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CHALLENGING GENDER STEREOTYPES AND PATRIARCHY:  

A WOMANISTREADING OF AKACHI  

ADIMORA-EZEIGBO’S TRILOGY 

 

Bridget Dahunsi Okunrobo, PhD 

Student Affairs Division, University of Benin, Benin City 

Email: bridgetdahunsi@gmail.com  

 

 

Abstract 

The need to correct the misrepresentation and distortion of the image of 

women gave impetus to women’s writing. However, with the emergence of 

women’s writings arises a major challenge of finding an acceptable theory for 

analysing these writings. There are many epistemological positions in which 

these women’s writings may be situated, these include, feminism, African 

feminism, Black feminism, Stiwanism, Motherism, Africana womanism and 

so on. While the application of feminism makes these African women works 

far removed from their socio-cultural milieu, others like Black feminism has 

failed to adequately address the need for an African-centred framework for 

these works. Africana Womanism appears to be a more appropriate paradigm 

from which these works may be theorized. The womanist theory as expounded 

by Clenora Hudson-Weems showcases the unique African qualities of the 

African woman. This paper explores the relevance and suitability of the 

Africana womanist theory to Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo’s The Last of the 

Strong Ones, House of Symbols and Children of the Eagle. It argues that the 

projection and exaltation of these womanist ethics through her female 

characters enables the author to reconstruct the image of the African women. 

It is also a strategy for challenging and subverting those stereotypical 

perceptions about the African woman that had held sway in male authored 

works. 

 

Keywords: Gender Stereotypes, Patriarchy, Womanism, Feminism 

 

Introduction 

Gender stereotype is the attribution of character traits, behaviours and social 

roles to men and women in society. Women suffer most as a result of gender 

stereotypes, because often time positive characteristics are attributed to men 

whereas negative ones are attributed to women and this implies subtle gender 

inequality, sexism, and discrimination against women. Defining gender 

stereotypes, the Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunities for women and 

Men: Opinion on “Breaking gender stereotypes in the media” states: 

It is important to address the fact that gender stereotypes not only 

contribute to the status quo in terms of women’s and men’s roles, but 

also promote an asymmetrical vision of women and men in society. 



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Furthermore, they are one of the most persistent causes of inequality 

between women and men in all spheres and at all stages of life, 

influencing their choices in education, professional and private life. (6) 

 

Gender stereotyping is the frame on which patriarchal ideas are perpetuated 

and for long it has informed the portrayal of male and female characters in 

literary works. Writers, especially male authors, portray the African society 

from a patriarchal perspective where women are in subordination. By so 

doing, these male writers try to conform to patriarchal ideologies as well as 

the old and stale traditional gender roles which perceive men as superior and 

women inferior. Chinyere Grace Okafor succinctly notes, “When male-

centred views of society are projected on to literature, and imbibed by the 

readership, the ideas become endemic…” (83). These ideas become 

internalized by even women. O. Ogede rightly points out, “some women have 

come to accept the male stereotypical assumptions about themselves”(107). In 

the same vein Shamaila Haleem argues: “The way characters are portrayed in 

a story matters a lot in the sense that the traits associated with these characters 

become generalizations afterwards and these characters are then always seen 

from that specified angle” (56). Such depiction of men and women often 

results in continual denigration and discrimination against women. Haleem 

argues further: “The portrayal of a male character as a brave, courageous, 

bold, reserve, confident and rational being, and whereas of a female character 

as a weak, expressive, shy, submissive, emotional, and irrational beings, sets 

mind for gender discrimination and division of human characteristics into two 

separate categories” (56). 

 

The need to correct and negate the misrepresentation and distortion of the 

female personality gave impetus to female writers to produce literary 

narratives. They have in their concerted efforts challenged stereotypical 

assumptions about females in a patriarchal society through writing. 

Chikwenye Okonjo Ogunyemi avers,  

The women writers address those areas male counterparts left out in 

pursuing their version of nation and the fight for its realization; 

remarkably they present their female characters as daughters with 

inalienable rights to participate in reconstructing the nation as partners, 

not mere dependents. (4) 

 

These women writers place African women experiences at the centre of their 

narratives. Moreover, they realize the need to tell their own story themselves 

and to establish dignity for womanhood which is very important if the 

tarnished image of the woman must be restored. Modupe Kolawole explains 

this point with a Yoruba proverb: “Owo l’afi ntun iwa ara enise (meaning, 

You have to establish your dignity yourself and not leave it to others)” (26). 

