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Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(1).

ascilite

Schools going mobile: A study of the adoption of mobile
handheld technologies in Western Australian independent
schools

Mark Pegrum, Grace Oakley and Robert Faulkner
The University of Western Australia, Australia

This paper reports on the adoption of mobile handheld technologies in ten Western
Australian independent schools, based on interviews with staff conducted in 2011. iPads
were the most popular device, followed by iPod Touches and iPhones. Class sets were
common at lower levels, with 1:1 models becoming increasingly common at higher levels.
Mobile learning, or m-learning, was still at an experimental stage in most schools, but
common themes were already emerging around the need to integrate mobile devices into a
broader learning ecology. Key discussions focused on their role in promoting consumption
or production, collaboration or personalisation, and creating seamless learning spaces. Used
for both organisational and pedagogical purposes, mobile devices were seen as enhancing
student motivation, with empirical evidence of improved student learning also emerging in
small-scale studies conducted by two schools. Challenges included the need to carefully
manage the technology, ethical issues in its use, and staff roles in its deployment.
Pedagogically grounded and adequately contextualised professional development (PD) was
seen as vital for time-poor staff, while a desire to set up a professional community of
practice was widely expressed. All the schools surveyed planned to extend their use of
mobile handheld technologies in the future.

Introduction

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are taking on an ever greater prominence in
education. Many governments are emphasising the need to turn out digitally literate, technologically able
graduates who are employable in the global information economy (Buchanan, 2011). Many educators, by
contrast, emphasise the creative, student-centred pedagogical approaches facilitated by digital tools, while
others stress the role of online communication and collaboration in creating well-informed and well-
connected global citizens (Pegrum, 2009). Notwithstanding certain tensions between the goals of
governments and those of educators, ICTs are becoming more and more enmeshed in teaching and
learning.

In the Australian context, the Government's AUD $2.4 billion Digital Education Revolution, linked to the
new Australian Curriculum, is designed to promote the integration of ICTs in schools (DEEWR, 2011).
Curriculum documents highlight the need for K-12 students to be taught how to use ICTs for a range of
purposes. For example, both the Australian Curriculum in English (ACARA, n.d., a) and the Early Years
Learning Framework (DEEWR, 2009) stipulate the need to teach young people how to understand and
use digital texts as well as conventional printed texts. Further to this requirement, the Australian
Curriculum includes ICT competence as a 'general capability'. Thus, students need to be taught how to
use ICTs effectively across the curriculum, with specific requirements to investigate with ICTs, create
with ICTs, communicate with ICTs, manage and operate ICTs, and use ICTs in socially and ethically
appropriate ways (ACARA, n.d., b).

Mobile learning, or m-learning, is perhaps the fastest growth area in the whole field of ICTs in education.
It covers any form of learning that is mediated through a mobile or, more precisely, mobile handheld,
device. These devices encompass digital media players (including iPods and iPod Touches), smartphones
(including iPhones, Android phones, BlackBerrys and Windows phones), personal digital assistants
(PDAs), and tablet computers (including iPads). They are distinct from portable devices such as laptops
which, although they can be transported to different locations, lack the convenience and flexibility of
smaller handheld devices. To some extent, the growing prominence of mobile devices comes at the
expense of more traditional portable devices as well as desktop devices, though it remains an open
question as to whether mobile technologies are best seen as a replacement for, or a complement to, older
technologies.

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(1).

The popularity of mobile handheld devices has increased dramatically in recent years. Mobile phone
penetration stands at over 100% in most developed countries (Wansink et al., 2011), reflecting ownership
of dual devices. In Australia, mobile phone penetration stood at over 130% in mid-2012 (Buddhe, 2012),
while smartphone penetration was 52% (Google & Ipsos, 2012). Tablet penetration by household in
Australia stood at 18% in early 2012, with predictions it would reach 39% by the end of the year (IAB
Australia, 2012).

At the start of 2011, the Horizon Report predicted that mobile devices would be widely adopted within
education in the coming twelve months:

According to a recent report from mobile manufacturer Ericsson, studies show that by
2015, 80% of people accessing the Internet will be doing so from mobile devices. Perhaps
more important for education, Internet-capable mobile devices will outnumber computers
within the next year. (Johnson, Smith, Willis, Levine, & Haywood, 2011, p. 12).

In consequence, schools in Australia, as elsewhere around the world, have begun to investigate the
affordances of mobile handheld technologies, particularly Apple devices such as the iPod Touch and the
iPad, for teaching a range of knowledge and skills across different areas of the curriculum. Because these
technologies are a very new addition to classrooms, there is as yet little published research on which
devices are being used at which levels; on how they are being integrated into different curriculum areas;
on what benefits are being observed, what challenges are being faced, and how these are being addressed;
and whether, on balance, mobile handheld devices are living up to their apparent promise. This study
seeks to address this gap with a detailed investigation of current practices in Western Australian
independent schools.

Literature Review

Given the limited research published to date on mobile handheld technologies in education, this literature
review takes into account studies from around the world covering primary, secondary and tertiary levels.
It also encompasses the more general theoretical literature, much of which is not specific with regard to
educational levels.

