Shanley • California Mini-Corps Program, Butte County Office of Education, Juana Zamora • Sacramento State, Caroline Turner, Stephanie Biagetti, and Karina Figueroa-Ramirez 4. Expose college students in non-teaching majors to a K-12 classroom experience to expand the pool of potential teachers. • Florida International University, Laura H. Dinehart 5. Teacher Preparation Programs Offer multiple pathways to a teacher certification with a focus on taking the student from where they are and adding the necessary skills needed to be an effective classroom teacher. These alternative certification programs should be flexible enough to build on the strengths of candidates, typically content knowledge, while addressing weaker areas of preparation such as pedagogy (University of Texas, Rio Grande Valley). For states with fifth-year teacher preparation requirements, create blended (4+1) pathways that add teacher preparation content into the content specific curriculum (Sacramento State); Night and weekend certification only program offer residency programs to increase the depth of preparation of new teachers (Heritage University); create career pathways that support the movement of individuals from STEM professions into teaching (Florida International University); • University of Texas, Rio Grande Valley, Patricia McHatton • Sacramento State, Caroline Turner, Stephanie Biagetti, and Karina Figueroa-Ramirez • Heritage University, Kari Terjeson • Florida International University, Laura H. Dinehart 6. Reduce the Affordability Barrier Reduce the affordability barrier through service grants, forgivable loans and scholarships (UT Rio Grande Valley); create a scholarship bank for students starting in middle school based Hispanic-Serving Institution Scholars and Administrators Association of Mexican American Educators (AMAE) Journal © 2017, Volume 11, Issue 3 275 upon high performance in academic and non-cognitive behaviors linked with success in school (University of Incarnate World) • University of Texas, Rio Grande Valley, Patricia McHatton • University of The Incarnate World, Arthur Hernandez 7. Provide new teachers with training focused on the administrative aspects of their positions especially lesson plan development. • Eastern New Mexico University, Bianca Belmonte-Sapien 8. Predictive Analytics and Assessment Develop predictive analytical tools that allow high schools and colleges to identify potential quality teachers through performance characteristics exhibited by the students. Based upon the assessment data, create an effective proactive response system that enhances student success. • Texas A&M International University, Selina V. Mireles 9. Increase K-12 student retention and success Develop culturally-relevant curriculum for middle and high school students, provision of summer camps, creation of professional networks for Latino K-12 administrators and teachers, and create partnerships with higher education. • Sacramento Unified School District, Martin M. Ramirez • California Mini-Corps, Juana Zamora 10. Enhanced preparation programs Increase the depth of training by imbedding high need endorsements like ESOL and SPED produce teachers that are better trained to meet the educational needs of more students. • Heritage University, Kari Terjeson