ausburn


 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 

Directions for educational computing and 
implications for professional skilling requirements 
 
 

Floyd B Ausburn 
Monash University 

Lynna J Ausburn 
Frankston College of TAFE 

 
The rise of the personal computer has resulted in significant changes in the 
way education is using computing. It has also expanded dramatically the 
range of users of educational computing. This paper discusses the trend 
away from the old CAI-style computing based on centralised mainframe 
architecture, specialist staff, and drill or tutorial programming. New 
directions discussed include decentralised systems based on PCs rather 
than mainframes, spread of computing expertise throughout staff, and 
proliferation of higher-order uses for computers such as simulation, 
problem solving, and training in real-life applications based on business 
and commercial software packages. Implications for training needs for 
education professionals are pointed out, including the need for 
professionals to assume significant responsibility for their own continuing 
personal development of current computing skills. 

 
Computer technology is probably the fastest growing and developing 
technology available for instructional use. New hardware configurations 
with increasing sophistication and capability, and innovative new 
software are continuously entering the education, business and home use 
scenes. 
 
Investment in computing systems is increasing annually in all sectors of 
education, and across all curriculum disciplines, as the axiom "If you can't 
compute, you can't compete" gains credence in contemporary society. 
 
 



20 Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 1986, 2(1) 

At this point, there is no longer any argument that computing technology 
is a powerful and necessary tool for education. There is, however, still 
question as to how this tool can best be used. The answer to this question 
must be a major consideration for those concerned with the future of 
educational technology. This paper looks briefly at the origins of 
computing in education, its traditional uses, and some directions or trends 
which seem to be currently emerging in educational computing. 
 
Computing technology made its entry into education in the form of a very 
expensive arrangement for electronic tutoring and drill. This electronic 
tutoring was generally referred to as CAI (computer assisted instruction), 
and was merely a computer based version of individualised programmed 
instruction. While some CAI programs were reasonably sophisticated in 
their use of computer graphics and data manipulation capacities, most 
made little use of the machine's unique analytical, simulation and problem 
solving capabilities. 
 
CAI was soon joined by CMI (computer managed instruction), which used 
the computer as an information management system, enabling teachers to 
cope with the testing and record-keeping demands of individualised 
instruction. The primary functions of CMI programs were test generation; 
test scoring; and the storage and manipulation of module completion 
records, test results, and other measures of student progress and 
achievement. 
 
The operation of CAI and CMI programs were generally monolithic in 
nature, and functioned on the talents and know-how of a relatively small 
number of "computer experts." 
 
In these early days of instructional computing, there were "the school 
computer centre," and "the computer teachers". "The computer centre" was 
driven by a large mainframe machine which controlled hosts of satellite 
"dumb" terminals. "The computer teachers" were a small group of skilled 
specialists who had qualifications in computing science and who were the 
only people on campus who knew how to drive the systems on which 
both administrative and instructional computing was delivered. 
 
In the educational technology field, there were a few hardy individuals 
who chose to obtain specialist training and experience in computing and 
then ventured into CAI and CMI development and management. 
Computing skills, however, were not generally taught in most educational 
technology courses, even at higher degree level; nor were such skills 
generally expected of most practicing educational technologists. 
 
 



Ausburn and Ausburn 21 

Today, however, this situation has changed dramatically. First, the rise of 
the personal computer (PC) has led to the demise of the mainframe as the 
primary driver of computer-based teaching and learning. Increasing 
sophistication of networking systems and data communication peripherals 
and software, along with increasing computing power in new generations 
of PCs, can be expected to foster a continuation of domination of 
computer-based learning by PC rather than mainframe hardware. 
 
Accompanying the spread of the personal computer and the range of 
applications software available for it has been a de-centralising of 
computing facilities and expertise. The affordability and ease of use of 
today's PCs, along with the ready availability of a huge range of excellent 
software packages has created a far wider base of computing interest and 
expertise than existed during the early mainframe CAI/CMI days. 
 
It is no longer satisfactory to have just "the computing centre" in a school, 
college or university. There is now demand for numerous smaller special 
purpose facilities. Similarly, staff are no longer willing to accept "the 
computer people" as the sole keepers of the knowledge about computer 
technology and utilisation. Today, "computer teachers" and "computer 
experts" can be found across all areas of curriculum, and in the 
management and services sectors of schools as well. The computer is 
becoming a tool to be applied in all aspects of teaching and of corporate 
operations, much like overhead projectors, video players, calculators, 
typewriters, and photocopiers. 
 