E-learning, m-learning and u-learning

E-learning, or 'electronic learning' – which covers all learning through digital technologies – often
depends primarily on fixed desktop devices. Interaction with such devices, as Traxler (2010) notes, "takes
place in a bubble, and in dedicated times and places where the user has his or her back to the rest of the
world for a substantial and probably premeditated episode" (p. 5). Although m-learning is often seen as a
subset of e-learning, the fact that it depends primarily on mobile handheld devices makes it qualitatively
different. By their nature, these devices lead to an expansion of the spaces and times of learning, with
students learning outside the places of formal education and the hours of formal timetables (e.g.,
McCaffrey, 2011; Pachler, Bachmair, & Cook, 2010; Seppälä & Alamäki, 2003; Sharples, Taylor, &
Vavoula, 2010). An alternative term, u-learning, or 'ubiquitous learning' (Anderson, 2010; Bonk, 2009;
Cope & Kalantzis, 2009) has recently gained popularity. While the two terms cover much common
ground (Hwang & Tsai, 2011; Leone & Leo, 2011), definitions are still evolving, with the latter term
sometimes being used to suggest a higher level of contextual sensitivity and embeddedness (Leone &
Leo, 2011). It might be said that u-learning places less emphasis on mobility and contextual
independence, and more emphasis on the situated, contextualised learning that mobile devices enable.

Many proponents of m-learning and u-learning favour a 1:1 model, i.e., where each student uses at least
one personal device (e.g., Looi, Seow, Zhang, So, Chen, & Wong, 2010). In some educational contexts,
there is a push for a Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) or Bring Your Own Technology (BYOT) model,
based on the idea that students should be encouraged to bring their personal devices, especially
smartphones, to class (Kolb, 2008, 2011; Nielsen & Webb, 2011; Richardson & Mancabelli, 2011; cf.
overviews and commentary in GSMA, 2011a, 2011b; Traxler, 2010) and to use them for learning across a
range of formal and informal contexts. Typically, a BYOD model involves some institutional input on the
range of permissible devices, whereas a BYOT model involves few limitations on the devices that can be

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(1).

used (Ferries-Rowe, 2012; Macgibbon & Tarica, 2012). It is the capability to use devices across contexts
that allows the creation of 'seamless learning spaces'. Challenging the traditional assumption of learning
happening in fixed times and places, Looi et al. (2010) point out that:

with the diffusion of technology, the notions of place, time and space for learning have
changed. The learning space is no longer defined by the 'class' but by 'learning'
unconstrained by scheduled class hours or specific locations. With the mobile technologies
at hand, students can learn seamlessly – both in classroom and out of classroom, both in
school time and after school time. While learning can be facilitated or scaffolded by
teachers or peers, at other times it could be student-initiated, impromptu and emergent. (pp.
156–157)

Mobile learners, as Pachler et al. (2010) explain, have to "operate successfully in, and across, new and
ever changing contexts and learning spaces", which includes coming to understand "how to utilise our
everyday life-worlds as learning spaces" (p. 6). In a sense, as they go on to point out, "the world has
become the curriculum populated by mobile device users in a constant state of expectancy and
contingency" (p. 25, with reference to Kress & Pachler, 2007).

Rather than learning occurring "at the expense of real life" – with students sequestered away in clock-
governed classrooms, or chained to desktop technology – it can increasingly occur "as part of real life"
(Traxler, 2010, p. 3). Significantly, when students learn with personal mobile devices embedded in their
own personal contexts, there is much greater scope for individual customisation of education (McCaffrey,
2011; Melhuish & Falloon, 2010; Pachler et al., 2010). In this way, m-learning and u-learning feed into
broader educational trends towards the building of personal learning networks (PLNs), personal learning
environments (PLEs) and e-portfolios (Oakley, Pegrum, & Johnston, in press).

From technologies to pedagogies

The devices most commonly used in educational institutions fall into three main groups. Digital media
players such as Apple's iPod (or the smaller iPod Shuffle) are compact devices which can play both audio
and video. The iPod Touch, which evolved from the iPod, has been branded "a pocket computer" due to
its ability to perform a variety of tasks (Banister, 2010, p. 122). With internet access, and now even the
ability to send text messages, the latest iPod Touch – that is, the fourth generation iPod Touch running
iOS5 software – differs from the iPhone mainly in its inability to make telephone calls.

Smartphones, including Apple's iPhone, Android phones, BlackBerrys and Windows phones, effectively
combine a mobile phone, a digital media player, a digital audio recorder, a digital camera, a PDA, and a
computer in one small device. Most importantly of all, they offer internet access, allowing users to
download apps – that is, small pieces of specialised software typically obtained through an app store – as
well as browse, seek information, and communicate online. A key advantage of smartphones is that many
students already own these devices and carry them with them at all times, although to fully capitalise on
this advantage an institution must have a BYOD/BYOT policy and teachers must be open to students
using their smartphones in the classroom.

Tablets, including Apple's iPad, share many similarities with smartphones (though not the ability to make
telephone calls) and laptops (though they typically work with apps rather than traditional software). They
generally feature a touchscreen with an onscreen keyboard and/or a digital pen, alongside the ability to
take photos and make audio and video recordings, all of which may be subsequently edited using
appropriate apps downloaded from the internet. The educational appeal of tablets is emphasised in the
2011 K-12 Horizon Report:

While the idea of cell phones in the classroom too often conjures up images of disruption,
tablets are a game-changer; they encompass many of the tools smartphones offer while
presenting an ever-expanding collection of tools for learning. (Johnson, Adams, &
Haywood, 2011, p.15)

The iPad in particular is being widely adopted in educational settings around the world, though its use is
still very much at an experimental stage. As a report of one university's experience puts it:

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(1).

