bird


 

 
 
 
 

Individual differences and technology attributes:  
An examination of educational technology 
considerations related to trade and industry training 
 

Mavis Bird 
Richmond College of TAFE 

Gerald Gill  
Moorabbin College of TAFE 

 
This paper focuses on one of the major components of educational 
technology - instructional design. The paper deals with an examination of 
aspects of technology and learning which may have implications for future 
directions and developments in educational technology. It describes a study 
which examined the relationship between training technologies (computer 
and print) and individual learner differences (visual and haptic cognitive 
styles), in assisting learners' retention of information presented visually. 

 
Three preliminary concerns formed the basis of this investigation. Firstly, 
the conduct of instructional design research in the area of industrial and 
trade training has been relatively limited. The current focusing of 
government and educational policy on that area would seem to suggest 
the need for research to increase the effectiveness of instructional design 
and educational technology related to these fields. Secondly, the facilities 
offered by computerisation and the move towards the rapid expansion of 
computer-based training has somewhat overshadowed the value of the 
more traditional and perhaps less dynamic technologies such as print. Now 
appears to be the appropriate time for instructional design to look beyond 
the superficial hardware and software capabilities of computer 
technologies -or what the computer can do -and examine more closely 
some of the fundamental learning issues related to computerisation and 
the presentation of instructional information. Finally, the growing trend 
towards the employment of visual information is producing and  
 



Bird and Gill 109 

increasing awareness of the need for research concerning individual's 
acquisition of information from visuals. 
 
The following research report is an example of the possible directions for 
research into such considerations. 
 
Characteristics of industrial and trade training 
 
Although cognitive requirements of tasks in trade and industrial training 
parallel those in the more general academic tertiary courses (eg. arts 
degree courses), the constraints imposed by the direct work or job related 
application of acquired skills creates a slightly different learning 
environment to the more traditional secondary or tertiary classroom 
environment. The structure of apprenticeship training courses, the 
specialised nature of each course, the close links between trainer, trainee 
and employer and the contextual constraints of the learning tasks (ie. the 
job specification) accentuate the restrictions of time and money or 
economics and efficiency considerations for task accomplishment. Further, 
the motivation of the learner (ie. the undertaking of a particular 
apprenticeship), the attitude of the learner (ie. specific purpose of the 
learning in the form of a trade qualification) and the aptitudes and abilities 
he/she brings to the learning situation play key roles in task 
accomplishment. The nature of trade training has for a long time been 
objective based, with perhaps greater emphasis being placed on 
individualised learning, mastery learning and systems-based modular 
training design formats than in any other branch of tertiary education in 
Australia. With regard to the unique aspects of this situation it is crucial 
that research into the design of instruction should serve to identify factors 
which will promote the effectiveness of the instruction. 
 
Technology in industrial and trade training 
 
Traditionally a large percentage of industrial and trade training has been 
based on the printed word. Instructional manuals, containing diagrams 
and pictures, but dependent primarily on printed text, originally formed 
the mainstay of industrial training materials. More recently, with moves 
towards more individualised instructional modes, and the consequent 
increased concern for individual learner differences, self-paced 
instructional manuals and training materials have been developed to meet 
the changing needs of training and industry. 
 
 
 
 



110 Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 1987, 3(2) 

Currently, computerisation is being seen to more radically change the 
direction and nature of industrial and trade training. Within the context of 
this training, print- based materials are being supplemented by, used in 
conjunction with and, in many cases, superseded by computer-based 
training. The attributes of both computerisation and print-based materials 
have much to offer instruction and learning and examination of the 
relationship of their attributes to the learner and task may only serve to 
increase the quality of instruction through utilisation of more appropriate 
attributes and technologies. 
 
Visual information and trade training 
 
Within industrial and trade training apprentices are often required to 
conduct mental transformations of visual information, based on visual 
image retention. For example, apprentices are often involved with tasks 
such as those requiring the translation of measurements into plans, 
elevations and development from isometric or pictorial drawings. A 
number of learners have difficulties with such translations. One reason 
suggested for these difficulties is the learner's possible inability to retain 
the visual image. This inability may be related to the learner's cognitive 
style or an individual's manner of information processing. 
 
