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Australasian Journal of
Educational Technology

2008, 24(4), 458-474

ICT integration processes in Turkish schools: Using
activity theory to study issues and contradictions

Yasemin Demiraslan
Iowa State University

Yasemin Koçak Usluel
Hacettepe University

This study used activity theory to examine complex pedagogical, social, and
technological issues in ICT integration process at the classroom level. We identified
and analysed the contradictions within the activity system and discussed potential
effects, which Engeström called ‘expansive learning’. We conducted case studies and
collected data through semi-structured interviews, video records and observations.
Based on the results we concluded that, along with lack of technology and access, the
organisational culture, the changing roles of teachers and students with regard to ICT,
inflexible timetable curriculum, support of the school administration, the mediator
role of ICT coordinator, and collaboration among the teachers were also imperatives
that need to be taken into consideration in ICT integration processes.

Introduction

There is a growing interest in the integration of information and communication
technologies (ICT) into classrooms as it is assumed that successful integration will offer
a wide spectrum of valuable benefits for teaching and learning (Cope & Ward, 2002;
Naidu, Cunnington & Jasen, 2002). However, although the availability of ICT use in
schools has increased, all the gains that were envisaged were not always achieved
(Gobbo & Girardi, 2001). This is because as ICT enters the sociocultural setting of the
school, it may trigger changes in the activities, curriculum and interpersonal
relationships in the learning environment, and is reciprocally affected by the very
changes it causes (Salomon, 1993). Therefore, research studies in ICT need to shift their
attention towards the whole configuration of events, activities, contents, and
interpersonal processes taking place in the context that ICT is used (Lim, 2002).

In this paper we adopt activity theory (Engeström, 1987), a sociocultural perspective
which supports the idea that ICT must be studied within the learning environment and
the broader context in which it is situated. By using activity theory as a framework for
the analysis, we demonstrate the intimate mechanisms that link ICT, learning and their
sociocultural settings (Lim & Hung, 2003; Lim, 2002). After first outlining central tenets
of activity theory, we then apply them to understand the activity system of ICT
integration and how contradictions lead to changes in this system.



Demiraslan and Usluel 459

Theoretical background: Activity theory

Activity theory (AT) is a general framework for studying different forms of human
activity as development processes (Kuutti, 1996). Within this general context,
Engeström (1987) proposed a model (Figure 1) that conceptualises all purposeful
human activity as the interaction of the elements: subject, object, tools, community,
rules, and division of labour.

In this model of an activity system, the subject refers to the individual or group whose
point of view is taken in the analysis of the activity. The object (or objective) is the
target of the activity within the system. Tools refer to internal or external mediating
artifacts which help to achieve the outcomes of the activity. The community is comprised
of one or more people who share the objective with the subject. Rules refer to the
explicit and implicit regulations, norms and conventions that constrain actions and
interactions within the activity system. The division of labour discusses how tasks are
divided horizontally between community members as well as referring to any vertical
division of power and status (Center for Activity Theory and Developmental Work
Research, 2003).

Figure 1. The structure of an activity system

Using this model to analyse the ICT integration, we can map the elements as follows:

Subject Teacher (teaching experience, teaching approach, the personal,
administrational and instructional use of ICT, the place of ICT in daily
life, the necessity of knowledge and skills related to ICT).

Object The goals of using ICT in teaching-learning process (knowledge and
skills acquisition, and problem solving).

Tools ICT and the tools other than ICT, methods which are used, problems
which are encountered.

Rules The evaluation criteria, expectations of the teacher, rules of the school.
Community Students, teachers, school administration, ICT coordinator.
Division of
labour

The roles and responsibilities of students and teachers, cooperation
among teachers, the support of administration.

Outcome The reflection of the use of ICT in teaching-learning process to the
learning of students and instruction (Demiraslan, 2005).

Object

Tools

Community Division of labour

Subject

Rules

Outcome



460 Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2008, 24(4)

AT uses the term contradiction to indicate a misfit within elements, between them,
between different activities, or between different developmental phases of a single
activity (Sujan, Rizzo & Pasquini, 2002). According to Engeström (1987, 2001), these
contradictions can be problematic but if they are handled in a constructive way, they
can also invoke development, through expansive learning. Therefore, in AT
contradictions are seen as sources of development; activities are virtually always in the
process of working through contradictions.