Computing equipment and knowledge also extend beyond the computer 
centre, the classroom, the school itself. Many students of all ages now use 
computers at home or at work; many more have encountered computers 
in their daily lives; most realise the extent to which computing has become 
a part of contemporary society. This situation produces a set of 
expectations in a large proportion of the clients of education about the use 
of computers in education. They expect to find computers in schools, 
simply because computers are found everywhere else. 
 
The implications for educational technologists are obvious. Computing is 
no longer a subject which can be selected by those who are interested. It is, 
rather, a basic and fundamental component of the skills/knowledge 
repertoire for all members of the profession. 
 
 
 
 
 
 



22 Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 1986, 2(1) 

In order to function effectively in schools and universities, it can be 
expected that all educational technologists will increasingly need to be 
able to operate computing systems themselves, to maintain current 
knowledge of hardware and software available, to provide leadership in 
computing development and training, to analyse both instructional and 
management computing needs and options, and to participate in decision 
making about computer applications and solutions in their workplaces. 
When all teachers and educational managers are finding it necessary to 
develop computing skills, it is impossible for an educational technologist 
to function without them. 
 
Implicit in this growing professional competency requirement for 
educational technologists is a requirement for increasing emphasis on 
computing in their training programs, both pre-service and in- service. 
Courses intended to prepare new educational technologists and to update 
the skills of practicing ones will have to provide expert and appropriate 
instruction in computing, plus the facilities for hands- on experience. This 
is a commitment of both human and materials resources which will not be 
easy for trainers to meet, but it must be given immediate and priority 
effort if professional training for educational technologists is to continue to 
be worthwhile. 
 
The rapid change and development which characterises the computing 
field also means that those who would be effective as educational 
technologists must be committed to continuous re-training, most of it on 
their own initiative, throughout their professional lives. Individuals who 
do not wish to make such a commitment would be well advised to avoid 
the profession. 
 
Another clear set of trends in educational computing with sharp 
implications for the training and re-training of teachers and educational 
technologists are the forms which computer-based teaching and learning 
are now taking. The newer forms which are increasingly replacing the old 
CAI and CMI models are highly diversified, and demand more careful 
examination of course objectives and more creativity in developing 
techniques for meeting them. 
 
The CAI/CMI model of computer-based instruction placed emphasis on 
the tutorial or drill mode, and on individualised instruction. Those still 
suffering from what Schiffman (1986) calls a "CAI mindset" may have 
difficulty seeing that instructional software can be far more than an 
electronic version of programmed instruction, and that a large terminal 
laboratory is not the only useful computing configuration. Educational  
 
 



Ausburn and Ausburn 23 

technologists should be providing leadership to teachers and educational 
management in looking beyond such a mindset to the newer computer 
utilisation strategies which are now emerging. 
 
While use of computers in the CAI-style tutorial or drill and practice mode 
has a place in some educational situations and is likely to continue in 
limited usage, what is now emerging is an emphasis on other, more 
sophisticated uses of computers for teaching and learning, such as 
simulations, problem solving, and information storage and processing. 
 
Educators are now repeatedly making the point that computers have far 
more important capabilities than merely serving as electronic tutors. For 
example, Nelson (1979) states that the greatest potential of computers in 
education is not in providing information, but rather in teaching how to 
analyse problems. The Education Magazine (1983) cites a report from 
Johns Hopkins University Center for Social Organization of Schools which 
is critical of many computer-based programs as boring and repetitious. 
The report claims that the expense of using computers is not justified if the 
main use is simple drill. Osgood (1986) is critical of the "electronic page 
turning" which has been typical of CAI, and supports a more active form 
of higher order learning for the focus of computer-based lessons. 
Schiffman (1986) also criticises mere electronic programmed instruction, 
favouring instead an open minded attitude to the many different types of 
computing software than can be used effectively in the classroom. 
 
Many examples from recent books, journals and newspaper reports 
indicate that computer-based instruction in education is indeed moving 
away from the old CAI tutorial model into more sophisticated, creative, 
and relevant applications. 
 