With their students, [faculty] have become co-learners and pioneers in the classroom as
they test out the power of this new technology. With no models to work from, they had to
explore, practice, and discover – on their own – the iPad's potential for expanding learning.
(Gawelek, Spataro, & Komarny, 2011, p.32)

It will not escape notice that many of the devices most widely discussed in the literature are manufactured
by Apple, a company which has been described as "poised to change the learning landscape" (GSMA,
2011b). It offers an integrated suite of stable, attractive and easy-to-use hardware and software, a
constantly expanding number of third-party educational apps available through the iTunes Store, and
strong support for educational ventures. While other mobile hardware and associated software is being
trialled in educational institutions, Apple has emerged as the field leader.

In the broader field of e-learning, it has been recognised for some time that there is a danger of
technology being overemphasised at the expense of pedagogy and content. A strong argument has been
mounted that pedagogy and content should take precedence (Dudeney, Hockly, & Pegrum, 2013;
Motteram & Ioannou-Georgiou, 2007; Pegrum, 2009) or at least be equally valued, as in the
Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK) teacher training model (Koehler, n.d.;
Koehler & Mishra, 2008). Commentators in the field of m-learning have, similarly, pointed out that what
is important is not the technology per se (Melhuish & Falloon, 2010; Pachler et al., 2010) but how it is
used to support teaching and learning.

Like new technologies in general, mobile devices can support a range of pedagogical approaches,
including traditional transmission and behaviourist approaches (e.g., Naismith, Lonsdale, Vavoula, &
Sharples, 2004). However, as in the broader field of e-learning (Pegrum, 2009), an emerging consensus
suggests that mobile technologies – notably the iPad – are particularly suited to the promotion of social
constructivism and related active, collaborative, student-centred approaches (e.g., Cochrane & Bateman,
2010; Cochrane, Narayan, & Oldfield, 2011; Kukulska-Hulme, Sharples, Milrad, Arnedillo-Sánchez, &
Vavoula, 2009; Looi et al., 2010; Melhuish & Falloon, 2010).

Experimenting with mobile handheld devices

Around the world, and notably in the US, educators are exploring ways to use mobile technologies to
enhance teaching and learning (Gagnon, 2010; GSMA, 2011a; Kolb, 2008, 2011). Mobile handheld
devices have been used at all levels from primary to tertiary in a variety of curriculum and subject areas,
including literacy, maths, social studies and science (for a list of K-12 studies, see Banister, 2010). Recent
years have seen a dramatic increase in published research articles about m-learning and u-learning
(Hwang & Tsai, 2011), while more findings can be expected to emerge from numerous recent and current
m-learning trials (e.g., GSMA, 2011a, 2011b).

In Australia, the 2011 iPads for Learning project in the State of Victoria, which distributed over 700
iPads to nine schools and one education institute, concluded that "quality of teaching, combined with
purposeful and effective use of ICT contributes to improved learning" (DEECD, n.d.). In the tertiary
sector, The University of Adelaide's Faculty of Sciences experimented with giving iPads to incoming first
year students in 2011, and found that the devices greatly improved communication and opened up space
for better teaching models (Herrick, 2011). In the same year, The University of Western Australia's
Faculty of Education loaned iPads to all students in the first year of the Master of Teaching in Early
Childhood and Primary programs, and concluded that the devices "contributed to pre-service teachers'
learning, including their learning about teaching" (Pegrum, Howitt, & Striepe, 2012). Meanwhile, under
the National Vocational Education and Training (VET) E-learning Strategy, running from 2012-2015
(following on from the Australian Flexible Learning Framework of 2008-2011), funding has been
released for emerging technology trials, including a focus on mobile technologies, apps, and app
development (Commonwealth of Australia, n.d.).

As with the literature on e-learning in general, one of the strongest conclusions reached in the literature
on m-learning is that it is motivating and engaging for students (e.g., Backer, 2010; Jones & Issroff, 2007;
Kukulska-Hulme & de los Arcos, 2011; Pachler et al., 2010, pp. 66-67). Much of the research conducted
to date is qualitative in nature, based on the perspectives and attitudes of educators and students, as

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(1).

established through case studies involving interviews, focus groups, open survey questions, journals and
observations (e.g., Franklin & Peng, 2008; Franklin, Sexton, Lu, & Ma, 2007; cf. Hwang & Tsai, 2011).
Again, as with the broader e-learning literature, there are fewer quantitative studies which offer evidence
of measurable improvements in student learning but there are a rising number of studies – sometimes on a
modest scale, and sometimes with only weakly positive results – where such evidence is emerging.
Recent controlled experiments demonstrating clear, statistically significant improvements in learning
outcomes have been reported from areas as diverse as language learning (e.g., Hwang, Chen, & Chen,
2011 [primary school, Taiwan]), maths (e.g., Cristol & Gimbert, 2011 [primary and middle school,
USA]), science (e.g., Ernst & Harrison, 2011 [university, Australia]) and engineering (e.g., Enriquez,
2010 [community college, USA]), though it should be noted that these cover a wide variety of approaches
to pedagogy and content as well as a wide variety of mobile devices. Nevertheless, they confirm the
potential of m-learning not only to improve motivation but to improve learning outcomes on traditional
assessments.