The introduction of ICT into the activity systems is likely to bring about contradictions.
Because these contradictions hinder the effective integration of ICT, they have to be
addressed by reassessing and redefining each component of the activity systems (Lim
& Hung, 2003).

ICT in Turkish schools

The body of authority is the key policy makers in the Ministry of National Education
(MONE) for all levels of schools in Turkey. MONE has allocated considerable funding
for the use of computers in the teaching and learning process since 1984 when ICT was
first introduced to schools. The efforts have been undertaken include in service
training of teachers and administrators, courseware and educational material
development and training of computer coordinators.

On the other hand, the implementation of any innovation, including ICT is also a
responsibility for the schools. Many studies conducted in different primary schools
revealed that the use of computers varied due to the differences in school and teacher
characteristics (Usluel, Mumcu & Demiraslan, 2007; Askar & Usluel, 2003). However,
one common point found in these studies was that teachers mostly used ICT in
administrative tasks at schools, such as preparation of lecture and unit plans,
organising scores and reports of students, but not in instructional tasks such as using a
presentation tool during class or using computers for experiments (Usluel, Mumcu &
Demiraslan, 2007; Demiraslan, 2005; Askar & Usluel, 2003).

Therefore, it is supported by literature that although ICT has entered teachers’ lives,
their use of ICT for instructional purposes is insufficient (Martins, Steil & Todesco,
2004; Askar & Usluel, 2003; Suen & Szabo, 1998). The lack of ICT in classrooms, lack of
knowledge, technical support, and insufficiency of in service training can explain why
teachers do not use ICT in their courses. However, the integration of ICT into teaching-
learning processes is a complex and multidimensional task including many dynamics
such as ICT tools, teachers, students, school administration, educational programs and
school culture (Sutherland, 2004; Lim, 2002; Kennewell, 2001). Hence contextual and in
depth analyses in the framework of activity theory would be important for developing
strategies for the integration of ICT into teaching-learning processes.

Research questions

In this study, we used AT in order to examine complex pedagogical, social and
technological issues in ICT integration process at the classroom level. The research
questions can then be formulated as follows.

In the context of ICT integration into teaching-learning processes:



Demiraslan and Usluel 461

1. What are the
a. Objects that motivate activity?
b. Tools that mediate the activity?
c. Rules that that regulate actions and interactions of activity?
d. The roles and responsibilities of participants in the activity?
e. The outcomes of activity to students’ learning and instruction?

2. What are the contradictions within the activity systems?

Method

Participants

This paper draws upon the findings of two case studies conducted in two private
primary schools that we named School A and B. The participants were two teachers
using ICT in teaching-learning, ICT coordinators and students from each school.
“Esra”, from School A, was a science teacher having 8 years of teaching experience and
“Kenan”, from School B, was a mathematics teacher with 4 years of experience in
teaching. Two groups of students with 4 and 6 members from School A and a group of
students with 6 members from School B were chosen for focus group interviews. The
students were between the ages 11-12.

Case study context

Schools A and B were located in Ankara, the capital city of Turkey. Both schools were
technologically rich, above the average of Turkish primary schools, and each had
similar characteristics in terms of school management, curriculum, background of
students, and teacher qualifications.

In School A, the average class size was 20. It had a computer laboratory with 23
computers connected to Internet and was equipped with data projector, projector
screen, printer, scanner and digital video camera. There was also a library with 15
computers having Internet connection. Although there were no computers in
classrooms, the science laboratory was equipped with a computer that was linked to
the data projector. A specialist was also available to resolve technical problems.

In School B, the average class size was 24. There were three computer laboratories; 28
computers each in two of the laboratories and 25 computers in the third one. All the
computers were Internet connected and each of the laboratories was equipped with
data projector, projector screen, printer and scanner. As in School A, there were no
computers in classrooms and a specialist was available to resolve technical problems.

Data collection

In order to triangulate findings, multiple strategies were employed for data collection,
including observations of lessons, and interviews with teachers, students, and ICT
coordinators. A total of 8 interviews were conducted in Turkish; 2 with each teacher, 2
with the ICT coordinators in charge of ICT (technological access and availability,
teachers’ and students’ ICT use, in service teacher training on ICT, and the school’s
ICT culture reflecting the attitudes of school administration towards ICT use in
classroom as well as the effect of curriculum), and 3 focus group interviews with
students. The participants were interviewed for approximately 45 minutes each. The
topics of the interviews were tied to the activity theoretical framework.