Simulations 
 
One computing mode which is gaining attention in education is 
simulation. Computer-based simulations have the significant advantage of 
allowing learners to study, investigate and practice complex skills, 
procedures and concepts in a realistic but non-risk situation. Computers 
can allow the manipulation of many interrelating variables to observe the 
effects of changes in some variables on the others and the resultant 
consequences. Decisions at a realistic level of complexity can be trialed by 
learners without actual risk to people, capital, or other resources. 
 
Numerous computer simulations intended for educational use have been 
reported in recent literature. For example, Koltke (1981) reviews a 
simulation called Tribbles which is being used in schools to introduce the  
 



24 Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 1986, 2(1) 

scientific method. Hawkridge (1983) cites a microcomputer simulation 
designed by secondary students to train travel tour operators. While 
operating the simulation, trainees must learn about advertising, 
hotel/resort selection, pricing policy, air charters, and retail outlets, while 
allowing for such factors as national and international economic 
variations. 
 
The Chelsea College of the University of London has released several 
micro simulations which are being used in schools in the United Kingdom. 
These include an economics model aimed at the senior secondary level, 
and a simulation examining the factors influencing home heating 
requirements and costs. Some secondary schools in the United Kingdom 
are also now using a simulation produced by the Geography Association 
Project at the University of Leicester which deals with urban land use, 
transport networks, and location of settlements. 
 
Closer to home, recent news reports from several Australian schools 
indicate the use of computer simulations. For example, Salisbury High 
School in Adelaide is using a bank of microcomputers to train students in 
a simulated automated office. The marketing courses at the new Ultimo 
campus of the New South Wales Institute of Technology make use of 
simulation-type exercises to give students experience in using a PC in 
marketing strategies, market research, and product scheduling. Several 
secondary schools in Melbourne report that they are trialing a new 
simulation game program for the Apple Macintosh called Balance of 
Power. This program teaches the complexities of world politics economics 
and power struggles through the processes of using research materials, 
correlation of information to achieve objectives, and interpreting and 
forming relationships. 
 
If the trend toward simulation exercises continues, this will be a significant 
new area of skill development for educational technologists and for 
teachers. Necessary knowledge will include hardware analysis and 
selection, software availability and selection, principles of simulation and 
simulation gaming, and instructional techniques for integrating computer 
based simulations into curriculum. Applied with appropriate knowledge 
and skills, computer simulations can be an excellent example of what 
Schiffman (1986) calls "software infusion", ie. the use of carefully selected 
computer software to enhance the teaching of specific curriculum 
objectives. 
 
 
 
 
 



Ausburn and Ausburn 25 

Training on Applications 
 
Probably the strongest trend in computing which has arisen from the 
rapid and universal rise of the microcomputer and its range of software is 
what can be called "application training." Learning to use a PC for 
business and real-life purposes is currently, and is likely to continue to be, 
among the skills most frequently sought by students at all levels, and by 
the general public. 
 
Application training in the use of programs for word processing and its 
new relative "desktop publishing," creating and analysing data bases, 
spread sheeting, financial management, graphics, project management, 
idea processing, new industrial tools such as CAD/CAM, etc. is now 
among the subjects most requested by education client. This use of the 
capabilities of computers to aid in dealing with information and making 
decisions applicable to real life situations brings educational computing a 
long way from the electronic tutoring which characterised most early CAI. 
Further, it is based not on special "educational courseware," but on off-the-
shelf commercial software packages - the same packages that are actually 
used in business and personal decision-making and information handling 
outside the classroom. 
 
In mid-1984, comments by visiting experts from the United States and the 
United Kingdom (see The Age, Tuesday 5 June and Tuesday 7 August, 
1984) made it clear that there is strong feeling overseas that computing in 
education should mirror the outside world more closely, that skills in 
using application packages are becoming an increasingly important skill, 
that the most useful and versatile software programs are off-the-shelf 
commercial packages, and that most "educational software" is of poor 
quality and a waste of time outside specific computer education classes. 
 
Any review of instructional computing currently being implemented in 
Australia will show that the trend to application training and use of 
commercial software packages is now strong throughout the country. 
Newspapers now contain advertising from dozens of colleges and 
universities of short courses on well known packages such as Lotus 1-2-3, 
Framework, Multimate, dBase III, Open Access, Multiplan, etc. Many 
institutions are discovering that their students are demanding micro 
laboratories, not for CAI or CML, but for word processing, data base 
development and utilisation, statistical analysis, and other common  
 
 
 
 
 



26 Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 1986, 2(1) 

applications in the preparation of their assignments. Some have even 
installed new laboratories specifically for assignment preparation and 
general usage by students. 
 