To these female writers, writing becomes a tool for self-liberation, self-



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preservation, self-expression, self-assertion, self-naming and for presenting 

their feminist’s/womanist’s ideologies. Through their writings they disprove 

the negative perception of the women folk. Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo is one of 

the female writers who have picked up the challenge to reconstruct the image 

of the African woman through writing. 

 

The emergence of these female writings brought about the need for an 

appropriate and acceptable theoretical framework for their analysis. There are 

many varying epistemological positions in which these writings maybe 

situated. Feminism, a Western paradigm is one of the pioneering paradigm to 

which these works have been subjected. But this feminist criticism with its 

varying strands (liberal feminism, radical feminism, social feminism and so 

on) tends to be too aggressive, confrontational and antagonistic. For these 

reasons most African women in general do not identify with the concept in its 

entirety nor accept the tag, ‘feminist’. It appears to have been formed by 

White women for their specific needs and desires. Africa has her own peculiar 

norms and traditions which are entirely different from the Western culture. 

The need for African-centred paradigm and theoretical framework led to the 

emergence of different faces of feminism. Terms like Womanism, Motherism, 

Stiwanism, and so on were coined by those who dissociated themselves from 

the feminist tag. Amongst these conceptual frameworks Africana Womanism 

as expounded by Clenora Hudson-Weems seems to be an appropriate theory 

for the analysis of the Nigerian women writings. This paper attempts to 

explore the relevance and suitability of Africana Womanist theory to Akachi 

Adimora-Ezeigbo’s The Last of the Strong Ones, House of Symbols and 

Children of the Eagle. It argues that consciously or unconsciously, Adimora-

Ezeigbo has projected Africana Womanist qualities through her female 

characters as strategy for challenging patriarchal notions, gender stereotypes, 

and stereotypical perceptions about the African woman. 

 

Africana Womanism 

Womanism is an Afro centric concept and ideology which focuses on the 

experiences and the emancipation of, not just Black women, but all people 

from all forms of oppression. Womanism shares with feminism the feature of 

emancipation of the woman from oppression but it centres on seeking identity 

for the African woman’s consciousness. It is a platform from which black 

women and other women of colour, who dissociate themselves from Western 

feminism, are able to express themselves and create their own movement. 

From its platform, womanist writers call attention to the multiple layer of 

oppression experienced by black women and women of colour. Modupe 

Kolawole enunciates that womanism is the totality of feminine self-

expression, self-retrieval, and self-assertion in positive cultural ways (24). In 

Ogunyemi Okonjo’s view, “womanism is a global ideology for African 

women which embraces and celebrates racial, gender, class and cultural 



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consciousness” (qtd in Kolawole, 24). Womanism is therefore a new paradigm 

which offers an alternative model to all forms of feminism. According to 

Clenora Hudson-Weems “Africana Womanism is an ideology created and 

designed for all women of African descent. It is grounded in African culture, 

and therefore, it necessarily focuses on the unique experiences, struggles, 

needs, and desires of Africana women” (24). She aptly summarises this brand 

of womanism thus: 

Critical to understanding and appreciating the Africana woman is 

recognizing her common 18 features:  (1) a self-namer (2) a self-

definer, (3) family-centered, (4) genuine in sisterhood, (5) strong, (6) 

in concert with male in struggle, (7) whole, (8) authentic, (9) a flexible 

role player, (10) respected, (11) recognized, (12) spiritual, (13) male 

compatible, (14) respectful of elders, (15) adaptable, (16) ambitious, 

(17) mothering and (18) nurturing. (143) 

 

Hudson-Weems by these tenets demonstrates a valid portrait of the African 

woman. The theory challenges the preconceived ideas about African women 

and their lives. 