462 Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2008, 24(4)

Taking the activity system of the classroom as the unit of analysis, 15 lessons in School
A and 9 lessons in School B were observed in 2004 spring semester. An observation
form including the categories such as technology availability and use, lesson activities,
grouping of students during ICT use, and learning content, the role of the teacher, and
innovative uses of ICT in the classroom (if any) was developed to guide the
observation process. A video camera was used in some lessons in order to minimise
the observer effect.

Data analysis

Tape recorded interviews were transcribed and then analysed in terms of categories
drawn from AT, namely: Subject position; tools; object; rules, community and division
of labour. The process followed during the content analyses included identifying valid
codes by reading the transcripts repeatedly, determining meta-codes that included
more than one code, generating activity systems based on the final codes and meta-
codes, and identifying themes. While analysing the observation data, the frequency of
categories that had been observed were marked in the observation form. Similarly, the
video analysis was performed through watching the videos repeatedly and then
checking the related categories on the observation form. The findings were used to
support the content analyses results.

Findings and discussions

Taking the elements of AT into consideration, the results below were obtained, related
to the interactions among ICT, individuals and the context in which the activity was
realised. We used a teacher's perspective which means that we chose teacher as the
subject in our analysis.

Research question 1a: Object: The goals of teachers about using ICT in
teaching-learning processes

The following questions were posed to the teachers about the object: “What are the
most important factors which encourage you to use ICT in your instructional
activities? Do you plan to go on using ICT?” (All question and responses have been
translated from Turkish by the researchers).

In school A, Esra defined the goals of using ICT as “offering more effective and higher
quality education in shorter periods of time, carrying out more activities, increasing
the perceptions of children and drawing their attention to the subject owing to visual
stimulants”.

In school B, Kenan stated that he did not use ICT directly for instructional purposes,
but for reinforcement purposes to ensure the permenance of what was learned, and
defined the other motives of using ICT as “accustoming students to Internet which [he]
regarded as a resource of unlimited information and the indispensability of adapting
to developing technology”.

Both of the teachers mentioned that they planned to go on using ICT and that they
sought ways of using it more effectively.



Demiraslan and Usluel 463

Research question 1b: Tools: The tools in ICT integration process, which serve
as mediators to achieve the goals

Four questions were posed to teachers concerning the tools which serve as mediators
for the relations between Subject and Object. The first question was as follows: “What
are the ICT tools that you use in teaching-learning process?”

Esra mentioned that she “used computer, projector and CD software and wished to
use new technological tools such as handheld computers to carry out more science
experiments in shorter periods of time”. The observations revealed that in 8 courses
where ICT was used, PowerPoint presentations were the most common applications. In
addition, various software programs on CDs were used to support students’ practice,
and Internet was used for online quizzes and finding subject related resources.

Kenan said that he “used PowerPoint to present the Internet links related to the subject
[he] taught in the classroom”. He added that he was able to provide the students with
visual information thanks to ICT. It was observed that ICT was used for exercising-
practising activities, playing games and visiting the web sites about the related topics
in 5 classes where ICT was used, and that games were regarded as rewards of
instructional activities.

Secondly, the following question was asked to the teachers: “Which methods do you
apply when using ICT in teaching-learning process?”

Esra stated that the students worked individually when having a quiz on the Internet
and as a group when elaborating a booklet or poster, and listened to PowerPoint
presentations altogether in the classroom. Moreover, she said that she made use of
discovery techniques, question-answer, and problem solving methods. The students
emphasised that “learning by playing raised their motivation, group works were
effective, they understood the subjects better owing to animations in PowerPoint
presentations”, however they preferred carrying out activities themselves to teacher
explaining the topic directly.

It was observed that the teacher mostly explained the stages of process and students
used the ICT in pairs in the lab, or worked in small groups in the classroom where ICT
was used to support the content. Group work was also common in the courses where
ICT was not used.

Kenan stated that he generally used problem solving methods which were not
observed during any of the class observations. The students pointed out that “their
involvement in the course would increase when the teacher told the subject and then
they practiced on the computer”. It was observed that the students worked
individually in both the courses where ICT tools were used and were not used. While
the teacher acted as a coach and posed questions in the courses where ICT was used,
he just taught the learning content in the courses where ICT tools were not used. The
observations also revealed that the students were encouraged to strengthen their
learning using game based exercises provided by means of Internet links.