Issues with mobile handheld devices

The first point to remember with hardware is that, like new technologies in general, mobile devices were
not designed for education but need to be repurposed for learning (Traxler, 2010). Certain physical
features – such as, for example, small screen sizes on mobile phones (Chinnery, 2006; Cochrane, 2007;
GSMA, 2011a, p. 23) – may present some challenges. Of more significance are broader design features.
For example, the iPad 1 was seen by many as primarily a consumption tool rather than a productive or
creative device (Kolowich, 2010), though the arrival of the iPad 2, with the addition of cameras and the
availability of creative apps like iMovie and GarageBand, partly allayed this concern (Watters, 2011).
Nevertheless, the iPad in all its iterations is still often viewed as a supplement – even a "luxury
supplement" (Smith cited in Kolowich, 2010) – rather than a replacement for desktop and/or laptop
devices (Jennings, Anderson, Dorset, & Mitchell, 2010), especially at higher levels of education. Of
course, if specific devices carry specific limitations, then a BYOD/BYOT model presents challenges of a
different kind in terms of the standards and specifications of the devices permitted to be used in class and,
in particular, to log into an institution's network, with all of the attendant implications for institutional
policies as well as IT support (Traxler, 2010). In this context, network speed and capacity, as well as
network security, are likely to become ever more important issues (e.g., Cochrane, 2007; Melhuish &
Falloon, 2010; Traxler, 2010).

Software is also a key issue. Concerns over the spread of 'non-generative' devices under the control of a
single company are not new (Zittrain, 2008), but they have intensified with the shift to the locked down,
app-driven environments of smartphones and tablets, with the strongest critique generally reserved for
Apple's stringent controls and insistence on pre-approving all apps (Chen, 2011; Gillmor, 2010;
Hirschorn, 2010; MacKinnon, 2012; Melhuish & Falloon, 2010; Zittrain, 2010). Moreover, despite the
number of apps available, teachers find that many have limited educational value because they are
underpinned by information transmission or behaviourist drill-and-practice approaches (Murray &
Olcese, 2011) and, therefore, provide only a limited supplement to social constructivist classrooms
oriented towards problem solving and critical enquiry. On the other hand, as noted above, more creative
apps are now beginning to emerge, and still more can be expected to appear as research in this area
progresses.

Many commentators have remarked on the need for adequate technical support (e.g., Cochrane, 2007;
Franklin & Peng, 2008). However, it is noted in some recent literature that a number of students are
developing considerable relevant expertise, on which less tech-savvy students and even teachers can draw
(McCaffrey, 2011; cf. Dudeney et al., 2013; Richardson & Mancabelli, 2011). iPads have been identified
by some as intuitive tools which require less support (e.g., Redington Bennett, 2011/12).

Teaching in distributed, personalised mobile environments presents certain challenges. Theorists of
digital literacies have noted that mobile literacy, far from being a naturally acquired skillset, may require
explicit development (Ng, 2011; Parry, 2011). Students must learn to navigate, interpret information
from, contribute information to, and communicate through the mobile web, mobile apps and the 'mixed
reality' they engender, where the real and the virtual are interlinked (Dudeney et al., 2013). In an
intensification of an issue that exists to some extent in all networked learning contexts (Pegrum, 2010), it
may be problematic for teachers to create stable spaces within this fluid mobile environment in order to

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(1).

guide, capture and document learning (Melhuish & Falloon, 2010; Sharples et al., 2010). Moreover, as
with most e-learning, traditional forms of assessment may not lend themselves easily to m-learning
(Melhuish & Falloon, 2010; Traxler, 2010).

Again, as in the broader field of e-learning, appropriate teacher training is vital to ensuring that mobile
devices are used in pedagogically sound ways (Melhuish & Falloon, 2010). Teachers need to develop a
critical awareness of the range of pedagogical approaches to which m-learning lends itself, and actively
balance considerations of pedagogy and content with considerations of technology, as per the
aforementioned TPACK model. Once they have acquired a sufficient knowledge base, teachers must be
ready to engage in self-directed learning as technologies change, their teaching contexts shift, and their
students' needs evolve; in short, teacher training must ultimately be about "helping teachers to help
themselves" (Robb, 2006). This might well include encouraging them to tap into professional
communities of practice (Hanson-Smith, 2006) and/or professional learning networks (Dudeney et al.,
2013) for ongoing learning.

There are longstanding discussions of equity and access issues in e-learning. Many of these refer to a
'digital divide', not only in terms of student access to hardware and software, but in terms of the
development of the digital skills linked to such access (Dudeney et al., 2013; Pegrum, 2009). A
BYOD/BYOT model of m-learning, in particular, may exacerbate such concerns. Other ethical issues
arise around digital safety, privacy and surveillance, and the blurring of public/private boundaries (e.g.,
Pachler et al., 2010; Traxler, 2010). All of these are well-known challenges in the field of e-learning, but
present even greater difficulties when mobile rather than fixed devices are involved.