Many examples of Schillman's (1986) "software infusion" are also 
appearing in recent reports of special computer-based projects in 
Australian schools, colleges and universities. Most of these are based on 
commercial application software, and stress the use of micro computers as 
tools for learning, investigating and communicating. 
 
These examples include using word processing packages in creative 
writing and journalism; using modems, satellites and communication 
software in "discussing'' social issues with fellow students in other 
countries; using spreadsheet programs to study trends in GNP and 
inflation; using database programs to prepare and analyse local weather 
patterns and economic structures; and using graphics and desktop 
publishing packages to produce student newspapers and creative writing 
anthologies. The examples available are legion, and one need only look in 
a local newspaper or education journal to confirm this. 
 
In the administrative and management area of education, application 
programs are also making their presence felt. Administrative staff are 
learning the values of office automation, electronic mail, personal word 
processing, and institutional data basing, and are looking for leadership in 
the development and use of computing systems. 
 
The resultant implications for educational technologists are clear. Wide 
and current knowledge of available hardware and software, and of the 
creative uses which are possible for them in both instructional and 
administrative branches of educational computing, will become 
increasingly important if educational technologists are to remain credible 
and worthwhile advisers and leaders in instructional development. 
 
Conclusions 
 
This paper has summarised what are currently, and are likely to continue 
to be, major trends in educational computing, as well as the implications 
for skilling and re-skilling teachers, school administrators, and educational 
technologists in the coming years. Computing is likely to be a primary 
resource which clients of all ages will expect - even demand - be utilised 
fully and effectively in all areas of education. Computing skills relevant to 
their particular field will become mandatory for teachers, and appropriate 
skills will be required of administrators and service personnel. If  
 
 



Ausburn and Ausburn 27 

educational technologists wish to play a leadership role in this situation, 
then both breadth and depth of current computing skills must become a 
significant component of their professional preparation and of their 
continuing professional development. 
 
The implications for those who offer preparatory programs for teachers, 
and especially for educational technologists, are also clear. In a time when 
human and materials resources are constrained in education, it will be 
necessary to find ways of providing appropriate computing training. This 
will not be a simple task, but it is one which must be addressed, and very 
soon. 
 
Part of the responsibility for providing computing equipment and training 
may well have to be placed on and technologists themselves. Requiring 
that educational technologists purchase a PC and software for their own 
training and use is not without precedent. Many no doubt already own 
them. Those that do not and are unwilling to purchase such equipment 
can bear in mind that students in many engineering, marketing and 
accounting programs are already required to do so. When the computer is 
a professional tool, professionals must be willing to be responsible for its 
provision. 
 
Significant responsibility for acquiring required computing knowledge 
and skills on an on-going basis must also be assumed by technologists and 
teachers. Given resource difficulties and the rapidly changing information 
base of the computing industry, it is now and will continue to be 
impossible to provide adequate formal training and retraining. Those who 
wish to keep pace with what is required of them to perform effectively in 
schools, colleges and universities must be willing to make a real 
commitment to continuous training updating, largely through personal 
initiative, throughout their professional careers. Now, more than ever 
before, this "comes with the territory" for educators. 
 
References 
 
The Age. Tuesday, 5 June, 1984, pp35-36. Schools should teach business 

software, says US expert. 
The Age. Tuesday, 7 August, 1984, pp39 and 42. Computer literacy: Onus 

on teachers. 
Education Department of Victoria (1983). The Education Magazine, 

Information Centre, 40(4), 21-28. 
Hawkridge, D. (1983). New information technology in education. London: 

Croom Helm. 
Koltke, W. J. (1981). Tribbles: An introduction to the scientific method. 

Journal of Courseware Review, 1(1). 



28 Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 1986, 2(1) 

Nelson, A.G. (1979). Computers: A service or a teaching tool? Journal of 
Extension, 17, 44-49. 

Osgood, D. (1986). The electronic university network. Byte, March, pp171-
176. 

Schiffman, S. S. (1986). Software infusion: Using computers to enhance 
instruction. Part Two: What kind of training does software infusion 
require? Educational Technology, February, 9-15. 

 
Please cite as: Ausburn, F. B. and Ausburn, L. J. (1986). Directions for 
educational computing and implications for professional skilling 
requirements. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 2(1), 19-28. 
http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet2/ausburn.html