In order to identify the difficulties encountered when using ICT in teaching-learning
processes, the following question was asked to the teachers: “What difficulties do you
encounter when using ICT?”



464 Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2008, 24(4)

Esra mentioned resource problems such as lack of computers and projectors in
classrooms. A student who expressed similar opinions said that “they did not have
enough computers and access in the school when they needed”. Observations
confirmed that some students used computers in pairs in the library due to insufficient
numbers of computers and there was only one computer in the science laboratory,
used solely by the teacher. Nevertheless, the ICT coordinator pointed out that teachers
and students had unlimited access to ICT resources. Hence, it is noticeable that there
are differences between the viewpoints of the ICT coordinator, and teachers and
students in School A concerning access to ICT resources.

Additionally, Esra mentioned that she needed further training to design more effective
ICT based activities. She added that she had classroom management problems in the
courses where ICT was used since it was difficult to deal with each student
individually. Observations confirmed that although the teacher was successful at
maintaining order in the classroom in most courses, she had difficulty in responding to
the students’ questions and helping them individually in the courses where ICT tools
were used.

Kenan stated that they had had problems such as “slow Internet connection and
insufficiency of computer equipment but currently technical equipment and support
were available whenever they needed”. Although there was one computer per student,
it was observed that the opportunity of students to use computers for extra-class
activities was limited. The students also pointed out that they did not have the
opportunity to use computers whenever they needed and they wished that more time
was dedicated to students’ use.

Furthermore, touching upon the problem of delivering the curriculum in time in the
courses where ICT was used, Kenan noted that “they were not able to deal with
different extra-class activities and that the Ministry of National Education (MONE)
should make changes in the curriculum”.

It was observed that Kenan had problems in classroom management in the courses
where ICT was used due to the difficulty of dealing with each student individually
although he did not speak of such a problem during the interview.

Research question 1c: Rules: The rules that regulate actions and interactions of
ICT integration into teaching-learning processes

Four questions were asked to the teachers in order to collect information about the
rules which constrain the use of ICT and guide the subject in teaching-learning process.

The following questions were asked to the teachers about the assessment criteria they
used in the class: “What are the criteria that you take into consideration when
evaluating the learning of your students? Do these criteria change in the courses where
you use ICT tools? Or do you develop new criteria for these courses?”

Esra pointed out that she used “such assessment criteria as computer quizzes, oral
examination, individual evaluation of each student and multiple choice examinations
together, and attached particular importance to performance evaluation”. The
observations revealed that the students took an online quiz every 15 days and the
teacher incorporated group work and assignments into assessment.



Demiraslan and Usluel 465

Kenan remarked that “MONE had a determining role in the assessment methods he
used in courses, and accordingly, he was obliged to make at least two written
examinations”. However, he added that he evaluated student term papers which
should include Internet research and classroom presentation via PowerPoint. During
the observation period, ICT was not used for the purpose of student evaluation.

The following question was put to the teachers to find out their opinions about the
ideal classroom environment which enabled the active use of ICT: “What should be the
classroom environment to make the most effective use of ICT?”

Esra spoke of “an interactive classroom environment where the individual differences
between students were taken into account and which was equipped with various
technological tools such as computer, projector, printer and scanner”. Students also
defined an effective classroom environment as the one which was equipped with
technological tools.

Esra added that she expected higher skills from her students in the courses where she
used ICT since she believed that “ICT increased student learning especially in abstract
subjects thanks to animations and simulations”. It was remarkable in the observations
that the teacher was clear about her expectations from the students in all the courses
and the students were aware of what they were doing. It can be concluded that Esra
expected her students to participate in the course more actively and carry out studies
based on research and discovery.

Kenan emphasised the importance of “a classroom environment in which there were
good computers, fast Internet connection and good software, and where the teacher
did not have to deal with technical deficiencies”. Moreover, he pointed out that he
expected his students to fulfill general assessment criteria in terms of success and not
to display undesirable behaviours challenging classroom management. It was
observed that there were some ambiguities about Kenan’s expectations from his
students in the courses where he used ICT compared to the courses in which he did
not use ICT. This ambiguity can be due to his use of ICT as a supplement of classroom
activities rather than a main part of the teaching-learning process.