Aims & Methodology

This article reports on the findings of the first phase of a project entitled Exploring the Pedagogical
Applications of Mobile Technologies for Teaching Literacy, funded by the Association of Independent
Schools of Western Australia (AISWA). Anecdotal evidence suggested that a number of schools in
Western Australia were starting to 'go mobile', but no comprehensive overview was available. Phase 1 of
the research, reported here, was designed to establish such an overview of current practices and to draw
out any key lessons and insights which might be shared across the sector. This led to two sets of
professional development (PD) workshops, for K-6 and 7-12 teachers respectively, to disseminate the
initial results of the first phase and to begin building a community of practice, centred around the
purpose-built MLearnWA wiki (mlearnwa.wikispaces.com), for the sharing of understandings. The
primary focus on literacy reflected the expertise of the research team and helped circumscribe the project,
ensuring that it was manageable in a short time frame. In Phase 2, not reported here as it is still ongoing,
case studies have been conducted in three of the Phase 1 schools, as well as three further schools which
have recently introduced mobile handheld technologies. We have been able to share insights gained in
Phase 1 with the latter three schools, as well as encouraging them to integrate into the wider MLearnWA
community. The MLearnWA wiki has now been opened up to broader membership.

In Phase 1, we worked within an interpretivist paradigm as we sought participants' views on how mobile
technologies were or could be used. To begin with, a general invitation was issued to all AISWA school
principals, asking them to identify key staff in their institutions who were using mobile technologies and
were willing to participate in a semi-structured interview. Interviewees included principals, vice
principals, technology co-ordinators and teachers in a total of ten institutions – eight in metropolitan
Perth, one around fifty (50) km from the city centre, and one in a regional city around two hundred (200)
km from Perth. In the majority of cases, senior management and teaching staff were able to offer an
overview of technology use at all schooling levels, from early childhood and primary through to middle
and upper school. Their views were complemented by those of a range of teachers from across these
levels who volunteered to participate in the interviews. Interviews were loosely structured around the
following set of questions:

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(1).

• How do you use mobile handheld technologies, particularly for teaching literacy?
• Why do you use them this way?
• What benefits to the students' learning have you observed?
• What problems, if any, have you encountered?
• What professional development do you think is needed by the teachers at your school?
• Would you be interested in helping develop/deliver some professional development?

While our initial focus was on literacy, including multimedia literacy, it became apparent that schools
were using mobile devices for a range of other purposes, both pedagogical and organisational, and
interviewees were invited to give details of these. Our original supposition, based on anecdotal evidence,
that iPod Touches and iPads would be the preferred devices proved to be correct, but interviewees were
also invited to comment on any other mobile technologies being used. The final question was designed to
lead into a discussion of the planning of the second set of professional development workshops which
took place towards the end of Phase 1.

Interviews took place in Terms 3 and 4, 2011. All were face-to-face, with the exception of the regional
interview which was conducted by telephone, and all were digitally recorded. A research assistant made
detailed notes, accompanied by transcriptions of key passages, which were checked for accuracy firstly
by the interviewers and subsequently by the interviewees. Minor alterations were made to a number of
sets of notes and transcriptions. The data were then analysed in an inductive process using methods drawn
from grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1968). The research assistant conducted open coding of the final
texts (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). This was confirmed by the researchers, who then independently carried
out theoretical coding. Finally, key principles were distilled from the theoretical coding in a collaborative
meeting between the researchers and the research assistant.

In the following discussion, schools are identified by letters (A-J) only. Because of the easy identifiability
of schools within Western Australia, demographic and other descriptive data are not included. However,
the ten schools in our sample are all fee-paying institutions, with a range of fee schedules, which are
among the one hundred and sixty-five (165) AISWA member schools.

Findings

The mobile handheld device most commonly mentioned by interviewees was the iPad, which was already
used, or was about to be introduced, in all ten schools. It was followed by the iPod Touch, used in four
schools, though some interviewees regarded the latter as "redundant" (School C) and less "usable"
(School D) than the iPad. Despite the high rate of smartphone penetration in Australia, just two schools
permitted the use of iPhones in the classroom under the direction of teachers, one from Year 7 (middle
school) onwards and one from Year 11 (upper school) onwards. Some other schools permitted students to
bring smartphones for private use outside the classroom. The only non-Apple device mentioned by name
in the interviews was a Toshiba tablet, used at one school that was, however, about to transition to Apple
products. A number of schools used laptops, with the MacBook Air and MacBook Pro being mentioned,
but these devices fell outside the scope of our project's focus on mobile handheld technologies. Only one
interviewee, who expressed a personal preference for Android devices, picked up on the concern
commonly expressed in the literature about users becoming locked into a controlled technological
environment under the management of a single corporation.

Most schools were using the iPad 2, though some still had the older iPad 1 available. Echoing the
published literature, the iPad was viewed as very easy to use: without the need for booting up time or
logging in, and with its intuitive design, it was felt that it required less student support. It was seen as
especially appropriate for early childhood education, largely due to its tactile interface which was more
accessible to children than a mouse: "they took to it straight away … we underestimated that", as one
interviewee put it (School I). The table below shows the usage of iPads across school levels. While
interviewees were encouraged to describe all uses of iPads and other mobile handheld technologies in
their schools, it is possible that not every case was mentioned. Nevertheless, the table provides a snapshot
of emerging trends. It is clear that iPads are most popular at early childhood and primary levels, with
class sets the norm until middle and upper school, at which point some institutions shift to a 1:1 model.