 

Adimora-Ezeigbo, in her novels, dismantles stereotypes and rewrites women 

into relevant and prominent positions in society. She does not reject the 

feminist tag per se rather she accepts it with reluctance. She does not agree 

with the confrontational nature of the radical Western brand of feminism. In a 

conversation with Henry Akubuiro she states, “I don’t believe in confrontation 

and unnecessary aggression or one being opinionated about everything”. She 

explains further that feminism in the Africa sense, is not aggressive, 

quarrelling or fighting for superiority – it just wants women to rise and be 

empowered. In another discussion with Isiguzo Destiny, she notes, “My kind 

of feminism is Nigeria centred. It is different from feminism as it operates in 

the West and therefore our own brand of feminism is inclusive.” All these add 

up to reveal that although she does not reject the ‘feminist’ tag, because 

feminism is a theoretical and methodological legitimacy in the academy, and 

also because it is the starting point for theorizing the female discourse, but she 

rejects most of its tenets as they do not appeal to the African culture.  

 

She proposes her own brand of feminism which she calls “snail-sense 

feminism”. This brand of feminism she argues, “is not the sluggishness that is 

being emphasized in this theory, but the snail’s sense (intelligence) to live 

with its environment with negotiation; it is another way of saying 

complementarity.” It is clear that this brand of feminism echoes male 

compatibility, one of the eighteen descriptors, Hudson-Weems presents in her 

explication of Africana Womanism. Adimora-Ezeigbo sees womanism as a 

more embracive theory than feminism. According to her,  



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That’s a more popular brand of feminism because womanism is all 

embracive. It includes both men and women and children. It advocates 

for the wellbeing of men, women and children. It is not exclusive. You 

see Nigerian women believe that we need our men just as they need us. 

(An interview with Isiguzo Destiny, March 27, 2015) 

 

The novels, The Last of the Strong Ones (LSO), House of Symbols (HoS) and 

Children of the Eagle (CoE) are interrelated. A survey of the characters 

reveals that the author gives much space to female characters’ experiences. 

Contrary to the stereotypical portrayal of women as docile, inactive, passive 

and mute, she re-writes the stories of women by exhibiting and exalting those 

distinctive features of the African woman through her female characters. 

 

Africana Womanism in Adimora-Ezeigbo’s Trilogy 

The tenets that Africana womanist is a self-namer and self-definer are 

demonstrated by Adimora-Ezeigbo through the naming of her central 

character. Names are very significant in the African society because they 

confer on individuals distinct identities. Kolawole observes, “Self-naming is 

very central to African world-view. In many African cultures, naming almost 

assumes a sacred status… a stranger cannot be allowed to name the child” 

(26).  The central character in House of Symbols and Children of the Eagle is 

“Eaglewoman” or “Eagle” as her husband fondly calls her. By ascribing such 

significant name to her female character Adimora-Ezeigbo equates her with 

the eagle bird notable for strength, wisdom, and sharp sightedness. James 

Tsaaior rightly observes: “Eaglewoman has the strength and courage of the 

eagle that enables her to confront the retrogressive, oppressive and repressive 

traditional practices of male-dominated Umuga society that is exploitative and 

discriminatory against women” (170). She names and defines her African 

woman who she presents as a model in the novels. Right from the onset, this 

character exhibits the qualities of the eagle which are in tandem with the 

Africana womanist unique characteristics. Again Tsaaior argues, “In the 

novel, the eagle iconology writes woman into prominence within social 

structures and appropriates the agency of eagle which is exclusively 

associated with men” (171).  Thus to be named “Eaglewoman”, which accords 

females with dignity, courage and greatness within a patriarchal system, 

Adimora-Ezeigbo deliberately transfers these male attributes, to her female 

and shows that these traits are not gender-specific. She confirms Hudson-

Weems’ tenet that the African woman is a self-namer. 

 

In the course of characterisation she uses affirmative and attributive adjectives 

to project the womanist characteristics of her heroine. She also employs 

stylistic techniques, such as apposition and figurative language, to reconstruct 

the image and identity of the African woman and to dismantle chauvinistic 

ideology which has held sway in some male authors’ writing in the past. For 



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instance in the novels she uses Igbo appositives or praise names to eulogise 

her heroines. Below are examples: 

Ejimnaka, you are the graceful palm tree of Umuga. (LSO, 77) 

Ejimnaka, … Lioness that leads the pack. (LSO, 7) 

Daughter of Ezeukwu – the wise one, the thundering tigress of Umuga. 