The students defined an effective classroom environment as one where “various
technologies were used, access to Internet was controlled to provide safety”.
Additionally, one of the students stated that they would be “more competent
computer users owing to a research course carried out under the supervision of a
teacher”.

The following questions were asked to the teachers about the school rules on using ICT
in the teaching-learning process: “Are there any rules imposed by the school about
using ICT in teaching-learning process? What is the impact of these rules on using ICT
in the courses?”

Esra stated that “a reservation system was used in the school to regulate the access to
computers in the library, and she did not have difficulty in access to computers”. It
was noticeable that Esra, who mentioned that the school administration was not
supportive enough and the ICT resources were insufficient, stated that she did not
have difficulty in getting access to resources. It can be concluded that since other
teachers did not use ICT frequently, Esra did not have problems about using ICT
opportunities.



466 Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2008, 24(4)

Kenan pointed out that the school did not have any particular expectations from
teachers about using ICT and that the only expectation of the school was carrying out
the course in the most effective way and maintaining the school’s reputation.

Research question 1d: Division of labour: The roles and responsibilities of
participants in ICT integration into the teaching-learning process

Four questions were asked of teachers to find out the division of labour among
participants in the use of ICT in teaching-learning process.

First, the following questions were asked to the teachers to ascertain the impact of ICT
on teacher and student roles in the classroom: “Which different roles and
responsibilities do your students assume in the courses where you use ICT, compared
to the courses where you do not use them? What kind of different roles and
responsibilities do you assume?”

Esra noted that “although her workload increased, she had an opportunity to elaborate
more activities by using ICT in the classroom”. She further mentioned that “owing to
ICT tools, the students were involved in the course more actively; they tried to
discover new things and even carried out research on their own initiatives”. Similarly,
the students stated that in the courses where ICT tools were used “they participated in
the course more actively, carried out research, prepared PowerPoint presentations
based on group work in which they were able to assist each other, and participated in
international online projects”.

It was observed that the teacher guided the students, gave feedback to their work, and
helped them solve problems both in the courses where ICT was used and not used.
And the students continuously interacted with each other through sharing their group
work. Thus, it can be concluded that the teacher’s teaching philosophy had a large
impact on the roles and responsibilities of students and teachers in the courses where
ICT was used or not used.

Kenan stated that “although the courses in the classroom were generally teacher
centered, the students were more active in the courses where ICT was used and they
were able to carry out the activities easily under his guidance”. He also noted that
“ICT ensured the development of social relations thanks to continuous interaction
among the students”. Similar opinions were expressed by the students who said that
“they participated more actively in the courses where ICT was used, they were in more
communication with each other and received more assistance from the teacher”. On
the other hand, it was observed that learning environments were mostly teacher
centered in all courses where ICT was used and not used. Although the teacher
assisted the students to deal with some activities in courses where ICT was used, he
preferred giving the answers to the questions rather than encouraging the students to
solve the problems themselves.

The following question was asked to the teachers to find out whether there was a
collaboration among the teachers in the school about the use of ICT, and to identify the
level of collaboration: “What kind of communication and collaboration is there among
teachers in the school about the use of ICT in teaching-learning process?”

Esra stated that “although ICT coordinator helped her when she needed, the
communication among teachers was insufficient so that she rarely carried out projects



Demiraslan and Usluel 467

with teachers of different subjects”. Contrarily, the ICT coordinator said that the
projects about the use of ICT in teaching-learning process were carried out with the
collaboration of Turkish, social sciences, art, and mathematics teachers and they were
presented in school seminars to encourage other teachers to use ICT in their courses.
She further explained that most teachers had web sites where they could share their
knowledge and they were in communication with each other thanks to forums and e-
groups.

Kenan stated that “there was communication about the use of ICT within each
discipline but the collaboration among the different disciplines was rare”. He
mentioned that “they had attempted to carry out an interdisciplinary project in the
past; however it failed due to the coordination and communication problems among
the teachers”. The ICT coordinator stated that the teachers who were competent in
using technology took advantage of ICT in their courses and were eager to learn new
programs and try new techniques, whereas the other teachers did not exert any efforts
to use technology in their courses. She added that the efforts of the mathematics
teachers served as a model for the other teachers in the school and would encourage
them to carry out interdisciplinary projects in following years.