Information processing and visual information 
 
The construct of cognitive style is a research dimension which facilitates 
examination of individual learner differences which may be related to 
learning and the consequent design of instruction. Kogan (1971) describes 
cognitive style as the process by which knowledge is acquired. The 
concept defines an individual's approach to the processing of information 
and includes perception, memory, thinking and imagery. 
 

Cognitive style may be defined as individual variations in modes of 
perceiving remembering and thinking, or as distinctive ways of 
apprehending, storing, transforming and utilising information. 
(Kogan, 1971, p275) 

 
According to Messick (1976) an individual's cognitive style is a consistent 
pattern of organising and processing information with the emphasis being 
placed on the structure rather than the content of thought. In other words, 
cognitive style might be described as being concerned with how an 
individual obtains information and stores it (the internal processes) rather 
than with what the information or content is about. Ausburn and Ausburn 
(1978) have further described cognitive style as being relatively stable over 
time and across tasks, certain styles having been found to be largely 



Bird and Gill 111 

resistant to change and training. Heidt (1978) emphasises the factor of 
individual preference and Winn (1982) elaborates on this notion, 
commenting that although the learner may have the appropriate 
information processing aptitudes, there is no guarantee that they will 
utilise them. 
 
In summary then, examination of individual learner differences in terms of 
cognitive style might be said to generate the following considerations for 
instructional design: 
 

• individuals differ in their cognitive style, and therefore in the ways in 
which they acquire information;  

• cognitive style is concerned with the structure of thought, emphasising 
the manner in which information is acquired rather than the content;  

• cognitive styles are predominantly stable, and can be resistant to 
change;  

• whilst the learner may possess the appropriate ability they may not 
utilise it. 

 
Eleven dimensions of cognitive style have been discussed in the literature 
(eg. Ausburn and Ausburn, 1978; Kogan, 1971) with some having been 
supported by a larger body of research than others. One dimension which 
appears to relate directly to the acquisition and retention of information 
from visuals is the Visual-Haptic dimension, first described by Lowenfeld 
in 1945. 
 
The visual-haptic dimension of cognitive style 
 
Lowenfeld (1945) differentiated between individuals: 
 

whose tendency is to use their eyes as the main intermediaries for their 
sense impressions and those who, though with normal sight, do not use 
their eyes, but are more concerned with those perceptions that derive from 
haptical experience. An extreme haptical type of individual - by no means 
rare - is a normal sighted person who uses his eyes only when he is 
compelled to do so; otherwise he reacts as would a blind person who is 
entirely dependent upon touch and kinesthesis. (Lowenfeld, 1954, p101) 

 
This definition implies that learners with more haptic tendencies may have 
greater need of assistance in instructional materials which require 
retention of visual information. 
 
Several studies have utilised the dimension of visual-haptic in relation to 
instructional design research and visual information. Ausburn (1975) 
examined the use of supplantation on a comparative visual location task. 
The comparison was between a line image presentation and a multiple 



112 Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 1987, 3(2) 

imagery presentation. His findings indicated that the multiple imagery 
presentation assisted both visual and haptic learners. In a more recent 
replication study the findings of Whitely and Moore (1979) confirmed 
those of Ausburn (1975). The present study utilised the perceptual type of 
visual-haptic in relation to the presentation modes of print based 
information and computer generated information. 
 
The following paragraphs describe the methodology and materials used in 
the conduct of the study. 
 
Method 
 
The participants in the study were a group of eighty-four male apprentices 
attending trade courses in Panel Beating and Sheetmetal at two Victorian 
TAFE Training Colleges. All participants ranged in age from sixteen years 
to twenty-one years. 
 
In order to obtain a measure of visual-haptic cognitive style each 
participant was administered a battery of three tests. These tests were 
repetitions of, or the equivalent of those used originally used by 
Lowenfeld. 
 