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(1).

Table 1
iPad Usage Models

Early Childhood

(Years K-2)
Primary School

(Years 3-6)
Middle School

(Years 7-9)
Upper School
(Years 10-12)

Class Set -A- -B- -D- -E- -F-
-H- -I-

-A- -B- -C- -F- -I- -B- -C- -I- -B- -C- -D- -I-

1:1 Model -D- -A- -G- -J- -A- -D-

Note. This table shows current and proposed iPad usage models by schools (A-J) across levels at the end
of 2011.

Broad issues relating to our first two interview questions, about how mobile technologies were being used
in schools, will be covered in the first section below; views on the benefits and drawbacks of m-learning,
relating to our third and fourth questions, in the second section; and views on professional development,
relating to our final two questions, in the third section.

An ecology of learning

Most schools were still at the stage of actively experimenting with mobile handheld technologies,
especially iPads, trialling their use at different levels and for different purposes. It quickly became
apparent that many principals, vice principals and teachers had reached the same conclusion as the
theorists of m-learning, namely, that the devices themselves are less important than how they are used to
support teaching and learning. It was stressed that these technologies should not be seen as an end in
themselves, nor as an add-on to entertain children and keep them busy: "we do not use technology as a
babysitting device", said one participant (School F). Rather, schools were investigating the best ways of
"fully integrating" (School D) mobile devices into an overall ecology of learning. Several interviewees
explicitly insisted that good teaching and teachers had to remain the main drivers, while others spoke of
the need to "marry up" the devices with the curriculum (School C) or the need to strike a sensible balance
between new technologies and old technologies like pens and paper, a particular concern for young
children developing fine motor skills (Schools C & F). On the other hand, at least two interviewees
closely mirrored the consensus in the m-learning literature that mobile devices can help in the shift from a
sage-on-the-stage pedagogical model to a more collaborative, student-centred model (Schools A & F).
Two others also commented that using mobile devices could help them fulfil the new Australian
Curriculum's requirement for ICTs to be embedded in all curriculum areas (Schools F & J). At the same
time, again echoing the m-learning literature, one interviewee spoke at length of the mismatch between
traditional assessments like the Tertiary Entrance Examination on the one hand, and the collaborative and
communicative skills students gain through using new technologies on the other. He saw a danger that
these devices might therefore be seen as a "distractor" at senior levels in particular (School A). Indeed,
this might be one reason why such technologies seem more appropriate at lower levels, where there is
more freedom to experiment. Two interviewees commented explicitly on the play-based learning that
mobile devices could foster at early childhood level (Schools H & I).

Another key reason for using mobile devices at lower levels relates to their role as consumption vs
production devices. Interviewees shared the concerns expressed in the literature that many apps are
pedagogically limited, and considered them best suited to reinforcing elements of learning (such as letter
formation or spelling) at early childhood and primary levels. A number of interviewees commented that
the arrival of "generic apps" (Schools A & D) such as GarageBand and iMovie had opened up the
possibilities for students to be more creative as well as sharing and publishing their work, showcasing it
to peers and parents (see below for more details). However, the general feeling was that as students
advanced, they would need more generative devices instead of, or in addition to, devices like iPads. Two
schools used laptops in a 1:2 ratio from Year 1 onwards, changing to a 1:1 ratio in Year 5; another used

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(1).

notebooks from Year 4. Where iPads were being used – or proposed for use – at middle and/or upper
levels, there was generally a clear expectation that students would use them in conjunction with personal
laptop or desktop devices. As one interviewee pointed out, iPads, with their ability to store large numbers
of e-books, might be seen as an alternative to books rather than computers at higher levels (School D). As
three interviewees indicated, however, this may be premature, as only a limited selection of e-textbooks is
currently available (Schools A, D & J).

The issue of collaboration vs personalisation produced certain tensions in the m-learning trials. Using
class sets makes collaboration inevitable: several interviewees felt this was appropriate at early childhood
and primary levels, with students learning important skills of sharing and teamwork while interacting
around these devices in pairs or small groups (Schools D, H & I). However, at least one individual
recognised the friction between the single-owner design of iPads and their use in class sets: "we are doing
something that is alien to the device ... we have tried to make it behave like a laptop in a trolley when it
really should be a student-owned device" (School B). Where these devices were being used at middle
school or upper school levels, participants tended to emphasise their personalised nature. A parent-
funded, 1:1 model was being considered by one school, while it was being instituted in another, with
iPads the mandated tools in both cases. In one school, students were advised to buy iPads but were given
the option of purchasing a MacBook instead, if they so preferred. Two schools had more flexible versions
of a BYOD model, where students were able to use their own iPhones instead of, or in addition to, iPod
Touches and/or iPads.

Some schools were beginning to capitalise on the seamless learning spaces opened up by mobile devices.
Because they are easy even for small children to carry, such devices extend traditional learning spaces:
"Being so mobile, you are not restricted to being in your classroom or at desks" (School I). It was noted
that students had more flexibility in when and how to learn, opting, for example, to work on their iPads
outside the classroom during lunch breaks (School A). One school, responding to this newfound freedom,
was setting up flexible classrooms with no fixed desks in order to foster collaboration and communication
between students – a change which some teachers were finding challenging (School G). It was observed
by the researchers that a number of schools with more longstanding laptop programs already had such
flexible arrangements in place.