The following questions were asked of teachers to identify the attitude of school
administration about the use of ICT: “Does the school administration adopt a
supportive attitude about the use of ICT in teaching process? How does the supporting
system function?”

Esra stated that “the administration did not hinder any of her efforts and provided
financial support, however her efforts were at the individual level since there were no
systematic regulations in the school with regard to ICT use”. Moreover, she added that
“she wished to receive in service training on ICT integration in the classroom, but her
demand had not been taken into consideration by the administration yet”. On the
other hand, the ICT coordinator stated that the school administration was very
supportive about the use of ICT in courses, held in service training whenever teachers
requested and rewarded teachers’ efforts in ICT. Additionally, the students mentioned
that “they wished that the school administration provided them with more access to
computers whenever they needed”.

In School B, Kenan stated that “the school administration provided full support,
renewed the computer resources regularly and that their requirements were always
met”. Similarly, the ICT coordinator explained that the administration adopted a quite
supportive attitude, they did not have any problems in supplying technical materials
and any demands for in service training would be welcome by the administration.
Furthermore, she added that an in service training on the use of ICT was offered in the
past; however the teachers were reluctant to participate in offering their workload as
an excuse. On the other hand, the students did not find the support of the
administration sufficient, stating that “the number of computers in the school was
limited and they did not have the opportunity to use them whenever they wanted”.

Research question 1e: Outcome: The reflections of ICT integration to students’
learning and instruction

The following questions were posed to the teachers about the outcomes: “What
experiences do you have when using ICT? Can you explain the reflections of these
experiences on students’ learning and instruction?”



468 Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2008, 24(4)

Esra remarked that “she had access to all kinds of written and visual resources, carried
out more activities since ICT tools were time-saving, had such alternatives as distance
education, and thus, was able to offer an education of higher quality”. Moreover,
touching upon the limitations of technology, she stated that “the teachers should
always have alternative plans or learning activities without being addicted to
technology”. About Esra’s use of ICT in courses, the students said that their interest
and motivation for the course increased, they were more active throughout the course,
discovered new things owing to the Internet and what they learned was more
permanent.

It was observed that although the same learning content was offered to all students,
the content was improved by various tools as well as exercises and was supported
with subsidiary activities in the courses where ICT was used. All activities raised
students’ interest and motivation for the course, and contributed to the enrichment and
interaction of the learning environment. Nevertheless, longer observations are
required to find out to what extent the students’ success and effectiveness of teachers’
professional tasks is increased by using ICT in the teaching-learning process.

Kenan mentioned that “the courses where ICT was used made the students acquire the
skills to work on their own, ensured the active involvement of the students in the
course and increased student motivation towards the subject; however the use of ICT
did not make any contributions to him except for providing various alternatives”.
Likewise, the students stated that “they found the courses where ICT was used more
enjoyable, the animations and sounds in computer had positive impacts on their
learning and they were involved more actively in the course”.

It was observed that all the students fulfilled the same learning activities in the course.
Although these Internet based activities carried out in the laboratory are not regarded
as high level activities, it can be concluded that they promoted the interest and
motivation of students for the course and led to an interaction in the learning
environment.

Research question 2: Contradictions within the activity systems

As it can be seen by comparing the types of activity systems identified in the two
schools, School A and School B had differences and similarities in the paths they took
in terms of ICT integration. In the following section, we present the contradictions
within the activity systems in each school.

It may result in a contradiction between Subject-Division of labour (a) that the teacher is
willing to use ICT in the teaching-learning process and makes use of various
technologies in her courses, but finds the support of administration insufficient.
Although the ICT coordinator said that the administration adopted a supportive
attitude concerning the use of ICT, Esra’s viewpoints about the insufficiency of in service
training in the school and the lack of systematic regulations bring about a contradiction
about the support provided by the school administration.

The insufficiency of ICT resources results in a contradiction between Subject-Tools (b)
because the teacher’s willingness and efforts to use ICT in the teaching-learning
process are hampered by the lack of computers in classroom and laboratory. Hence,
adequate resources have to be supplied for teachers to ensure the use of ICT in the
courses effectively.



Demiraslan and Usluel 469

Figure 2: Contradictions within the activity system in School A.