Test 1: Visualisation of kinesthetic experience 
 
This test was designed to examine the extent to which an individual 
visualised a kinesthetic experience. Figure 1 shows a sample test for 
visualisation of a kinesthetic experience. Briefly, five different geometric 
shapes of increasing complexity were etched individually, onto 3 mm 
aluminium plates. On cards each shape was drawn to scale accompanied 
by four similar shapes. Each plate was placed under a cover and the 
subject's hands explored the covered etching while he tried to visualise its 
shape, which was perceived kinesthetically. After feeling the shape and 
removing his hands from under the cover, the subject was asked to 
identify the etched shape from the five different shapes on the card. 
 
Test 2: Haptic word association test 
 
The second test administered to subjects was Lowenfeld's Visual-Haptic 
Word Association Test. This test was composed of twenty words, each of 
which elicits visual or haptic responses equally. The subject was given a 
list of words and asked to react to each word with the first association 
which came to mind. Scoring was conducted according to the procedures 
put forward by Lowenfeld. 



Bird and Gill 113 

 

 
 

Figure 1: Examples from the test of Kinesthetic Experience 
 
Test 3: Test of subjective impressions 
 
This third test was an adaptation of Lowenfeld's test. The test was a simple 
drawing task in which the subject was shown and asked to draw his 
version of a stainless steel bowl resting on a table. A visual response to this 
test was to use a perspective form of representation (version A) - three 
dimensional, a haptic response being defined as a more two dimensional 
representation (version B) (Figure 2). 
 

 
 

Figure 2: Examples from the test of Subjective Impressions 
 
 



114 Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 1987, 3(2) 

Subjects were individually administered all three tests of perceptual type. 
Subjects were classified as visual if they gave visual responses to all three 
tests and haptic if they gave haptic responses on all three tests. The 
remaining subjects were classified as indeterminate and were excluded 
from the analyses. The results of these tests revealed that the obtained 
distribution of perceptual types was not significantly different from the 
approximate theoretical distribution posited by Lowenfeld. From each of 
the two extreme groups twelve subjects were assigned to one of two 
treatments (print based instruction or computer based instruction). 
 
Training and test materials 
 
Based on course content related to industrial safety and similar to the 
content used by Sellman (1972) the instructional and test materials dealt 
with the subject of fire containment. The performance measure was a task 
which required subjects to identify one of five classes of fire, the different 
types of fire and the relationship between the type of fire and the type of 
extinguisher to be used. 
 
The print group received materials presented in print format. Subjects in 
this group were permitted to reread the instructions as often as they 
wished during the training period and to note responses in writing. 
Subjects in the computer based group interacted with the instructional 
materials via the terminal screen and keyboard. In this treatment only 
sequences not correctly answered in initial training attempts could be 
reviewed, the reviewing continuing until the correct response was 
obtained. Immediately following all training sessions subjects were 
presented with a post-test. Following a five-week interval subjects were re-
tested on a delayed retention test. 
 
Results 
 
Data was analysed using analysis of variance. Examination of the means 
and standard deviations of visual and haptic subjects in both the 
immediate and delayed retention test revealed that whilst haptic subjects 
achieved a higher response score on the immediate retention test, visual 
subjects retained information better over a longer period of time (Figure 
3). Of the two groups, haptic subjects performed best on the immediate 
test under conditions of print- based materials, whilst the reverse was true 
of haptics on the delayed retention test, those trained via computer-based 
training achieving a higher score. Visual subjects given training via  
 
 



Bird and Gill 115 

computer performed better than those given print materials in the 
immediate post-test but the reverse was again found for this group on the 
delayed retention test, with subjects in the print group achieving a higher 
score than their counterparts in the computer-based training group. 
 