It became clear that mobile handheld technologies have both organisational and pedagogical purposes. In
some institutions, they served as important means of communication between staff and students (School
A) or a way of disseminating information to teachers, students and parents (School E). Mobile devices
could help students stay organised through the use of diary apps and push notifications like homework
reminders (School A). Pedagogical uses included employing apps relevant to areas as diverse as
numeracy (mentioned by 7 schools), maths (4), science (2), foreign languages (1) and accounting and
economics (1). Our particular focus on literacy, unsurprisingly, led interviewees from all ten schools to
mention apps appropriate to this area. At least three schools were using apps to help children practise
letter formation and word writing, while many schools used interactive e-books for children. As noted
above, there was some concern about the pedagogically limited nature of many apps. Creative apps which
allowed students to tell their own stories, generally in multimedia formats, were highly valued: Comic
Life and Puppet Pals, for example, were popular at lower levels, with iMovie and GarageBand popular at
higher levels. The rest of the suite of Apple's productive apps, like Pages, Numbers and Keynote, were
used across all levels but particularly in middle and upper school. These "generic apps" were seen as
crucial to teachers' ability to use mobile devices in more constructivist, student-centred ways,
notwithstanding the fact that, as indicated earlier, many schools opted to use laptops in addition to or in
place of mobile handheld devices, especially at higher levels.

Benefits and drawbacks of m-learning

As in the m-learning literature, the most commonly mentioned benefit of mobile handheld devices was
the level of motivation and engagement for students, a point on which the majority of interviewees
touched but which was most noted at lower levels. The students' faces "light up" when the iPads are
brought out, said one interviewee about primary classes (School B). It was also noted that the devices
were motivating for some, if not all, of the staff, many of whom had put a lot of time and energy into
integrating them into their lessons; as one interviewee put it: "They've been so enthusiastic about it. Lots

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(1).

of teachers that you wouldn't necessarily think would be on board with technology [have] really got on
board with it" (School D).

The place of mobile devices in fulfilling the ICT requirements of the Australian Curriculum has already
been noted above, as has their broader value in teaching new collaboration and communication skills.
Two schools had conducted informal, small-scale empirical studies, which revealed improved learning
outcomes on traditional assessments. School B compared the ability of Year 3 students to retain French
vocabulary across three classes, including a control group, and found that the students who had used the
iPads and the relevant vocabulary apps recalled between 20 and 26 words as opposed to the expected 12,
as recalled by the control group. School D tested Year 4 students on mental maths at the beginning and
end of a term-long 1:1 iPad program and found an improvement, which teachers attributed to the
immediate feedback provided by the relevant apps. Explaining his school's decision to expand its iPad
program, the interviewee from School B put it this way:

We have answered those questions [about the benefits] with the first initial pilot; yes, there
is engagement there; yes, the kids are getting on task a little bit quicker; and yes, we can see
that they are retaining that knowledge when we do the assessment at the end.

It was also pointed out by three schools (C, D & G) that there are particular benefits for students with
special needs, including students who require early intervention or are struggling with the curriculum, and
students with visual impairments or dyslexia, who can resize and reformat text as well as using voice
recognition and text-to-speech apps.

Drawbacks of mobile handheld devices include hardware issues (such as the small screen size, especially
on iPod Touches, a point mentioned by Schools F and I), software issues (the need to sync apps across
multiple devices, mentioned by several schools, as well as uncertainty about how to do this legally – a
situation which should now be clearer due to Apple's launch of its Volume Purchase Program [VPP] in
Australia in 2012) and network issues (especially outside the metropolitan area, where the internet is
noticeably slower). It was noted that there had to be enough devices available in class sets, and three
schools stressed the importance of staff having their own devices to work from, ideally with some lead-in
time to build familiarity with the technology before using it in the classroom (Schools A, G & J). IT
issues were flagged up by one interviewee, who suggested that teachers' organisational and pedagogical
freedom was being restricted by IT security policies. While none of the schools reported that any serious
digital safety or security incidents had occurred to date, ethical issues were being pre-emptively
considered. Many schools had chosen Wi-Fi-only iPads to make it more difficult for students to use 3G
networks to bypass school content filters. Several schools had set out very explicit student guidelines, for
example banning audio or video recordings being made without the permission of teachers or other
students (School A), while a number were conducting or planning to conduct information sessions for
parents, covering, amongst other things, digital safety and cyberbullying.

Across the board, staff issues were flagged up as crucial: "the staff is the biggest blocker", said one
interviewee. Four interviewees indicated that at least some staff in their institutions were unenthusiastic,
while other highlighted issues included the fact that some teachers felt overwhelmed and underprepared;
that some were unsure how to integrate mobile devices with their teaching, or did so in pedagogically
limited ways; and, most importantly of all, that all were time-poor, which limited their availability for PD
as well as the time they had to spend researching the most appropriate apps (with the latter point being
explicitly mentioned by six schools). Such issues fed into a consideration of PD needs.