The insufficiency of resources results in the non-fulfillment of teachers’ and students’
expectations concerning an interactive classroom environment which was defined as a
classroom where ICT resources were easily accessible, which brings about a
contradiction between Rules-Tools (c). However, the ICT coordinator stated that
sufficient resources were provided for the teacher and the students. At this point, it is
suggested that the ICT coordinator establish closer relations with teachers, understand
their needs, and serve as a bridge between the school administration and teachers to
facilitate the solutions of problems. Additionally, an ICT policy including the supply of
computers in classrooms and the accessibility of resources can be implemented in the
school with the leadership of ICT coordinator.

The challenges of classroom management in the courses where ICT is used lead to a
significant contradiction between the use of ICT in the teaching-learning process and
its objective to promote students’ learning and the quality of teaching, that is to say,
between Tools-Object (d). At this point, in service training offered to teachers will
contribute to the integration process by explaining teachers which pedagogy they
should adopt and what kinds of strategies they should develop in view of potential
problems in the courses where they use ICT.

The lack of adequate communication and collaboration among the teachers in the
school over the use of ICT brings about a contradiction between Object-Division of
labour (e). It is noticeable from the interviews that there is not any interdisciplinary
collaboration among the teachers with regard to the use of ICT in courses. However, it
is important that the effective functioning of integration process is achieved with
interdisciplinary endeavors which require collective participation of all units in the
school. The efforts of only one teacher to use ICT in her courses will not ensure the
institutionalisation of the process, but remain as an individual initiative. Hence, it can
be concluded that the support of the administration and collaboration among teachers

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Object

Tools

Community Division of labour

Subject

Rules

Outcome

(f)



470 Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2008, 24(4)

play an important role in the institutionalisation of the ICT integration process. In
addition, the obligatory disregard of ICT in assessment because of standard based
examinations and an inflexible instructional program causes a contradiction between
Rules-Object (f). Regulations are required to integrate ICT into curriculum in the field of
assessment.

Figure 3: Contradictions within the activity system in School B.

There is a contradiction between Tools and Division of labour (a) since Kenan adopts a
teacher centred approach in teaching and cannot detach from the role of traditional
teacher though he gradually holds a guiding position with the use of ICT. His thought
that ICT does not affect teacher-student relations considerably may result from not
using ICT to support student learning but using it as an add on to the regular
classroom activities. On the other hand, the students mentioned that they preferred
collaborative activities with the guidance of teacher. Hence, it is of particular
importance that the teacher makes considerable changes in his pedagogy and adopts
new roles and responsibilities, such as acting more as a guide and letting students be
more responsible for their own learning.

Kenan spoke of the obligation to deliver the curriculum in time and stated that lack of
time hindered the fulfillment of extra-class activities, and thus, he found the current
ICT based activities sufficient, which results in contradictions between Rules-Object (b).
To this end, a systematic process of change and technology oriented regulations in the
curriculum are required in the school. Given that curricula are organised by MONE, it
is obvious that these regulations must be imposed at the national level.

Furthermore, contradictions between Rules-Tools (c) arouse since Kenan uses
traditional assessment methods due to the obligation to comply with general success
criteria such as standard based tests held by MONE throughout the nation. It is
recommended that the school revises all its rules on assessment and that the groups
who have a determining role in the educational policies at the national level introduce
new ICT centred policies.

Rules

(b)

Object

Tools

Community Division of labour

Subject Outcome

(a)(c)
(d)



Demiraslan and Usluel 471

Similar to School A, the lack of sufficient communication and collaboration about the
use of ICT among teachers in School B results in a contradiction between Object-
Division of labour (d). Although the heavy course load of teachers is defined as a
significant motive behind the lack of collaboration, it is believed that teachers can carry
out interdisciplinary projects with the support of the ICT coordinator and the school
administration so as to assure the effectiveness of integration process.

Conclusions

ICT integration is, after all, both the tools and the methods used in teaching (Li & Bratt,
2004). To understand how teachers integrate ICT into the teaching-learning process
requires an analysis of the activity systems in which they are embedded, and an
analysis of the contradictions inherent within activities. Therefore, by adopting an
activity theoretical approach to the study, not only can we understand the various
processes within and between the elements of activity system, but also we can pinpoint
problem areas to be addressed and construct potential effects of contradictions in ICT
integration process. In this paper, we used an activity theory framework for
understanding and describing experiences of students and teachers when using ICT
and the contradictions that occurred in the ICT integration process.