(LSO, 7) 

Enyiwayi -  Elephantwoman (HoS, 103) 

“Agunwayi-Leopardess” (CoE, 45) 

Eaglewoman is a solid rock that gathers moss. (HoS, 99) 

 

She chooses avian metaphors to name her heroines. The terms ‘lioness’, 

‘leopardess’, ‘tigress’, ‘eagle’, and ‘elephantwoman’ as used in these 

narratives are avian metaphors. With these, she metaphorically equates the 

strength of her heroines with that of these animals that are of great 

significance in the Igbo society. 

 

As mentioned above, Adimora-Ezeigbos’s complementarity echoes Hudson-

Weems’ tenet that the Africana womanist is male compatible. Whereas 

feminism advocates separation of man and woman, if marriage is not working 

out, complementarity and compatibility are committed to the survival and 

unity of man and woman. The depiction of stable relationships like that of 

Obiatu and Ejimnaka, Josaih (Osai) and Eaglewoman, Afam and Nnenne are 

examples. Adimora-Ezeigbo expresses the need for men and women to work 

toward an interdependent relationship. She acknowledges the fact that there 

are difficulties and challenges inherent in marriages but maintains that through 

negotiation, compromise and reconciliation in marital relationships the union 

can be kept stable.  

 

In African society lesbianism, homosexuality, and divorce are never options 

as obtained in Western feminism. Marriage is an important institution that is 

highly esteemed. Men are not regarded as problems that must be outsmart 

rather it is believed that a woman needs a man to be complete and vice versa. 

Ngozi Ezenwa-Ohaeto notes that in Igbo land “it (marriage) is an avenue 

instituted by culture for self-fulfilment and actualization for women. It is the 

only source of prestige and honour for them” (24). She argues further that 

some Igbo proverbs “makes it explicitly clear that the woman cannot be 

appreciated in isolation from her husband, her achievement in the society 

notwithstanding” (25). Adimora-Ezeigbo depicts an example of a typical 

African woman in the character, Ogonna in Children of the Eagle. She rejects 

the suggestion of a divorce in the face of serious challenges in her marriage 

rather she chooses to stay and make the marriage work for the sake of the 

children.  

 



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Mothering and nurturing are other ethics that Africana womanist is committed 

to. Safoura Salami-Boukari notes that in African society in general having a 

child is so significant that it determines a married woman’s real womanhood 

as a child bearer and the degree of her social status (120).  In Contrast to 

Western feminist paradigm that views motherhood as enslavement, the 

African woman does not dread the responsibility of mothering and nurturing 

children. She sees herself as a mother to her children and to all humanity. This 

is why she accommodates, mothers, and nurtures not only her biological 

children but other children kept in her care. In the African context, mothering 

is dissociated from purely biological connotation. It extends to include 

anyone, whether female or male, old or young, with or without children who 

can act as or engage in mothering of a child. 

 

Adimora-Ezeigbo demonstrates this cherished responsibility through her 

female characters. For instance in The Last of the Strong Ones, Aziagba, a 

woman of great courage, defies the tradition of Umuga, in the face of much 

condemnations and abuses, to save, shelter and raise her twin children. In 

House of Symbols, Eaglewoman sacrifices her time and resources to bring up 

her children. Her mothering extends to other children kept in her care. She 

brings up Lois like her own daughter. The narrator tells: “Lois occupies a 

special place in her heart… Eaglewoman loves her as if she were her flesh and 

blood” (121). As a mother, she exudes genuine love to all her children such 

that Obioma refuses to go on with an abortion plan when she was impregnated 

by an unknown soldier. Instead she shares the burden with her mother and as 

expected, abortion is never contemplated; rather Eaglewoman becomes 

surrogate mother to the baby. 

 

The African society sees the loss of motherhood as loss of womanhood 

because of the value it places on mothering/motherhood. If a married woman 

is unfortunate to be childless or has only female children she faces a lot of 

criticism, trouble and trauma both in her home and in the society as if she is 

the maker of children. Ezenwa-Ohaeto observes that the case of such woman 

is worse and that she “stands to lose her prestige, because she has failed in her 

all-important obligations: reproduction” (25). In the words of Charles 

Fouchingong “a barren woman is stigmatized, considered a social misfit and 

invites the wrath of her family and society” (135). Barrenness and its untold 

consequences are common themes in Nigerian female writers’ narratives. 