Professional development needs

It was reported that teachers had displayed a wide spectrum of responses to mobile handheld technologies
– from enthusiastic to disinterested or, in rare instances, opposed – but many schools were taking "a soft
approach" (School A) and not forcing staff to participate in m-learning initiatives against their will.
Where participation was required, schools were careful to proceed slowly, offering PD and mentoring
with the aim of "setting [teachers] up for success" (School F). Nevertheless, in a context of rapidly
evolving mobile devices and time-poor teachers, the introduction of new technologies into the classroom
inevitably produces tensions. Across the ten interviews, four main recommendations emerged regarding
PD. These recommendations can helpfully inform policy decisions about PD needs made by institutions

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(1).

which, having decided to introduce mobile technologies, are seeking ways to facilitate their smooth and
effective integration into the school learning ecology:

1. Bracketed time for PD is necessary to support the pedagogically grounded rollout of new
technologies. Staff need time to attend formal PD; engage in informal collaborations with
colleagues; play with devices in order to build familiarity; research apps; and explore wider
pedagogical possibilities. At least one school was squeezing in PD at 7.30 in the morning, with
breakfast provided!

2. A focus on pedagogy ahead of technology in PD is essential. Interviewees remarked that
teachers needed help integrating new tools in a pedagogically sound manner (School D), including
encouragement to move beyond pedagogically limited apps (School C) and to explore truly
innovative uses of the devices (School B). One interviewee remarked that it was already the case
in his school that "pedagogy and practice drive our PD more than tools and applications" (School
E), while another flagged up a need to move in this direction, suggesting that it would be valuable
"to have a session on teaching theory and to reflect on [teachers'] practice, to help to justify their
approach to teaching, and to help broaden their practice" (School I).

3. Targeted and contextualised PD is most effective. In a rapidly changing field, formal PD cannot
cover all possibilities. Moreover, for time-poor teachers, standardised PD sessions are likely to be
less effective than individualised PD delivered at the point of need, for example, support being
provided by a technology co-ordinator or mentor in the classroom to a teacher creating a particular
kind of lesson for a particular cohort. Schools A and D were already working with this model, with
School G planning to move in this direction.

4. Building a professional community of practice/professional development network as a platform
for PD is a sustainable model which could encourage collaboration, save time and energy, and
avoid schools and teachers 'reinventing the wheel'. Several interviewees praised the State of
Victoria's support of iPads in the classroom (DEECD, n.d.) and expressed a desire for a Western
Australian educators' network, ideally with an accompanying online hub. Such a community or
network would of course provide a base for "helping teachers to help themselves", as Robb (2006)
was seen to suggest earlier. One interviewee spoke of fostering "a more collaborative teacher
culture" (School A) and another of the value of being able to "tap into a community of support"
(School B). In particular, interviewees were keen to find out what other schools were doing
(Schools C, D & H), and many expressed a wish to exchange information about useful apps, how
they map to the Australian Curriculum, and which ones might be of particular relevance to the
Western Australian context. The MLearnWA wiki, mentioned above, provides a platform for this
kind of network building.

Conclusion

The use of mobile handheld technologies is still at an experimental stage in Western Australian
independent schools, but it is set to expand dramatically in coming years. Although the current study is
limited by its small, opportunistic sample, it provides an early snapshot of a developing field where there
is currently little more than anecdotal evidence available. Surprisingly clear common themes have in fact
emerged even from this small sample, many of them providing a practical slant on theoretical
understandings drawn from the m-learning literature, or providing a local slant on results of national and
international m-learning trials. These include insights regarding the levels and purposes for which devices
such as iPads and iPod Touches are best used; their benefits for motivation and learning outcomes, and
the potential drawbacks connected to the technology itself as well as ethical issues and staff issues; and
the need for appropriate professional development opportunities for teachers.

Many interviewees expressed considerable interest in what other interviewees had told us, since they
were, for the most part, experimenting in isolation from each other. The desire for PD on how best to
integrate m-learning with the curriculum and pedagogy was perhaps the single strongest point to emerge
from the interviews. It is hoped that the community of practice established towards the end of the first
phase – with the help of several of our interviewees, who willingly contributed to the second set of PD
workshops – will serve to connect these principals, vice principals, technology co-ordinators and teachers

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 2013, 29(1).

with each other, notably via the MLearnWA wiki. It is also hoped that, as more schools venture down the
road of m-learning, they too will integrate into and enrich the existing community, which was opened up
to a wider membership base during the second phase of the research. Following the conclusion of the
second phase, we anticipate publishing a follow-up paper based on a series of case studies and offering
more specific conclusions and recommendations with regard to professional development in the evolving
area of m-learning.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to AISWA for funding the research underpinning this project; to Jan Clarke, ICT
Integration Consultant at AISWA, for her support of the project and organisation of the PD workshops; to
Helen House, for her efficient project management; to Adam Marchant and Jeannine Wishart for their
support with interviews; and to Michelle Striepe, for her help in data collection and analysis.

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Corresponding author: Mark Pegrum, mark.pegrum@uwa.edu.au

Please cite as: Pegrum, M., Oakley, G., & Faulkner, R. (2013). Schools going mobile: A study of the
adoption of mobile handheld technologies in Western Australian independent schools. Australasian
Journal of Educational Technology. 29(1), 66-81.