 
 

Figure 3: Graph of cell means for initial and retention tests 
 

 
 

Figure 4: Test by Group intermediate retention scores 
 
 
 
 
 



116 Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 1987, 3(2) 

In the initial post-test both visual and haptic subjects in the print treatment 
group had a higher mean response score than did their counterparts in the 
computer-based treatment group, however in the delayed retention test 
this trend was reversed (Figures 4 and 5). Both groups showed an 
expected drop in retention in the delayed retention test (Figure 4). In the 
analysis of variance no main effects nor interaction effects were found for 
any of the major variables in the study, although the results of these 
analyses indicated a trend towards significant differences in the 
performance of visual and haptic subjects under both conditions of 
presentation. 
 

 
 

Figure 5: Test by Group delayed retention scores 
 
Conclusion 
 
The lack of significant differences between groups in this study may be 
attributed to the small number of subjects participating in the study. 
Further the algorithmic design of the computer generated materials used 
in the study may have failed to successfully tap the attributes of the 
computer to the extent that they did not adequately reflect the design of 
the print-based materials. For example the differences in review 
mechanisms between the groups (ie. print-based subjects having access to 
complete review, whilst computer-based subjects could only review 
incorrect sequences) may have influenced the results of the study. Despite 
the limitations of the study however, several considerations for 
instructional design and the use of computer and print based materials can 
be derived from the study. 
 
 



Bird and Gill 117 

1. The performance of visual and haptic learners is likely to differ on 
visual identification tasks.  

 
2. Both visual and haptic learners are likely to perform differently on 

immediate and delayed retention tests.  
 
3. The differences between the groups (visuals and haptics) on the 

immediate and delayed retention tests indicates that the presentation 
mode must be taken into account when determining the required 
retention duration of the learning.  

 
4. Retention duration of learning should be considered in the design of 

materials for individual learning styles. 
 
In summary, the results of this study indicate that the design of 
instructional materials to suit individual needs may benefit from much 
greater consideration of differences in individual learning styles and the 
attributes offered by the different technologies. Much greater examination 
is required of computer based training and the attributes of the computer 
which lend themselves to this, as well as examination of the attributes of 
print-based instructional materials if the true values of the technologies for 
education and learning is to be realised. 
 
References 
 
Ausburn, F. B. (1978). Multiple versus linear imagery in the presentation of 

a comparative visual location task to visual and haptic college students. 
Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Oklahoma University: Oklahoma. 

Ausburn, L. J. and Ausburn, F. B. (1978). Cognitive style: Some 
information and implications for instructional design. Educational 
Communications and Technology Journal, 26(4), 337-354. 

Heidt, E. U. (1978). Instructional Media and the Individual Learner - A 
Classification and Systems Approach. London: Kogan Page. 

Kogan, N. (1971). Educational Implications of Cognitive Style. In G. S. 
Lesser (Ed.), Psychology and Educational Practice. Glenview, Ill: Scott 
Foresman and Co, pp.242-292. 

Lowenfeld, V. (1945). Tests for visual and haptical aptitudes. American 
Journal of Psychology, 58, 100-112. 

Messick, S. (1976). Personality consistencies in cognition and creativity. In 
S. Messick and Assocs (Eds.), Individuality in Learning: Implications of 
Cognitive Style and Creativity for Human Development. San Francisco: 
Jossey Bass. 

 



118 Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 1987, 3(2) 

Sellman, W. (1972). Reducing the literacy demands of training materials as 
one means of increasing learning in low-ability personnel. Journal of 
Experimental Education, 41(2), 54-59. 

Whitely, J. B. and Moore, D. M. (1979). Effects of perceptual type and 
presentation mode in a visual location task. Educational Communications 
and Technology Journal, 27(1), 23-45. 

Winn, W. (l982). Visualization in learning an instruction: A cognitive 
approach. Educational Communications and Technology Journal, 30(1), 325. 

 
Please cite as: Bird, M. and Gill, G. (1987). Individual differences and 
technology attributes: An examination of educational technology 
considerations related to trade and industry training. Australian Journal of 
Educational Technology, 3(2), 108-118. 
http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet3/bird.html