Adimora-Ezeigbo narrates how Eaglewoman’s marriage comes closely to a 

collapse because of delay in childbearing. She is referred to as an ‘okenkwu’, 

meaning ‘a male palm tree which is sterile.’  In The Last of the Strong Ones, 

Iwuchukwu, Chieme’s husband blatantly tells her “You are not a woman”, 

because she could not bear children. Similarly, in Chimamanda Adichie’s Half 

of a Yellow Sun, Olanna’s mother-in-law tells her, “He (Odenigbo) will not 

marry an abnormal woman, unless you kill me first.” (124). Olanna here is 



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referred to as an ‘abnormal woman’ because she could not bear a child for 

Odenigbo. In Emecheta’s The Joy of Motherhood, Nnu Ego suffers in her first 

marriage which eventually collapses because she could not bear any child for 

Amatokwu while she remains married to Nnaife and puts up with ‘his crude 

ways and ugly appearance’ for just one reason -  she could bear him children. 

Family centeredness is another quality of Africana womanist. One of the 

characteristics of family centeredness in African society is mutual sharing in 

the joy and pain of one another. Contrary to Western belief in individuality, 

the African woman believes in oneness in the family both nuclear and 

extended. Adimora-Ezeigbo exemplifies this centrality of the family as the 

bedrock for societal survival in the African culture. For instance, when 

Eaglewoman had her son, members of the extended family were around to 

celebrate and share their joy. When she loses the child and mourns her mother 

and other members of the extended family mourn with her. Another instance 

is when Obioma reports that she has been impregnated. Every member of the 

family shares the problem with her. The narrator notes that the sound of 

Eaglewoman’s cry when she heard the news reverberated in the whole house, 

drawing almost the entire family to the room. She tells further: “Soon 

everyone was infected with weeping”. Eaglewoman is intelligent enough to 

come up with a secret plan which the family adopts and “were all of one 

mind” (House of Symbols, 241-242). Adimora-Ezeigbo also reveals 

Eaglewoman’s commitment to the survival of her family even in the face of 

many challenges. The triumph of the Okwara family over patriarchy hinges on 

the oneness they share. 

 

The narrative in The Last of the Strong Ones clearly illustrates the tenet that 

African women are in concert with male in their struggle. In this narrative 

Adimora-Ezeigbo depicts the centrality of women in the core of Umuga 

traditional existence before the coming of kosiri (the white man). The narrator 

tells how four daughters of Umuga – Ejimnaka, Onyekaozuru, Chieme and 

Chibuka – through their activism become members of “Obuofo” (custodians 

of the ancestral staff, ofo), which is largely a male prerogative. These women 

fully participate in the struggle against kosiri and later share in the pains and 

sufferings of their men as both men and women are forced into exile after the 

war. The narrator reveals the various challenges these women have to confront 

in their struggle against patriarchal system before the coming of kosiri.  When 

strangers invade their land they are not passive observers; rather they actively 

join forces with men in the struggle. Ejimnaka supports her husband, Obiatu, 

when he is indebted. She sacrifices her business capital to save him from 

embarrassment. Eaglewoman also supports the husband, Osai, to acquire 

wealth. 

 

The African woman is ambitious as Hudson-Weems notes in her tenets. 

Adimora-Ezeigbo buttresses this fact by the depiction of female characters 



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that are hard-working, self-confident, and industrious. They play active roles 

that contribute to the shaping of social processes. Through their 

industriousness these characters set themselves free from patriarchal 

domination. They are socially and economically empowered such that they 

assist the less privileged in their communities. For instance, Eaglewoman pays 

hospital bills for Diribe to have his scrotum disease removed. She also helps a 

woman, Akuchukwu, with a loan to start a trade. In Efuru, the author depicts a 

similar act of benevolence as Efuru pays hospital bill for Ogea’s father and an 

old woman in her community. The character, Chieme is another example of an 

ambitious African woman. She suffers rejection from her husband because she 

is childless. When she realizes that her childlessness is no fault of hers she 

puts the challenge behind her and forges ahead with her life. The narrator tells 

us of her ambition thus: “My desire was to be the best chanter not only in 

Umuga but also in the towns far and near” (The Last of the Strong Ones, 

82). She accumulates much wealth and makes a name in her profession. She is 

also conferred with the title, Omesarannaya – the one who brought fame to 

her father. 