Given the activity systems in School A and School B, it was noticed that both the
teacher (Esra) and the students in School A emphasised the lack of technological
equipment and computer access. The teacher (Kenan) in School B did not mention any
difficulties except for simple technical problems, whereas the students found the
computer opportunities in the school inadequate. Furthermore, Esra stated that the
school administration did not provide her with sufficient support including in service
training and that her efforts did not go beyond individual initiatives. Esra regarded
this attitude of the administration as a significant problem that hampered her
willingness to introduce technology in her classroom. On the other hand, Kenan
explained the obligation to deliver the curriculum in time and stated that lack of time
hindered the fulfillment of extra-class activities and thus he found the current ICT
related activities sufficient.

These findings were supported by the literature. The common point of all studies
about the integration of ICT into school programs is that teachers should be equipped
with the required knowledge and skills to ensure the effective integration of ICT into
the teaching-learning process (Galanouli, Murphy & Gardner, 2004; Jedeskog &
Nissen, 2004; Cope & Ward, 2002). In other words, to be able to use ICT in the courses
effectively, teachers should be aware of its potential, select tools and methods which
are appropriate for the needs of students, design their teaching methods effectively,
and develop new teaching strategies. Furthermore, it is essential for the teachers to
know and apply classroom management rules in order to cope with problems
encountered in technology aided learning environments (Herzig, 2004; Gobbo &
Girardi, 2001). Although access to technology is still a major obstacle to the teachers in
developing countries as in this study, it is the skill and attitude of the teacher that
determines the effectiveness of technology integration into the classroom. Therefore,
not only the accessibility of equipment should be ensured; but also teachers should be
provided with the opportunities of lifelong training and development about ICT skills.

Comparing the contradictions within the activity systems in School A and School B, it
was found out that there are more contradictions in the activity system of School A. In



472 Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2008, 24(4)

fact, it was observed in School A that Esra was quite willing to use ICT in her courses,
had adequate knowledge about ICT and carried out activities which served the
integration. However, it was noticed that such factors as the insufficiency of in service
training and resources, the attitude of the administration, the school rules and the lack
of sufficient collaboration among the teachers in the school bring about contradictions
among the elements in the activity system. In School B, the school was more equipped
with ICT resources, which might lead to fewer contradictions in activity system.
However, the fact that Kenan preferred basic drill-practice exercises to promote the
motivation of children rather than applications targeted at the integration of ICT into
the teaching-learning process could be a much more important factor in fewer
numbers of contradictions in School B.

Additionally, these two schools were selected based on the information that there were
enough computers for use by students and teachers, and that teachers used ICT
regularly in their classroom. However, the findings indicated that either the computer
access or the way of using ICT in the teaching-learning process was problematic in
terms of effective ICT integration in each school. One of the reasons may be due to the
lack of a shared understanding in the school community about the purposes of using
ICT in the classroom. Therefore, it is highly important that the goals of introducing ICT
into a learning setting be aligned with the mission and the values of the schools.

Although we report findings from only two cases, the deeply contextual data collected
enabled us to make conclusions, which we feel, will hold across other studies of this
kind. The findings indicate that the use of ICT as a teaching-learning tool does indeed
force a shift in the activity system, transforming traditional behaviours, leading to
contradictions in and between systems and, consequently, forcing changes in and
between systems. Based on the results, we conclude that, along with lack of technology
and access, the organisational culture, the changing roles of teacher and students with
regard to ICT, inflexible timetable curriculum, the support of the school
administration, the mediator role of an ICT coordinator and the collaboration among
the teachers were also imperatives that need to be taken into consideration in ICT
integration processes.

Finally, it is valuable to emphasise that activity theory is a decriptive theory which
helps us to understand the culture and the context of a learning environment and the
underlying interactions in this context. Therefore, in this study, we used activity theory
concepts and language to describe the changes brought by ICT use in the classroom,
rather than to prescribe changes or design solutions for effective ICT integration in
teaching and learning. Future research using empirical methodologies and large
sample sizes reflecting the diversity of schools in the community can be conducted in
order to provide more detailed prescriptives for effective integration processes.

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Yasemin Demiraslan
Department of Curriculum & Instruction, Iowa State University
N131 Lagomarcino Hall, Ames, Iowa 50011 USA
Email: yasemind@iastate.edu

Yasemin Kocak Usluel
Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology
Faculty of Education, Hacettepe University, 06800, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
Email: kocak@hacettepe.edu.tr