 

The African woman is of a great strength. Carrying pregnancy and birthing 

children are few situations where she showcases her strength.  Contrary to the 

Western ideas of avoidance of childbirth, she prides herself on her ability to 

birth children with little or no assistance. For instance, Eaglewoman, in labour 

pains dashes to a nearby maternity without a hint to her husband. She is 

delivered of a baby boy and few minutes afterwards she tells the midwife: “I 

feel strong enough to go home tomorrow” (191). Buchi Emecheta in The 

Joy of Motherhood gives similar accounts of Nnu Ego birthing children with 

the assistance of a friend or a neighbour in her house. The vivid depiction of 

these scenes illustrates the fact that the African woman possesses an inherent 

strength which helps her go through childbearing over and over again. Her 

strength is also exhibited in her ability to cater for the family, does the 

household chores, and goes to farm or market with baby strapped on her back. 

Adimora-Ezeigbo narrates how Eaglewoman rises up early to attend to her 

businesses as well as the household chores daily. Unfortunately these 

responsibilities are usually invisible or considered insignificant. 

 

The actions of the daughters of Eaglewoman, in Children of the Eagle, 

disprove the notion that only men are courageous or strong to defend the 

family. Ogunano Ezeala commends the action of these women and notes that 

“They acted like men.” Their action being compared to that of “men” stems 

from the belief that only men are courageous. But it is a known fact that they 

actually act as women because these women use their sense to negotiate for 

peace, which according Ezeala: “is much better than strive.” Men would 

have resorted to exchange of blows. Before now Pa Joel tells Eaglewoman: 

“You should rejoice, for your daughters are men. Everyone in Umuga 



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knows this. They are cutting-edge children and pillars in the family.” (50) 

Such metaphorical description of these women reveals that they are really 

brave. They defy fear, the popular female stereotype, and bravely confront 

headlong the strange creature that visits their house at night. They soon 

discover that the creature is a bull from a shrine in another village and not the 

spirit of their father as alleged by the community. 

 

The relationship between Eaglewoman and Titi Odeyemi exemplifies the 

belief that Africana womanist is genuine in sisterhood. Titi did not only teach 

Eaglewoman how to bake bread and run a business outfit but she is always 

there to help her in her difficult times. The bond among the daughters of 

Eaglewoman also attests to the fact that the African woman is genuine in 

sisterhood. 

 

Adimora-Ezeigbo also demonstrates that the Africa woman is spiritual as 

claimed by Hudson-Weems. This idea is evident in the character of Chieme 

who seeks help from Idemmiri in her predicament. She only becomes satisfied 

and accepts her fate after she heard from the priest of Idemmiri. The depiction 

of the characters Obioma, a church leader, pastor and an evangelist and 

Ezenwayi, a spiritualist and a prophetess also exemplifies this tenet. Ezenwayi 

plays a significant role in the family of Eaglewoman. It is her summons, 

guidance and counsel to Osai and Eaglewoman that lead to Nnenne walking at 

the age of two. At another time Eaglewoman seeks her help when Osai is 

seriously ill. Through these characters Adimora-Ezeigbo reveals the 

spirituality of the modern African woman. However, she warns against 

extremity as observed in Osai’s encounter with a man who calls himself Jesus 

of Ikot Abasi, an encounter that almost broke his marriage. 

 

Conclusion 

This paper has examined the theory of Africana Womanism in relation to 

Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo’s trilogy - The Last of the Strong Ones, House of 

Symbols and Children of the Eagle. It has proved that most of the tenets of the 

theory apply to the female characters in the novels. The female characters 

exude such qualities as family centeredness, male compatibility, in concert 

with males in their struggle, spirituality, ambitious, genuine in sisterhood, 

mothering and nurturing. This shows that the theory of Africana Womanism is 

highly suitable to the study of most Nigerian female writings in general and 

these novels in particular. This paper has also revealed that Adimora-Ezeigbo 

reconstructed the image of the African woman by exalting the qualities of the 

Africana womanist in her female characters. This is a strategy for subverting 

stereotypes and patriarchal notions that had held sway in male authored works 

and in society.  

 

 



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